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7,600 | Interdisciplinarity | An interdisciplinary field or multidisciplinary field is a field of study that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged. Originally the terms interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary were applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that cut across several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Subsequently, the terms have earned much wider usage, such as when applied to new professions (e.g., geobiology) and to older fields such as psychiatry where the professional must have advanced credentials in several fields of study. Interdisciplinarity factors involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies -- along with their specific perspectives -- in the pursuit of a common task. Interdisciplinary approaches typically focus on problems thought to be too complex or vast for adequate understanding with a single disciple. The epidemiology of AIDS, for example, or global warming, require understanding of diverse disciplines. "Interdiscplinary" may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies. The adjective interdisciplinary is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple traditional disciplines. For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics. In a sense, interdisciplinary involves attacking a subject from various angles and methods, eventually cutting across disciplines and forming a new method for understanding the subject. A common goal of understanding unites the various methods and acknowledges a common or shared subject or problem, even if it spreads to other disciplines. Development Although interdisciplinary and interdisciplinarity are frequently viewed as twentieth century terms, the concept has historical antecedents, most notably Greek philosophy. Ausburg, Tanya. Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies. 2nd edition. New York: Kendall/Hunt Publishing, 2006. Julie Thompson Klein attests that "the roots of the concepts lie in a number of ideas that resonate through modern discourse—the ideas of a unified science, general knowledge, synthesis and the integration of knowledge" Klein, Julie Thompson. Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice. Detroit: Wayne State University, 1990. while Giles Gunn says that Greek historians and dramatists took elements from other realms of knowledge (such as medicine or philosophy) to further understand their own material. Gunn, Giles. "Interdisciplinary Studies." Gibaldi, J., ed. Introduction to Scholarship in Modern Language and Literatures. New York: Modern Language Association, 1992. pp 239-240. Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined science and technology studies programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines. They may also arise from new research developments, such as nanotechnology, which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include quantum information processing, an amalgamation of quantum physics and computer science, and bioinformatics, combining molecular biology with computer science. At another level interdisciplinarity is seen as a remedy to the harmful effects of excessive specialization. On some views, however, interdisciplinarity is entirely indebted to those who specialize in one field of study—that is, without specialists, interdisciplinarians would have no information and no leading experts to consult. Others place the focus of interdisciplinarity on the need to transcend disciplines, viewing excessive specialization as problematic both epistemologically and politically. When interdisciplinary collaboration or research results in new solutions to problems, much information is given back to the various disciplines involved. Therefore, both disciplinarians and interdisciplinarians may be seen in complementary relation to one another. Varieties There are several types of inquiry that may be referred to as "interdisciplinary." Interdisciplinarity is often used interchangeably with such terms as multidisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and crossdisciplinarity. Multidisciplinarity Multidisciplinarity is the act of joining together two or more disciplines without integration. Each discipline yields discipline specific results while any integration would be left to a third party observer. An example of multidisciplinarity would be a panel presentation on the many facets of the AIDS pandemic (medicine, politics, epidemiology) in which each section is given as a stand-alone presentation. A multidisciplinary community or project is made up of people from different disciplines and professions who are engaged in working together as equal stakeholders in addressing a common challenge. The key question is how well can the challenge be decomposed into nearly separable subparts, and then addressed via the distributed knowledge in the community or project team. The lack of shared vocabulary between people and communication overhead is an additional challenge in these communities and projects. However, if similar challenges of a particular type need to be repeatedly addressed, and each challenge can be properly decomposed, a multidisciplinary community can be exceptionally efficient and effective. A multidisciplinary person is a person with degrees from two or more academic disciplines, so one person can take the place of two or more people in a multidisciplinary community or project team. Over time, multidisciplinary work does not typically lead to an increase nor a decrease in the number of academic disciplines. Interdisciplinarity "Interdisciplinarity" in referring to an approach to organizing intellectual inquiry is an evolving field, and stable, consensus definitions are not yet established for some subordinate or closely related fields. An interdisciplinary community or project is made up of people from multiple disciplines and professions who are engaged in creating and applying new knowledge as they work together as equal stakeholders in addressing a common challenge. The key question is what new knowledge (of an academic discipline nature), which is outside the existing disciplines, is required to address the challenge. Aspects of the challenge cannot be addressed easily with existing distributed knowledge, and new knowledge becomes a primary subgoal of addressing the common challenge. The nature of the challenge, either its scale or complexity, requires that many people have interactional expertise to improve their efficiency working across multiple disciplines as well as within the new interdisciplinary area. An interdisciplinarary person is a person with degrees from one or more academic disciplines with additional interactional expertise in one or more additional academic disciplines, and new knowledge that is claimed by more than one discipline. Over time, interdisciplinary work can lead to an increase or a decrease in the number of academic disciplines. Transdisciplinarity Transdisciplinary, while the term is frequently used, may not yet have a stable, consensus meaning. Usage suggests that a transdisciplinary approach dissolves boundaries between disciplines. Most uses of the term suggest a deliberate and intentionally scandalous or transgressive violation of disciplinary rules, for the purpose of achieving new insight, or of expanding the discipline's resources. A less polemic view of transdiciplinarity treats it as the act of taking theories and methods which exist independently of several disciplines and applying them to organize and understand different areas or fields. This is based largely on the idea that "knowledge cannot be singularly claimed as belonging to or originating in any one discipline". An example of transdisciplinarity in this sense would be the application of Marxist philosophies to disciplines such as art history or literature, thus applying philosophies of sociology, economics, politics, et cetera to the study of these areas. A transdisciplinary community or project is made up of transdisciplinary professionals, which is an ideal that can only be approached and never achieved. A transdisciplinary professional has degrees in all disciplines as well as experience in all professions. In essence, a truly transdisciplinary person contains all the distributed knowledge of the people in the community or project as their individual common knowledge. A transdisciplinary community is one in which common knowledge of individuals and the distributed knowledge of the collective are identical for the purpose of addressing a common challenge. A postmodernist view of transdisciplinarity sees knowledge production as not confined to academic disciplines, conceived as existing in a horizontal plane. Knowledge is also produced from varieties of organizations and collective entities outside of academia, and these can be conceived of as existing on a vertical plane. Knowledge production outside of academia can range from that generated by complex organized structures through less complex communities, down to that produced spontaneously by groups and individuals. Within any collective entity this knowledge can range from that generated by those in leadership roles to that produced experientially and used by individual members in completing their day-to-day functions. Transdisciplinarity, then, implies the integration or interrelation of disciplinary generated knowledge and non-disciplinary generated knowledge and its application to complex problems and issues. Crossdisciplinarity Crossdisciplinarity is the act of crossing disciplinary boundaries to explain one subject in the terms of another, foreign subject or method. Common examples of crossdisciplinary approaches are studies of the physics of music or the politics of literature. Barriers Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differing perspectives and methods. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative "rigor" may produce practitioners who think of themselves (and their discipline) as "more scientific" than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines may associate quantitative approaches with an inability to grasp the broader dimensions of a problem. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes). From the disciplinary perspective, much interdisciplinary work may be seen as "soft," lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by peer reviewers drawn from established disciplines; not surprisingly, interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek promotion and tenure, it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure. Interdisciplinary programs may fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, interdisciplinary faculty are usually recruited to a joint appointment, with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as women's studies) and a traditional discipline (such as history). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work. Other barriers include the generally disciplinary orientation of most scholarly journals, leading to the perception, if not the fact, that interdisciplinary research is hard to publish. In addition, since traditional budgetary practices at most universities channel resources through the disciplines, it becomes difficult to account for a given scholar or teacher's salary and time. During periods of budgetary retraction, the natural tendency to serve the primary constituency (i.e., students majoring in the traditional discipline) makes resources scarce for teaching and research comparatively far from the center of the discipline as traditionally understood. For these same reasons, the introduction of new interdisciplinary programs is often perceived as a competition for diminishing funds, and may for this reason meet resistance. Due to these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines include neuroscience, cybernetics, biochemistry and biomedical engineering. These new fields are occasionally referred to as "interdisciplines." Interdisciplinary studies "Interdisciplinary studies" is an academic program or process seeking to synthesize broad perspectives, knowledge, skills, interconnections, and epistemology in an educational setting. Interdisciplinary programs may be founded in order to facilitate the study of subjects which have some coherence, but which cannot be adequately understood from a single disciplinary perspective (for example, women's studies or medieval studies). More rarely, and at a more advanced level, interdisciplinarity may itself become the focus of study, in a critique of institutionalized disciplines' ways of segmenting knowledge. Perhaps the most common complaint regarding interdisciplinary programs, by supporters and detractors alike, is the lack of synthesis—that is, students are provided with multiple disciplinary perspectives, but are not given effective guidance in resolving the conflicts and achieving a coherent view of the subject. Critics of interdisciplinary programs feel that the ambition is simply unrealistic, given the knowledge and intellectual maturity of all but the exceptional undergraduate; some defenders concede the difficulty, but insist that cultivating interdisciplinarity as a habit of mind, even at that level, is both possible and essential to the education of informed and engaged citizens and leaders capable of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from multiple sources in order to render reasoned decisions. The Politics of Interdisciplinary Studies Since 1998 there has been an ascendancy in the value of the concept and practice of interdisciplinary research and teaching and a growth in the number of bachelors degrees awarded at U.S. universities classified as multi- or interdisciplinary studies. The number of interdisciplinary bachelors degrees awarded annually rose from 7,000 in 1973 to 30,000 a year by 2005 according to data from the National Center of Educational Statistics (NECS). In addition, educational leaders from the Boyer Commission to Carnegie's President Vartan Gregorian to Alan Leshner, CEO of the American Association for the Advancement of Science have advocated for interdisciplinary rather than disciplinary approaches to problem solving in the 21st Century. This has been echoed by federal funding agencies, particularly the NIH under the Direction of Elias Zerhouni, who have advocated that grant proposals be framed more as interdisciplinary collaborative projects than single researcher, single discipline ones. At the same time, longstanding bachelors in interdisciplinary studies programs many existing and thriving for 30 or more years, have been closed down, in spite of healthy enrollment. Examples include Arizona International (formerly part of the University of Arizona, The School of Interdisciplinary Studies at Miami University, and the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at Wayne State University; others such as the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at Appalachian State University, and George Mason University's New Century College, have been cut back. Stuart Henry has seen this trend as part of the hegemony of the disciplines in their attempt to recolonize the experimental knowledge production of otherwise marginalized fields of inquiry, once disciplinary ascendancy threatened their dominance in academe. Examples Asia Keio University SFC, established in 1990, is one of the campuses of the oldest private university in Japan, forcus on the interdisciplinary studies. The study program covers such as natural environment, information technology, governance, politics, alternative energy, complex system, robotics, community studies, education, nursing, biology, art. Europe The Delft University of Technology and Leiden University have jointly established in the Netherlands the Industrial Ecology Master Programme, an interdisciplinary program that educates master students on a systemic approach to science. Industrial Ecology is by definition an interdisciplinary field. Interdisciplinarity is embedded in the curriculum of the program that includes courses and training from a broad spectrum of disciplines (social sciences, economics, environmental sciences, technology, systems theory). During the programme the student is trained to combine knowledge from all the fields and take a holistic approach to problems. EPSRC, the UK physical science funding body, funds several interdisciplinary doctoral training centres across the UK. For example, the MOAC (Molecular Organisation and Assembly in Cells) centre at the University of Warwick specialises in training mathematicians and physicists in life science research and vice versa. The Estonian Academy of Arts (EAA) has a fine art program which deals with contemporary arts from an interdisciplinary view point. Lectures focus on performativity in art and mixed media approaches. Department is run by Jaan Toomik. Greats and PPE are long-established interdisciplinary schools at the University of Oxford. Konstfack University College of Arts, Crafts and Design in Stockholm, Sweden began The Experience Design Group in the Fall of 2007, headed by Ronald Jones (Interdisciplinarian) an American Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies. The graduate program is especially designed to prepare students to become interdisciplinarians, or even transdisciplinarians. His students work across disciplines often furthest from their own--from art to economics, from history to science, from philosophy to technology--creating a relevant integration between concepts, methods and theories. These interdisciplinarians use time as their medium to design experiences with real and measurable consequences. "Interdisciplinarity,” says Jones “is by now a stand-alone discipline, as much as the conventional disciplines of art, design or craft.” http://varutstallning08.konstfack.se/interdisciplinary-studies/ronald-jones. html Mechatronics is offered at various colleges across Europe. Sciences Po, a social sciences university in Paris, France, has been interdisciplinary since its foundation in 1873. Its programmes are best known to integrate the disciplines of economics, law, political science, business and sociology. This starts at the undergraduate level, in which all study programmes are strongly interdisciplinary in nature and feature courses ranging from philosophy to marketing via geopolitics. At the Master's level, students generally specialise in one or two disciplines (such as finance, economics or international relations); however, all of them remain required to enroll in a few graduate-level economics and international relations courses as well. Accordingly, more than 80 percent of students turn to the private sector upon graduation. Their broad horizon is particularly appreciated in the consulting sector. The University of Reading, UK, has a well established program in Cybernetics. Not only can students read for a 3 or 4 year degree in the subject, but the research program is thriving and in recent years has included such as the Cyborg studies of Kevin Warwick, a faculty member. North America The Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity (CSID), at the University of North Texas, is the first center in the United States dedicated specifically to developing the theory and practice of interdisciplinarity. CSID seeks to increase our understanding of interdisciplinary approaches to research and education, spurring innovation in the classroom and developing distinctive approaches to sponsored research. CSID aims 1) offer accounts of best practices of interdisciplinarity across the sciences, engineering, and the humanities, and 2) help integrate ethics and values within all areas of research and education. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada, is a research intensive university with a rapidly growing Interdisciplinary PhD program, now at 70 students. The demographics of this group is dramatically different from all of the other PhD programs on campus, with individuals designing their own programs to respond to individual career goals in industry, government and academic. The Faculty of Graduate Studies at the University of British Columbia (UBC) has been supporting interdisciplinary research and teaching since it was established in 1949. Its first interdiscplinary research unit was the School of Community and Regional Planning, opened in 1956, with Peter Oberlander its first Director. Professor William Rees developed the Ecological footprint analysis tool here in 1992. In October 2005, the most recent research unit, the International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), an interdisciplinary research centre for spinal cord injury recovery, joined the faculty. In October 2006, UBC's Senate approved the creation of a new College for Interdisciplinary Studies, effective January 1, 2007. The 35 interdisciplinary research units, two Colleges, and twelve interdisciplinary programs previously within the Faculty of Graduate Studies moved to the College, and the mandate was broadened to include supporting interdisciplinarity across the entire university at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Almost all of the 82 current faculty members in the College are jointly or cross-appointed between a research unit within the College and at least one other research unit, department, or faculty. Fairhaven College in Bellingham, Washington, was the first college to provide thematic interdisciplinary programs. Since opening its doors in 1967, Fairhaven's entire curriculum has been taught through interdisciplinary studies. The School of Interdisciplinary Studies, also known as the Western College Program, was created in 1974 at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. The program allowed students to take control of their educational path by designing their own major, incorporating various areas of study at Miami University to form an interdisciplinary focus. Despite an outstanding record of student accomplishments in the program, it was closed by the Board of Trustees effective June 2008. A grass-roots effort by faculty and students at Stanford University resulted in a new program called Bio-X, which explores the intersections among biology, computer science, medicine, and engineering. The program is housed in the Clark Center, which opened in 2003. The Studio for Interrelated Media(SIM), at the Massachusetts College of Art has both an undergraduate and graduate program in the Fine Arts. This program was started in 1969 by Harris Barron with an emphasis on performance art and has evolved to include robotics, web-based art, sound and video. SIM allows for a highly individualized curriculum, while offering all SIM majors practice in experimentation, collaboration, conceptual development and event production. Truman State University, a liberal arts university in Kirksville, Missouri, has recently taken another approach to interdisciplinarity. A new General Education requirement sees that all students take at least one interdisciplinary course before graduation. The university has also developed a process by which students accepted to the interdisciplinary studies major program may design their own majors with the help of a faculty mentor. The University of Pennsylvania has a thriving Philosophy, Politics and Economics program that encourages students to do research in interdisciplinary areas and hires its own faculty. The Department of Childhood Studies () at Rutgers University in New Jersey is the first and only American program to offer a PhD in the interdisciplinary field of Childhood Studies. Its faculty come from literature, history, sociology, psychology, policy and immigration studies and PhD students are expected to work in a variety of research methods. The Bachelors of Interdisciplinary Sciences (B.I.S) degree from Arizona State University, School of Letters & Sciences is widely considered to be one of the premier degree programs of its kind in the world. It is regularly ranked in the top 5 of interdisciplinary degree programs in the United States. While many programs of this nature are receiving cutbacks, This program is growing rapidly, and its funding has been vastly increased. It is projected that the interdisciplinary program at ASU will rank #1 in the United States within the next 2 or 3 years. Historical examples There are many examples of when a particular idea, almost on the same period, arises in different disciplines. One case is the shift from the approach of focusing on "specialized segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an attention to the "total field", a "sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This has happened in painting (with cubism), physics, poetry, communication and educational theory. According to Marshall McLuhan, this paradigm shift was due to the passage from an era shaped by mechanization, which brought sequentiality, to the era shaped by the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity. Marshall McLuhan (1964) Understanding Media, p.13 References Further reading Alderman, Harold, Chiappori, Pierre Andre, Haddad, Lawrence, Hoddinott, John, Unitary Versus Collective Models of the Household: Time to Shift the Burden of Proof?’ World Bank Research Observer 10 (1): 1-19 Augsburg, Tanya. (2005), Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies (Kendall/Hunt) Association for Integrative Studies Bagchi, Amiya Kumar (1982) ‘The Political Economy of Underdevelopment’, New York, Cambridge University Press Bernstein, Henry (1973) ‘Introduction: Development and The Social Sciences’, in Henry Bernstein (ed.) Underdevelopment and Development: The Third World Today, Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 13-30 Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester) Chambers, Robert. (2001) Qualitative approaches: self criticism and what can be gained from quantitative approaches, in R. Kanbur (Ed.), Qual–quant: Qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal—complementaries, tensions, and the way forward, p 22-25, Cornell University Chubin, D. E. (1976). The conceptualization of scientific specialties. The Sociological Quarterly 17: 448–476. College for Interdisciplinary Studies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Davies. M. and Devlin, M. (2007). Interdisciplinary Higher Education: Implications for Teaching and Learning. Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne. http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/pdfs/InterdisciplinaryHEd.pdf Defila, R., and Antonietta Di Giulio. (1999). Evaluation criteria for inter and transdisciplinary research: Project report, instrument. Panorama Special Issue 1. Frodeman, R. and Mitcham, C. “New Directions in Interdisciplinarity: Broad, Deep, and Critical,” Bulletin of Science, Technology, and Society, Vol. 27 (Fall 2007) no. 6; pp. 506-514. The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington Gram Vikas (2007) Annual Report, p 19 Granovetter, Mark (1985) Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 91, No. 3, pp. 481–510 Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies Harriss, John (2002) ‘The Case for Cross-Disciplinary Approaches in International Development’, World Development 30.3: 487–496 Henry, Stuart (2005). Disciplinary hegemony meets interdisciplinary ascendancy: Can interdisciplinary/integrative studies survive, and if so how? Issues in Integrative Studies, 23, 1-37. Indiresan, P.V. (1990) ‘Managing Development: Decentralisation, Geographical Socialism And Urban Replication’ India: Sage Interdisciplinarity and tenure Jackson, Cecile (2002) ‘Disciplining Gender?’, World Development, 30.3: 497–509 Johnston, R. (2003). Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts. Studies in Intelligence 47(1). Kanbur, Ravi (2002) ‘Economics, Social Science and Development’, World Development, 30.3: 477–486 Kanbur, Ravi (2001) A Commentary on Qualitative and Quantitative Poverty Appraisal in R. Kanbur (Ed.), Qual–quant: Qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal complementarities, tensions and the way forward, p 2-16 Cornell University Klein, Julie Thompson (1996) Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and Interdisciplinarities(University Press of Virginia) Klein, Julie Thompson (2006) Resources for interdisciplinary studies. Change, (Mark/April). 52-58 Kleinberg, Ethan (2008). Interdisciplinary studies at the crossroads Liberal Education, 94 (1). 6-11. Lipton, Michael (1970) ‘Interdisciplinary Studies in Less Developed Countries’, Journal of Development Studies 7.1: 5-18 Gerhard Medicus Interdisciplinarity in Human Sciences (Documents No. 5, 6 and 7 in English) Moran, Joe. (2002). Interdisciplinarity. Newell, William H. (2001). A theory of interdisciplinary studies. Issues in Integrative Studies, 19, 1-25. Online text NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study, New York, NY Poverty Action Lab, http://www.povertyactionlab.org/research/rand.php (accessed on 4 November 2008) Ravallion, M. (2001) Can qualitative methods help quantitative poverty measurement?, in R. Kanbur (Ed.), Qual–quant: Qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal complementarities, tensions and the way forward, p 38-43. Cornell University Rhoten, D. (2003). A multi-method analysis of the social and technical conditions for interdisciplinary collaboration. School of Social Ecology at the University of California, Irvine Schuurman, F.J. (2000) ‘Paradigms Lost, paradigms regained? Development studies in the twenty-first century’, Third World Quarterly 21(1):7-20 Sen, Amartya (1999) Development as Freedom, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press Siskin, L.S. & Little, J.W. (1995). The Subjects in Question. Teachers College Press. about the departmental organization of high schools and efforts to change that. Stiglitz, Joseph (2002) Globalisation and its Discontents, United States of America, W.W. Norton and Company Sumner, A and M. Tribe (2008) International Development Studies: Theories and Methods in Research and Practice, London: Sage Thorbecke, Eric. (2006) ‘The Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950–2005’. UNU-WIDER Research Paper No. 2006/155. United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research Trans- & inter-disciplinary science approaches- A guide to on-line resources on integration and trans- and inter-disciplinary approaches. Truman State University's Interdisciplinary Studies Program Waldman, Amy (2003), ‘Distrust Opens the Door for Polio in India’, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E5D81430F93AA25752C0A9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=all (accessed on 4 November 2008) Peter Weingart and Nico Stehr, eds. 2000. Practicing Interdisciplinarity(University of Toronto Press) White, Howard (2002) ‘Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in Poverty Analysis’, World Development, 30.3: 511–522 See also See :Category:Interdisciplinary fields American studies Anthropological theories of value Applied linguistics Astrobiology Area studies Biomedical engineering Biomedical informatics Biomedical technology Biophysics Cognitive science Commensurability (philosophy of science) Computer graphics Crossdisciplinarity Cultural studies Cybernetics Disciplinary Econophysics Environmental science Evolutionary psychology Film studies Geography Holism in science Integrative learning Intelligence analysis Leadership Studies Lexicography Liberal arts Library and information science Media studies Multidisciplinarity Music Psychology Nanotechnology Nativist theorizing "Periodic Table of Human sciences" in: Tinbergen's four questions Political economy Science studies Science and technology studies Soil science Systems thinking Systems theory Terminology Transdisciplinarity Transdisciplinary Studies Translation Studies Women's studies Urban studies External links Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity at the University of North Texas Labyrinthe. Atelier interdisciplinaire (a journal in French), with a recent special issue on La Fin des Disciplines? , "Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities: An Online Open Access E-Journal", publishing articles on a number of areas. an article about interdisciplinary modeling in French with an English abstract : http://www.afscet.asso.fr/resSystemica/V4-2004/entete-2004.html Dieter Wolf, Unity of Knowledge. The unity of knowledge An Interdisciplinary Project Soka University of America has no disciplinary departments and emphasizes interdisciplinary concentrations in the Humanities, Social and Behavioral Sciences, International Studies, and Environmental Studies. 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7,601 | Ketene | General formula for a ketene. A ketene is an organic compound of the form R'R''C=C=O where R',R'' are arbitrary radicals. The term is also used specifically to mean ethenone, the simplest ketene, where R' and R'' are hydrogens. Ketenes were first studied as a class by Hermann Staudinger. Formation Ketenes can be prepared from acyl chlorides by an elimination reaction in which HCl is lost: Formation of a ketene from an acyl chloride. In this reaction, a base, usually triethylamine, removes the acidic proton alpha to the carbonyl group, inducing the formation of the carbon-carbon double bond and the loss of chloride ion. Ketenes can be formed also from α-diazoketones by Wolff rearrangement. Phenylacetic acid in the presence of base will lose water to produce phenylketene. due to the high acidity of the alpha proton. Ketenes can be formed by pyrolysis (thermal cracking) of acetone: CH3−CO−CH3 + Δ → CH2=C=O + CH4 Reactions Ketenes are generally very reactive, and participate in various cycloadditions. They will also undergo [2+2] cycloaddition reactions with electron-rich alkynes to form cyclobutenones, or carbonyl groups to form beta-lactones. Reactions between diols (HO-R-OH) and bis-ketenes (O=C=CH-R'-CH=C=O) yield polyesters with a repeat unit of (-O-R-O-CO-R'-CO-). Ethyl acetoacetate, a very important starting material in organic synthesis, can be prepared using a diketene in reaction with ethanol, they directly form ethyl acetoacetate, and the yield is good, so this method is widely used in industry. See also Ynolate References | Ketene |@lemmatized general:1 formula:1 ketene:4 organic:2 compound:1 form:6 r:10 c:5 arbitrary:1 radical:1 term:1 also:4 use:3 specifically:1 mean:1 ethenone:1 simple:1 hydrogen:1 ketenes:6 first:1 study:1 class:1 hermann:1 staudinger:1 formation:3 prepare:2 acyl:2 chloride:3 elimination:1 reaction:6 hcl:1 lose:2 base:2 usually:1 triethylamine:1 remove:1 acidic:1 proton:2 alpha:2 carbonyl:2 group:2 induce:1 carbon:2 double:1 bond:1 loss:1 ion:1 α:1 diazoketones:1 wolff:1 rearrangement:1 phenylacetic:1 acid:1 presence:1 water:1 produce:1 phenylketene:1 due:1 high:1 acidity:1 pyrolysis:1 thermal:1 crack:1 acetone:1 co:3 δ:1 generally:1 reactive:1 participate:1 various:1 cycloadditions:1 undergo:1 cycloaddition:1 electron:1 rich:1 alkyne:1 cyclobutenones:1 beta:1 lactones:1 diol:1 ho:1 oh:1 bi:1 ch:2 yield:2 polyester:1 repeat:1 unit:1 ethyl:2 acetoacetate:2 important:1 start:1 material:1 synthesis:1 diketene:1 ethanol:1 directly:1 good:1 method:1 widely:1 industry:1 see:1 ynolate:1 reference:1 |@bigram organic_compound:1 acyl_chloride:2 chloride_ion:1 |
7,602 | Justus_von_Liebig | Justus von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry. As a professor, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He is known as the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient, and his formulation of the Law of the Minimum which described the effect of individual nutrients on crops. He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extract, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. Biography Liebig was born in Darmstadt into a middle class family. From childhood he was fascinated by chemistry. He was apprenticed to the apothecary Gottfried Pirsch (1792-1870) in Heppenheim. Liebig attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner, a business associate of his father. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him and later took his doctorate from Erlangen. Liebig did not receive the doctorate until well after he had left Erlangen, and the circumstances are clouded by a possible scandal [see Munday (1990)]. Also at Erlangen, Liebig fell in love with the poet August von Platen-Hallermünde (1796-1835) William H. Brock. Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper. Cambridge University Press, 2002, page 21 who wrote several sonnets dedicated to Liebig. He left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania (a nationalist student organization) but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies. In autumn 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government. He worked in the private laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt and Georges Cuvier (1769-1832). After leaving Paris, Liebig returned to Darmstadt and married Henriette Moldenhauer, the daughter of a state official. This ended Liebig's relationship with Platen. In 1824 at the age of 21 and with Humboldt's recommendation, Liebig became a professor at the University of Giessen. He established the world's first major school of chemistry there. He received an appointment from the King of Bavaria to the University of Munich in 1852, where he remained until his death in 1873 in Munich. He became Freiherr (baron) in 1845. He is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich. He founded and edited from 1832 the journal Annalen der Chemie, which became the leading German-language journal of Chemistry. The volumes from his lifetime are often referenced just as Liebigs Annalen; and following his death the title was officially changed to Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1837. The young Liebig: 1843 lithograph after an 1821 drawing (Liebigshaus) Research and development Liebig improved organic analysis with the Kaliapparat -- a five-bulb device that used a potassium hydroxide solution to remove the organic combustion product carbon dioxide. He downplayed the role of humus in plant nutrition and discovered that plants feed on nitrogen compounds and carbon dioxide derived from the air, as well as on minerals in the soil. One of his most recognized and far-reaching accomplishments was the invention of nitrogen-based fertilizer. Liebig believed that nitrogen must be supplied to plant roots in the form of ammonia. Though a practical and commercial failure, his invention of fertilizer recognized the possibility of substituting chemical fertilizers for natural (animal dung, etc.) ones. He also formulated the Law of the Minimum, stating that a plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the relatively shortest supply, visualized as "Liebig's barrel". This concept is a qualitative version of the principles used to determine the application of fertilizer in modern agriculture. He was also one of the first chemists to organize a laboratory as we know it today. His novel method of organic analysis made it possible for him to direct the analytical work of many graduate students. The vapor condensation device he popularized for his research is still known as a Liebig condenser, although it was in common use long before Liebig's research began. Liebig's students were from many of the German states as well as Britain and the United States, and they helped create an international reputation for their Doktorvater. In 1835 he invented a process for silvering that greatly improved the utility of mirrors. Liebig's work on applying chemistry to plant and animal physiology was especially influential. At a time when many chemists such as Jöns Jakob Berzelius insisted on a hard and fast separation between the organic and inorganic, Liebig argued that "...the production of all organic substances no longer belongs just to the organism. It must be viewed as not only probable but as certain that we shall produce them in our laboratories. Sugar, salicin [aspirin], and morphine will be artificially produced." [Liebig and Woehler (1838)] Liebig's arguments against any chemical distinction between living (physiological) and dead chemical processes proved a great inspiration to several of his students and others who were interested in materialism. Though Liebig distanced himself from the direct political implications of materialism, he tacitly supported the work of Karl Vogt (1817-1895), Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893), and Ludwig Buechner (1824-1899). German stamp picturing Justus von Liebig, 1953 Liebig played a more direct role in reforming politics in the German states through his promotion of science-based agriculture and the publication of John Stuart Mill's Logic. Through Liebig's close friendship with the Vieweg family publishing house, he arranged for his former student Jacob Schiel (1813-1889) to translate Mill's important work for German publication. Liebig liked Mill's Logic in part because it promoted science as a means to social and political progress, but also because Mill featured several examples of Liebig's research as an ideal for the scientific method. Liebig is also credited with the notion that "searing meat seals in the juices." Page 161, "The Searing Question". This idea, still widely believed, is not true. Working with Belgian engineer George Giebert, Liebig devised an efficient method of producing beef extract from carcasses. In 1865, they founded the Liebig Extract of Meat Company, marketing the extract as a cheap, nutritious alternative to real meat. Some years after Liebig's death, in 1899, the product was trademarked "Oxo". After World War II, the University of Giessen was officially renamed after him, "Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen". In 1953 the West German post office issued a stamp in his honor. Germany #695, Scott catalogue Major works Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology (1840) Organic Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology (1842) Familiar Letters on Chemistry (1843) See also History of Soil Science List of chemists Notes References William H. Brock, Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper (Cambridge University Press, 1997). See also William H. Brock. External links Familiar Letters on Chemistry at librivox.org Justus Liebig, German chemist (1803-73) from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th Edition (1902). | Justus_von_Liebig |@lemmatized justus:7 von:6 liebig:37 may:1 april:1 german:8 chemist:5 make:2 major:3 contribution:1 agricultural:1 biological:1 chemistry:11 work:8 organization:2 organic:8 professor:2 devise:2 modern:2 laboratory:4 orient:1 teach:1 method:4 innovation:1 regard:1 one:5 great:2 teacher:1 time:2 know:3 father:2 fertilizer:5 industry:1 discovery:1 nitrogen:4 essential:2 plant:6 nutrient:2 formulation:1 law:2 minimum:2 describe:1 effect:1 individual:1 crop:1 also:10 develop:1 manufacturing:1 process:3 beef:3 extract:5 found:3 company:3 meat:4 later:2 trademark:2 oxo:2 brand:1 bouillon:1 cube:1 biography:1 bear:1 darmstadt:2 middle:1 class:1 family:2 childhood:1 fascinate:1 apprentice:1 apothecary:1 gottfried:1 pirsch:1 heppenheim:1 attend:1 university:7 bonn:1 study:3 karl:2 wilhelm:1 gottlob:1 kastner:3 business:1 associate:1 move:1 erlangen:5 follow:2 take:1 doctorate:2 receive:2 well:3 leave:3 circumstance:1 cloud:1 possible:2 scandal:1 see:3 munday:1 fell:1 love:1 poet:1 august:1 platen:2 hallermünde:1 william:3 h:3 brock:3 chemical:6 gatekeeper:2 cambridge:2 press:2 page:2 write:1 several:3 sonnet:1 dedicate:1 march:1 part:2 involvement:1 radical:1 korps:1 rhenania:1 nationalist:1 student:5 hope:1 advanced:1 autumn:1 go:1 paris:2 grant:1 obtain:1 hessian:1 government:1 private:1 joseph:1 louis:1 gay:1 lussac:1 befriend:1 alexander:1 humboldt:2 george:2 cuvier:1 return:1 marry:1 henriette:1 moldenhauer:1 daughter:1 state:5 official:1 end:1 relationship:1 age:1 recommendation:1 become:3 giessen:3 establish:1 world:2 first:2 school:1 appointment:1 king:1 bavaria:1 munich:3 remain:1 death:3 freiherr:1 baron:1 bury:1 alter:1 südfriedhof:1 edit:1 journal:2 annalen:3 der:2 chemie:2 leading:1 language:1 volume:1 lifetime:1 often:1 referenced:1 liebigs:2 title:1 officially:2 change:1 elect:1 member:1 royal:1 swedish:1 academy:1 science:4 young:1 lithograph:1 drawing:1 liebigshaus:1 research:4 development:2 improve:2 analysis:2 kaliapparat:1 five:1 bulb:1 device:2 use:3 potassium:1 hydroxide:1 solution:1 remove:1 combustion:1 product:2 carbon:2 dioxide:2 downplay:1 role:2 humus:1 nutrition:1 discover:1 fee:1 compound:1 derive:1 air:1 mineral:2 soil:2 recognize:2 far:1 reach:1 accomplishment:1 invention:2 base:2 believe:2 must:2 supply:2 root:1 form:1 ammonia:1 though:2 practical:1 commercial:1 failure:1 possibility:1 substitute:1 natural:1 animal:2 dung:1 etc:1 formulate:1 limit:1 relatively:1 short:1 visualize:1 barrel:1 concept:1 qualitative:1 version:1 principle:1 determine:1 application:3 agriculture:3 organize:1 today:1 novel:1 direct:3 analytical:1 many:3 graduate:1 vapor:1 condensation:1 popularize:1 still:2 condenser:1 although:1 common:1 long:1 begin:1 britain:1 united:1 help:1 create:1 international:1 reputation:1 doktorvater:1 invent:1 silver:1 greatly:1 utility:1 mirror:1 apply:1 physiology:3 especially:1 influential:1 jöns:1 jakob:1 berzelius:1 insist:1 hard:1 fast:1 separation:1 inorganic:1 argue:1 production:1 substance:1 longer:1 belong:1 organism:1 view:1 probable:1 certain:1 shall:1 produce:3 sugar:1 salicin:1 aspirin:1 morphine:1 artificially:1 woehler:1 argument:1 distinction:1 living:1 physiological:1 dead:1 prove:1 inspiration:1 others:1 interested:1 materialism:2 distance:1 political:2 implication:1 tacitly:1 support:1 vogt:1 jacob:2 moleschott:1 ludwig:1 buechner:1 stamp:2 picture:1 play:1 reform:1 politics:1 promotion:1 publication:2 john:1 stuart:1 mill:4 logic:2 close:1 friendship:1 vieweg:1 publishing:1 house:1 arrange:1 former:1 schiel:1 translate:1 important:1 like:1 promote:1 mean:1 social:1 progress:1 feature:1 example:1 ideal:1 scientific:1 credit:1 notion:1 sear:2 seal:1 juice:1 question:1 idea:1 widely:1 true:1 belgian:1 engineer:1 giebert:1 efficient:1 carcass:1 market:1 cheap:1 nutritious:1 alternative:1 real:1 year:1 war:1 ii:1 rename:1 universität:1 west:1 post:1 office:1 issue:1 honor:1 germany:1 scott:1 catalogue:1 pathology:1 familiar:2 letter:2 history:1 list:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 librivox:1 org:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 edition:1 |@bigram justus_von:4 von_liebig:4 organic_chemistry:3 gay_lussac:1 von_humboldt:1 george_cuvier:1 annalen_der:2 potassium_hydroxide:1 carbon_dioxide:2 jöns_jakob:1 jakob_berzelius:1 organic_inorganic:1 stuart_mill:1 physiology_pathology:1 external_link:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 |
7,603 | Alboin | Alboin or Alboïn (died 572 or 573) was king of the Lombards, and conqueror of Italy. He succeeded his father Audoin about 565. Cognates to these rather alien-looking names in Old English are Ælfwine (meaning 'Elf-friend') and Eadwine ('Wealth-friend'). The 7th-century Anglo-Saxon kings who bore these names were probably named after the Langobardic rulers, who had by their day assumed a near-mythical status. History The Lombards were at that time dwelling in Noricum and Pannonia (the plain of eastern Austria south and east of the Danube, modern-day Slovenia and Croatia). Roots of a Rivalry As a young man, Alboin condemned the Gepids. During the time his father, Audoin, was king, Alboin slew Turismond, the son of the Gepid king Turisind, in combat. The Gepids fled at this display of dominance. At Audoin’s hall that night, the Lombards argued for Alboin’s right to a seat at Audoin’s table. Audoin stated that first according to custom, Alboin must gain arms from a foreign king. Alboin immediately left with forty men to the hall of Turisind, the king of the Gepids. Turisind welcomed Alboin with hospitality. Soon, however, Turisind’s hospitality was blinded by the sight of his son's slayer. The Gepids, now growing aware of this conflict, taunted the Lombards with swords. Much to their surprise, Turisind leapt between the Lombards and Gepids and declared that the laws of hospitality should not be broken, for they were sacred. He then gave Alboin the arms of his dead son and Alboin departed peacefully. Early Wars The Lombards had a Peace Treaty at the time Cunimund succeeded Turisind the throne of the Gepids. At this time, the Lombards had established an alliance with the Avars, whom during the war occupied the lands of the Gepids. Despite these obstacle, Cunimund forced his people to fight, and announced that if his people were able to overcome the Lombards, they would then remove the Avars from their land. Under the leadership of Alboin, the Lombards were victorious. The Lombards had defeated the Gepids to complete destruction. Alboin killed Cunimund, and fashioned his skull into a goblet, known as a scala. The success of Alboin had spread so far, that it reached Rome. Rome sought out the help of Alboin to defeat the Goths. The Lombards were transported to Rome by way of sea, and much to the hope of the Romans, defeated the Goths. Alboin had defeated Totila, the king of the Goths, to destruction. The Lombards returned to their homeland bearing riches and gifts for their people. Invasion of Italy Alboin, after all his military success, was convinced that he could set out for Italy and lead his people in a migration. The Saxons supplied Alboin and his army with 20,000 men to fight. Alboin then gave Pannonia to the Avars under the condition that if the Lombards were to return they would receive the land immediately. Alboin first entered Venetia, and declared that his nephew Gisulf would be the duke of the land conquered. Gisulf demanded that he would need the Lombard people of his choice, which Alboin agreed to. Alboin first arrived at the river Piave. Alboin proceeded to capture the cities of Vicenza, Verona, and the remaining cities of Venetia. He had captured all the cities but Padua, Monselice, and Mantua. After conquering Venetia, Alboin moved his army to Liguria. He took all the cities of Liguria, except those situated on the shores. The city of Ticinum (Pavia), was the most difficult to take. The city lasted over three years before giving up after being besieged. In the end, Alboin had taken possession of everything as far as Tuscany, except Rome, Ravenna, and other fortified cities. Where the Lombards did meet with resistance, retribution was savage beyond anything Italy had experienced before. The bishops, who were virtually the leaders of the late antique Roman cities, fled, like the bishop of Milan, or compounded with the barbarians for gentler treatment of their people. The courageous resistance of Ticinum provoked the fury of Alboin; he vowed to slaughter all of its inhabitants regardless of age or sex. But as he marched through the gates, his horse inexplicably fell and expired. Whether from compassion or piety, Alboin recanted his vow and spared the city of the massacre. Assassination In 572, according to the history of the Lombards (chapter 28) written by Paul the Deacon (Paulus Diaconus), the 8th century Lombard chronicler, Alboin ruled Italy for three and a half years until he was murdered by his wife following a banquet in Verona. His wife, Rosemund, was the daughter of the king of the Gepids. Alboin slew her father and used his skull as a drinking cup (worn at his belt) and out of which he forced Rosamund to drink. Rosamund met the King’s squire, Helmechis, who suggested using Peredeo, a strong man, to accomplish the assassination. Peredeo refused to help, and that night mistakenly had sexual relations with Rosemund, whom he took for his maid. After learning of this evil he committed, he agreed to slay the king fearing Alboin's retribution. The next day, Rosemund ordered a great silence in the palace and bound the sword to Alboin’s bed, because he was taking an afternoon nap. When Alboin awoke, he realized he would be murdered and reached for his sword, which he couldn not dislodge it because Rosemund had bound it tightly to the bed. After attempting to defend himself with a footstool, he was slain and was buried under a certain set of stairs in his palace, and the Lombard people were full of grief. So Peredeo and the queen fled to the protection of the Byzantines at Ravenna. Italian conquests of the Lombards during the reign of Alboin. In these few years the Lombards had established themselves in the north of Italy (henceforth Lombardy). But they had little practice in governing large provinces. Lombard warlords (which Latin chroniclers called 'dukes') were established in all the strongholds and passes, and this arrangement became increasingly characteristic of the Lombard settlement. Their power extended tenuously across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany, and southwards to the outlying Lombard dukedoms of Spoleto and Benevento. The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that was conveniently commanded from the sea, such as Ravenna. Local inhabitants fled into the marshes and lagoons, where Venice had its beginnings. After his death and the short reign of his successor Cleph the Lombards remained for more than ten years without a king, ruled by the various dukes. The primary sources for the history of Alboin include Paul the Deacon, the Byzantine Procopius, and Andreas Agnellus (in his history of the church of Ravenna). Literary uses In an early version of J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy time-travel story The Lost Road, Tolkien considered placing one of his main characters in the person of Alboin. In Meg Cabot's Princess Diaries, the country of Genovia's first ruler was a princess named Rosagunde, based on the princess Alboin raped. In the book, Mia writes that Rosagunde's father was killed by a warlord, who made his skull into a cup and forced her to drink from it. She strangled him in his sleep with her braids and was given the principality of Genovia in honor of her brave deed. Sources Charles Oman, The Dark Ages 476-918. 1914. Rivingtons, London. Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardum External links A translation of Historia Langobardorum | Alboin |@lemmatized alboin:34 alboïn:1 die:1 king:11 lombard:24 conqueror:1 italy:6 succeed:2 father:4 audoin:5 cognate:1 rather:1 alien:1 look:1 name:4 old:1 english:1 ælfwine:1 mean:1 elf:1 friend:2 eadwine:1 wealth:1 century:2 anglo:1 saxon:2 bore:1 probably:1 langobardic:1 ruler:2 day:3 assume:1 near:1 mythical:1 status:1 history:4 time:5 dwell:1 noricum:1 pannonia:2 plain:1 eastern:1 austria:1 south:1 east:1 danube:1 modern:1 slovenia:1 croatia:1 root:1 rivalry:1 young:1 man:2 condemn:1 gepids:9 slew:2 turismond:1 son:3 gepid:1 turisind:6 combat:1 flee:4 display:1 dominance:1 hall:2 night:2 argue:1 right:1 seat:1 table:1 state:1 first:4 accord:2 custom:1 must:1 gain:1 arm:2 foreign:1 immediately:2 leave:1 forty:1 men:2 welcome:1 hospitality:3 soon:1 however:1 blind:1 sight:1 slayer:1 grow:1 aware:1 conflict:1 taunt:1 sword:3 much:2 surprise:1 leapt:1 declare:2 law:1 break:1 sacred:1 give:4 dead:1 depart:1 peacefully:1 early:2 war:2 peace:1 treaty:1 cunimund:3 throne:1 establish:3 alliance:1 avars:3 occupy:1 land:4 despite:1 obstacle:1 force:3 people:7 fight:2 announce:1 able:1 overcome:1 would:5 remove:1 leadership:1 victorious:1 defeat:4 complete:1 destruction:2 kill:2 fashion:1 skull:3 goblet:1 know:1 scala:1 success:2 spread:1 far:2 reach:2 rome:4 seek:1 help:2 goth:3 transport:1 way:1 sea:2 hope:1 roman:2 totila:1 return:2 homeland:1 bearing:1 rich:1 gift:1 invasion:1 military:1 convince:1 could:1 set:2 lead:1 migration:1 supply:1 army:2 condition:1 receive:1 enter:1 venetia:3 nephew:1 gisulf:2 duke:3 conquer:2 demand:1 need:1 choice:1 agree:2 arrive:1 river:1 piave:1 proceed:1 capture:2 city:9 vicenza:1 verona:2 remain:2 padua:1 monselice:1 mantua:1 move:1 liguria:3 take:5 except:2 situate:1 shore:1 ticinum:2 pavia:1 difficult:1 last:1 three:2 year:4 besiege:1 end:1 possession:1 everything:1 tuscany:2 ravenna:4 fortified:1 meet:2 resistance:2 retribution:2 savage:1 beyond:1 anything:1 experience:1 bishop:2 virtually:1 leader:1 late:1 antique:1 like:1 milan:1 compound:1 barbarian:1 gentler:1 treatment:1 courageous:1 provoke:1 fury:1 vow:2 slaughter:1 inhabitant:2 regardless:1 age:2 sex:1 march:1 gate:1 horse:1 inexplicably:1 fell:1 expire:1 whether:1 compassion:1 piety:1 recant:1 spar:1 massacre:1 assassination:2 chapter:1 write:2 paul:3 deacon:3 paulus:1 diaconus:1 chronicler:2 rule:2 half:1 murder:2 wife:2 follow:1 banquet:1 rosemund:4 daughter:1 use:2 drinking:1 cup:2 wear:1 belt:1 rosamund:2 drink:2 squire:1 helmechis:1 suggest:1 peredeo:3 strong:1 accomplish:1 refuse:1 mistakenly:1 sexual:1 relation:1 maid:1 learn:1 evil:1 commit:1 slay:1 fear:1 next:1 order:1 great:1 silence:1 palace:2 bound:1 bed:2 afternoon:1 nap:1 awoke:1 realize:1 dislodge:1 bind:1 tightly:1 attempt:1 defend:1 footstool:1 slain:1 bury:1 certain:1 stair:1 full:1 grief:1 queen:1 protection:1 byzantine:2 italian:1 conquest:1 reign:2 north:1 henceforth:1 lombardy:1 little:1 practice:1 govern:1 large:1 province:1 warlord:2 latin:1 call:1 stronghold:1 pass:1 arrangement:1 become:1 increasingly:1 characteristic:1 settlement:1 power:1 extend:1 tenuously:1 across:1 apennines:1 southward:1 outlying:1 dukedom:1 spoleto:1 benevento:1 invader:1 fail:1 secure:1 maritime:1 port:1 territory:1 conveniently:1 command:1 local:1 marsh:1 lagoon:1 venice:1 beginning:1 death:1 short:1 successor:1 cleph:1 ten:1 without:1 various:1 primary:1 source:2 include:1 procopius:1 andreas:1 agnellus:1 church:1 literary:1 us:1 version:1 j:1 r:2 tolkien:2 fantasy:1 travel:1 story:1 lose:1 road:1 consider:1 place:1 one:1 main:1 character:1 person:1 meg:1 cabot:1 princess:3 diary:1 country:1 genovia:2 rosagunde:2 base:1 rap:1 book:1 mia:1 make:1 strangle:1 sleep:1 braid:1 principality:1 honor:1 brave:1 deed:1 charles:1 oman:1 dark:1 rivingtons:1 london:1 historia:2 langobardum:1 external:1 link:1 translation:1 langobardorum:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:1 slovenia_croatia:1 spoleto_benevento:1 external_link:1 |
7,604 | Beachcomber_(pen_name) | Beachcomber was a nom de plume used by surrealist humorous columnists D. B. Wyndham-Lewis and, chiefly, J. B. Morton as authors of the Daily Express column "By the Way" in the period 1919-1975. Other authors who used the name were Major John Bernard Arbuthnot MVO, the column's founder, and William Hartston, the current author of its revived form. "By The Way" in print "By The Way" was originally a column in the Globe, consisting of unsigned humorous pieces; P. G. Wodehouse was assistant editor of the column from August 1903 and editor from August 1904 to May 1909, during which time he was assisted by Herbert Westbrook. P.G. Wodehouse: A Portrait of a Master, David A. Jasen, Music Sales Group, 2002, ISBN 0825672759 After the Globes closure, it was reestablished as a society news column in the Daily Express from 1917 onwards, initially written by social correspondent Major John Arbuthnot who invented the name "Beachcomber". After Arbuthnot was promoted to deputy editor, it was taken over by Wyndham-Lewis some time in 1919 who reinvented it as an outlet for his wit and humour. It was then passed to Morton during 1924 though it is likely there was a period when they overlapped. Morton wrote the column until 1975; it was revived in the early 1990s and continues today, written by William Hartston. The column is unsigned except by "Beachcomber" and it was not publicly known that Morton or Wyndham-Lewis wrote it until the 1930s. The name is mainly associated with Morton who has been credited as an influence by Spike Milligan amongst others. Morton introduced the recurring characters and continuing stories that were a major feature of the column during his 51-year run. The format of the column was a random assortment of small paragraphs which were otherwise unconnected. These could be anything, such as: court reports, often involving Twelve Red-Bearded Dwarfs before Mr Justice Cocklecarrot. angry exchanges of letters between characters such as Florence McGurgle and her dissatisfied boarders. interruptions from "Prodnose", representing the public, who would then be roundly cursed by the author and kicked out. installments of serials that could stop, restart from earlier, be abandoned altogether or change direction abruptly without warning. parodies of poetry or drama, particularly of the extremely "literary" type such as Ibsen. news reports from around the country. or just anything that the author thought funny at the time. Morton's other interest, France, was occasionally represented by epic tales of his rambling walks through the French countryside. These were not intended as humour. "By The Way" was popular with the readership, and of course, one of the reasons it lasted so long. Its style and randomness could be off-putting, however, and it is safe to say the humour could be something of an acquired taste. Oddly, one of the column's greatest opponents was the Express newspaper's owner, Lord Beaverbrook, who had to keep being assured the column was indeed funny. A prominent critic was George Orwell but "By The Way" was one of the few features kept continuously running in the often seriously reduced Daily Express throughout World War II, where Morton's lampooning of Hitler, including the British invention of Bracerot to make the Nazi's trousers fall down at inopportune moments, was regarded as valuable for morale. The column appeared daily until 1965 when it was changed to weekly. It was cancelled in 1975 and revived as a daily piece in the early 1990s where it continues to the present day in much the same format. Recurrent characters Mr. Justice Cocklecarrot: well-meaning but ineffectual High Court judge, plagued by litigation involving the twelve red-bearded dwarfs. Often appears in Private Eye. Mrs. Justice Cocklecarrot: his wife. Very silent, until she observes that "Wivens has fallen down a manhole". An enquiry from the judge as to which Wivens that would be elicits the response "E. D. Wivens". After a worrying interval she reveals that E. D. Wivens is a cat. His Lordship observes that cats do not have initials. "This one does", says she. Tinklebury Snapdriver and Honeygander Gooseboote: two counsel. The elbow of one has a mysterious tendency to become jammed in the jaws of the other. Twelve red-bearded dwarfs, with a penchant for farcical litigation. Their names are Scorpion de Rooftrouser, Cleveland Zackhouse, Frums Gillygottle, Edeledel Edel, Churm Rincewind, Sophus Barkayo-Tong, Amaninter Axling, Guttergorm Guttergormpton, Badly Oronparser, Listenis Youghaupt, Molonay Tubilderborst and Farjole Merrybody. Captain Foulenough: archetypal cad and gatecrasher who impersonates the upper class in order to wreck their social events. Educated at Narkover''', a school specializing in card-playing, horse-racing and bribery. Mountfalcon Foulenough: his priggish nephew, who brings havoc to Narkover and "makes virtue seem even more horrifying than usual". Vita Brevis: debutante frequently plagued by, but with a certain reluctant admiration for, Captain Foulenough. Dr. Smart-Allick: genteel, but ludicrous and criminal, headmaster of Narkover. Miss Topsy Turvey: neighbouring headmistress, courted by Smart-Allick. Dr. Strabismus (Whom God Preserve) of Utrecht: eccentric scientist and inventor. Lord Shortcake: absent-minded peer obsessed by his enormous collection of goldfish. Mrs. McGurgle: seaside landlady. Fearsomely British, until she decides to reinvent her house as "Hôtel McGurgle et de l'Univers" to attract the tourists. There is some inconsistency about her maiden name. One correspondent calls her "Florrie Palmer as was", but the narrator says that she was a Gurricle, from Crabhampton. Ministry of Bubbleblowing: possible ancestor of Monty Python's Ministry of Silly Walks. Charlie Suet: disastrous civil servant. Mimsie Slopcorner: his on-off girlfriend, an ill-informed and irritating social activist. The Filthistan Trio: Ashura, Kazbulah and Rizamughan, three Persians from "Thurralibad", two of whom play see-saw on a plank laid across the third. They have a series of contretemps with British bureaucracy and the artistic establishment, in which the trio generally represents the voice of reason. Dingi-Poos: the Tibetan Venus. She obtains desirable commercial contracts by using her charms to hoodwink visiting British envoys, principally Colonel Egham and Duncan Mince. Big White Carstairs: Buchanesque Empire builder, with a tendency to mislay his dress trousers. O. Thake: man-about-town. Lady Cabstanleigh: Society hostess. Stultitia: her niece, a playwright. Boubou Flaring: glamorous but vacuous actress. Emilia Rustiguzzi: voluminous (both in bulk and in decibels) opera singer. Tumbelova, Serge Trouserin, Chuckusafiva: ballet dancers. Colin Velvette: ballet impresario. "Thunderbolt" Footle: handsome, socially celebrated boxer (who can do everything except actually fight) The M'Babwa of M'Gonkawiwi: African chief, who occasions great administrative problems in connection with his invitation to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. The Clam of Chowdah: oriental potentate Mrs. Wretch: formerly the glamorous circus performer Miss Whackaway, now wife to Colonel Wretch and "horrible welfare worker". Roland Milk: insipid poet (possible ancestor of Private Eye's "E. J. Thribb"). Prodnose: humourless, reasonable oaf who interrupts Beachcomber's flights of fancy. (The name is journalistic slang for a sub-editor.) Other media The Will Hay film Boys Will Be Boys (1935) was set at Morton's Narkover school. In 1969, Spike Milligan based a BBC television series named The World of Beachcomber on the columns. According to Milligan, the columns had been an influence on the comedic style of his radio series, The Goon Show. A small selection was issued on a 1971 LP and a 2-cassette set of the series' soundtrack was made available in the late 1990s. In 1989, BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first of three series based on Morton's work. This featured Richard Ingrams, John Wells, Patricia Routledge and John Sessions from compilations prepared by Mike Barfield. Series 1 was also made available as a 2-cassette set. Influence on later writers The work of Beachcomber is in some ways parallel to that of Myles na gCopaleen, and the influence of both writers is evident in the Peter Simple columns in the Daily Telegraph. References to Beachcomber are strongly pervasive in Private Eye, and there is a possible, but more tenuous, line of descent from it, via the Goon Show, to Monty Python. Bibliography Books featuring Wyndham-Lewis' workA London Farrago (1922) Books featuring Morton's work Original collectionsMr Thake (1929)Mr Thake AgainBy The Way (1931)Morton's FollyThe Adventures of Mr ThakeMr Thake and the LadiesStuff and NonsenseGallimaufrySideways Through BorneoA Diet of ThistlesA Bonfire of WeedsI Do Not Think SoFool's ParadiseCaptain Foulenough and CompanyHere and NowThe Misadventures of Dr StrabismusThe Dancing CabmenThe Tibetan VenusMerry-Go-Round (1958) Later omnibus editionsThe Best of Beachcomber (ed. Michael Frayn, 1963)Beachcomber: the works of J. B. Morton (ed. Richard Ingrams, 1974, Muller, London)Cram Me With Eels, the Best of Beachcomber's Unpublished Humour'' (ed. Mike Barfield, 1995, Mandarin, London (ISBN 0-7493-1947-X)) References External links BBC page about The World of Beachcomber A fan site about J B Morton and The World of Beachcomber | Beachcomber_(pen_name) |@lemmatized beachcomber:12 nom:1 de:3 plume:1 use:3 surrealist:1 humorous:2 columnist:1 b:4 wyndham:4 lewis:4 chiefly:1 j:4 morton:14 author:5 daily:6 express:4 column:15 way:7 period:2 name:7 major:3 john:4 bernard:1 arbuthnot:3 mvo:1 founder:1 william:2 hartston:2 current:1 revive:3 form:1 print:1 originally:1 globe:1 consist:1 unsigned:2 piece:2 p:2 g:2 wodehouse:2 assistant:1 editor:4 august:2 may:1 time:3 assist:1 herbert:1 westbrook:1 portrait:1 master:1 david:1 jasen:1 music:1 sale:1 group:1 isbn:2 globes:1 closure:1 reestablish:1 society:2 news:2 onwards:1 initially:1 write:4 social:3 correspondent:2 invent:1 promote:1 deputy:1 take:1 reinvent:2 outlet:1 wit:1 humour:4 pass:1 though:1 likely:1 overlap:1 early:3 continue:3 today:1 except:2 publicly:1 know:1 mainly:1 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7,605 | Alberta | Alberta () is one of Canada's prairie provinces. It became a province on September 1, 1905. Alberta Becomes a Province - Alberta Online Encyclopedia Alberta is located in western Canada, bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to border only a single U.S. state (the others being New Brunswick and Yukon). It is also one of only two Canadian provinces that are landlocked (the other being Saskatchewan). The capital city of Alberta is Edmonton, located just south of the centre of the province. Roughly south of the capital is Calgary, Alberta's largest city and a major distribution and transportation hub as well as one of Canada's major commerce centres. Edmonton is the primary supply and service hub for Canada's oil sands and other northern resource industries. According to recent population estimates, these two metropolitan areas have now both exceeded 1 million people. Statistics Canada—CMA population estimates Other municipalities in the province include Red Deer, Lethbridge, Medicine Hat, Fort McMurray, Grande Prairie, Camrose, Lloydminster, Brooks, Wetaskiwin, Banff, Cold Lake, and Jasper. Since December 14 2006, the Premier of the province has been Ed Stelmach, a Progressive Conservative. Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta (1848–1939), the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert. Princess Louise was the wife of the Marquess of Lorne, Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883. Lake Louise, the village of Caroline, and Mount Alberta were also named in honour of Princess Louise. Geography Alberta covers an area of , an area about 5% smaller than Texas or 20% larger than France. This makes it the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia. To the south, the province borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the U.S. state of Montana, while on the north the 60th parallel north divides it from the Northwest Territories. To the east the 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan, while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains, and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N. The province extends north to south and east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border, while its lowest point is on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast. With the exception of the southeastern section, the province has adequate water resources. Alberta contains numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, water skiing, fishing and a full range of other water sports. There are three large lakes and a multitude of smaller lakes less than each. Part of Lake Athabasca () lies in the province of Saskatchewan. Lake Claire () lies just west of Lake Athabasca in Wood Buffalo National Park. Lesser Slave Lake () is northwest of Edmonton. The longest river in Alberta is the Athabasca River which travels from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca. Moraine Lake in Banff National Park Alberta's capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province, with most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity located nearby, in proximity to most of Canada's largest oil fields. Edmonton is the most northerly major city in Canada, and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. Alberta's other major city, Calgary, is located approximately south of Edmonton and north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor, in and between the two major cities. Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest, while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely forested. The southern quarter of the province is prairie, ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to Lloydminster, contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming, with mixed farming more common in the north and centre, while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south. The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta, where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep gorges and striking landforms. Dinosaur Provincial Park, near Brooks, Alberta, showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape. Alberta is one of only two Canadian provinces to have no maritime coast (the other being the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan). Climate Alberta has a dry continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce extremely cold conditions in winter. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta. In the summer, continental air masses produce maximum temperatures from in the mountains to in southern Alberta. Because Alberta extends for over from north to south, its climate varies considerably. Average temperatures in January range from in the south to in the north, and in July from in the south to in the north. The climate is also influenced by the presence of the Rocky Mountains to the southwest, which disrupt the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from in the southeast to in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where rainfall can reach annually. In the summer, the average daytime temperatures range from around in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north to near in the dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years, although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1900 and 2500 hours per year. Northern Alberta receives about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. The long summer days make summer the sunniest season of the year in Alberta. Winter Climate (Calgary) In southwestern Alberta, the winter cold is frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one chinook recorded at Pincher Creek, temperatures soared from to in one hour. The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks, averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year, while Calgary has a white Christmas only 59% of the time as a result of these winds. Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has fewer frost-free days than southern Alberta due to its subarctic climate. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semiarid climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants. The southeastern corner of Alberta, known as the Palliser Triangle, experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter chinook winds. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. After southern Ontario, Central Alberta is the most likely region in Canada to experience tornadoes. Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada, which is caused by orographic lifting from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail. Average Temperatures in Cities CityJuly(°C) July(°F)January(°C)January(°F) Medicine Hat 27/12 81/54 -5/-16 23/3Airdrie 26/11 79/52 -3/-15 27/5Brooks 26/11 79/52 -6/-17 21/1Lethbridge 26/10 79/50 -3/-15 27/5Edmonton 23/12 73/54 -9/-17 16/1Fort Saskatchewan 23/11 73/52 -8/-19 18/-2Calgary 23/9 73/48 -3/-14 27/7Camrose 22/11 72/52 -8/-19 18/-2Cold Lake 23/11 73/52 -11/-22 12/-8Fort McMurray 23/10 73/50 -14/-24 7/-11Grande Prairie 22/9 72/48 -10/-21 14/-6Leduc 22/10 72/50 -8/-19 18/-2Lloydminster 23/11 73/52 -10/-19 14/-2Red Deer 23/10 73/50 -6/-17 21/1Spruce Grove 22/11 72/52 -7/-16 19/3St. Albert 22/10 72/50 -8/-17 18/1Wetaskiwin 21/9 70/48 -5/-16 23/3 Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 History Alexander Rutherford, Alberta's first premier The province of Alberta, as far north as about 53° north latitude, was a part of Rupert's Land from the time of the incorporation of the Hudson's Bay Company (1670). After the arrival in the North-West of the French around 1731 they settled the prairies of the west, establishing communities such as Lac La Biche and Bonnyville. Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in 1752. The North West Company of Montreal occupied the northern part of Alberta territory before the Hudson's Bay Company arrived from Hudson Bay to take possession of it. The first explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond, who, on behalf of the North West Company of Montreal, built Fort Athabasca on Lac La Biche in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir Alexander Mackenzie followed the North Saskatchewan River to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the Mackenzie River—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the Peace River upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first white man to cross the North American continent north of Mexico. The district of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the district of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier. Demographics Alberta's population has grown steadily for over a century. Alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces. StatCan—Alberta population Approximately 81% of the population live in urban areas and only about 19% live in rural areas. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Over the past century, Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 2,974,807 in 2001 Population of Alberta—Statistics Canada and 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census. Population and dwelling counts (2006 Census) Languages Albertans have many different mother tongues. English is by far the most common, while French is rare. The 2006 census found that English, with 2,576,670 native speakers, was the mother tongue of 79.99% of Albertans. The next most common mother tongues were Chinese languages with 97,275 native-speakers (3.02%); followed by German with 84,505 native-speakers (2.62%); and French with 61,225 (1.90%); then Punjabi 36,320 (1.13%); Tagalog 29,740 (0.92%); Ukrainian 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish 29,125 (0.90%); and Polish 21,990 (0.68%); Arabic 20,495 (0.64%); Dutch 19,980 (0.62%); and Vietnamese 19,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); Urdu with 11,275 (0.35%); and Korean with 10,845 (0.33%); then Hindi 8,985 (0.28%); Persian 7,700 (0.24%); Portuguese 7,205 (0.22%); and Hungarian 6,770 (0.21%).(Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses.) Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Official Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) (2006 Census) Ethnicity Alberta's population came from many countries, most in Northern and Eastern Europe. Although often thought of as being predominantly of English origin, Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many immigrants originated from Scotland, Ireland and Wales, but large numbers also came from other parts of Europe, notably Germans, French, Ukrainians and Scandinavians. According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second highest proportion (two percent) of Francophones in western Canada (after Manitoba). Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province. As reported in the 2001 census, the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population, and East Indians represented more than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns, and Calgary has Canada's third largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. Aboriginal Albertans make up approximately three percent of the population. In the 2001 Canadian census, 387,445 Albertans (13.17%) identified themselves as "Canadian" while 426,035 (14.49%) identified some other ethnicity as well as "Canadian", making a total of 813,485 (27.66%) for "Canadian". The other most commonly reported ethnicities were: 753,185 English (25.61%); and 576,350 German (19.60%); 556,575 Scottish (18.92%); 461,065 Irish (15.68%); 332,675 French (11.31%); 285,725 Ukrainian (9.71%); 149,225 Dutch (5.07%); 144,040 North American Indian (4.90%); 137,625 Polish (4.68%); 120,050 Norwegian (4.08%); and 108,050 Chinese (3.67%). (Each person could choose more than one ethnicity.) Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada (2001 Census) Amongst those of British origins, the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names, with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary, Airdrie, Canmore, and Banff) having Scottish origins. Religion Alberta has a large number of different religions, of which Catholic is the most common. As of the Canada 2001 Census the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 25.7% of the population. Alberta had the second highest percentage of non-religious residents in Canada (after British Columbia) at 23.1% of the population. Of the remainder, 13.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the United Church of Canada, while 5.9% were Anglican. Lutherans made up 4.8% of the population while Baptists comprised 2.5%. The remainder had a wide variety of different religious affiliations, although no individual group constituted more than 2% of the population. Religions in Canada The Mormons of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province and made up 1.7% of the population. Alberta has a population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites (Hutterites represented 0.4% of the population while Mennonites were 0.8%), and has a significant population of Seventh-day Adventists at 0.3%. Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada's Western Diocese which is based in Edmonton. Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus live in Alberta. Muslims constituted 1.7% of the population, Sikhs 0.8% and Hindus 0.5%. Many of these are recent immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. North America's oldest mosque is located in Edmonton. Jews constituted 0.4% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's 13,000 Jews live in Calgary (7,500) and Edmonton (5,000). AM Yisrael—The Jewish Communities of Canada Economy Alberta's economy is one of the strongest in Canada, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. The per capita GDP in 2007 was by far the highest of any province in Canada at C$74,825. This was 61% higher than the national average of C$46,441 and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006 the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. According to the 2006 census, 2006 Census: Income and Earnings, April 2008 the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time. According to the Fraser Institute, Alberta also has very high levels of economic freedom. It is by far the most free economy in Canada, and is rated as the 2nd most free economy of U.S. states and Canadian provinces. ISBN 0-88975-213-3 Industry Mildred Lake mine site and plant at the Athabasca Oil Sands Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in the country. Alberta is the world’s 2nd largest exporter of natural gas and the 4th largest producer. Government of Alaska. Alaska and Alberta - An Overview Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. The Athabasca Oil Sands (sometimes known as the Athabasca Tar sands) have estimated non-conventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km³). With the development of new extraction methods such as steam assisted gravity drainage, which was developed in Alberta, bitumen and synthetic crude oil can be produced at costs close to those of conventional crude. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. With current technology and at current prices, about 315 billion barrels (50 km³) of bitumen are recoverable. Fort McMurray, one of Canada's fastest growing cities, has grown enormously in recent years because of the large corporations which have taken on the task of oil production. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Canada Oilsands Opportunities Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the Tar Sands is the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 have made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive liquid crystal display systems. Interactive display system—US Patent U.S. Patent No. 5,448,263; U.S. Patent for Touch Sensitive Technology—SMART Technologies With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. Agriculture and forestry Canola field in central Alberta Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, Alberta Livestock Inspections—August 2006—Alberta Government, Department of Agriculture and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Grain elevator in southern Alberta Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other grains are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. The vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow Alberta to produce large quantities of lumber, oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood, and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the Pacific Rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint. Tourism Stephen Avenue, Calgary. Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the twentieth century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking and camping, shopping locales such as West Edmonton Mall, Calgary Stampede, outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. There are also natural attractions like Elk Island National Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, and the Columbia Icefield. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. Banff, Jasper and the Rocky Mountains are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta Economic Development. Tourism Statistics Alberta tourism relies heavily on Southern Ontario tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many international countries. Lake Louise in the Canadian Rockies Alberta's Rocky Mountains include well known tourist destinations Banff National Park and Jasper National Park. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic Icefields Parkway. Banff is located 128 km west of Calgary on Highway 1, and Jasper is located 366 km west of Edmonton on Yellowhead Highway. Five of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World heritage sites are located within the province: Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, Dinosaur Provincial Park and Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. About 1.2 million people pass through the gates of Calgary's world-famous Stampede, Calgary Stampede highlights a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 800,000 people enjoy Edmonton's Capital Ex (formerly Klondike Days). CapitalEX—Fair History Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the Yukon gold fields, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous Chilkoot Pass. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. Drumheller, "Dinosaur Capital of The World", offers the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. The Canadian Badlands has much to offer in the way of attractions, cultural events, celebrations, accommodations and service. Located in east-central Alberta is Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions, a popular tourist attraction operated out of Stettler. It boasts one of the few operable steam trains in the world, offering trips through the rolling prairie scenery. Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year. Alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to ski and hike; Alberta boasts several world-class ski resorts such as Sunshine Village, Lake Louise, Marmot Basin, Norquay and Nakiska. Hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive trophies and tall tales from their experiences in Alberta's wilderness. Taxation The province's revenue comes mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%). Alberta Budget Albertans are the lowest-taxed people in Canada, and Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial sales tax (though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax of 5%.) It is also the only Canadian province to have a single rate of taxation for personal income taxes which is 10% of taxable income. CCRA The Alberta tax system maintains a progressive flavour by allowing residents to earn $16,161 before becoming subject to provincial taxation in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged. CCRA Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments which (usually) work in co-operation with the provincial government. Transportation David Thompson Highway outside of Banff National Park Alberta has over 180,000 km of highways and roads, of which nearly 50,000 km are paved. The main north-south corridor is Highway 2, which begins south of Cardston at the Carway border crossing and is part of the CANAMEX Corridor. Highway 4, which effectively extends Interstate 15 into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the Coutts border crossing and ends at Lethbridge. Highway 3 joins Lethbridge to Fort Macleod and links Highway 4 to Highway 2. Highway 2 travels northward through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton before dividing into two highways. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Past Edmonton, one branch continues northwest as Highway 43 into Grande Prairie and the Peace River Country; the other (Highway 63) travels northeast to Fort McMurray, the location of the Athabasca Oil Sands. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: Highway 22, west of highway 2, known as "the cowboy trail," and Highway 21, east of highway 2. Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the Trans-Canada Highway system, enters the province near Medicine Hat, runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network but known alternatively as the Yellowhead Highway (Highway 16), runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and Jasper National Park into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the Icefields Parkway, which runs for 228 km between Jasper and Lake Louise, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. Another major corridor through central Alberta is Highway 11 (also known as the David Thompson Highway), which runs east from the Saskatchewan River Crossing in Banff National Park through Rocky Mountain House and Red Deer, connecting with Highway 12 20 km west of Stettler. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton, as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer. Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called trails. For example, Highway 2, the main north-south highway in the province, is called Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary but becomes Calgary Trail as it enters Edmonton and then turns into Saint Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the city of St. Albert. Calgary, in particular, has a tradition of calling its largest urban expressways trails and naming many of them after prominent first nations individuals and tribes, such as Crowchild Trail, Deerfoot Trail, and Stoney Trail. Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems. Edmonton LRT, which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside of it, was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary C-Train, although operating mostly on the surface, has almost 4 times more track than the Edmonton LRT and the highest ridership of any LRT system in North America. Alberta is well-connected by air, with international airports in both Calgary and Edmonton. Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport are the fourth and fifth busiest in Canada respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines and a regional hub for Air Canada. Calgary's airport primarily serves the Canadian prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, 15 major US centres, nine European airports, and four destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean. Calgary International Airport Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as 10 major US airports, 3 European airports and 6 Mexican and Caribbean airports. There are over 9,000 km of operating mainline railway, and many tourists see Alberta aboard Via Rail or Rocky Mountaineer. The Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies operate railway freight across the province. Government Alberta's Legislative Building in Edmonton. The government of Alberta is organized as a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its unicameral legislature—the Legislative Assembly—consists of eighty-three members. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. Municipalities where the same body act as both local government and school board are formally referred to as "counties" in Alberta. As Canada's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor Norman Kwong. Although the lieutenant governor is technically the most powerful person in Alberta, he is in reality a figurehead whose actions are restricted by custom and constitutional convention. The government is therefore headed by the premier. The current premier is Ed Stelmach who was elected as leader of the governing Progressive Conservatives on December 2, 2006. Stelmach was sworn in as the 13th Premier of Alberta on December 15, 2006. The Premier is a Member of the Legislative Assembly, and he draws all the members of his Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. Alberta's elections tend to yield results which are much more conservative than those of other Canadian provinces. Alberta has traditionally had three political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the Liberals, and the social democratic New Democrats. A fourth party, the strongly conservative Social Credit Party, was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. Since that time, no other political party has governed Alberta. In fact, only four parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the United Farmers of Alberta, from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971, and the currently governing Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to the present. Alberta has had occasional surges in separatist sentiment. Even during the 1980s, when these feelings were at their strongest, there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referendums. There are several groups wishing to promote the independence of Alberta in some form currently active in the province. In the 2008 provincial election, held on March 3, 2008, the Progressive Conservative Party was re-elected as a majority government with 72 of 83 seats, the Alberta Liberal Party was elected as the Official Opposition with nine members, and the Alberta New Democratic Party elected two members. Election results at CTV Municipalities Largest municipalities and metro areas by population Census Metropolitan Areas:200620011996 Calgary CMA 1,079,310 951,395 821,628 Edmonton CMA 1,034,945 937,845 862,597 Cities (10 Largest): Calgary 988,193 878,866 768,082 Edmonton 730,372 666,104 616,306 Red Deer 82,772 67,707 60,080 Lethbridge 78,713 68,712 64,938 St. Albert (included in Edmonton CMA) 57,719 53,081 46,888 Medicine Hat 56,997 51,249 46,783 Grande Prairie 47,076 36,983 31,353 Airdrie (included in Calgary CMA) 28,927 20,382 15,946 Spruce Grove (included in Edmonton CMA) 19,496 15,983 14,271 Leduc (included in Edmonton CMA) 16,967 15,032 14,346 Districts (3 Largest): Strathcona County (included in Edmonton CMA) 82,511 71,986 64,176 Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo 51,496 42,581 35,213 Municipality of Rocky View (included in Calgary CMA) 34,171 29,925 23,326 Edmonton Calgary Health care Foothills Medical Centre - Alberta's largest Hospital Alberta Children's Hospital University of Alberta Hospital complex. As with all Canadian provinces, Alberta provides for all citizens and residents through a publicly-funded health care system. Alberta became Canada's second province (after Saskatchewan) to adopt a Tommy Douglas-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern medicare system. Alberta's health care budget is currently $13.2 billion during the 2008-2009 fiscal year (approximately 36% of all government spending), making it the best funded health care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour more than $1.5 million is spent on health care in the province. A highly-educated population and burgeoning economy have made Alberta a national leader in health education, research, and resources. Many notable facilities include the Foothills Medical Centre, the Peter Lougheed Centre, Rockyview General Hospital, Alberta Children's Hospital, Grace Women's Health Centre, The University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC), Tom Baker Cancer Centre and Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, in Calgary; In Edmonton, the University of Alberta Hospital, the Royal Alexandra Hospital, the Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, the Lois Hole Hospital for Women, the Stollery Children's Hospital, the Alberta Diabetes Institute, the Cross Cancer Institute, and the Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research in Edmonton. Currently under construction in Edmonton is the new $909 million Edmonton Clinic, which will provide a similar research, education, and care environment as the Mayo Clinic in the United States. Health Care in Alberta is administered by the unified Alberta Health Services Board. Prior to July 1, 2008 Alberta was divided into nine health regions: Aspen Regional Health Authority: Calgary Health Region, Capital Health (Edmonton), Chinook Health, David Thompson Regional Health Authority, East Central Health, Northern Lights Health Region, Palliser Health Region and Peace Country Health Region. Education As with any Canadian province, the Alberta Legislature has (almost) exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905 the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905, as well as to create and/or regulate universities, colleges, technical institutions and other educational forms and institutions (public charter schools, private schools, home schooling). Heritage Hall at SAIT Polytechnic. Elementary schools There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Roman Catholic electorate, and one (St. Albert) has a Protestant electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law. For many years the provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property, as supplementary support for local education. In 1994 the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards, but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education; the difference is that the mill rate is now set by the provincial government, the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to the support of K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them, according to a formula, to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities. Public and separate school boards, charter schools, and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education (Alberta Education). Home schoolers may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools, charter schools, and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education, they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education, and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education. Universities St. Joseph’s College at University of Alberta Alberta's oldest and largest university is Edmonton's University of Alberta established in 1908. The University of Calgary, once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second largest university in Alberta. There is also Athabasca University, which focuses on distance learning, and the University of Lethbridge. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, Northern Alberta Institute of Technology and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology. Post Secondary Education There is also a large and active private sector of post-secondary institutions, including DeVry University. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There has been some controversy in recent years over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier Ralph Klein made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs. University of Alberta—Ralph Klein promises tuition freeze So far, no plan has been released by the government of Alberta. Culture Calgary Stampede Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta. The Edmonton Fringe Festival is the world's second largest after Edinburgh's. The Folk music festivals in both Calgary and Edmonton are two of Canada's largest and both cities host a number of annual multicultural events. With a large number of summer and winter events, Edmonton prides itself as being the "Festival City". The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 national groups. Calgary is also home to Carifest, the second largest Caribbean festival in the nation (after Caribana in Toronto). The city is also famous for its Calgary Stampede, dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth." The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as calf roping and bull riding. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. The Banff Centre also hosts a range of festivals and other events including the internationally known Mountain Film Festival. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity and love of entertainment. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the Francis Winspear Centre for Music. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to Canadian Football League and National Hockey League teams. Soccer, rugby union and lacrosse are also played professionally in Alberta. Ecology Flora In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie crocus anemone, the three flowered avens, golden bean, wild rose and other early flowers. The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by a short, nutritious grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower, fleabane, and sage. Both yellow and white sweet clover fill the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely deciduous, typically aspen, poplar, and willow. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres. Aspen poplar, balsam poplar (or cottonwood), and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species. Conifers include Jack pine, Rocky Mountain pine, Lodgepole pine, both white and black spruce, and the deciduous conifer tamarack. Fauna The three climatic regions (alpine, forest, and prairie) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the bison, its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback and thrive on farms and in parks all over Alberta. The Bighorn Sheep is Alberta's provincial animal Alberta is home to many large carnivores. Among them are the grizzly and black bears, which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes, wolves, fox, lynx, bobcat and mountain lion (cougar). Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province. Moose, mule deer, and white-tail deer are found in the wooded regions, and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, porcupines, skunks, squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the prairie rattlesnake. Various water birds in EdmontonCentral and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. Eagles, hawks, owls and crows are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other temperate regions, is home to mosquitoes, flies, wasps, and bees. Rivers and lakes are well stocked with pike, walleye, whitefish, rainbow, speckled, and brown trout, and even sturgeon. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—which is free of Norwegian rats. Since the early 1950s, the government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reports zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats which have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. See also Alberta separatism Symbols of Alberta Notes External links Government of Alberta website Provincial Archives of Alberta website Travel Alberta Alberta Encyclopedia Alberta Government Workforce Solutions Alberta First—Alberta Community Profiles, statistics, facts Alberta Stars—Alberta Community Website, News and Galleries from across the Province CBC Digital Archives—Striking Oil in Alberta CBC Digital Archives—Electing Dynasties: Alberta Campaigns 1935 to 2001 CBC Digital Archives—Alberta @ 100 | Alberta |@lemmatized alberta:199 one:25 canada:50 prairie:24 province:71 become:7 september:1 online:1 encyclopedia:2 locate:13 western:10 bound:1 british:8 columbia:10 west:22 saskatchewan:13 east:13 northwest:5 territory:6 north:42 u:12 state:8 montana:4 south:20 three:9 canadian:29 border:7 single:4 others:2 new:5 brunswick:1 yukon:2 also:23 two:15 landlocked:1 capital:7 city:21 edmonton:60 centre:15 roughly:2 calgary:51 large:33 major:12 distribution:1 transportation:2 hub:6 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7,606 | Aristotle | Aristotle (, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. He was the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian Physics. In the biological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the nineteenth century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late nineteenth century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived. Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 9. Life Aristotle was born in Stageira, Chalcidice, in 384 BC, about 55 km east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was trained and educated as a member of the aristocracy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years, not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander the Great in 343 B.C. Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972 Early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a 15th-century-A.D. scholar During his time as the head of Macedon's royal academy, Aristotle gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. In his Politics, Aristotle states that only one thing could justify monarchy, and that was if the virtue of the king and his family were greater than the virtue of the rest of the citizens put together. Tactfully, he included the young prince and his father in that category. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'. Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.58-59 Near the end of Alexander's life he began to suspect plots, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence for this. Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.379,459 By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus. William George Smith,Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, p. 88 It is during this period in Athens from 335 B.C. to 323 B.C. when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, economics, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time. Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy," , cf. Vita Marciana 41. a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). Aristotle named chief executor his student Antipater and left a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang HaaseAristotle's Will Logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference. History Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'". However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deduction system, he could never actually construct one and relied instead on his dialectic. Bocheński, 1951. Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method. Analytics and the Organon What we today call Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD: Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics.. Aristotle's scientific method Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms. Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle, however, found the universal in particular things, which he called the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics. If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy. In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the sixteenth century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. A green and red Perseid meteor is striking the sky just below the Milky Way in August 2007. His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Aristotle, History of Animals, 2.3. In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then...the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." Aristotle, Meteorology 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes. In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched reason. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws. Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the Metaphysics, which was widely accepted up until the 1500s. From the 3rd century to the 1500s, the dominant view held that the Earth was the center of the universe (geocentrism). Since he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch. Burent, John. 1928. Platonism, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103-104. However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants. Physics The five elements Fire, which is hot and dry. Earth, which is cold and dry. Air, which is hot and wet. Water, which is cold and wet. Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets). Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then water, then air, then fire. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in water, air bubbles rise up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion. Causality, The Four Causes Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino. The formal cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put the formal cause according to which a statue or a domino, is made is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A more simple example of the formal cause is the blueprint or plan that one has before making or causing a human made object to exist. The efficient cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. More simply again that which immediately sets the thing in motion. So take the two dominos this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. This is effectively efficient cause. The final cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, and all that gives purpose to behavior. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event (not necessarily a mental goal). Taking our two dominos, it requires someone to intentionally knock the dominos over as they cannot fall themselves. Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect. All further investigations of causality will consist of imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, such as final > efficient > material > formal (Thomas Aquinas), or of restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores). Optics Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a camera obscura can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the tiny hole and the surface with the image increased, the image was amplified. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Chance and spontaneity Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, since it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance". Aristotle, Physics 2.6 Metaphysics Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." Substance, potentiality and actuality Aristotle examines the concept of substance and essence (ousia) in his Metaphysics, Book VII and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the substratum or the stuff of which it is composed, e.g. the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house. While the form of the substance, is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables). The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 10-30 With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: 1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; 2) locomotion, which is change in space; and 3) alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate - being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise - acting). Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that actuality is when the seed of the plant becomes a plant. " For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see." Aristotle, Metaphysics IX 1050a 5-10 In conclusion, the matter of the house is its potentiality and the form is its actuality. The formal cause (aitia) then of that change from potential to actual house, is the reason (logos) of the house builder and the final cause is the end, namely the house itself. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, e.g., what is that makes the man one? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing. Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1045a-b Universals and particulars Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a contemporary philosopher that agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals". Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist. One way for contemporary philosophers to justify this position is by asserting the eleatic principle. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Biology and medicine In Aristotelian science, most especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals, but not humans and his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded. Empirical research program Octopus swimming Torpedo fuscomaculata Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm was about two thousand years ahead of its time, and widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the nineteenth century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians). Singer, Charles. A short history of biology. Oxford 1931. Leopard shark Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated. He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus mustelus. Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92. Classification of living things Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the nineteenth century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he was not to know that complex invertebrates do make use of haemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). For Charles Singer, "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae" Aristotle's History of Animals classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "Ladder of Life" (scala naturae), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move. Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics. Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., formal causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had a multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance. Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 43-44 In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 201-202; see also: Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. Theory of biological forms and souls Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times. He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. Aristotle, De Anima II 3 Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 45 Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348 His analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that Aristotle is considered by some feminist critics to have been a misogynist. Successor: Theophrastus Frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of Historia Plantarum (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90-91; Mason, A History of the Sciences, p 46 Influence on Hellenistic medicine After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 252 It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 56 Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90-94; quotation from p 91 Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252 Practical philosophy Ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical science, i.e., one mastered by doing rather than merely reasoning. Further, Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics or epistemology) but is general knowledge. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, Nichomachean Ethics, in which he outlines what is commonly called virtue ethics. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that man must have a function uncommon to anything else, and that this function must be an activity of the soul. Aristotle identified the best activity of the soul as eudaimonia: a happiness or joy that pervades the good life. Aristotle taught that to achieve the good life, one must live a balanced life and avoid excess. This balance, he taught, varies among different persons and situations, and exists as a golden mean between two vices - one an excess and one a deficiency. Politics In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, i.e., last in the order of becoming, but first in the order of being . He is also famous for his statement that "man is by nature a political animal." Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. It should be noted that the modern understanding of a political community is that of the state. However, the state was foreign to Aristotle. He referred to political communities as cities. Aristotle understood a city as a political "partnership" and not one of a social contract (or compact) or a political community as understood by Niccolò Machiavelli. Subsequently, a city is created not to avoid injustice or for economic stability , but rather to live a good life: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together" . This can be distinguished from the social contract theory which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences." For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomacean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78-115 Rhetoric and poetics Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by media, object, and manner. Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation - through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle, Poetics III Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals. Aristotle, Poetics IV While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books - one on comedy and one on tragedy - only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry. Aristotle, Poetics VI The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle, Poetics XXVI Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop. Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), The Complete Fables By Aesop Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0140446494 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi-xii. Loss of his works According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric" and the "esoteric". Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself: Nichomachean Ethics 1102a26-27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W. D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408-410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own. Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works (esoteric) intended for the narrower audience of Aristotle's students and other philosophers who were familiar with the jargon and issues typical of the Platonic and Aristotelian schools. Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant - that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (Fragments of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold"; it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us. Barnes, "Life and Work", p. 12. However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works. Barnes, "Roman Aristotle", in Gregory Nagy, Greek Literature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240. One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us? The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes, "Roman Aristotle". The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his Parallel Lives. "Sulla." The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the first century BC, when Apellicon of Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes. Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C." Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelean corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelean interpolations in the Politics, for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact. As the influence of the falsafa grew in the West, in part due to Gerard of Cremona's translations and the spread of Averroism, the demand for Aristotle's works grew. William of Moerbeke translated a number of them into Latin. When Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe, and ultimately revitalizing European thought through Muslim influence in Spain to fan the embers of the Renaissance. Legacy Twenty-three hundred years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Despite these accolades, many of Aristotle's errors held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. Of course, the problem of excessive devotion to Aristotle is more a problem of those later centuries and not of Aristotle himself. Portrait of Aristoteles. Pentelic marble, copy of the Imperial Period (1st or 2nd century) of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos. The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" Plutarch, Life of Alexander Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie, Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines 295-295 The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell, I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest.<ref>vidi ’l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid’ïo Socrate e Platone che ’nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; Dante, L’Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131-135</ref> The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Durant, p. 86 However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue - or arete - of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007, passim. List of works See also Aristotelian ethics Aristotelian physics Aristotelian view of God List of writers influenced by Aristotle List of teachings attributed to Aristotle Corpus Aristotelicum Conimbricenses Hylomorphism Philia Phronesis Notes and references Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. Ackrill J. L. 2001. Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA A popular exposition for the general reader. Bakalis Nikolaos. 2005. Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barnes J. 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. Burnyeat, M. F. et al. 1979. Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy Chappell, V. 1973. Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679-696 Code, Alan. 1995. Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76 Frede, Michael. 1987. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press Gill, Mary Louise. 1989. Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press Halper, Edward C. (2007) One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6 Halper, Edward C. (2005) One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6 Irwin, T. H. 1988. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press Jori, Alberto. 2003. Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1 Knight, Kelvin. 2007. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press. Lewis, Frank A. 1991. Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lloyd, G. E. R. 1968. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9. Lord, Carnes. 1984. Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Loux, Michael J. 1991. Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Owen, G. E. L. 1965c. The Platonism of Aristotle, Proceedings of the British Academy 50 125-150. Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji (eds.), Articles on Aristotle, Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth (1975). 14-34 Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship. Reeve, C. D. C. 2000. Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett. A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923. Scaltsas, T. 1994. Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Strauss, Leo. "On Aristotle's Politics" (1964), in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally. For the general reader. Woods, M. J. 1991b. "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics." Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplement. 41-56 External links The Catholic Encyclopedia (general article) The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (general article) Scholarly surveys of focused topics from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: articles on Aristotle, Aristotle in the Renaissance, Biology, Causality, Commentators on Aristotle, Ethics, Logic, Mathematics, Metaphysics, Natural philosophy, Non-contradiction, Political theory, Psychology, Rhetoric Collections of works Massachusetts Institute of Technology - primarily in English P. Remacle's collection - primarily Greek texts Project Gutenberg - English texts Tufts University - at the Perseus Project, in both English and Greek University of Adelaide - primarily in English Other Timeline of Aristotle's life be-x-old:Арыстотэль | Aristotle |@lemmatized aristotle:212 aristotélēs:1 bc:11 greek:12 philosopher:14 student:7 plato:24 teacher:5 alexander:14 great:11 write:12 many:13 subject:3 include:8 physic:13 metaphysics:30 poetry:7 theater:1 music:4 logic:21 rhetoric:4 politics:14 government:2 ethic:18 biology:9 zoology:5 together:5 socrates:3 one:35 important:3 founding:1 figure:1 western:4 philosophy:35 first:16 create:3 comprehensive:1 system:4 encompass:2 morality:1 aesthetic:2 science:32 view:5 physical:3 profoundly:1 shape:2 medieval:2 scholarship:1 influence:10 extend:1 well:6 renaissance:5 although:4 ultimately:2 replace:1 newtonian:1 biological:6 observation:10 confirm:1 accurate:3 nineteenth:4 century:15 work:36 contain:5 early:9 know:10 formal:14 study:16 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7,607 | Economy_of_Poland | Polish exports in 2006 Poland is considered to currently have one of the fastest growing economies in Central European nations, with an annual growth rate of over 6.0%. Tapping Into Polish Power - Forbes.com Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of economic liberalization throughout the 1990s, with positive results for economic growth but negative results for some sectors of the population. The privatization of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms has encouraged the development of the private business sector, which has been the main drive for Poland's economic growth. The agricultural sector remains handicapped by structural problems, surplus labor, inefficient small farms, and a lack of investment. Restructuring and privatization of "sensitive sectors" (e.g., coal), has also been slow, but recent foreign investments in energy and steel have begun to turn the tide. Recent reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger than expected fiscal pressures. Improving this account deficit and tightening monetary policy, with focus on inflation, are priorities for the Polish government. Further progress in public finance depends mainly on privatization of Poland's remaining state sectors, the reduction of state employment, and an overhaul of the tax code to incorporate farmers, who currently pay significantly lower taxes than other people with similar income levels. Despite some continued systematic problems, Poland has made a tremendous overall economic progress over the last decade, and now is ranked 21st worldwide in terms of the GDP. With the largest component of its economy being the service sector, and the continued forecasts of positive economic growth, Poland is likely to continue to move up in the world GDP ranking. Economic reform program The economic reforms of the Balcerowicz Plan introduced in 1990 removed price controls, eliminated most subsidies to industry, opened markets to international competition, and imposed strict budgetary and monetary discipline. Poland was the first former centrally planned economy in central Europe to end its recession and return to growth in the early 1990s. Since 1992, the Polish economy has enjoyed an accelerated recovery, although growth has recently slowed. The private sector now accounts for over two-thirds of the GDP. As a result of Poland's growth and investment-friendly climate, the country has received over $50 billion in direct foreign investment since 1990. However, the government continues to play a strong role in the economy, as seen in excessive red tape and the high level of politicization in many business decisions. Investors complain that state regulation is not transparent or predictable; the economy suffers from a lack of competition in many sectors, notably telecommunications. In early 2002, the government announced a new set of economic reforms, designed in many ways to complete the process launched in 1990. The package acknowledges the need to improve Poland's investment climate, particularly the conditions for small and medium-sized enterprises, and better prepare the economy to compete as a member of the European Union. The government also aims to improve Poland's public finances to prepare for adoption of the Euro (planned 2012 ). Foreign trade With the collapse of the ruble-based COMECON trading bloc in 1991, Poland scrambled to reorient its trade. As early as 1996, 70% of its trade was with EU members, and neighboring Germany today is Poland's dominant trading partner. Poland joined the EU in May 2004. Before that, it fostered regional integration and trade through the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), which included Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia. Most of Poland's imports are capital goods needed for industrial retooling and for manufacturing inputs, rather than imports for consumption. Therefore, a deficit is expected and should even be regarded as positive at this point. Poland is a member of the World Trade Organization and the European Union. It applies the EU's common external tariff to goods from other countries (including the U.S.). Most Polish exports to the U.S. receive tariff benefits under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program. Opportunities for trade and investment continue to exist across virtually all sectors. The American Chamber of Commerce in Poland, founded in 1991 with seven members, now has more than 300 members. Strong economic growth potential, a large domestic market, EU membership, and a high level of political stability are the top reasons U.S. and other foreign companies do business in Poland. Foreign business in Poland Polish law is rather favorable to foreign entrepreneurs. The government offers investors various forms of state aid, such as: CIT tax at the level of 19% and investment incentives in 14 Special Economic Zones (among others: income tax exemption, real estate tax exemption, competitive land prices), several industrial and technology parks, the possibility to benefit from the EU structural funds, brownfield and greenfield localizations. According to the National Bank of Poland (NBP) the level of FDI inflow into Poland in 2006 amounted to 13,9 billion Euro. One of the main reasons why investors tend to choose Poland is its location at the very heart of continental Europe, part of the trans European road network and easy access to 250 million consumers within a radius of 1000 kilometers. Poland is a significant market of 38 million consumers driving 10% annual retail market growth. In the first quarter of 2007 Polish economy recorded the GDP growth at 7%, which makes it twice that of the EU average. According to the Ernst & Young report, Poland ranks 7th in the world in terms of investment attractiveness. According to the OECD (www.oecd.org) report, in 2004 Poles were one of the hardest working nations in Europe. It is estimated that the selection of Poland as the co-organizer of the European Football Championships in 2012 will speed up a lot of investments carried out in Poland in the coming years. It will mainly be the investment in sectors such as road, railway and air infrastructure, as well as in the hotel, tourism, gastronomy and recreation industry. Polish government has a specialized body that deals with foreign investors. Polish Information and Foreign Investment Agency offers support for foreign investors - assists and helps investors in all the necessary legal and administrative procedures. Industry Before World War II, Poland's industrial base was concentrated in the coal, textile, chemical, machinery, iron, and steel sectors. Today it extends to fertilizers, petrochemicals, machine tools, electrical machinery, electronics, cars and shipbuilding. Poland's industrial base suffered greatly during World War II, and many resources were directed toward reconstruction. The communist economic system imposed in the late 1940s created large and unwieldy economic structures operated under a tight central command. In part because of this systemic rigidity, the economy performed poorly even in comparison with other economies in central Europe. In 1990, the Mazowiecki government began a comprehensive reform program to replace the centralized command economy with a market-oriented system. While the results overall have been impressive, many large state-owned industrial enterprises, particularly the railroad and the mining, steel, and defense sectors, have remained resistant to the change and downsizing required to survive in a market-based economy. Agriculture Agriculture employs 16.1% of the work force but contributes only 3.8% to the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting relatively low productivity. Unlike the industrial sector, Poland's agricultural sector remained largely in private hands during the decades of communist rule. Most of the former state farms are now leased to farmer tenants. Lack of credit is hampering efforts to sell former state farmland. Currently, Poland's 2 million private farms occupy 90% of all farmland and account for roughly the same percentage of total agricultural production. Farms are small—8 hectares on average—and often fragmented. Farms with an area exceeding 15 ha accounted for only 9% of the total number of farms but cover 45% of total agricultural area. Over half of all farm households in Poland produce only for their own needs with little, if any, commercial sales. Poland is a net exporter of processed fruit and vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Processors often rely on imports to supplement domestic supplies of wheat, feed grains, vegetable oil, and protein meals, which are generally insufficient to meet domestic demand. However, Poland is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye and is one of the world's largest producers of sugar beets and triticale. Poland also is a significant producer of rapeseed, grains, hogs, and cattle. Attempts to increase domestic feed grain production are hampered by the short growing season, poor soil, and the small size of farms For more see: http://www.paiz.gov.pl http://webapp01.ey.com.pl/EYP/WEB/eycom_download.nsf/resources/EAS2007_FULL.pdf/$FILE/Attractiveness_Europe_2007.pdf Major Polish companies PKO BP - Banking. Online banking was recently adopted after an increase in financial products tied into the Polish Internet. PKN Orlen - Petrochemical corporation Telekomunikacja Polska (TP S.A) - Telecom Polskie Sieci Elektroenergetyczne - National Power Company Polskie Górnictwo Naftowe i Gazownictwo - Natural Gas/ Oil PZU - Insurance company Agora SA - Media PROKOM SA - IT Bioton - Biotechnology KGHM Polska Miedź - Copper mines and mills Kompania Węglowa - Mining Grupa Lotos - Petrochemical Polskie Koleje Państwowe (PKP) - National railway Poczta Polska - Polish Post Cersanit- Ceramic Goods Polnord- Real Estate Development TVN- Media Polimex-Mostostal- Engineering and Construction Globe Trade Centre - Real Estate Development Elektrim - Diversified utilities / mobile phone service Volkswagen Poznań - Automotive Fiat Poland - Polish branch of Fiat Group (former FSM), builds Panda, Fiat Nuova 500 and Fiat 600 General Motors Poland - Automotive FSO Motors - Former Daewoo FSO. Produces Chevrolet Aveo, Lanos and Matiz automobiles Cartamundi playing cards Warsaw Stock Exchange VTS Clima Sp z.o.o - Air Handling Unit & Fan Coil Unit manufactures & HVAC solution providers Tele-Fonika Kable - Cabling manufacturer Other statistics Investment (gross fixed): 18.4% of GDP (2004 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.2% highest 10%: 24.7% (1998) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 30.6 (2004) Agriculture - products: potatoes, fruits, vegetables, wheat, poultry, eggs, pork Industrial production growth rate: 17.8% (2006) Electricity: production: 150.8 TWh (2004) consumption: 121.3 TWh (2004) exports: 15.2 TWh (2004) imports: 5 TWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 95.1% hydro: 4.5% other: 0.4% (2001) nuclear: 0% Oil: production: 17,180 barrel/day (2001 est.) consumption: 424,100 barrel/day (2001 est.) exports: 53,000 barrel/day (2001) imports: 413,700 barrel/day (2001) proved reserves: 116.4 million barrel (1 January 2002) Natural gas: production: 5.471 billion m³ (2001 est.) consumption: 13.85 billion m³ (2001 est.) exports: 41 million m³ (2001 est.) imports: 8.782 billion m³ (2001 est.) proved reserves: 154.4 billion m³ (1 January 2002) Current account balance: $-3.831 billion (2004 est.) Exports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment 37.8%, intermediate manufactured goods 23.7%, miscellaneous manufactured goods 17.1%, food and live animals 7.6% (2003) Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment 38%, intermediate manufactured goods 21%, chemicals 14.8%, minerals, fuels, lubricants, and related materials 9.1% (2003) Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: $41.88 billion (2004 est.) Debt - external: $99.15 billion (2004 est.) Currency exchange rates: Złoty per US Dollar - 2.17 (Apr 2008), 2.51 (Nov 2007), 2.66 (Oct 2006) 3.15 (Jun 2006) 3.7 (2004), 3.8891 (2003), 4.08 (2002), 4.0939 (2001), 4.3461 (2000). Złoty per Euro - 3.44 (Apr 2008), 3.64 (Nov 2007), 3.96 (Aug 2006), 4.77 (Jun 2004). Unemployment: 7.3% July 2008 Average gross monthly pay: 3,027.51 PLN (880 EUR) (1395 USD) April 2008 History This article discusses the economy of the current Poland, post-1989. For historical overview of past Polish economies, see: Economy of the People's Republic of Poland (1945-1989) Economy of the Second Polish Republic (1918-1939) Economy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795) Growth Recent GDP growth (comparing to the same quarter of previous year): Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2008 6.1% 6.0% 5.0% 3.0% 2007 7.4% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 2006 5.4% 6.3% 6.6% 6.6% 2005 2.1% 2.8% 3.7% 4.3% 2004 7.0% 6.1% 4.8% 4.9% 2003 2.2% 3.8% 4.7% 4.7% Total 2003 3.7% Total 2004 5.4% Total 2005 3.3% Total 2006 6.2% Total 2007 6.7% Total 2008 4.9% In January 2007, industrial output was up 15.6% annually. Poland entered the European Union on 1 May 2004. See also OECD's Poland country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Poland Business Portal for Poland Economy of Europe Politics of Poland Poland References Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economics, Volume 4 - Europe, Gale Group, 2002, ISBN 0-7876-4955-4 Economic data from Eastern European Markets (ceeMarket.com) be-x-old:Эканоміка Польшчы | Economy_of_Poland |@lemmatized polish:16 export:6 poland:43 consider:1 currently:3 one:4 fast:1 grow:1 economy:18 central:5 european:8 nation:2 annual:2 growth:13 rate:3 tap:1 power:2 forbes:1 com:3 steadfastly:1 pursue:1 policy:2 economic:14 liberalization:1 throughout:1 positive:3 result:5 negative:1 sector:14 population:1 privatization:3 small:5 medium:4 state:9 company:5 liberal:1 law:2 establish:1 new:2 firm:1 encourage:1 development:3 private:4 business:5 main:2 drive:2 agricultural:4 remain:4 handicap:1 structural:2 problem:2 surplus:1 labor:1 inefficient:1 farm:8 lack:3 investment:12 restructuring:1 sensitive:1 e:1 g:1 coal:2 also:4 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7,608 | Integer_(computer_science) | In computer science, the term integer is used to refer to a data type which represents some finite subset of the mathematical integers. These are also known as integral data types. Value and representation The value of a datum with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to. The representation of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer’s memory. Integral types may be unsigned (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or signed (capable of representing negative integers as well). The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of bits, using the binary numeral system. The order of the memory bytes storing the bits varies; see endianness. The width or precision of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation. An integral type with n bits can encode 2n numbers; for example an unsigned type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through 2n−1. There are three different ways to represent negative numbers in a binary numeral system. The most common is two’s complement, which allows a signed integral type with n bits to represent numbers from −2(n−1) through 2(n−1)−1. Two’s complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect one-to-one correspondence between representations and values, and because addition, subtraction and multiplication do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types. The other possibilities are sign-magnitude and ones' complement. See Signed number representations for details. Another, rather different, representation for integers is binary-coded decimal, which is still commonly used in mainframe financial applications and in databases. Common integral data types Bits Name Range Decimal digits Uses 8 byte, octet Signed: −128 to +127 3 ASCII characters, C/C++ char, C/C++ int8_t, Java byte, C# byteUnsigned: 0 to +2553 16 halfword, word Signed: −32,768 to +32,767 5 UCS-2 characters, C/C++ short, C/C++ int16_t, Java short, C# short, Java charUnsigned: 0 to +65,5355 32 word, long, doubleword, longword Signed: −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 10 UCS-4 characters, Truecolor with alpha, C/C++ long (on Windows and 32-bit Unix), C/C++ int32_t, Java int, C# int, FourCCUnsigned: 0 to +4,294,967,29510 64 doubleword, longword, long long, quad, quadword, int64 Signed: −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 19 C/C++ long (on 64-bit Unix), C/C++ long long, C/C++ int64_t, Java long, C# long, Delphi int64Unsigned: 0 to +18,446,744,073,709,551,61520 128 octaword Signed: −170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728 to +170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727 39 C only available as non-standard compiler-specific extensionUnsigned: 0 to +340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,45539 n n-bit integer (general case) Signed: to Ada range 2**(n-1) .. 2**n;Unsigned: 0 to Ada mod 2**n; Different CPUs support different integral data types. Typically, hardware will support both signed and unsigned types but only a small, fixed set of widths. The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors. High level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a ‘double width’ integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type. Many languages also have bit-field types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and range types (which can represent only the integers in a specified range). Some languages, such as Lisp, REXX and Haskell, support arbitrary precision integers (also known as infinite precision integers or bignums). Other languages which do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java's BigInteger class or Perl's "bigint" package. These use as much of the computer’s memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they too can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large numbers, for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to 2466 digits long. A Boolean or Flag type is a type which can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with false and true respectively. This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access. A four-bit quantity is known as a nibble (when eating, being smaller than a bite) or nybble (being a pun on the form of the word byte). One nibble corresponds to one digit in hexadecimal and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal. Bytes and octets The term byte initially meant ‘the smallest addressable unit of memory’. In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used. There have also been computers that could address individual bits (‘bit-addressed machine’), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities (‘word-addressed machine’). The term byte was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines. The term octet always refers to an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in the field of computer networking, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate. In modern usage byte almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; thus byte has come to be synonymous with octet. Words The term word is used for a small group of bits which are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular architecture. The size of a word is thus CPU-specific. Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a word is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from word, such as longword, doubleword, quadword, and halfword, also vary with the CPU and OS. As of 2008 practically all new desktop processors are of the x86-64 family and capable of using 64-bit words, they are however often used in 32-bit mode. Embedded processors with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common. The 36-bit word length was common in the early days of computers. One important cause of non-portability of software is the incorrect assumption that all computers have the same word size as the computer used by the programmer. For example, if a programmer using the C language incorrectly declares as int a variable that will be used to store values greater than , the program will fail on computers with 16-bit integers. That variable should have been declared as long, which has at least 32 bits on any computer. Programmers may also incorrectly assume that a pointer can be converted to an integer without loss of information, which may work on (some) 32-bit computers, but fail on 64-bit computers with 64-bit pointers and 32-bit integers. See also Signed number representations Integer (the mathematical concept) Notes | Integer_(computer_science) |@lemmatized computer:14 science:1 term:6 integer:16 use:18 refer:1 data:4 type:20 represent:10 finite:3 subset:2 mathematical:4 also:7 know:3 integral:10 value:7 representation:8 datum:2 correspond:1 way:2 store:6 memory:6 may:4 unsigned:5 capable:3 non:4 negative:4 sign:12 well:1 common:7 positive:1 string:1 bit:32 binary:4 numeral:2 system:2 order:1 bytes:1 varies:1 see:3 endianness:1 width:6 precision:3 number:11 n:9 encode:1 example:3 typically:2 three:1 different:6 two:3 complement:3 allow:1 signed:2 arithmetic:1 convenient:1 perfect:1 one:8 correspondence:1 addition:1 subtraction:1 multiplication:1 need:1 distinguish:1 possibility:2 magnitude:1 detail:1 another:1 rather:2 cod:2 decimal:3 still:2 commonly:1 mainframe:1 financial:1 application:1 database:1 name:1 range:4 digit:4 byte:11 octet:3 ascii:1 character:3 c:24 char:1 java:6 byteunsigned:1 halfword:2 word:15 ucs:2 short:3 charunsigned:1 long:11 doubleword:3 longword:3 truecolor:1 alpha:1 window:1 unix:2 int:3 fourccunsigned:1 quad:1 quadword:2 delphi:1 octaword:1 available:2 standard:1 compiler:1 specific:2 extensionunsigned:1 general:1 case:1 ada:2 mod:1 cpu:5 support:8 hardware:4 small:5 fixed:1 set:2 table:1 list:1 processor:4 high:1 level:2 programming:1 language:5 provide:1 double:1 twice:1 many:3 big:1 bite:2 field:2 specify:1 usually:4 constrain:1 less:1 maximum:1 specified:1 lisp:1 rexx:1 haskell:1 arbitrary:1 infinite:1 bignums:1 concept:2 top:1 construct:1 library:1 large:2 array:1 variable:3 biginteger:1 class:1 perl:1 bigint:1 package:1 much:1 necessary:1 however:2 amount:1 storage:1 scheme:1 kilobyte:1 could:3 boolean:1 flag:1 identify:1 false:1 true:1 respectively:1 single:1 often:2 give:1 full:1 convenience:1 address:3 speed:1 access:1 four:1 quantity:3 nibble:2 eating:1 nybble:1 pun:1 form:1 corresponds:1 hexadecimal:1 hold:1 code:1 octets:1 initially:1 mean:2 addressable:1 unit:1 past:1 individual:1 addressed:3 machine:3 connection:1 always:1 refers:1 mostly:1 networking:1 might:1 communicate:1 modern:1 usage:1 almost:1 invariably:1 eight:1 since:2 size:6 fall:1 disuse:1 thus:2 come:1 synonymous:1 group:1 handle:1 simultaneously:1 particular:1 architecture:1 include:1 architectural:1 first:1 family:2 characteristic:1 later:1 compatible:1 meaning:1 derive:1 vary:1 practically:1 new:1 desktop:1 mode:1 embed:1 length:1 early:1 day:1 important:1 cause:1 portability:1 software:1 incorrect:1 assumption:1 programmer:3 incorrectly:2 declare:2 great:1 program:1 fail:2 least:1 assume:1 pointer:2 convert:1 without:1 loss:1 information:1 work:1 note:1 |@bigram addition_subtraction:1 subtraction_multiplication:1 cod_decimal:2 decimal_digit:1 almost_invariably:1 fall_disuse:1 |
7,609 | Clive_Barker | Clive Barker (born 5 October 1952) is an English author, film director and visual artist best known for his work in both metaphysical fantasy and horror fiction. Barker came to prominence in the mid-1980s with a series of short stories which established him as a leading young horror writer. He has since written many novels and other works, and his fiction has been adapted into motion pictures, notably the Hellraiser series. Biography Personal life Barker was born in Liverpool, England, the son of Joan Rubie (née Revill), a painter and school welfare officer, and Leonard Barker, a personnel director for an industrial relations firm. Clive Barker Biography (1952-age 58) Clive Barker Biography - Yahoo! Movies Educated at the same schools as John Lennon: Dovedale Primary School and Quarry Bank High School, he studied English and philosophy at Liverpool University. Barker lives in Los Angeles, California alone. In 2003, Clive Barker received The Davidson/Valentini Award at the 15th GLAAD Media Awards. This award is presented "to an openly lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender individual who has made a significant difference in promoting equal rights for any of those communities". The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) Web Site While Barker is critical of organized religion, he has stated that he is a believer in both God and the Bible, and that the Christian message influences his work. The Official Clive Barker Resource-Revelations-Barker on Spirituality Clive Barker had said, "I want to be remembered as an imaginer, someone who used his imagination as a way to journey beyond the limits of self, beyond the limits of flesh and blood, beyond the limits of even perhaps life itself, in order to discover some sense of order in what appears to be a disordered universe. I'm using my imagination to find meaning, both for myself and, I hope, for my readers." Writing career Barker is one of the leading authors of contemporary horror/fantasy, writing in the horror genre early in his career, mostly in the form of short stories (collected in Books of Blood 1 - 6), and the Faustian novel The Damnation Game (1985). Later he moved towards modern-day fantasy and urban fantasy with horror elements in Weaveworld (1987), The Great and Secret Show (1989), the world-spanning Imajica (1991) and Sacrament (1996), bringing in the deeper, richer concepts of reality, the nature of the mind and dreams, and the power of words and memories. His most recent novel (2007) is Mister B. Gone. Barker's distinctive style is characterized by the notion of hidden fantastical worlds coexisting with our own, the role of sexuality in the supernatural and the construction of coherent, complex and detailed universes. Barker has referred to this style as "dark fantasy" or the "fantastique". His stories are notable for a deliberate blurring of the distinction between binary opposites such as hell and heaven, or pleasure and pain (the latter particularly so in 'The Hellbound Heart'). When the Books of Blood were first published in the United States in paperback, Stephen King was quoted on the book covers: "I have seen the future of horror, his name is Clive Barker." A critical analysis of Barker's work appears in S. T. Joshi's The Modern Weird Tale. (2001) Film work Barker has a keen interest in movie production, although his films have received mixed receptions. He wrote the screenplays for Underworld (aka Transmutations - 1985) and Rawhead Rex (1986), both directed by George Pavlou and matched with little critical success. The Internet Movie Database http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0090233/ . Displeased by how his material was handled, he moved to directing with Hellraiser (1987), based on his novella The Hellbound Heart. His early movies, the shorts The Forbidden and Salome, are experimental art movies with surrealist elements, which have been re-released together to moderate critical acclaim. After his film Nightbreed (Cabal), which was widely considered to be a flop, Barker returned to write and direct Lord of Illusions. Barker was an executive producer of the film Gods and Monsters, which received major critical acclaim. He had been working on a series of movie adaptations of his The Abarat Quintet books under Disney's management, but has admitted that because of creative differences, this project will not go ahead. He is also developing a film based on his Tortured Souls line of toys from McFarlane Toys. In October 2006, Barker announced through his official website that he will be writing the script to a forthcoming remake of the original Hellraiser movie. The Official Clive Barker Resource - Revelations - Exclusive Interviews 15 Clive Barker remaking Hellraiser - Fangoria news, 20 October 2006 A short story titled "The Forbidden", from Barker's Books of Blood, provided the basis for the film Candyman and its two sequels. Japanese director Ryuhei Kitamura directed the 2008 film Midnight Meat Train from Jeff Buhler's screenplay based on Barker's short story of the same name for Lakeshore Entertainment and Lionsgate. A movie is planned of his 'Book of Blood' short story, to be filmed in 2007. Revelations - official site interview 7 September 2007 Also he will write and produce upcoming films Born, The Thief of Always and other future projects. Visual art and plays Barker is a prolific visual artist working in a variety of media, often illustrating his own books. His paintings have been seen first on the covers of his official fan club magazine, Dread, published by Fantacoin the early Nineties, as well on the covers of the collections of his plays, Incarnations (1995) and Forms of Heaven (1996), as well as on the second printing of the original UK publications of his Books of Blood series. His artwork is currently exhibited at Bert Green Fine Art in Los Angeles, CA, and in the past has also been shown at the Bess Cutler Gallery in New York and La Luz De Jesus in Los Angeles. Many of his sketches and paintings can be found in the collection Clive Barker, Illustrator, published in 1990 by Arcane/Eclipse Books, and in Visions of Heaven and Hell, published in 2005 by Rizzoli Books. The most complete selection of Clive Barker's paintings and drawings are available to view in a gallery setting on the website Clive Barker Imaginer. Clive's official site has an extensive online gallery of his artwork including exclusive sketches, the Imagining Man project and unpublished work-in-progress. He also worked on the creative side of a horror computer game, Clive Barker's Undying, providing the voice for the character Ambrose. Undying was developed by DreamWorks Interactive and released in 2001. Barker also provided the artwork for his young adult novel The Thief of Always (1992) as well as the Abarat series. Barker announced in July 2006 that he has returned to the video game industry, working on Clive Barker's Jericho for Codemasters which was released in late 2007. Clive Barker Returns To Games - TotalGaming.net news, 19 July 2006 Comic books A longtime comics fan, Barker achieved his dream of publishing his own superhero books when Marvel Comics launched the Razorline imprint in 1993. Based on detailed premises, titles and lead characters he created specifically for this, the four interrelated titles — set outside the Marvel universe — were Ectokid (written first by James Robinson, then by future Matrix co-creator Larry Wachowski, with art by Steve Skroce), Hokum & Hex (written by Frank Lovece, art by Anthony Williams), Hyperkind (written by Fred Burke, art by Paris Cullins and Bob Petrecca) and Saint Sinner (written by Elaine Lee, art by Max Douglas). A 2002 Barker telefilm titled Saint Sinner bore no relation to the comic. Barker horror adaptations and spin-offs in comics include the Marvel/Epic series Hellraiser, Nightbreed, Pinhead, The Harrowers, Book of the Damned and Jihad; Eclipse Books' series and graphic novels Tapping The Vein, Dread, Son of Celluloid, Revelations The Life of Death, Rawhead Rex and The Yattering and Jack, and Dark Horse Comics' Primal, among others. In addition, Clive Barker also served as a consultant and wrote issues of the Hellraiser anthology comic book. In 2005, IDW published a three-issue adaptation of Barker's children's fantasy novel The Thief of Always, written and painted by Kris Oprisko and Gabriel Hernandez. IDW is also currently publishing a 12 issue adaptation of Barker's novel The Great and Secret Show. In December 2007, Chris Ryall and Clive Barker announced an upcoming collaboration of an original comic book series, Torakator, to be published by IDW. The Official Clive Barker Resource - Revelations - Uncompleted Other Projects - B Legacy and influence The influences on the works of Clive Barker are literary and cinematically by many people who inspire him. Revelations - official site Influences 29 May 2009 Bibliography Novels (1985) The Damnation Game (1986) The Hellbound Heart (1987) Weaveworld (1988) Cabal (1989) The Great and Secret Show (first "Book of the Art") (1991) Imajica (1992) The Thief of Always (1994) Everville (second "Book of the Art") (1996) Sacrament (1998) Galilee (2001) Coldheart Canyon: A Hollywood Ghost Story (2001) Tortured Souls (novelette) (2002) Abarat (first book of the Abarat Quintet) (2004) Abarat: Days of Magic, Nights of War (second book of the Abarat Quintet) (2007) Mister B. Gone (2009) Absolute Midnight (third book of the Abarat Quintet) (2009) Mr. Maximillian Bacchus And His Travelling Circus (limited run by Bad Moon Books) (2009?) The Candle in the Cloud (limited run by Bad Moon Books) (20??) The Scarlet Gospels (As of yet unpublished novel in final draft, featuring the characters and universe that first appeared in The Hellbound Heart centering on the character of Pinhead and also featuring Barker's character, Harry D'Amour, from The Last Illusion, The Great and Secret Show, Everville and the film Lord of Illusions. Was originally going to be the title story for a collection of stories, then became a long novella, which may or may not have been included with the short stories.) Collections (1984-1985) Books of Blood (vols. 1 through 6 were released between 1984 and 1985. vols. 4 through 6 were published in the U.S. as The Inhuman Condition (volume 4), In the Flesh (volume 5), and Cabal (volume 6, though the title novella is original to this edition).) (1985) Cabal (titular novella was also published as a Nightbreed mass market paperback) (1987) The Inhuman Condition (1987) In the Flesh (1990) Clive Barker, Illustrator (1992) Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker (1995) Incarnations: Three Plays (1996) Forms of Heaven: Three Plays (2000) The Essential Clive Barker: Selected Fiction (2005) Visions of Heaven and Hell (2010) Journeyman: The Collected Short StoriesBiographies (1991) Cliver Barker's Shadows in Eden A collection of essays written by multiple authors and friends of Barker's discussing production on his movies and interspersed with early sketches and drawings, along with snippets from various interviews. Edited by Stephen Jones. (2002) Clive Barker: The Dark Fantastic by Douglas E. Winter (2009) Memory, Prophecy and Fantasy: The World and Works of Clive Barker - Volume 1. A retrospective look at the background to Barker's published work from his earliest creative years. It includes many otherwise unpublished texts, artwork and photographic pieces alongside a detailed study of his fringe theatre work, written by Phil and Sarah Stokes who run his official website, Revelations. Nonfiction (2009) The Painter, The Creature and The Father of Lies: Essays by Clive Barker Forthcoming collection of Barker's essays. According to the Revelations website, the collection will include "introductions to both his own work and the works of others, newspaper and magazine articles, tributes and appreciations and other contributions to books". To be published through Earthling Publications. Filmography Directed (1973) Salome (1978) The Forbidden (1987) Hellraiser (1990) Nightbreed (1995) Lord of Illusions (2009) Tortured Souls: Animae DamnataeProduced (1988) Hellbound: Hellraiser II (1992) Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth (1992) Candyman (1998) Gods and Monsters (2006) The Plague (2008) The Midnight Meat Train (2008) Born (pre-production) (2009) Clive Barker Presents Hellraiser (pre-production) (2009) DreadWritten (1986) Rawhead Rex (1987) Transmutations (2008) Book of Blood (post-production) (2008) Born'' (pre-production) Computer games Clive Barker's Undying Clive Barker's Demonik (cancelled) Clive Barker's Jericho See also Cenobite Lemarchand's box List of horror fiction authors Splatterpunk References External links Revelations - The Official Clive Barker Online Resource - Includes a full bibliography, filmography and frequently updated news. Bert Green Fine Art - Art Gallery in Los Angeles exhibiting Clive Barker artwork. The Beautiful Moment - The Official Clive Barker Website for All Ages - Official site celebrating the work of Clive Barker for younger readers - features Abarat and The Thief of Always. Fifth Dominion- Clive Barker Fans - Web Community based fan forum for Clive Barker Clive Barker Imaginer - The Clive Barker Art Archive, paintings, drawings, photography and conceptual work. Catalogue essay for Barker's first art exhibit Clive Barker at ComicBookDB.com | Clive_Barker |@lemmatized clive:39 barker:68 born:1 october:3 english:2 author:4 film:11 director:3 visual:3 artist:2 best:1 know:1 work:18 metaphysical:1 fantasy:7 horror:9 fiction:4 come:1 prominence:1 mid:1 series:8 short:8 story:10 establish:1 lead:3 young:3 writer:1 since:1 write:15 many:4 novel:9 adapt:1 motion:1 picture:1 notably:1 hellraiser:10 biography:3 personal:1 life:3 bear:4 liverpool:2 england:1 son:2 joan:1 rubie:1 née:1 revill:1 painter:2 school:4 welfare:1 officer:1 leonard:1 personnel:1 industrial:1 relation:2 firm:1 age:2 yahoo:1 movie:9 educate:1 john:1 lennon:1 dovedale:1 primary:1 quarry:1 bank:1 high:1 study:2 philosophy:1 university:1 live:1 los:4 angeles:4 california:1 alone:1 receive:3 davidson:1 valentini:1 award:3 glaad:2 medium:2 present:2 openly:1 lesbian:2 gay:2 bisexual:1 transgender:1 individual:1 make:1 significant:1 difference:2 promote:1 equal:1 right:1 community:2 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catalogue:1 comicbookdb:1 |@bigram clive_barker:38 motion_picture:1 los_angeles:4 glaad_medium:1 openly_lesbian:1 lesbian_gay:1 gay_bisexual:1 bisexual_transgender:1 gay_lesbian:1 weird_tale:1 http_www:1 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 critical_acclaim:2 heaven_hell:2 marvel_comic:1 marvel_universe:1 spin_offs:1 external_link:1 |
7,610 | Ajaccio | Ajaccio ( in English; ; , ; ; , ), is a commune in France. It is the capital of the region of Corsica and the prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud. The geopolitical arrangements of the commune are slightly different from those typical of Corsica and France. Usually an arrondissement includes cantons and a canton includes one to several communes including the chef-lieu, "chief place", from which the canton takes its name. The city of Ajaccio is one commune, but it contains six cantons, Cantons 1-6, and a fraction of Canton 7. The latter contains five other communes: Bastelicaccia, Alata, Afa, Appietto and Villanova, making a total of six communes for the seven cantons of Ajaccio. . Each canton contains a certain number of quartiers, "quarters". Cantons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 are located along the Gulf of Ajaccio from west to east, while 4 and 5 are a little further up the valleys of the Gravona and the Prunelli Rivers. These political divisions subdivide the population of Ajaccio into units that can be more democratically served but they do not give a true picture of the size of Ajaccio. In general language, "greater Ajaccio" includes about 100,000 people with all the medical, educational, utility and transportational facilities of a big city. Up until World War II it was still possible to regard the city as being a settlement of narrow streets localized to some part of the harbor or the Gulf of Ajaccio; such bucolic descriptions do not fit the city of today, and travellogues intended for mountain or coastal recreational areas do not generally apply to Corsica's few big cities. The arrondissement contains other cantons that extend generally up the two rivers into central Corsica. Geography Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille. It occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour lies to the east of the foundation site at the original citadel on a hill overlooking a peninsula protecting the harbor on the south, where now are located the Quai de la Citadelle and the Jettée de la Citadelle. The modern city not only encloses the entire harbor but takes up the better part of the Gulf of Ajaccio and in suburban form extends for some miles up the valley of the Gravona River. The flow from that river is nearly entirely consumed as the city's water supply. Climate History Earliest literary evidence The earliest record of a settlement at Ajaccio having a name ancestral to its name is the exhortation in Epistle 77 written in 601 AD of Gregory the great to the Defensor Boniface, one of two known rectors of the early Corsican church, not to leave Aleria and Adjacium without bishops. See below under Bibliography. There is no earlier use of the term and Adjacium is not an attested Latin word, which probably means that it is a Latinization of a word in some other language. The Ravenna Cosmography of about 700 AD cites Agiation, . Downloadable Google Books. which sometimes is taken as evidence of a prior Greek city, as -ion appears to be a Greek ending. But, there is no evidence whatever of a Greek presence on the west coast and the Ionians at Aleria on the east coast had been expelled by the Etruscans long before Roman domination. Manuscript variants are Agration and Agiagium nor does the use of a Greek ending indicate anything at all about ethnicity at this late date geographers used either Greek or Latin forms at will. The word is no more decipherable in Greek than it is in Latin; attempts to connect two or three letters with Indo-European roots amount to wild speculation. Moreover, the mythological connection to Ajax is pure folk-etymology; that a legendary character of 1600 years before the first instance of the name should have been real and should have left his name on a Corsican city hundreds of years before any existed there is unlikely. The original name remains unknown, perhaps never will be known and therefore is likely to have been aboriginal. Ptolemy, who must come the closest to representing indigenous names, lists the Lochra River just south of a feature he calls the "sandy shore" on the southwest coast. If the shore is the Campo dell'Oro (gold because of the sand?) the Lochra would seem to be the combined mouth of the Gravona and Prunelli Rivers, neither one of which sounds like Lochra. North of there is a Roman city, Ourchinion. His western coastline is so distorted, however, that it is impossible to say where Adjacium was; certainly, he would have known its name and location if he had had any first-hand knowledge of the island and if in fact it was there. Ptolemy's Ourchinion is further north than Ajaccio and does not have the same name. It could be Sogone. . The lack of correspondence between Ptolemaic and historical names known to be ancient has no defense except in the case of the two Roman colonies, Aleria and Mariana. In any case the population of the region must belong to Ptolemy's Tarabeni or Titiani people, neither of which are ever heard about again. Archaeological evidence The population of the city throughout the centuries maintained an oral tradition that it had originally been Roman. Nineteenth-century travellers could point to the Hill of San Giovanni on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio, which still had a cathedral said to have been the 6th century seat of the Bishop of Ajaccio. The Castello Vecchio ("old castle"), a ruined citadel, was believed to be Roman but turned out to have Gothic features. The hill was planted with vines. The farmers kept turning up artifacts and terracotta funerary urns that seemed to be Roman. In the 20th century the hill was covered over with buildings and became a part of downtown Ajaccio. In 2005 construction plans for a lot on the hill offered the opportunity to the Institut national de recherches archéologiques preventatives (Inrap) to excavate. They found the baptistry of the 6th century cathedral and large amounts of pottery dated to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; in other words, the early Christian town. A cemetery had been placed over the old church. In it was a single Roman grave covered over with roof tiles bearing short indecipherable inscriptions. The finds of the previous century had included Roman coins. This is the only evidence so far of a Roman city continuous with the early Christian one. Genoese foundation The present town of Ajaccio was founded in 1492 south of the Christian village by the Bank of Saint George at Genoa, which dispatched Cristoforo of Gandini, an architect, to build it. He began with a castle on Capo di Bolo, around which he constructed residences for several hundred people. The new city was essentially a colony of Genoa. The Corsicans were restricted from the city for some years, even though they had requested the services of the bank as peace-keeper and problem-solver. From origin to Annexation The Republic of Genoa was strong enough to keep Corsica until 1755, the year Pasquale Paoli proclaimed the Corsican Republic. Paoli took most of the island for the republic but he was unable to force Genoese troops out of the citadels of Saint-Florent, Calvi, Ajaccio, Bastia and Algajola. Leaving them there, he went on build the nation, while the Republic of Genoa was left to ponder prospects and solutions. Their ultimate solution was to sell Corsica to France and French troops of the ancien régime replaced Genoese ones in the citadels, including Ajaccio's. Corsica was annexed to France in 1780. Napoleon I Ostensibly Napoleon Bonaparte (Nabulione Buonaparte) was born at Ajaccio in the same year as the Battle of Ponte Novu, 1769. The Bonapartes at the time had a modest four-story home in town (now a museum) and a rarely used country home in the hills north of the city (now site of the Arboretum des Milelli). The father of the family, attorney Charles-Marie Buonaparte, was secretary to Pasquali Paoli during the golden years of the republic. After the defeat of Paoli the Comte de Marbeuf began to meet with some leading Corsicans to outline the shape of the future and enlist their assistance. Charles was among a delegation from Ajaccio in 1769, offered his loyalty and was appointed assessor. Marbeuf also offered Charles-Marie one appointment for one of his sons to the Military College of Brienne, but the child must be under 10. There is a dispute concerning Napoleon's age because of this requirement; the emperor is known to have altered the civic records at Ajaccio concerning himself and it is possible that he was born in Corte in 1768 when his father was there on business. In any case Napoleon went to Brienne 1779-1784. At Brienne Napoleon concentrated on studies. He wrote a boyish history of Corsica. He did not share his father's views but held Pasquale Paoli in high esteem and was at heart a Corsican nationalist. The top students were encouraged to go into the artillery. After graduation and a brief sojourn at the Military School of Paris Napoleon applied for second-lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of La Fère at Valence and after a time was given the position. Meanwhile his father died and his mother was cast into poverty in Corsica, still having four children to support. Her only income was Napoleon's meagre salary. The regiment was in Auxonne when the revolution broke out in the summer of 1789. Napoleon returned on leave to Ajaccio in October, became a Jacobin and began to work for the revolution. The National Assembly in Paris united Corsica to France and pardoned its exiles. Paoli returning in 1790 after 21 years kissed the soil on which he stood. He and Napoleon met and toured the battlefield of Paoli's defeat. A national assembly at Orezza created the department of Corsica and Paoli was subsequently elected president. He commanded the national guard raised by Napoleon. After a brief return to his regiment Napoleon was promoted to First Lieutenant and came home again on leave in 1791. The death of a rich uncle relieved the family's poverty. All officers were recalled from leave in 1792, intervention threatened and war with Austria (Marie-Antoinette's homeland) began. Napoleon returned to Paris for review, was exonerated, promoted to Captain and given leave to escort his sister, a schoolgirl, back to Corsica at state expense. His family was prospering; the estate increased. Napoleon became a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Corsican National Guard. Paoli sent him off on an expedition to Sardinia ordered by France under Paolis's nephew, but the nephew had secret orders from Paoli to make sure the expedition failed. The leader was now a conservative, had opposed the execution of the king and supported alliance with England. Returning from Sardinia Napoleon with his family and all his supporters were instrumental in getting Paoli denounced at the National Convention in Paris in 1793. Napoleon earned the hatred of the Paolists by pretending to support Paoli and then turning against him (payment, one supposes, for Sardinia). Paoli was convicted in absentia, a warrant was sent for his arrest (which could not be served) and Napoleon was dispatched to Corsica as Inspector-general of Artillery to take the citadel of Ajaccio from the royalists, who had held it since 1789. The Paolists combining with the royalists defeated the French in two pitched battles and Napoleon and his family went on the run, hiding by day, while the Paolists burned their estate. Napoleon and his mother, Laetitia, were taken out by ship in June, 1793, by friends while two of the girls found refuge with other friends. They landed in Toulon with only Napoleon's pay for their support. The Bonapartes moved to Marseille but in August Toulon offered itself to the British and received the protection of a fleet under Admiral Hood. The Siege of Toulon began in September under revolutionary officers mainly untrained in the art of war. Napoleon happened to present socially one evening and during a casual conversation over a misplaced 24-pounder explained the value of artillery. Taken seriously he was allowed to bring up over 100 guns from coastal emplacements but his plan for the taking of Toulon was set aside as one incompetent officer superseded another. By December they decided to try his plan and made him a Colonel. Placing the guns at close range he used them to keep off the British fleet while he battered down the walls of Toulon. As soon as the Committee of Public Safety heard of the victory Napoleon became a Brigadier General, the start of his meteoric rise to power. The Bonapartes were back in Ajaccio in 1797 under the protection of general Napoleon. Shortly after Napoleon became First Consul and then emperor, using the office to spread the revolution throughout Europe. In 1811 he made Ajaccio the capital of the new Department of Corsica. Despite his subsequent defeat by the British, exile and death, no victorious power has reversed that decision or tried to remove Corsica from France. Among the natives, though Corsican nationalism is strong, and feeling often runs high in favor of a union with Italy, loyalty to France, as evidenced by elections, remains stronger. Main sights The peninsula carries the citadel and terminates in the Citadel jetty. To the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town. The house in which Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 is preserved, and his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by street-names and statues. The town is also home to Ajaccio Cathedral. Genoese towers: Torra di Capu di Fenu, Torra di a Parata, and Torra di Castelluchju in the Îles Sanguinaires archipel Gallery Economy Ajaccio has a small manufacturing economy of cigars, macaroni, and similar products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing and coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins, chestnuts and gallic acid. The port is accessible by the largest ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In 1904 there entered 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels with a tonnage of 202,502. Transport Ajaccio is served primarily by Campo dell'Oro Airport on the east side of the Gulf of Ajaccio just north of the mouth of the Gravona River. From there Route N193 readily connects to the center of the city. Ferries also leave regularly from Quai L'Herminier on the west side of the gulf for Porto Torres, Marseille, Toulon and Nice. A major road, Route N194, travels up the valley of the Gravona River leading to Corte and is paralleled by a scenic narrow-gauge railway. Another major road, Route N196, winds southeast to Bonifacio. Miscellaneous The town is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763. The local football club is AC Ajaccio & GFCO Ajaccio. Personalities Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of the French. Irène Bordoni (1895-1953), singer, Broadway theatre & film actress. Jean-Michel Cavalli (1959-?), coach of the Algeria national football team. Joseph Fesch (1763-1839), cardinal. Alizée Jacotey (born 1984), female French singer. Tino Rossi (1907-1983), singer, actor. Notes Bibliography See also Diocese of Ajaccio External links Official website | Ajaccio |@lemmatized ajaccio:34 english:1 commune:6 france:8 capital:2 region:2 corsica:16 prefecture:1 department:3 corse:1 du:1 sud:1 geopolitical:1 arrangement:1 slightly:1 different:1 typical:1 usually:1 arrondissement:2 include:7 canton:10 one:11 several:2 chef:1 lieu:1 chief:1 place:4 take:7 name:11 city:16 contain:3 six:2 fraction:1 latter:2 contains:1 five:1 bastelicaccia:1 alata:1 afa:1 appietto:1 villanova:1 make:4 total:1 seven:1 certain:1 number:1 quartiers:1 quarter:2 locate:3 along:1 gulf:7 west:5 east:4 little:1 valley:3 gravona:5 prunelli:2 river:8 political:1 division:1 subdivide:1 population:3 unit:1 democratically:1 serve:3 give:3 true:1 picture:1 size:1 general:4 language:2 great:2 people:3 medical:1 educational:1 utility:1 transportational:1 facility:1 big:2 world:1 war:3 ii:1 still:3 possible:2 regard:1 settlement:2 narrow:2 street:2 localize:1 part:3 harbor:3 bucolic:1 description:1 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archaeological:1 throughout:2 century:8 maintain:1 oral:1 tradition:1 originally:1 nineteenth:1 traveller:1 point:1 san:1 giovanni:1 northwest:1 cathedral:3 seat:2 castello:1 vecchio:1 old:2 castle:2 ruined:1 believe:1 turn:3 gothic:1 plant:1 vine:1 farmer:1 keep:3 artifact:1 terracotta:1 funerary:1 urn:1 cover:2 building:1 become:5 downtown:1 construction:1 plan:3 lot:1 offer:4 opportunity:1 institut:1 national:7 recherches:1 archéologiques:1 preventative:1 inrap:1 excavate:1 find:3 baptistry:1 large:2 pottery:1 christian:3 town:7 cemetery:1 single:1 grave:1 roof:1 tile:1 bear:5 short:1 indecipherable:1 inscription:1 previous:1 coin:1 continuous:1 genoese:4 present:2 found:2 village:1 bank:2 saint:2 george:1 genoa:4 dispatch:2 cristoforo:1 gandini:1 architect:1 build:2 begin:5 capo:1 di:5 bolo:1 around:1 construct:1 residence:1 new:2 essentially:1 corsicans:2 restrict:1 even:1 though:2 request:1 service:1 peace:1 keeper:1 problem:1 solver:1 origin:1 annexation:1 republic:5 strong:3 enough:1 pasquale:2 paoli:13 proclaim:1 unable:1 force:1 troop:2 florent:1 calvi:1 bastia:1 algajola:1 go:4 nation:1 ponder:1 prospect:1 solution:2 ultimate:1 sell:1 french:4 ancien:1 régime:1 replace:1 annex:1 napoleon:25 ostensibly:1 bonaparte:7 nabulione:1 buonaparte:2 battle:2 ponte:1 novu:1 time:2 modest:1 four:2 story:1 home:4 museum:2 rarely:1 used:1 country:1 arboretum:1 des:1 milelli:1 father:4 family:5 attorney:1 charles:3 marie:3 secretary:1 pasquali:1 golden:1 defeat:4 comte:1 marbeuf:2 meet:1 lead:2 outline:1 shape:1 future:1 enlist:1 assistance:1 among:2 delegation:1 loyalty:2 appoint:1 assessor:1 also:4 appointment:1 son:1 military:2 college:3 brienne:3 child:2 dispute:1 concern:2 age:1 requirement:1 emperor:3 alter:1 civic:1 corte:2 business:1 concentrate:1 study:1 boyish:1 share:1 view:1 hold:2 high:2 esteem:1 heart:1 nationalist:1 top:1 student:1 encourage:1 artillery:4 graduation:1 brief:2 sojourn:1 school:1 paris:4 second:1 lieutenancy:1 regiment:3 fère:1 valence:1 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7,611 | Europe | </div> </div> Europe (, ) is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast. Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and other bodies of water, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and to the southeast by the Black Sea and the waterways connecting it to the Mediterranean. Yet, the borders for Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are somewhat arbitrary, as the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one. Europe is the world's second-smallest continent by surface area, covering about 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface and about 6.8% of its land area. Of Europe's approximately 50 states, Russia is the largest by both area and population, while the Vatican City is the smallest. Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa, with a population of 731 million or about 11% of the world's population; however, according to the United Nations (medium estimate), Europe's share may fall to about 7% in 2050. Europe, in particular Ancient Greece, is often considered to be the birthplace of Western culture. It played a predominant role in global affairs from the 16th century onwards, especially after the beginning of colonialism. Between the 17th and 20th centuries, European nations controlled at various times the Americas, most of Africa, Australasia and large portions of Asia. Both World Wars were ignited in Central Europe, greatly contributing to a decline in European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the United States and Soviet Union took prominence. During the Cold War Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East. European integration led to the formation of the Council of Europe and the European Union in Western Europe, both of which have been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Definition The use of the term "Europe" has developed gradually throughout history. In antiquity, the Greeks divided the world into three continents, Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa), with the River Nile and the complex system of waterways between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Azov providing the boundaries. Flavius Josephus and the Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as between the Pillars of Hercules at Cadiz, separating it from Africa, and the River Don, separating it from Asia. This division – as much cultural as geographical – was used until the Late Middle Ages, when it was challenged by the Age of Discovery. Europe: A History, by Nirman Davies, p. 8 The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when, instead of waterways, the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary, a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout Europe. Today Europe can be described culturally, geographically and politically: Geographically, geographers depict Europe as the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, and its boundaries are marked by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the far east are usually taken to be the Urals, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the southeast, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Politically, Europe's geography comprises the member states of the European Union as well as the European parts of the former USSR, the Balkan peninsula, and a large part of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, including three percent of Turkey. Often the word 'Europe' is used in a geopolitically-limiting way See, e.g., Merje Kuus, 'Europe's eastern expansion and the reinscription of otherness in East-Central Europe' Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 28, No. 4, 472-489 (2004), József Böröcz, 'Goodness Is Elsewhere: The Rule of European Difference', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 110-36, 2006, or Attila Melegh, On the East-West Slope: Globalization, nationalism, racism and discourses on Central and Eastern Europe, Budapest: Central European University Press, 2006. to refer only to the European Union or, even more exclusively, a culturally-defined core. On the other hand, the Council of Europe has 47 member countries, and only 27 member states are in the EU. The people living in areas such as Ireland, United Kingdom, Scandinavia and the North Atlantic and Mediterranean islands, may routinely refer to "continental" or "mainland" Europe simply as Europe or "the Continent". Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used geographical boundaries The map shows one of the most commonly accepted delineations of the geographical boundaries of Europe, as used by National Geographic and Encyclopedia Britannica. Whether countries are considered in Europe or Asia can vary in sources, for example in the classification of the CIA World Fact Book or that of the BBC. (key: blue = transcontinental states• green = historically European but geographically outside Europe's boundaries) <noinclude> Etymology In ancient Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess whom Zeus abducted after assuming the form of a dazzling white bull. He took her to the island of Crete where she gave birth to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. For Homer, Europe (Greek: , ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a geographical designation. Later, Europa stood for central-north Greece, and by 500 BC its meaning had been extended to the lands to the north. The name "Europe" is of uncertain etymology. Minor theories, such as the (probably folk-etymological) one deriving Europa from ευρως "mould" aren't discussed in the section One theory suggests that it is derived from the Greek roots meaning broad (eur-) and eye (op-, opt-), hence , "wide-gazing", "broad of aspect" (compare with glaukōpis (grey-eyed) Athena or boōpis (ox-eyed) Hera). Broad has been an epithet of Earth itself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion. Another theory suggests that it is actually based on a Semitic word such as the Akkadian erebu meaning "to go down, set" (cf. Occident), cognate to Phoenician 'ereb "evening; west" and Arabic Maghreb, Hebrew ma'ariv (see also Erebus, PIE *h1regwos, "darkness"). However, M. L. West states that "phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor". Most major world languages use words derived from "Europa" to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word (歐洲), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name (歐羅巴洲); however, the Turkish people used the term Frengistan (land of the Franks) in referring to much of Europe. History Prehistory Stonehenge Homo georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominid to have been discovered in Europe. Other hominid remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain. The million year old tooth from Atapuerca, Spain, found in June 2007 Neanderthal man (named for the Neander Valley in Germany) first migrated to Europe 150,000 years ago and disappeared from the fossil record about 30,000 years ago. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared around 40,000 years ago. National Geographic, 21. During European Neolithic, a period of megalith construction took place, with many megalithic monuments such as Stonehenge Atkinson, R J C, Stonehenge (Penguin Books, 1956) and the Megalithic Temples of Malta being constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe. , European Megalithic The Corded ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. The European Bronze Age began in the late 3rd millennium BC with the Beaker culture. The European Iron Age began around 800 BC, with the Hallstatt culture. Iron Age colonisation by the Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BC gradually gave rise to historical Classical Antiquity. Classical antiquity Ancient Greece had a profound impact on Western civilisation. Western democratic and individualistic culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece. National Geographic, 76. The Greeks invented the polis, or city-state, which played a fundamental role in their concept of identity. National Geographic, 82. These Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes. Pedersen, Olaf. Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Another major influence on Europe came from the Roman Empire which left its mark on law, language, engineering, architecture, and government. National Geographic, 76–77. During the pax romana, the Roman Empire expanded to encompass the entire Mediterranean Basin and much of Europe. Stoicism influenced emperors such as Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, who all spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes. National Geographic, 123. Foster, Sally M., Picts, Gaels, and Scots: Early Historic Scotland. Batsford, London, 2004. ISBN 0-7134-8874-3 Christianity was eventually legitimised by Constantine I after three centuries of imperial persecution. Early Middle Ages During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the "Age of Migrations". There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, and, later still, the Vikings and Normans. Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the "Dark Ages". , Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 4, No. 1. (Jan., 1943), pp. 69–74. Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics, and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Europe. Norman F. Cantor, The Medieval World 300 to 1300. During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of Celtic, Slavic and Germanic tribes. The Celtic tribes established their kingdoms in Gaul, the predecessor to the Frankish kingdoms that eventually became France. National Geographic, 140 The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Central and Eastern Europe respectively. National Geographic, 143–145. Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. National Geographic, 162. Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed "Holy Roman Emperor" by the Pope in 800. This led to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe. National Geographic, 166. The Eastern Roman Empire became known in the west as the Byzantine Empire. Based in Constantinople, they viewed themselves as the natural successors to the Roman Empire. National Geographic, 210. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian church under state control. National Geographic, 135. Fatally weakened by the sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantines fell in 1453 when they were conquered by the Ottoman Empire. National Geographic, 211. Middle Ages The Middle Ages were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages and soon spread throughout Europe. National Geographic, 158. The struggle between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament. National Geographic, 186. The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe. The Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages. The East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land. National Geographic, 192. In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics. In Spain, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula. National Geographic, 199. In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north. Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages. The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by 2/3. Don O'Reilly. "Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans". TheHistoryNet.com. Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, Poor studies will always be with us. By James Bartholomew. Telegraph. August 7. 2004. and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period. Famine. Encyclopædia Britannica. Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone — a third of the European population at the time. This had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, foreigners, beggars and lepers. National Geographic, 223. The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. Early modern period The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Italy in the fourteenth century. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries and the Islamic world. National Geographic, 159. Weiss, Roberto (1969) The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity, ISBN 1-597-40150-1 The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music, and the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church, and an emerging merchant class. National Geographic, 254. Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe, ISBN 0-395-88947-2 Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. National Geographic, 292. Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Great Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly. National Geographic, 193. The Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation of Martin Luther, a result of the lack of reform within the Church. The Reformation also damaged the Holy Roman Empire's power, as German princes became divided between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths. National Geographic, 256–257. This eventually led to the Thirty Years War (1618–1648), which crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany. In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe. National Geographic, 269. The 17th century in southern and eastern Europe was a period of general decline. The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention, and scientific development. In the 15th century, Portugal and Spain, two of the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world. National Geographic, 296. Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and soon after the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing colonial empires in the Americas. National Geographic, 338. France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. 18th and 19th centuries The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement of the eighteenth century in which scientific and reason-based thought predominated. National Geographic, 255. Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution and the establishment of the First Republic: the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror. Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo. National Geographic, 360. Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of nation-state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French model for administration, law and education. National Geographic, 350. The Congress of Vienna was convened after Napoleon's downfall. It established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five "great powers": the United Kingdom, France, Prussia, Habsburg Austria and Russia. National Geographic, 367. This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and Great Britain. The revolutions were eventually put down by more conservative elements and few reforms resulted. National Geographic, 371–373. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; and 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities. The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new technology resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a new working class. Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of Trade Unions and the abolition of slavery. Slavery, Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery, Encyclopædia Britannica In Britain the Public Health Act 1875 was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities. Europe’s population doubled during the 18th century, from roughly 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again during the 19th century. Modernization - Population Change. Encyclopædia Britannica. In the 19th century 70 million people left Europe. The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?. Migration News. December 1996. 20th century to present Two World Wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip. National Geographic, 407. Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The War left around 40 million civilians and military dead. National Geographic, 440. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914–1918. Partly as a result of its defeat Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union. National Geographic, 480. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended World War I in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions. National Geographic, 443. Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This and the Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany, Francisco Franco of Spain and Benito Mussolini of Italy in power. National Geographic, 438. In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany too, following the Anschluss. Later that year, Germany annexed the German Sudetenland, which had become a part of Czechoslovakia after the war. This move was highly contested by the other powers, but ultimately permitted in the hopes of avoiding war and appeasing Hitler. Shortly afterwards, Poland and Hungary started to press for the annexation of parts of Czechoslovakia with Polish and Hungarian majorities. Hitler encouraged the Slovaks to do the same and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany, and the Slovak Republic, while other smaller regions went to Poland and Hungary. With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets, and signed an important pact. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September. National Geographic, 465. The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and later, Finland. The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Nevertheless, the Germans knew of Britain's plans and got to Narvik first, repulsing the attack. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark, which left no room for a front except for where the last war had been fought or by landing at sea. The Phoney War continued. In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. However, the British refused to negotiate peace terms with the Germans and the war continued. By August, Germany began a bombing offensive on Britain, but failed to convince the Britons to give up. National Geographic, 510. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in the ultimately unsuccessful Operation Barbarossa. National Geographic, 532. On 7 December 1941 Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire and other allied forces. National Geographic, 511. National Geographic, 519. After the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. In 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world, National Geographic, 439. including between 9 and 11 million people who perished during the Holocaust. National Geographic, 520. World War I and especially World War II diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After World War II the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an "iron curtain". The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and later the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe established the Warsaw Pact. National Geographic, 530. The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after World War I, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa. National Geographic, 534. In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in Poland accelerated the collapse of the Eastern bloc and the end of the Cold War. Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the maps of Eastern Europe were redrawn once more. European integration also grew in the post-World War II years. The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market. National Geographic, 536. In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central bank and introduced the euro as a unified currency. National Geographic, 537. Beginning in the 1990s after the end of the Cold War, Eastern European countries began joining, expanding the EU to its current size of 27 European nations, and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power. National Geographic, 535. Geography and extent Physiographically, Europe is the northwestern constituent of the larger landmass known as Eurasia, or Afro-Eurasia: Asia occupies the eastern bulk of this continuous landmass and all share a common continental shelf. Europe's eastern frontier is now commonly delineated by the Ural Mountains in Russia. The first century AD geographer Strabo, took the River Don "Tanais" to be the boundary to the Black Sea Strabo Geography 11.1 , as did early Judaic sources. The southeast boundary with Asia is not universally defined. Most commonly the Ural or, alternatively, the Emba River serve as possible boundaries. The boundary continues to the Caspian Sea, the crest of the Caucasus Mountains or, alternatively, the Kura River in the Caucasus, and on to the Black Sea; the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, and the Aegean Sea conclude the Asian boundary. The Mediterranean Sea to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the Atlantic Ocean; Iceland, though nearer to Greenland (North America) than mainland Europe, is generally included in Europe. Because of sociopolitical and cultural differences, there are various descriptions of Europe's boundary; in some sources, some territories are not included in Europe, while other sources include them. For instance, geographers from Russia and other post-Soviet states generally include the Urals in Europe while including Caucasia in Asia. Similarly, numerous geographers consider Azerbaijan's and Armenia's southern borders with Iran and Turkey's southern and eastern borders with Syria, Iraq and Iran as the boundary between Asia and Europe because of political and cultural reasons. In the same way, despite being close to Asia and Africa, the Mediterranean islands of Cyprus and Malta are considered part of Europe and currently form part of the EU. Dr. Krishna Ram stated: "But for the fact that a civilization which for five centuries dominated, colonised and subjugated the rest of the world originated there, no one would have considered Europe a separate continent. There is no objective physical reason why Europe should be a full-fledged "continent" while the Indian sub continent is that, a "sub-continent". If it had been India which had given birth to the world-dominating culture, probably it would have been India which also arrogated to itself the distinction of being an entire "continent" all in itself. The Himalayas, after all, are a bit higher than the Urals" Dr. Krishna Ram, "Geography, History, Culture and Brute Force", Mumbai, 2001 (Introduction to Part II) . Physical geography Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions, however, are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut, spine of Norway. This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off. Climate Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zones, being subjected to prevailing westerlies. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore the average temperature throughout the year of Naples is 16 °C (60.8 °F), while it is only 12 °C (53.6 °F) in New York City which is almost on the same latitude. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in the Asian part of Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (15 °F) higher than those in Calgary, and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk. Geology The Geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary. Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from England in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea. The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica, and so may be regarded geologically as the "main continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of Western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia. Geological history The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo-Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe, and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago. Biodiversity Having lived side-by-side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks. The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these (Alps, Pyrenees) are oriented east-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south-north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems. Probably eighty to ninety per cent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Though over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, in European Russia 5–10%. The country with the smallest percentage of forested area (excluding the micronations) is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%). In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce-pine-birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north. Cave lion became extinct in southeastern Europe about 2,000 years ago Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia, and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.). Once roaming the great temperate forests of Eurasia, European bison now lives in nature preserves in Poland, Russia, and other parts of Eastern Europe Other important European carnivores are Eurasian lynx, European wild cat, foxes (especially the red fox), jackal and different species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of reptiles (like snakes as (vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey). Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds, and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars, and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. The extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on the islands of the Mediterranean. Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins, and whales. Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states. Demographics Since the Renaissance, Europe has had a major influence in culture, economics and social movements in the world. The most significant inventions had their origins in the Western world, primarily Europe and the United States. Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions, Encyclopædia Britannica European demographics are important not only historically, but also in understanding current international relations and population issues. Some current and past issues in European demographics have included religious emigration, race relations, economic immigration, a declining birth rate and an aging population. In some countries, such as Ireland and Poland, access to abortion is currently limited; in the past, such restrictions and also restrictions on artificial birth control were commonplace throughout Europe. Abortion remains illegal on the island of Malta where Catholicism is the state religion. Furthermore, three European countries (The Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland) and the Autonomous Community of Andalusia (Spain) "Andalucía permitirá por ley la eutanasia pasiva para enfermos incurables", 20 Minutos. 31 May 2008 "Andalusia euthanasia law unnecessary, expert warns", Catholic News Agency. 26 Jun 2008 have allowed a limited form of voluntary euthanasia for some terminally ill people. In 2005 the population of Europe was estimated to be 731 million according to the United Nations, which is slightly more than one-ninth of the world's population. A century ago Europe had nearly a quarter of the world's population. The population of Europe has grown in the past century, but in other areas of the world (in particular Africa and Asia) the population has grown far more quickly. According to UN population projection, Europe's population may fall to about 7% of world population by 2050, or 653 million people (medium variant, 556 to 777 million in low and high variants, respectively). Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of children per female of child bearing age is 1.52. According to some sources, See also: this rate is higher among Muslims. In 2005 the had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people, despite having one of the highest population densities in the world. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth. A tough new EU immigration law detaining illegal immigrants for up to 18 months before deportation has triggered outrage across Latin America, with Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez threatening to cut off oil exports to Europe. Chavez: Europe risks oil over immigrant law Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at 70.6 million people, the IOM's report said. Rich world needs more foreign workers: report, FOXNews.com, December 2, 2008 The European Union will open the job centres for legal migrant workers from Africa. 50 million invited to Europe, Daily Express, January 3, 2009 The centres are part of an EU effort to control a big surge in illegal immigration to Europe while meeting a need for low-skilled labour. EU job centres to target Africans, BBC News, February 8, 2007 Political geography Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO According to different definitions, the territories may be subject to various categorisations. The 27 European Union member states are highly integrated economically and politically; the European Union itself forms part of the political geography of Europe. The table below shows the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, alongside the regional grouping published in the CIA factbook. The socio-geographical data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Name of country, with flag Area(km²) Population(1 July 2002 est.) Population density(per km²) Capital Albania 28,748 3,600,523 125.2 Tirana Andorra 468 68,403 146.2 Andorra la Vella Armenia 29,800 3,229,900 101 Yerevan Austria 83,858 8,169,929 97.4 Vienna Azerbaijan 86,600 8,621,000 97 Baku Belarus 207,600 10,335,382 49.8 Minsk Belgium 30,510 10,274,595 336.8 Brussels Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,129 4,448,500 77.5 Sarajevo Bulgaria 110,910 7,621,337 68.7 Sofia Croatia 56,542 4,437,460 77.7 Zagreb Cyprus 9,251 788,457 85 Nicosia Czech Republic 78,866 10,256,760 130.1 Prague Denmark 43,094 5,368,854 124.6 Copenhagen Estonia 45,226 1,415,681 31.3 Tallinn Finland 336,593 5,157,537 15.3 Helsinki France 547,030 59,765,983 109.3 Paris Georgia 69,700 4,661,473 64 Tbilisi Germany 357,021 83,251,851 233.2 Berlin Greece 131,940 10,645,343 80.7 Athens Hungary 93,030 10,075,034 108.3 Budapest Iceland 103,000 307,261 2.7 Reykjavík Ireland 70,280 4,234,925 60.3 Dublin Italy 301,230 58,751,711 191.6 Rome Kazakhstan 2,724,900 15,217,711 5.6 Astana Latvia 64,589 2,366,515 36.6 Riga Liechtenstein 160 32,842 205.3 Vaduz Lithuania 65,200 3,601,138 55.2 Vilnius Luxembourg 2,586 448,569 173.5 Luxembourg Macedonia 25,333 2,054,800 81.1 Skopje Malta 316 397,499 1,257.9 Valletta Moldova 33,843 4,434,547 131.0 Chişinău Monaco 1.95 31,987 16,403.6 Monaco Montenegro 13,812 616,258 44.6 Podgorica Netherlands 41,526 16,318,199 393.0 Amsterdam Norway 324,220 4,525,116 14.0 Oslo Poland 312,685 38,625,478 123.5 Warsaw Portugal 91,568 10,409,995 110.1 Lisbon Romania 238,391 21,698,181 91.0 Bucharest Russia 17,075,400 142,200,000 26.8 Moscow San Marino 61 27,730 454.6 San Marino Serbia http://webrzs.statserb.sr.gov.yu/axd/en/popis.htm (2002Census) 88,361 7,495,742 89.4 Belgrade Slovakia 48,845 5,422,366 111.0 Bratislava Slovenia 20,273 1,932,917 95.3 Ljubljana Spain 504,851 45,061,274 89.3 Madrid Sweden 449,964 9,090,113 19.7 Stockholm Switzerland 41,290 7,507,000 176.8 Bern Turkey 783,562 71,517,100 93 Ankara Ukraine 603,700 48,396,470 80.2 Kiev United Kingdom 244,820 61,100,835 244.2 London Vatican City 0.44 900 2,045.5 Vatican City Total 10,180,000 731,000,000 70 Within the above-mentioned states are several regions, enjoying broad autonomy, as well as several de facto independent countries with limited international recognition. None of them are UN members: Name of territory, with flag Area(km²) Population(1 July 2002 est.) Population density(per km²) Capital Abkhazia 8,432 216,000 29 Sukhumi Åland Islands (Finland) 1,552 26,008 16.8 Mariehamn Faroe Islands (Denmark) 1,399 46,011 32.9 Tórshavn Gibraltar (UK) 5.9 27,714 4,697.3 Gibraltar Guernsey (UK) 78 64,587 828.0 St. Peter Port Isle of Man (UK) 572 73,873 129.1 Douglas Jersey (UK) 116 89,775 773.9 Saint Helier Kosovo 10,887 2,126,708 220 Pristina Nagorno-Karabakh 11,458 138,800 12 Stepanakert Northern Cyprus 3,355 265,100 78 Nicosia South Ossetia 3,900 70,000 18 Tskhinvali Svalbard and JanMayen Islands (Norway) 62,049 2,868 0.046 Longyearbyen Transnistria 4,163 537,000 133 Tiraspol Economy As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth. As with other continents, Europe has a large variation of wealth among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the West, some of the Eastern economies are still emerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. The European Union, an intergovernmental body composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the world. Currently, 15 EU countries share the euro as a common currency. Five European countries rank in the top ten of the worlds largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (5), the UK (6), Russia (7), France (8), and Italy (10). Pre–1945: Industrial growth Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism. Capitalism. Encyclopædia Britannica. From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe. The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century, and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by World War I but by the beginning of World War II they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. World War II, again, damaged much of Europe's industries. 1945–1990: The Cold War After World War II the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin, Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today, pg. 117 and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades. Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s. Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today, pg. 29 France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered, and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle. Harrop, Martin. Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies, pg. 23 The majority of Eastern European states came under the control of the USSR and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). "Germany (East)", Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan. The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the and increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the as Europe's largest economy. 1991–2003: The rise of the EU With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1991 the Eastern states had to adapt to a free market system. There were varying degrees of success with Central European countries such as Poland, Hungary, and Slovenia adapting reasonably quickly, while eastern states like Ukraine and Russia taking far longer. Western Europe helped Eastern Europe by forming economic ties with them. After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany. Yugoslavia lagged farthest behind as it was ravaged by war and in 2003 there were still many and NATO peacekeeping troops in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, with only Slovenia making any real progress. By the millennium change, the dominated the economy of Europe comprising the five largest European economies of the time namely Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone replacing their former national currencies by the common euro. The three who chose to remain outside the Eurozone were: the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden. Language European languages mostly fall within three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the Latin language of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages. While having much of its vocabulary descended from Romance languages, the English language is a Germanic language. Romance languages are spoken primarily in south-western Europe as well as in Romania and Moldova. Germanic languages are spoken in north-western Europe and some parts of Central Europe. Slavic languages are spoken in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Many other languages outside the three main groups exist in Europe. Other Indo-European languages include the Baltic group (i.e., Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (i.e., Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, and Breton), Greek, Albanian, and Armenian. A distinct group of Uralic languages are Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, spoken in the respective countries as well as in parts of Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Slovakia. Other Non-Indo-European languages are Maltese (the only Semitic language official to the EU), Basque, Georgian, Azerbaijani, and languages of minority nations in Russia. Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe. Religion Historically, religion in Europe has been a major influence on European art, culture, philosophy and law. The majority religion in Europe is Christianity as practiced by Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant Churches. Following these is Islam concentrated mainly in the south east (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, Kazakhstan, North Cyprus, Turkey and Azerbaijan). Other religions including Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism are minority religions. Europe is a relatively secular continent and has the largest number and proportion of irreligious, agnostic and atheistic people in the Western world, with a particularly high number of self-described non-religious people in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Sweden, Germany (East), and France. Culture The culture of Europe can be described as a series of overlapping cultures; cultural mixes exist across the continent. There are cultural innovations and movements, sometimes at odds with each other. Thus the question of "common culture" or "common values" is complex. See also Communications in Europe Continental Europe Europe as a potential superpower List of European countries by geographical area Politics Alternative names of European cities Council of Europe Date of independence of European countries Eurodistrict European Union Euroregion Euroscepticism Flags of Europe International Organisations in Europe OSCE OSCE countries statistics Demographics Area and population of European countries Demography of Europe European American European ethnic groups European Union Statistics Largest cities of the EU Largest European metropolitan areas Largest urban areas of the EU List of European countries by population Economics Economy of the European Union Financial and social rankings of European countries List of European countries by GDP (nominal) The European miracle Notes References National Geographic (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-3695-5. Further reading Williams, Glyndwr (1968) "The Expansion of Europe in the Eighteenth Century". London, Blandford Press, SRN 7-137-32723-5. External links Council of Europe Europe travel guide from Wikitravel European Union The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press. be-x-old:Эўропа | Europe |@lemmatized div:2 europe:170 convention:3 one:13 world:44 seven:2 continent:25 comprise:4 westernmost:2 peninsula:7 eurasia:6 generally:3 divide:6 asia:15 east:18 water:6 ural:7 mountain:11 river:8 caspian:3 sea:27 caucasus:5 mountains:3 southeast:4 wash:1 upon:2 north:21 arctic:3 ocean:8 body:4 west:18 atlantic:7 south:8 mediterranean:15 black:6 waterway:4 connect:2 yet:1 border:6 concept:2 date:4 back:4 classical:6 antiquity:5 somewhat:1 arbitrary:1 term:4 refer:6 cultural:9 political:9 distinction:2 physiographic:1 second:2 small:7 surface:2 area:20 cover:5 square:1 kilometre:1 sq:1 mi:1 earth:3 land:12 approximately:1 state:34 russia:22 large:23 population:27 vatican:3 city:9 third:2 populous:1 africa:10 million:23 however:7 accord:6 united:19 nation:12 medium:2 estimate:3 share:3 may:8 fall:9 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7,612 | Battle_of_Adwa | The landscape of Adwa. The Battle of Adwa (also known as Adowa or sometimes by the Italian name Adua) was fought on 1 March 1896 between Ethiopia and Italy near the town of Adwa, Ethiopia, in Tigray. It was the climactic battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Background As the twentieth century approached, Africa had been carved up between the various European powers, with the exception of the tiny republic of Liberia on the west coast of the continent and the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia in the strategic Horn of Africa. A relative newcomer to the colonial scramble for Africa and having been left with only two impoverished territories on the Horn (Eritrea and Somalia), Italy sought to improve its position in Africa by conquering Ethiopia, which would join its two territories. Italy and Ethiopia faced off in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. After advancing deep into Ethiopian territory, the Italians were forced to withdraw to defensible positions in Tigray, where the two armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik's army would begin to melt away. However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act. On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri met with his brigadiers Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale. Harold G. Marcus, The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913, 1975 (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1995), p. 170 Dabormida exclaiming, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00. David Levering Lewis, The Race for Fashoda (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987), p. 116. ISBN 1-55584-058-2 His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight. The battle Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling 17,700 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. Lewis, Fashoda, pp. 116f. He breaks down their numbers into 10,596 Italian and 7,104 Eritrean officers and soldiers. However, it is likely that even fewer men were on the Italian side: Harold Marcus notes that "several thousand" soldiers were needed for support and to guard the lines of communication to the rear, so he estimates the Italian army to have consisted of 14,500 effectives. Marcus, Menelik II, p. 173 One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean askari led by Italian officers. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these included elite Bersaglieri, Alpini and Cacciatori units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed battalions for service in Africa George Fitz-Hardinge Berkley The Campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik, London: Constable 1901. . As Chris Prouty describes: Estimates for the Ethiopian forces under Menelik range from a low of 80,000 to a high of 150,000, outnumbering the Italians by an estimated five or six times. Richard K.P. Pankhurst has published one collection of these estimates, Economic History of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University, 1968), pp. 555–57. See also Herausgegeben von Uhlig, Siegbert, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003, p. 108. The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu, Ras Welle, Ras Mengesha Atikem, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Ras Alula Engida, Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Makonnen, Fitawrari Gebeyyehu, and Negus Tekle Haymanot. Pétridès (as well as Pankhurst, with slight variations) break the troop numbers down (over 100,000 by their estimates) as follows: 35,000 infantry (25,000 riflemen and 10,000 spearmen) and 8,000 cavalry under Emperor Menelik; 5,000 infantry under Empress Taytu; 8,000 infantry (6,000 riflemen and 2,000 spearmen) under Ras Wale; 8,000 infantry (5,000 riflemen and 3,000 spearmen) under Ras Mengesha Atikem, 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engida; 6,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 5,000 Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael of Wollo; 25,000 riflemen under Ras Makonnen; 8,000 infantry under Fitawrari Gebeyyehu; 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia, p. 109. In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of traditional peasant followers who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries. Most of the army was composed of riflemen, a significant percentage of which were in Menelik's reserve; however, the army was also composed of a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lances. On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped. von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia, p. 109. David Levering Lewis states that the Italian battle plan However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Their sketchy maps caused Albertone to mistake one mountain for Kidane Meret, and when a scout pointed out his mistake, Albertone advanced directly into Ras Alula's position. Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day (2 March). The Emperor had risen early to begin prayers for divine guidance when spies from Ras Alula, his chief military advisor, brought him news that the Italians were advancing. The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu beside him, ordered his forces forward. Negus Tekle Haymanot commanded the right wing, Ras Alula the left, and Rasses Makonnen and Mengesha the center, with Ras Mikael at the head of the Oromo cavalry; the Emperor and his consort remained with the reserve. The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire. Albertone's askari brigade was the first to encounter the onrush of Ethiopians at 6:00, near Kidane Meret, where the Ethiopians had managed to set up their mountain artillery. His heavily outnumbered askaris held their position for two hours until Albertone's capture, and under Ethiopian pressure the survivors sought refuge with Arimondi's brigade. Arimondi's brigade beat back the Ethiopians who repeatedly charged the Italian position for three hours with gradually fading strength until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 Shewans and swamped the Italian defenders. Two companies of Bersaglieri who arrived at the same moment could not help and were cut down. Dabormida's Italian brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida began a fighting retreat towards friendly positions. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Oromo cavalry under Mikael of Wollo slaughtered his brigade, while shouting Ebalgume! Ebalgume! ("Reap! Reap!"). Dabormida's remains were never found, although his brother learned from an old woman living in the area that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars". George Fitz-Hardinge Berkeley, Campaign of Adowa (1902), quoted in Lewis, Fashoda, p. 118. The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. Menelik watched as Gojjam forces under the command of Tekle Haymonot made quick work of the last intact Italian brigade. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over. Aftermath The Italians suffered about 7,000 killed and 1,500 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, with 3,000 taken prisoner; Ethiopian losses have been estimated around 4,000–5,000, but with 8,000 wounded. Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopians: A History (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), pp. 191–2. In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport. As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians." Henze, Layers of Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p. 170. The 3,000 Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity. Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". Empress Taytu, pp. 169f. However, 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatment of the askari prisoners. Prouty has collected the few documented experiences of these POWs, none of whom claim to have been treated inhumanely (Empress Taytu, pp. 170–83). She repeats the opinion of the Italian historian Angelo del Boca, that "the paucity of the record is attributable to the glacial welcome received in Italy by the returning prisoners for having lost a war, and the fact that they were subjected to long interrogations when they debarked, were defrauded of their back pay, had their mementoes confiscated and were ordered not to talk to journalists" (p. 170). Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was described by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news: One question much asked – both then and long afterwards – is why did Emperor Menelik fail to follow up his victory and drive the routed Italians out of their colony? The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the deceptive Treaty of Wuchale. In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence. In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall. Marcus, Menelik II, p. 176. At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observes that "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources." Prouty, Empress Taytu, p. 161. Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade" Lewis, Fashoda, p. 120. that stayed his hand. As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, in a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the Italians soundly defeated the Ethiopian forces. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire forces, in the East African Campaign. Significance "The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze, who compares this victory to Japan's naval victory over Russia at Tsushima. "Though apparent to very few historians at the time, these defeats were the beginning of the decline of Europe as the center of world politics." Henze, Layers of Layers of Time, p.180. On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa;" however, Bahru Zewde puts his emphasis on other elements of this triumph: "The racial dimension was what lent Adwa particular significance. It was a victory of blacks over whites. Adwa thus anticipated by almost a decade the equally shattering experience to the whites of the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905." Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia (London: James Currey, 1991), p. 81. This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African movement. Professor Kinfe Abraham, "The Impact of the Adowa Victory on The Pan-African and Pan-Black Anti-Colonial Struggle," Address delivered to The Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, February 8, 2006 As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains, "After the victory over Italy in 1896, Ethiopia acquired a special importance in the eyes of Africans as the only surviving African State. After Adowa, Ethiopia became emblematic of African valour and resistance, the bastion of prestige and hope to thousands of Africans who were experiencing the full shock of European conquest and were beginning to search for an answer to the myth of African inferiority." Molefe Asante, quoted in Rodney Worrell, Pan-africanism in Barbados, (New Academia Publishing: 2005) p. 16 On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. One student of Ethiopia, Donald N. Levine, recently noted that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935." "The Battle of Adwa as a 'Historic' Event", Ethiopian Review, 3 March 2009 (accessed 9 March 2009) See also Battle of Isandlwana Battle of the Little Bighorn Massacre of Elphinstone's Army Notes and references References Berkeley, G.F.-H. (1902) The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik, Westminister : A. Constable, 403 p. Henze, P.B. (2004) Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, London : Hurst & Co., ISBN 1-85065-522-7 Lewis, D.L. (1988) The race to Fashoda : European colonialism and African resistance in the scramble for Africa, 1st ed., London : Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-0113-0 Marcus, H.G. (1995) The life and times of Menelik II : Ethiopia, 1844-1913, Lawrenceville, N.J. : Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-5690-2010-8 Pankhurst, R. (1968) Economic history of Ethiopia, 1800-1935, Addis Ababa : Haile Sellassie I University Press, 772 p. Pankhurst, R. (1998) The Ethiopians : a history, The peoples of Africa Series, Oxford : Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 0-631-22493-9 Rosenfeld, C.P. (1986) Empress Taytu and Menelik II : Ethiopia 1883-1910, London : Ravens Educational & Development Services, ISBN 0-947895-01-9 Uhlig, S. (ed.) (2003) Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, 1 (A-C), Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, ISBN 3-447-04746-1 Worrell, R. (2005) Pan-Africanism in Barbados : An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-Century Pan-African Formations in Barbados, Washington, DC : New Academia Publishing, ISBN 0-9744934-6-5 Bahru Zewde (1991) A history of modern Ethiopia, 1855-1974, Eastern African studies series, London : Currey, ISBN 0-85255-066-9 Films Adwa (1999). Directed by Haile Gerima. 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7,613 | Nieuwe_Waterweg | The Nieuwe Waterweg ("New Waterway") is a ship canal in the Netherlands from het Scheur (a branch of the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta) west of the town of Maassluis to the North Sea at Hook of Holland. It is the artificial mouth of the river Rhine. The Nieuwe Waterweg, which opened in 1872 and has a length of approximately 10 km, was constructed to keep the city and port of Rotterdam accessible to seafaring vessels as the natural Meuse-Rhine branches silted up. The Waterway is a busy shipping route since it is the primary access to one of the busiest ports in the world, the Europoort of Rotterdam. At the entrance to the sea, a flood protection system called Maeslantkering has been installed (completed in 1997). There are no bridges or tunnels across the Nieuwe Waterweg. History By the middle of the 19th century, Rotterdam was already one of the largest port cities in the world, mainly because of transshipment of goods from Germany to Great Britain. The increase in shipping traffic created a capacity problem: there were too many branches in the river delta, making the port difficult to reach. In 1863, a law was passed which allowed for the provision of a new canal for large ocean-going ships from Rotterdam to the North Sea. Hydraulic engineer Pieter Caland was commissioned to design a canal cutting through the "Hook of Holland” and to extend the Mouth of Rhine to the sea. The designs for this were already done back in 1731 by Nicolaas Samuelsz Cruquius but the implementation could no longer be postponed to prevent the decline of the harbour of Rotterdam. Construction began on October 31, 1863. The first phase consisted of the expropriation of farm lands from Rozenburg to Hoek van Holland. During the second phase two dikes were built parallel to each other, which took 2 years. Caland proposed to extend the dikes 2 km into the sea to disrupt the coastal sea currents and decrease silt deposits in the shipping lane. Upon the completion of the dikes, the third phase began by the digging of the actual waterway. This began on October 31, 1866, and was completed three years later. The large amounts of removed soil were in turn used to reinforce other dams and dikes. The last phase consisted of the removal of the dam separating the new waterway from the sea and river. In 1872, the Nieuwe Waterweg was completed and Rotterdam was easily accessible. Because of the currents and erosion, the shipping lane has been widened somewhat. Yet because of the draft of today's supertankers, it needs to be dredged constantly. In 1997, the last part of the Delta Works, the Maeslantkering, was put in operation near the mouth of the Nieuwe Waterweg. This storm surge barrier protects Rotterdam against (north-)western Beaufort Force 10 to 12 storms. Satellite image of the northwest part of the Rhine-Meuse delta showing the Nieuwe Waterweg (t). Nieuwe Waterweg External links | Nieuwe_Waterweg |@lemmatized nieuwe:7 waterweg:7 new:3 waterway:4 ship:4 canal:3 netherlands:1 het:1 scheur:1 branch:3 rhine:5 meuse:3 scheldt:1 delta:4 west:1 town:1 maassluis:1 north:3 sea:7 hook:2 holland:3 artificial:1 mouth:3 river:3 open:1 length:1 approximately:1 km:2 construct:1 keep:1 city:2 port:4 rotterdam:7 accessible:2 seafaring:1 vessel:1 natural:1 silt:2 busy:2 route:1 since:1 primary:1 access:1 one:2 world:2 europoort:1 entrance:1 flood:1 protection:1 system:1 call:1 maeslantkering:2 instal:1 complete:3 bridge:1 tunnel:1 across:1 history:1 middle:1 century:1 already:2 large:3 mainly:1 transshipment:1 good:1 germany:1 great:1 britain:1 increase:1 traffic:1 create:1 capacity:1 problem:1 many:1 make:1 difficult:1 reach:1 law:1 pass:1 allow:1 provision:1 ocean:1 go:1 hydraulic:1 engineer:1 pieter:1 caland:2 commission:1 design:2 cutting:1 extend:2 back:1 nicolaas:1 samuelsz:1 cruquius:1 implementation:1 could:1 longer:1 postpone:1 prevent:1 decline:1 harbour:1 construction:1 begin:3 october:2 first:1 phase:4 consist:2 expropriation:1 farm:1 land:1 rozenburg:1 hoek:1 van:1 second:1 two:1 dike:4 build:1 parallel:1 take:1 year:2 propose:1 disrupt:1 coastal:1 current:2 decrease:1 deposit:1 shipping:2 lane:2 upon:1 completion:1 third:1 digging:1 actual:1 three:1 later:1 amount:1 remove:1 soil:1 turn:1 use:1 reinforce:1 dam:2 last:2 removal:1 separate:1 easily:1 erosion:1 widen:1 somewhat:1 yet:1 draft:1 today:1 supertanker:1 need:1 dredge:1 constantly:1 part:2 work:1 put:1 operation:1 near:1 storm:2 surge:1 barrier:1 protect:1 western:1 beaufort:1 force:1 satellite:1 image:1 northwest:1 show:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram nieuwe_waterweg:7 het_scheur:1 rhine_meuse:2 silt_deposit:1 shipping_lane:2 storm_surge:1 meuse_delta:1 external_link:1 |
7,614 | Armageddon | Evangelist John of Patmos writes the Book of Revelation. Painting by Hieronymus Bosch (1505). Armageddon (from Late Latin Armagedōn, Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins, 3rd ed., p. 81 from Greek Αρμαγεδων; [armagedôn] also spelled Har-Magedon, came from Hebrew [Har-Megiddo] or, in some modern English translations, the Mount of Megiddo), in Christian belief, is the site of the final battle between God and Satan (whose name means 'adversary'), also known as the Devil. Satan, released from the abyss for a short time, will gather Gog and Magog from the four corners of the earth after having been imprisoned for 1,000 years in the abyss by means of the angel of God, and they will encamp surrounding the holy ones and the "beloved city". Fire comes down from God out of heaven and devours Gog and Magog, and the Devil who deceived them is thrown into Gehenna (the lake of fire and brimstone) where the beast and the false prophet have been. By means of Jesus as the Faithful and True One and the heavenly armies both are seized and thrown into Gehenna, as written in the Book of Revelation in the New Testament at Rev. 20:1-3, 7-10; Rev. 19:11-20. The word Armageddon in scripture is known only from a single verse in the Greek New Testament, where it is said to be Hebrew, and is thought to represent the Hebrew words har megiddōn (הר מגידו), meaning "Mountain of Megiddo". Megiddo was the location of many decisive battles in ancient times (see Battle of Megiddo). Note: the Greek koine dialect breathing mark ', denoting an "H" sound may be what went missing in the later form Armageddon. Thus 'ar-Magedon or Har-Magedon wears down (thru a copy error?) to Armageddon. The town Megiddo is approximately 25 miles west of the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee (or Lake Tiberias to the Romans) in the Kishon River valley. Christianity Dispensationalism The Dispensational viewpoint interprets biblical prophecy literally and expects that the fulfillment of prophecy will also be literal, depending upon the context of scripture. In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted an entire chapter to the subject, titled "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses Armageddon as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes: It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the second advent of Christ to the earth. The extent of this great movement in which God deals with "the kings of the earth and of the whole world" (Rev. 16:14) will not be seen unless it is realized that the "battle of that great day of God Almighty" (Rev. 16:14) is not an isolated battle, but rather a campaign that extends over the last half of the tribulation period. The Greek word "polemo", translated "battle" in Revelation 16:14, signifies a war or campaign, while "machē" signifies a battle, and sometimes even single combat. This distinction is observed by Trench, (see Richard C. Trench, New Testament Synonyms, pp.301-2) and is followed by Thayer (see Joseph Henry Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 528) and Vincent (see Marvin R. Vincent, Word Studies in the New Testament, II, 541). The use of the word polemos (campaign) in Revelation 16:14 would signify that the events that culminate in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent are viewed by God as one connected campaign. Pentecost, p.340 Present-day highway sign indicating the approach to Megiddo Junction, nearby Har Megiddo Dr. Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat" and "the valley of the passengers" , "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when He returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself. Zech. 12:2-11; 14:2 Pentacost, p. 341 Pentecost then continues in his writing to further describe the area involved: "This wide area would cover the entire land of Palestine and this campaign, with all its parts, would confirm what Ezekiel pictures when he says the invaders will 'cover the land'. This area would conform to the extent pictured by John in Revelation 14:20." In mentioning the "participants in the campaign", Dr. Pentecost lists the following: The ten kingdom federation of nations under the Beast The northern federation consisting of Russia For the most thorough scholarly discussion of this identification see, Jon Ruthven, The Prophecy That Is Shaping History: New Research on Ezekiel's Vision of the End (Fairfax, VA: Xulon Press, 2003) (see also Gog and Magog) and her allies The kings of the East, the Asiatic peoples from beyond the Euphrates The King of the South, a north African power Pentecost, p. 342 Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Palestine by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking: (Dan. 11:40b-45). Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book: "The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast-False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end.'" "The King of the South is joined by the Northern Confederacy, who attacks the Wilful King by a great force over land and sea (11:40). Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed" , "The full armies of the Beast move into Palestine (11:41) and shall conquer all that territory (11:41-42). Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape. . . ." ". . . a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast" , "The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Palestine and assembles his armies there." "It is there that his destruction will come. (11:45)." Pentacost, p. 356 After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the Saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically, Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the Saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from Heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death", not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this thusly: The destiny of the lost is a place in the lake of fire (Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8). This lake of fire is described as everlasting fire (Matt. 25:41) (Matt. 18:8) and as unquenchable fire (Mark 9:43-44 , 46-48, emphasizing the eternal character of retribution of the lost. Pentacost, p. 555 Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is a battle where Satan unites the kings of the Earth against God's appointed King, Christ. Unlike many Christian groups, Witnesses believe that the 'Antichrist' is not an individual, and that the war is not one of nations fighting against one another. Believing the Mountain of Megiddo is not a literal place, Witnesses feel the Bible uses Megiddo as the "symbolic" place of gathering of all the kings of the Earth, where they will try to do battle against God and his forces. This action on the part of the kings of the Earth is provoked by expressions and signs inspired by demons, The Watchtower 12/1/05 p. 4 Armageddon—A Happy Beginning Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania and is followed by the establishment of God's kingdom over earth for a thousand years. The Marvelous New World of God's Making watchtower.org The final judgment and purification of the Earth's sin occurs at the end of the Millennium. According to Watchtower magazine, a prelude to Armageddon will be the attack on all religions by the United Nations. The End of False Religion is Near watchtower.org Watchtower 9/15/05 p. 19 par. 13 "Walk by Faith, Not by Sight!" Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Watchtower 6/1/96 p. 18 par. 20 "Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"" Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Seventh-day Adventist Seventh-day Adventist understanding of Revelation 13-22 The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event. "Seventh-day Adventists believe" 1988 by the Ministerial Association General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by the growing unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further significant difference in Seventh-day Adventist theology is the teaching that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium. "Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology" 2000 Review and Herald Publishing Association and the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound." The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth." then follows the millennium. Islam The Islamic Prophet Muhammad has prophesied about several events that will occur just before the advent of the Day of Judgment (Qiyamah). A false claimant to divinity (the Dajjal) will attempt to misguide humanity into worshiping him and will perform miracles. The people that doubt their religion will follow him and people that have faith will not. Jesus will descend from the sky, and his followers will bring peace and brotherhood to the world. The religion of God will spread to create a perfect and just society. Ahmadiyya In Ahmadiyya Islam the Armageddon is viewed as a spiritual battle or struggle in the present age between the forces of good, i.e. righteousness, purity and virtue; and the forces of evil. According to Ahmadi teachings the present age has as a result been a witness to the wrath of God with the occurrence of the World Wars and the frequency of natural disasters. http://aaiil.org/text/books/others/mirzamasumbeg/propheciespromisedmessiah/propheciespromisedmessiah.pdf Ghulam Ahmad (d.1908) is seen as the promised Messiah who will establish spiritual reform and ultimately establish an age of peace upon earth. This age continues for around a thousand years as per judeo-Christian prophecies; and is characterised by the assembling of mankind under one faith. The Review of Religions, January 2009, Vol.104, issue 1. p. 18-22 Literature and film Armageddon (1998 film) NASA sends a team of oil drillers to deflect an asteroid. Armageddon (Left Behind) See also 1 Maccabees 2300 day prophecy Abomination of Desolation Antichrist Antiochus Epiphanes Apocalypse Book of Daniel Bible Prophecy Daniel's Vision of Chapter 8 Daniel Chapter 11 Day-year principle Dispensationalism Eschatology End times Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Gog and Magog Last Judgment Millenialism Millenarianism Olivet discourse Oracle of Damascus Premillenialism Prewrath Post Tribulation Progressive dispensationalism Prophecy of Seventy Weeks Ragnarök The Rapture Siege of Jerusalem (70) Summary of Christian eschatological differences The Beast (Bible) The Two Witnesses Whore of Babylon References | Armageddon |@lemmatized evangelist:1 john:2 patmos:1 write:3 book:5 revelation:6 painting:1 hieronymus:1 bosch:1 armageddon:18 late:2 latin:1 armagedōn:1 collins:1 english:3 dictionary:1 harpercollins:1 ed:1 p:11 greek:5 αρμαγεδων:1 armagedôn:1 also:6 spell:1 har:5 magedon:3 come:6 hebrew:3 megiddo:11 modern:1 translation:1 mount:1 christian:4 belief:1 site:1 final:3 battle:12 god:12 satan:6 whose:1 name:1 mean:4 adversary:1 know:3 devil:2 release:1 abyss:2 short:1 time:5 gather:1 gog:5 magog:5 four:2 corner:1 earth:11 imprison:1 year:5 angel:1 encamp:1 surround:1 holy:1 one:7 beloved:1 city:1 fire:8 heaven:4 devours:1 deceive:2 throw:2 gehenna:2 lake:5 brimstone:1 beast:9 false:4 prophet:3 jesus:4 faithful:1 true:1 heavenly:1 army:6 seize:1 new:10 testament:5 rev:5 word:5 scripture:2 single:2 verse:1 say:2 think:1 represent:1 megiddōn:1 הר:1 מגידו:1 mountain:2 location:3 many:2 decisive:1 ancient:1 see:9 note:1 koine:1 dialect:1 breathe:1 mark:2 denote:1 h:1 sound:1 may:1 go:2 miss:1 form:1 thus:1 ar:1 wear:1 thru:1 copy:1 error:1 town:1 approximately:1 mile:1 west:1 southern:1 tip:1 sea:2 galilee:1 tiberias:1 roman:2 kishon:1 river:1 valley:3 christianity:1 dispensationalism:3 dispensational:1 viewpoint:1 interprets:1 biblical:2 prophecy:7 literally:1 expect:1 fulfillment:1 literal:2 depend:1 upon:2 context:1 discussion:2 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7,615 | Notary_public | An embossed foil Notary Seal from the State of New York. A notary public (or notary or public notary) is a public officer constituted by law to serve the public in non-contentious matters usually concerned with estates, deeds, powers-of-attorney, and foreign and international business. A notary's main functions are to administer oaths and affirmations, take affidavits and statutory declarations, witness and authenticate the execution of certain classes of documents, take acknowledgements of deeds and other conveyances, protest notes and bills of exchange, provide notice of foreign drafts, prepare marine protests in cases of damage, provide exemplifications and notarial copies, and perform certain other official acts depending on the jurisdiction "Notaries Public", Montgomery County, Alabama Probate Judge: , retrieved on 20 January 2009. . Any such act is known as a notarization. The term notary public only refers to common-law notaries and should not be confused with civil-law notaries. With the exceptions of Louisiana, Puerto Rico, and Quebec, whose private law is based on civil law, a notary public in the rest of the United States and most of Canada has powers that are far more limited than those of civil-law or other common-law notaries, both of whom are qualified lawyers admitted to the bar: such notaries may be referred to as notaries-at-law or notary lawyers. Therefore, at common law, notarial service is distinct from the practice of law, and giving legal advice and preparing legal instruments is forbidden to lay notaries. Overview Notaries are appointed by a government authority, such as a court or lieutenant governor, or by a regulating body often known as a Society or Faculty of Notaries Public. For a notary-at-law, an appointment is usually for life, but lay notaries are commissioned for a briefer term with the possibility of renewal. Appointments and their number for a given notarial district are highly regulated. Since the majority of American notaries are lay persons, however, commissions are not regulated, which is why there are far more notaries in the United States than in other countries (4.5 million vs. approx. 740 in England and Wales Notary. (2008). Kent, England: Warners Law LLP. Retrieved on 22 January 2009. ). For the purposes of authentication, most countries require commercial or personal documents which originate from or are signed in another country to be notarized before they can be used or officially recorded or before they can have any legal effect. To these documents a notary affixes a notarial certificate which attests to the execution of the document, usually by the person who appears before the notary, known as an appearer or constituent. In places where notaries-at-law are the norm, a notary may also draft legal instruments known as notarial acts which have probative value and executory force as would any lawyer's writing. Originals or duplicate originals are then filed and stored in the notary's archives, or protocol. Notaries in some countries and states are required to undergo special training in the performance of their duties. Many must also first serve as an apprentice before being commissioned or licensed to practice their profession. In many countries, even licensed lawyers, e.g., barristers or solicitors, must follow a prescribed specialized course of study and be mentored for two years before being allowed to practice as a notary. Notaries public in the United States, of which the vast majority are lay people, may not engage in any activities that could be construed as the practice of law unless they are also a qualified attorney. In civil or bijuridical jurisdictions, such as South Africa, the Office of notary public is a legal profession with educational requirements similar to those for lawyers. Many even have institutes of higher learning who offer degrees in notarial law. History For a more detailed account, see Civil-law Notary. Notaries Public (also called "notaries," "notarial officers," or "public notaries") hold an office which can trace its origins back to ancient Rome, when they were called scribae, tabellius or notarius. Their work would later be transcribed correctly in its entirety by a calligraphus. They are easily the oldest continuing branch of the legal profession worldwide. The history of Notaries is set out in detail in Chapter 1 of Brooke's Notary (12th edition): The office of a public notary is a public office. It has a long and distinguished history. The office has its origin in the civil institutions of ancient Rome. Public officials, called scribae, that is to say, scribes, rose in rank from being mere copiers and transcribers to a learned profession prominent in private and public affairs. Some were permanent officials attached to the Senate and courts of law whose duties were to record public proceedings, transcribe state papers, supply magistrates with legal forms, and register the decrees and judgments of magistrates. In the last century of the Republic, probably in the time of Cicero, a new form of shorthand was invented and certain arbitrary marks and signs, called notae, were substituted for words in common use. A writer who adopted the new method was called a notarius. Originally, a notary was one who took down statements in shorthand and wrote them out in the form of memoranda or minutes. Later, the title notarius was applied almost exclusively to registrars attached to high government officials, including provincial governors and secretaries to the Emperor. Notwithstanding the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century AD, the notary remained a figure of some importance in many parts of continental Europe throughout the Dark Ages. When the civil law experienced its renaissance in mediæval Italy from the 12th century onwards, the notary was established as a central institution of that law, a position which still obtains in countries whose legal systems are derived from the civil law. The separate development of the common law in England, free from most of the influences of Roman law, meant that notaries were not introduced into England until later in the 13th and 14th centuries. At first, notaries in England were appointed by the Papal Legate. In 1279 the Archbishop of Canterbury was authorized by the Pope to appoint notaries. Not surprisingly, in those early days, many of the notaries were members of the clergy. In the course of time, members of the clergy ceased to take part in secular business and laymen, especially in towns and trading centres, began to assume the official character and functions of a modern notary. The Reformation produced no material change in the position and functions of notaries in England. However, in 1533 the enactment of "the Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations" (The Ecclesiastical Licenses Act, 1533) terminated the power of the Pope to appoint notaries and vested that power in the King who then devolved it to the Archbishop of Canterbury who in turn devolved it to the Master of the Faculties. Traditionally, notaries recorded matters of judicial importance as well as private transactions or events where an officially authenticated record or a document drawn up with professional skill or knowledge was required. Common law jurisdictions The duties and functions of notaries public are described in Brooke's Notary on page 19 in these terms: Generally speaking, a notary public [...] may be described as an officer of the law [...] whose public office and duty it is to draw, attest or certify under his official seal deeds and other documents, including wills or other testamentary documents, conveyances of real and personal property and powers of attorney; to authenticate such documents under his signature and official seal in such a manner as to render them acceptable, as proof of the matters attested by him, to the judicial or other public authorities in the country where they are to be used, whether by means of issuing a notarial certificate as to the due execution of such documents or by drawing them in the form of public instruments; to keep a protocol containing originals of all instruments which he makes in the public form and to issue authentic copies of such instruments; to administer oaths and declarations for use in proceedings [...] to note or certify transactions relating to negotiable instruments, and to draw up protests or other formal papers relating to occurrences on the voyages of ships and their navigation as well as the carriage of cargo in ships." [Footnotes omitted.] A notary, in almost all common law jurisdictions other than most of North America (which, it would be remiss to omit, accounts for most of the population of the world under common law), is a practitioner trained in the drafting and execution of legal documents. Notaries traditionally recorded matters of judicial importance as well as private transactions or events where an officially authenticated record or a document drawn up with professional skill or knowledge was required. The functions of notaries specifically include the preparation of certain types of documents (including international contracts, deeds, wills, and powers of attorney) and certification of their due execution, administering of oaths, witnessing affidavits and statutory declarations, certification of copy documents, noting and protesting of bills of exchange, and the preparation of ships' protests. An example of a notarized acknowledgment. Documents certified by notaries are sealed with the notary's seal or stamp and are recorded by the notary in a register (also called a "protocol") maintained and permanently kept by him or her. These are known as "notarial acts". In countries subscribing to the Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement for Legalization for Foreign Public Documents only one further act of certification is required, known as an apostille, and is issued by a government department (usually the Foreign Affairs Department or similar). For other countries an "authentication" or "legalization" must be issued by the Foreign Affairs Ministry of the country from which the document is being sent or the Embassy, Consulate-General, or High Commission of the country to which it is being sent. Information on individual countries England and Wales After the passage of the 1533 Act, which was a direct result of the Reformation in England, all notary appointments were issued directly through the Court of Faculties. The Court of Faculties is attached to the office of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In England and Wales there are several classes of notaries. English notaries, who like solicitors, barristers, legal executives and licensed conveyancers are also commissioners for oaths, also acquire the same powers as solicitors and other law practitioners, with the exception of the right to represent others before the courts (unless also members of the bar or admitted as a solicitor) once they are licensed or commissioned notaries. There are also Scrivener notaries, who get their name from the Scriveners' Company; until 1999, when they lost this monopoly, they were the only notaries permitted to practise in the City of London. They used not to have to first qualify as solicitors, but they had knowledge of foreign laws and languages. Currently to qualify as a Notary Public in England and Wales it is necessary to have earned a law degree or qualified as a solicitor or barrister in the past five years, and then to take a two-year distance-learning course styled the Postgraduate Diploma in Notarial Practice from the University of Cambridge. At the same time, any applicant must also gain practical experience, which would usually be with a solicitor notary. The few who go on to become Scrivener Notaries require further study of a foreign language and foreign law and a two-year mentorship under an active Scrivener notary. The other notaries in England are either ecclesiastical notaries whose functions are limited to the affairs of the Church of England or other qualified persons who are not trained as solicitors or barristers but satisfy the Master of the Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury that they possess an adequate understanding of the law. Both the latter two categories are required to pass examinations set by the Master of Faculties. The regulation of notaries was modernized in the 1990s as a result of section 57 of the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990. The Notaries Society gives the number of notaries in England and Wales as "about 1000," all but 70 of whom are solicitors. Notarial services generally include: attesting the signature and execution of documents authenticating the execution of documents authenticating the contents of documents administration of oaths and declarations drawing up or noting (and extending) protests of happenings to ships, crews and cargoes presenting bills of exchange for acceptance and payment, noting and protesting bills in cases of dishonour and preparing acts of honour attending upon the drawing up of bonds drawing mercantile documents, deeds, sales or purchases of property, and wills in English and (via translation), in foreign languages for use in Britain, the Commonwealth and other foreign countries providing documents to deal with the administration of the estate of people who are abroad, or owning property abroad authenticating personal documents and information for immigration or emigration purposes, or to apply to marry or to work abroad verification of translations from foreign languages to English and vice versa taking evidence in England and Wales as a Commissioner for Oaths for foreign courts provision of Notarial copies preparing and witnessing powers of attorney, corporate records, contracts for use in Britain or overseas authenticating company and business documents and transactions international domain name transfers Scotland Notaries public have existed in Scotland since the 13th century and developed as a distinct element of the Scottish legal profession. Those who wish to practice as a notary must petition the Court of Session. This petition is usually presented at the same time as a petition to practice as a solicitor, but can sometimes be earlier or later. However, to qualify, a notary must earn the Law Society of Scotland's Practising Certificate. Whilst notaries in Scotland are always solicitors, the profession remains separate in that there are additional rules and regulations governing notaries and it is possible to be a solicitor, but not a notary. They are also separate from notaries in other jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. The profession is administered by the Council of the Law Society of Scotland under the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland) Act 1990. In Scotland, the duties and services provided by the Notary are perhaps the weakest in the UK, having declined following the Law Agents (Scotland) Amendment Act 1896 which stipulated only enrolled law agents could become notaries and the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1924 which extended notarial execution to law agents. The primary functions David A. Brand, "The Modern Notary Public in Scotland: Guidance for Intrant Notaries", 5th edn. (2005), The Law Society of Scotland, , retrieved on 19 January 2009. of a Scottish notary are: oaths, affidavits, and affirmations affidavits in undefended divorces and for matrimonial homes maritime protests execution or certification for foreign jurisdictions, e.g., estates, court actions, powers of attorney, etc. notarial execution for the blind or illiterate entry of a person to overseas territories completion of the documentation required for the registration of a company in certain foreign jurisdictions; and drawing for repayment of Bonds of Debenture Australia In all Australian States and Territories (except Queensland) notaries public are appointed by the Supreme Court of the relevant State or Territory. Very few have been appointed as a notary for more than one State or Territory. Queensland, like New Zealand, continues the practice of appointment by the Archbishop of Canterbury acting through the Master of the Faculties. Many Australian notaries are lawyers but the overall number of lawyers who choose to become a notary is relatively low. For example, in South Australia (a State with a population of 1.5 million), of the over 2,500 lawyers in that state only about 100 are also notaries and most of those do not actively practice as such. In Melbourne, Victoria, in 2002 there were only 66 notaries for a city with a population of 3.5 million and only 90 for the entire state. Compare this with the United States where it has been estimated that there are over 3 million notaries for a nation with a population of 296 million. As Justice Debelle of the Supreme Court of South Australia said in the case of In The Matter of an Application by Marilyn Reys Bos to be a Public Notary [2003] SASC 320, delivered September 12, 2003, in refusing the application: Historically there have been some very rare examples of patent attorneys or accountants being appointed, but that now seems to have ceased. However, there are three significant differences between notaries and other lawyers. the duty of a notary is to the transaction as a whole, and not just to one of the parties. In certain circumstances a notary may act for both parties to a transaction as long as there is no conflict between them, and in such cases it his or her duty is to ensure that the transaction that they conclude is fair to both sides. a notary will often need to place and complete a special clause or attach a special page (known as an eschatocol) on or to a document in order to make it valid for use overseas. In the case of some documents which are to be used in some foreign countries it may also be necessary to obtain another certificate known either as an "authentication" or an "apostille" (depending on the relevant foreign country) from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. a notary identifies himself or herself on documents by the use of his or her individual seal. Such seals have historical origins and are regarded by most other countries as of great importance for establishing the genuineness of a document. Their principal duties include: attestation of documents and certification of their due execution for use in Australia and internationally, preparation and certification of powers of attorney, wills, deeds, contracts and other legal documents for use in Australia and internationally, administering of oaths for use in Australia and internationally, witnessing affidavits, statutory declarations and other documents for use in Australia and internationally, certification of copy documents for use Australia and internationally, exemplification of official documents for use internationally, noting and protesting of bills of exchange, and, preparation of ships' protests. Although it was once usual for Australian notaries to use a red embossed seal it is now common for them to use a red inked stamp that contains the notary's full name and the words "notary public". It is also common for the seal or stamp to include the notary's chosen logo or symbol. In South Australia and Scotland, it is acceptable for a notary to use the letters "NP" after their name. Thus a South Australian notary may have "John Smith LLB NP" or similar on his business card or letterhead. Australian notaries do not hold "commissions" which can expire. Generally, once appointed they are authorized to act as a notary for life and can only be "struck off" the Roll of Notaries for proven misconduct. In certain States, for example, New South Wales, they cease to be qualified to continue as a Notary once they cease to hold a practising certificate as a legal practitioner. All Australian jurisdictions also have Justices of the Peace (JP) or Commissioners for Affidavits who can witness affidavits or statutory declarations and certify documents. However they can only do so if the relevant affidavit, statutory declaration or copy document is to be used only in Australia rather than in a foreign country, with the possible exception of a few Commonwealth countries not including the United Kingdom or New Zealand except for very limited purposes. Justices of the Peace (JPs) are (usually) laypersons who have minimal, if any, training (depending on the jurisdiction) but are of proven good character. Therefore a US notary resembles an Australian JP rather than an Australian notary. New Zealand Unless excluded under dominion or colonial law, the Master of the Faculties formerly had authority to appoint notaries public in a dominion or colony. The admission of notaries in the Commonwealth was governed specifically by the Public Notaries Act 1833 (UK). The provisions of the Public Notaries Act 1801-43 requiring a notary to be a solicitor did not apply overseas, nor need a notary have a practicing certificate as a solicitor, or from the Court of Faculties. The usual procedure followed is that the applicant lodges with the Court of Faculties a memorial counter-signed by local merchants, shipping companies, bankers and other persons of substance, which show the local need of a notary and the fitness of the applicant. They also lodge their certificate of admission as a solicitor. A fee accompanies the application. The applicant, with the support of two other notaries public, who vouch that the applicant is well skilled in the affairs of notarial concern, petitions the Master of the Faculties. The chief consideration for the approval of an application is whether there is sufficient need in the district, regarding the convenience of bankers, ship-owners and merchants. The local society of notaries must be satisfied that a need exists for an additional notary in the area served by the applicant. Priority is given, as a matter of practice, to an applicant within the same firm, as a replacement in the case of the death of a notary, or where a practicing notary is reducing his or her workload because of age or infirmity. The Master of the Faculties continues to appoint notaries overseas in the exercise of the general authorities granted by s 3 of the Ecclesiastical Licenses Act 1533 (Eng). In these cases he is guided by local considerations of public convenience. Sri Lanka Until 1973 a separate group of layers excised to carry out litigation known as Proctors. A proctor was not a practitioner in a court of law. These were also known as Notaries. However since 1973 the legal practitioners were classed solely as Attornies at law combining the former advocates and proctors. This new possession of attorney at law brought with it automatic appointment as a notary public when the practitioner took oaths as an attorney at law, thus becoming legally qualified for litigation. United States In the United States, a notary public is a person appointed by a state government, e.g., the governor or state secretary, or in some cases the state legislature, and whose primary role is to serve the public as an impartial witness when important documents are signed. Since the notary is a state officer, a notary's duties may vary widely from state to state and in most cases bars a notary from acting outside his or her home state unless they also have a commission there as well. While the provisions may sound as if it is difficult to become a notary, in most states the main requirements are to fill out a form and pay a fee, and unless there are unusual circumstances the person's application will usually be approved. Some states may have additional requirements such as passing an examination or having taken some class, but in most states it's not much more difficult than applying for a library card. The most significant exception to this liberal requirement is that generally a felony conviction will disqualify obtaining a commission or will void an existing one. A notary is almost always permitted to notarize a document anywhere in the state where their commission is issued. Some states simply issue a commission "at large" meaning no indication is made as to from what county the person's commission was issued, but some states do require the notary include the county of issue of their commission as part of the jurat, or where seals are required, to indicate the county of issue of their commission on the seal. Merely because a state requires indicating the county where the commission was issued does not necessarily mean that the notary is restricted to notarizing documents in that county, although some states may impose this as a requirement. Some states (Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, among others) allow a notary who is commissioned in a state bordering that state to also act as a notary in the state if the other allows the same. Thus someone who was commissioned in Montana could notarize documents in Wyoming and North Dakota, and a notary commissioned in Wyoming could notarize documents in Montana, a notary from Wyoming could not notarize documents from North Dakota (or the inverse) unless they had a commission from North Dakota or a state bordering North Dakota that also allowed North Dakota notaries to practice in that state as well. In some states, only qualified persons can apply for such an appointment, called a commission. Qualifications vary, but states often bar people with certain types of criminal convictions and who do not meet a certain age limit from being appointed, and applicants usually must pass an examination covering notary practices and relevant law. The material for such exams is typically contained in a booklet published by the state. Some states also require a bond or some form of professional liability insurance. Notaries in the United States are much less closely regulated than notaries in most other common-law countries, typically because U.S. notaries have no legal authority. In the United States, a lay notary may not offer legal advice or prepare documents - except in Louisiana and Puerto Rico - and cannot recommend how a person should sign a document or even what type of notarization is necessary, as these things would constitute unauthorized practice of law. In some states, a notary cannot even certify or attest a copy or facsimile. The most common notarial acts in the United States are the taking of acknowledgements and oaths. Many professions may require a person to double as a notary public, which is why US court reporters are often notaries as this enables them to swear in witnesses (deponents) when they are taking depositions, and secretaries, bankers, and some lawyers are commonly notaries public. Despite their limited role, some American notaries may also perform a number of far-ranging acts not generally found anywhere else. Depending on the jurisdiction, they may: take depositions, certify any and all petitions (ME), witness third-party absentee ballots (ME), provide no-impediment marriage licenses, solemnize civil marriages (ME, FL, SC), witness the opening of a safe deposit box or safe and take an official inventory of its contents, take a renunciation of dower or inheritance (SC), and so on. Acknowledgment "An acknowledgment is a formal [oral] declaration before an authorized public officer. It is made by a person executing [signing] an instrument who states that it was his [or her] free act and deed." That is, the person signed it without undue influence and for the purposes detailed in it. Piombino, Alfred E. (1996). Notary Public Handbook: A Guide for Vermont. n.p.: East Coast Press. 91. A certificate of acknowledgment is a written statement signed (and in some jurisdictions, sealed) by the notary or other authorized official that serves to prove that the acknowledgment occurred. The form of the certificate varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but will be similar to the following: Before me, the undersigned authority, on this ....... day of .........., personally appeared ................., to me well known to be the person who executed the foregoing instrument, and he/she acknowledged before me that he/she executed the same as his/her voluntary act and deed. Oath, affirmation, and jurat A jurat is the official written statement by a notary public that he or she has administered and witnessed an oath or affirmation for an oath of office, or on an affidavit - that is, that a person has sworn to or affirmed the truth of information contained in a document, under penalty of perjury, whether that document is a lengthy deposition or a simple statement on an application form. The simplest form of jurat and the oath or affirmation administered by a notary are: Jurat: "Sworn (or affirmed) to before me this ........ day of ........, 20 ......" Oath: "Do you solemnly swear that the contents of this affidavit subscribed by you is correct and true?" Affirmation (for those opposed to swearing oaths): "Do you solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm that the statements made by you are true and correct?" Venue In the U.S., notarial acts normally include what is called a venue or caption, that is, an official listing of the place where a notarization occurred, usually in the form of the state and county and with the abbreviation "ss." for Latin scilicet, "to wit", often in these forms: State of .......) )ss: County of.......)State of ________ County of _______, to-wit: The venue is usually set forth at the beginning of the instrument or at the top of the notary’s certificate. If at the head of the document, it is usually referred to as a caption. California The California Secretary of State, Notary Public & Special Filings Section, is responsible for appointing and commissioning qualified persons as notaries public for four-year terms. California Government Code §8200. Prior to sitting for the notary exam, one must complete a mandatory six-hour course of study. This required course of study is conducted either in an online, home study, or in-person format via an approved notary education vendor. California Secretary of State. (n.d.). Notary Public Check List. Viewed 9 January 2008. Both prospective notaries as well as current notaries seeking reappointment must undergo an "expanded" F.B.I. and California Department of Justice background check. California Government Code §8201.1. Various statutes, rules, and regulations govern notaries public. California law sets maximum, but not minimum, fees for services related to notarial acts (e.g., per signature: acknowledgment $10, jurat $10, certified power of attorney $10, et cetera). California Government Code §8211. A finger print (typically the right thumb) may be required in the notary journal based on the transaction in question (e.g., deed, quitclaim deed, deed of trust affecting real property, power of attorney document, et cetera). Documents with blank spaces cannot be notarized (a further anti-fraud measure). California explicitly prohibits notaries from using the literal Spanish translation of their title. http://www.ss.ca.gov/business/notary/notary_guidelines_2001.pdf The use of a notary seal is required. Florida Florida notaries public are appointed by the Governor to serve a four year term. New applicants and commissioned notary public must be bona fide residents of the State of Florida and first time applicants must complete a mandatory three hour online or in-person Notary Public Education class. Florida state law also requires that a notary public have a bond in the amount of $7,500.00, A bond is required in order to compensate an individual harmed as a result of a breach of duty by the notary. In other words, the bond protects a notary's client (not the notary). Applicants are submitted and paid through a state approved bonding agent. Florida is one of three states (Maine and South Carolina are the others) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony (perform a marriage ceremony). Florida Department of State. (n.d.). Marriage ceremony. Viewed 3 December 2006. Illinois Notaries public in Illinois are appointed by the Secretary of State for a four year term. Also, residents of a state bordering Illinois (Iowa, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Wisconsin) who work or have a place of business in Illinois can be appointed for a one year term. Notaries must be United States citizens, or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence; be able to read and write the English language; be residents of (or employed within) the State of Illinois for at least 30 days; be at least 18 years old; not be convicted of a felony; and not had a notary commission revoked or suspended during the past 10 years. Illinois Secretary of State. Notary Public Handbook. pp. 4-5 Viewed 20 August 2007. An applicant for the notary public commission must also post a $5,000 bond, usually with an insurance company and pay an application fee of $10. The application is usually accompanied with an oath of office. If the Secretary of State's office approves the application, the Secretary of State then sends the commission to the clerk of the county where the applicant resides. If the applicant records the commission with the county clerk, he or she then receives the commission. Illinois law prohibits notaries from using the literal Spanish translation in their title and requires them to use a rubber stamp seal for their notarizations. The notary public can then perform his or her duties anywhere in the state, as long as the notary resides (or works or does business) in the county where he or she was appointed. Illinois Secretary of State. Notary Public Handbook. pp. 5-6 Viewed 20 August 2007. Louisiana The Louisiana notary public is a civil law notary with broad powers, as authorized by law, usually reserved for the American style combination "Barrister/Solicitor" lawyers and other legally authorized practitioners in other states. A commissioned notary in Louisiana is a civil law notary that can perform/prepare many civil law notarial acts usually associated with attorneys and other legally authorized practitioners in other states, except represent another person or entity before a court of law for a fee (unless they are also admitted to the bar). Notaries are not allowed to give "legal" advice, but they are allowed to give "notarial" advice - i.e., explain or recommend what documents are needed or required to perform a certain act - and do all things necessary or incidental to the performance of their civil law notarial duties. They can prepare any document a civil law notary can prepare and, if ordered or requested to by a judge, prepare certain notarial legal documents, in accordance with law, to be returned and filed with that court of law. Louisiana Notary Association Maine Maine notaries public are appointed by the Secretary of State to serve a seven year term. Maine is one of three states (Florida and South Carolina are the others) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony (perform a marriage ceremony). Maine Department of the Secretary of State. (n.d.). Notary Public Handbook. p. 8 Viewed 3 December 2006. Maryland Maryland notaries public are appointed by the governor on the recommendation of the secretary of state to serve a four year term. New applicants and commissioned notaries public must be bona fide residents of the State of Maryland or work in the state. An application must be approved by a state senator before it is submitted to the secretary of state. The official document of appointment is imprinted with the signatures of the governor and the secretary of state as well as the Great Seal of Maryland. Before exercising the duties of a notary public, an appointee must appear before the clerk of one of Maryland's 24 circuit courts to take an oath of office. Minnesota Minnesota notaries public are commissioned by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate for a five year term. All commissions expire on January 31 of the fifth year following the year of issue. Citizens and resident aliens over the age of 18 years apply to the Secretary of State for appointment and reappointment. Residents of adjoining counties in adjoining states may also apply for a notary commission in Minnesota. Notaries public have the power to administer all oaths required or authorized to be administered in the state; take and certify all depositions to be used in any of the courts of the state; take and certify all acknowledgments of deeds, mortgages, liens, powers of attorney and other instruments in writing or electronic records; and receive, makeout and record notarial protests. The Secretary of State's website () provides more information about the duties, requirements and appointments of notaries public. Montana Montana notaries public are appointed by the Secretary of State and serve a four year term. A Montana notary public has jurisdiction throughout the states of Montana, North Dakota and Wyoming. These states permit notaries from neighboring states to act in the state in the same manner as one from that state under reciprocity, e.g. as long as that state grants notaries from neighboring states to act in their state. [Montana Code 1-5-605] Nevada The Secretary of State is charged with the responsibility of appointing notaries by the provisions of Chapter 240 of the Nevada Revised Statutes. Nevada notaries public who are not also practicing attorneys are prohibited by law from using "notario", "notario publico" or any non-English term to describe their services. (2005 Changes to NRS 240) Nevada notary duties: administer oaths or affirmations; take acknowledgments; use of subscribing witness; certify copies; and execute jurats or take a verification upon oath or affirmation. The State of Nevada Notary Division Page provides more information about duties, requirements, appointments, and classes. New Jersey Notaries are commissioned by the State Treasurer for a period of five years. Notaries must also be sworn in by the clerk of the county in which he or she resides. One can become a notary in the state of New Jersey if he or she: (1) is over the age of 18; (2) is a resident of New Jersey OR is regularly employed in New Jersey and lives in an adjoining state; (3) has never been convicted of a crime under the laws of any state or the United States, for an offense involving dishonesty, or a crime of the first or second degree, unless the person has met the requirements of the Rehabilitated Convicted Offenders Act (NJSA 2A:168-1). Notary applications must be endorsed by a state legislator. Notaries in the state of New Jersey serve as impartial witnesses to the signing of documents, attests to the signature on the document, and may also administer oaths and affirmations. Seals are not required; many people prefer them and as a result, most notaries have seals in addition to stamps. Notaries may administer oaths and affirmations to public officials and officers of various organizations. They may also administer oaths and affirmations in order to execute jurats for affidavits/verifications, and to swear in witnesses. Notaries are prohibited from pre-dating actions; lending notary equipment to someone else (stamps, seals, journals, etc); preparing legal documents or giving legal advice; appearing as a representative of another person in a legal proceeding. Notaries should also refrain from notarizing documents in which they have a personal interest. By statute, New Jersey attorneys may administer oaths and affirmation, and witness documents. New York New York notaries are empowered to administer oaths and affirmations (including oaths of office), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing; to demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing, and to protest these (that is, certify them) for non-acceptance or non-payment. They are not empowered to marry couples, their notarization of a will is insufficient to give the will legal force, and they are strictly forbidden to certify "true copies" of documents. Every county clerk's office in New York must have a notary public available to serve the public free of charge. Pennsylvania A notary in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is empowered to perform seven distinct official acts: take affidavits, verifications, acknowledgments and depositions, certify copies of documents, administer oaths and affirmations, and protest dishonored negotiable instruments. A notary is strictly prohibited from giving legal advice or drafting legal documents such as contracts, mortgages, leases, wills, powers of attorney, liens or bonds. Pennsylvania is one of the few states with a successful Electronic Notarization Initiative. For more information, visit the Secretary of the Commonwealth's website at http://www.dos.state.pa.us/notaries/. South Carolina South Carolina notaries public are appointed by the Governor to serve a ten year term. All applicants must first have that application endorsed by a state legislator before submitting their application to the Secretary of State. South Carolina is one of three states (Florida and Maine are the others) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony (perform a marriage ceremony). South Carolina Office of the Secretary of State. (2005). Duties of a South Carolina Notary Public Utah Utah notaries public are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor to serve a four year term. Utah used to require that impression seals be used, but now it is optional. The seal must be in purple ink. Virginia A Virginia notary must either be a resident of Virginia or work in Virginia, and is authorized to acknowledge signatures, take oaths, and certify copies of non-government documents which are not otherwise available, e.g. a notary cannot certify a copy of a birth or death certificate since a certified copy of the document can be obtained from the issuing agency. Changes to the law effective July 1 2008 imposes certain new requirements; while seals are required and they must reproducible. Also, the notary's registration number must appear on any document notarized. Changes to the law effective July 1 2008 will permit notarization of electronic signatures. This has been delayed by the Governor. His office is not appointing any electronic notaries until standards have developed for electronic notarization. Wyoming Wyoming notaries public are appointed by the Secretary of State and serve a four year term. A Wyoming notary public has jurisdiction throughout the states of Wyoming and Montana. These states permit notaries from neighboring states to act in the state in the same manner as one from that state under reciprocity, e.g. as long as that state grants notaries from neighboring states to act in their state. Controversies A Maryland requirement that to obtain a commission, a notary declare his belief in God, as required by the Maryland Constitution, was found by the United States Supreme Court in Torcaso v. Watkins, to be unconstitutional. Historically, some states required that a notary be a citizen of the United States. However, the U.S. Supreme Court, in the case of Bernal v. Fainter (the Fainter case), declared that to be impermissible. In the U.S., there are reports of notaries (or people claiming to be notaries) having taken advantage of the differing roles of notaries in common law and civil law jurisdictions to engage in the unauthorized practice of law. The victims of such scams are typically illegal immigrants from civil law countries who need assistance with, for example, their immigration papers and want to avoid hiring an attorney. Confusion often results from the mistaken premise that a notary public in the United States serves the same function as a Notario Publico in Spanish-speaking countries (which are civil law countries, see below). Prosecutions in such cases are difficult, as the victims are often deported and thus unavailable to testify. Commissioned officers A Commissioned Officer in the United States Armed Forces is not considered a Notary; however, federal law allows a commissioned officer to certify documents and administer oaths. In addition to the powers granted by the federal government, some states have enacted laws granting notarial powers to commissioned officers. (bad link) Canada Canadian notaries public are very much like their American counterparts, generally restricted to administering oaths, witnessing signatures on affidavits and statutory declarations, providing acknowledgements, certifying true copies, and so forth. However, in British Columbia, a notary public is more like a British or Australian notary (see supra). Appointments are for life and made through the Society of Notaries Public of British Columbia The Society of Notaries Public of BC, "Education", BC Notaries: A Trusted Tradition (2009): . . Furthermore, BC notaries exercize far greater power, able to dispense legal advice and draft public instruments including: notarizations notarizations/attestations of signatures, affidavits, statutory declarations, certified true copies, letters of invitation for foreign travel, authorization of minor child travel, execution/authentications of international documents, passport application documentation, proof of identity for travel purposes real estate law home purchase/sale; business purchase/sale; mortgages and refinancing; residential, commercial, & manufactures home transfer of title; restrictive covenants & builder's liens wills & estate planning preparation and searches of last wills and testaments, living wills, health care directives, representation agreements, powers of attorney contract law preparation of contracts and agreements, commercial lease and assignments easements and right of way insurance loss declarations marine bills of sale & mortgages marine protestations personal property security agreements purchaser's side for foreclosures subdivisions & statutory building schemes zoning applications The notarial profession in Quebec is similar to those of other civil law jurisdictions. Quebec notaries perform functions similar to those of notaries in British Columbia. A general overview of the notarial profession in Quebec: taken from the website of the Chambre des Notaires du Quebec. In order to become a notary in Quebec, one must first complete a bachelor's degree in law. After completing this law degree, would-be notaries attend a one-year training programme, The main page for the Chambre des Notaires du Quebec. followed by an apprenticeship (called a "stage" in Quebec) before they are entitled to practice the profession. Iran Notary Public is a trained lawyer that should pass some special exams to be able to open his office and start his work. Persian meaning of this word is "سردفتر" means head of the office and his assistant called "دفتریار". Both these persons should have Bachelor degree in law and Master degree in civil-law. Civil Law jurisdictions The role undertaken by notaries in civil law countries is much greater than in common law countries. Notaries in the former countries frequently undertake work done in common law countries by the Titles Office and other Government agencies. The qualifications imposed by some countries is much greater. In Greece, for example, a practitioner must choose to be either a solicitor or a notary. This should be contrasted with the Latin American notario who may be similar to an attorney at law or lawyer. A French notaire, a German Notar and an Italian Notaio register wills and other documents, and authenticates transactions of real estate. In the few United States jurisdictions where trained notaries are allowed (such as Puerto Rico), the practice of these jurists is limited to non-judicial legal advice, property conveyencing and legal drafting. Notable Notaries In addition to many well-known notaries public from the world of the law, there are several well-known notaries from other arenas of achievement. Klaus Hergescheimer of Massapequa, NY has the distinction of becoming the first notary to be commissioned in all fifty states (a feat since duplicated several times by others), as well as numerous territories and trust possessions. Richard Nixon confidante Robert Abplanalp was a notary for many years, as were Fawn Hall, teacher and astronaut Christa McAuliffe, and former major league baseball pitcher Joe Moeller. From the world of entertainment, actor Stanley Tucci, actresses Mindy Cohn and Jennifer Lopez, television host David Horowitz, and radio producer Gary Dell'abate all hold or have held notary certificates. Upon the death of President Warren G. Harding in 1923, Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as President by his father, a Vermont notary public. However, as there was some controversy as to whether a state notary public had the authority to administer the presidential oath of office, President Coolidge took the oath, again, upon returning to Washington. Short Guide for Vermont Notaries Public. (2007). Vermont Secretary of State. p. i. See also Articles about common notarial certificates (varies by jurisdiction): Acknowledgment (law) Copy certification Jurat Barrister Enotary Lawyer Legalization Solicitor References External links A Brief History State Notary Info - National Notary Association (US) The Notaries Society (UK) The Faculty of Notaries Public in Ireland The Law Society of Scotland Notary Locator (Australia) The Society of Notaries Public of BC (Canada) | Notary_public |@lemmatized embossed:2 foil:1 notary:270 seal:21 state:125 new:20 york:4 public:92 officer:10 constitute:2 law:84 serve:15 non:6 contentious:1 matter:6 usually:16 concern:3 estate:6 deed:13 power:21 attorney:21 foreign:20 international:4 business:8 main:3 function:9 administer:19 oath:32 affirmation:14 take:23 affidavit:15 statutory:8 declaration:11 witness:15 authenticate:6 execution:12 certain:12 class:6 document:65 acknowledgement:3 conveyance:2 protest:13 note:7 bill:7 exchange:5 provide:8 notice:1 draft:3 prepare:9 marine:3 case:12 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7,616 | Context-sensitive_language | In theoretical computer science, a context-sensitive language is a formal language that can be defined by a context-sensitive grammar. That is one of the four types of grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy. Of the four, this is the least often used, in both theory and practice. Computational properties Computationally the context-sensitive languages are equivalent with linear bounded non-deterministic Turing machines, also called a linear bounded automaton. That is a non-deterministic Turing machine with a tape of only kn cells, where n is the size of the input and k is a constant associated with the machine. This means that every formal language that can be decided by such a machine is a context-sensitive language, and every context-sensitive language can be decided by such a machine. This set of languages is also known as NLIN-SPACE, because they can be accepted using linear space on a non-deterministic Turing machine. The class LIN-SPACE is defined the same, except using a deterministic Turing machine. Clearly LIN-SPACE is a subset of NLIN-SPACE, but it is not known whether LIN-SPACE=NLIN-SPACE. It is widely suspected they are not equal. Examples An example of a context-sensitive language that is not context-free is L = { ap : p is a prime number }. L can be shown to be a context-sensitive language by constructing a linear bounded automaton which accepts L. The language can easily be shown to be neither regular nor context free by applying the respective pumping lemmas for each of the language classes to L. An example of recursive language that is not context-sensitive is any recursive language whose decision is an EXPSPACE-hard problem, say, the set of pairs of equivalent regular expressions with exponentiation. Properties of context-sensitive languages The union, intersection, and concatenation of two context-sensitive languages is context-sensitive. The complement of a context-sensitive language is itself context-sensitive. Every context-free language is context-sensitive. Membership of a string in a language defined by an arbitrary context-sensitive grammar, or by an arbitrary deterministic context-sensitive grammar, is a PSPACE-complete problem. See also Linear bounded automaton Chomsky hierarchy Noncontracting grammars – generate exactly the context-sensitive languages Indexed languages – a strict subset of the context-sensitive languages References Sipser, M. (1996), Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Co. | Context-sensitive_language |@lemmatized theoretical:1 computer:1 science:1 context:21 sensitive:18 language:20 formal:2 define:3 grammar:5 one:1 four:2 type:1 chomsky:2 hierarchy:2 least:1 often:1 use:3 theory:2 practice:1 computational:1 property:2 computationally:1 equivalent:2 linear:5 bound:4 non:3 deterministic:5 turing:4 machine:7 also:3 call:1 automaton:3 tape:1 kn:1 cell:1 n:1 size:1 input:1 k:1 constant:1 associate:1 mean:1 every:3 decide:2 set:2 know:2 nlin:3 space:7 accept:2 class:2 lin:3 except:1 clearly:1 subset:2 whether:1 widely:1 suspect:1 equal:1 examples:1 example:2 free:3 l:4 ap:1 p:1 prime:1 number:1 show:2 construct:1 easily:1 neither:1 regular:2 apply:1 respective:1 pumping:1 lemma:1 recursive:2 whose:1 decision:1 expspace:1 hard:1 problem:2 say:1 pair:1 expression:1 exponentiation:1 languages:1 union:1 intersection:1 concatenation:1 two:1 complement:1 membership:1 string:1 arbitrary:2 pspace:1 complete:1 see:1 noncontracting:1 generate:1 exactly:1 index:1 strict:1 reference:1 sipser:1 introduction:1 computation:1 pws:1 publish:1 co:1 |@bigram context_sensitive:18 chomsky_hierarchy:2 deterministic_turing:4 turing_machine:4 pspace_complete:1 |
7,617 | Military_of_Nicaragua | This article deals with the armed forces of Nicaragua. History National Guard 1927-1979 The long years of strife between the liberal and conservative political factions and the existence of private armies led the United States to sponsor the National Guard as an apolitical institution to assume all military and police functions in Nicaragua. The marines provided the training, but their efforts were complicated by a guerrilla movement led by Augusto César Sandino that continued to resist the marines and the fledgling National Guard from a stronghold in the mountainous areas of northern Nicaragua. Upon the advent of the United States Good Neighbor Policy in 1933, the marines withdrew. Having reached a strength of about 3,000 by the mid-1930s, the guard was organized into company units, although the Presidential Guard component approached battalion size. Expanded to no more than 9,000 during the civil war of 1978-79, the guard consisted of a reinforced battalion as its primary tactical unit, a Presidential Guard battalion, a mechanized company, an engineer battalion, artillery and antiaircraft batteries, and one security company in each of the country's sixteen departments. The National Guard's main arms were M1 Garands and Isreali Galils, later augmented by antiaircraft guns and mortars. Nicaragua declared war on the Axis powers in 1941, immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Although Nicaragua was not actively involved in World War II, it qualified for United States Lend-Lease military aid in exchange for U.S. base facilities at Corinto. Additional shipments of small arms and transportation and communication equipment followed, as well as some training and light transport aircraft. United States military aid to the National Guard continued under the Rio de Janeiro Treaty of Mutual Defense (1947), but stopped in 1976 after relations with the administration of Anastasio Somoza Debayle (1967-72, 1974-79) worsened. Some United States equipment of World War II vintage was also purchased from other countries--Staghound armored cars and M4 Sherman medium tanks from Israel and F-51 Mustang fighter aircraft from Sweden. Except for minor frontier skirmishes with Honduras in 1957 over a border dispute, the National Guard was not involved in any conflict with its neighbors. The guard's domestic power, however, gradually broadened to embrace not only its original internal security and police functions but also control over customs, telecommunications, port facilities, radio broadcasting, the merchant marine, and civil aviation. Military under Sandinista government 1979-1990 To replace the National Guard, the Sandinistas established a new national army, the Sandinista People's Army (Ejército Popular Sandinista--EPS), and a police force, the Sandinista Police (Policía Sandinista). These two groups, contrary to the original Puntarenas Pact were controlled by the Sandinistas and trained by personnel from Cuba, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union. Opposition to the overwhelming FSLN influence in the security forces did not surface until 1980. Meanwhile, the EPS developed, with support from Cuba and the Soviet Union, into the largest and best equipped military force in Central America. Compulsory military service, introduced during 1983, brought the EPS forces to about 80,000 by the mid-1980s. However, the conscription law was abolished in 1990. Nicaraguan Armed Forces 1990-1995 Under an agreement between President-elect Chamorro of the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Opositora - UNO) and the defeated FSLN party, General Humberto Ortega, former defense minister and commander in chief of the EPS under the Sandinistas, remained at the head of the armed forces. By a law that took effect in April 1990, the EPS became subordinate to President Chamorro as commander in chief. Chamorro also retained the Ministry of Defense portfolio. Chamorro's authority over the EPS was, however, very limited. There were no Ministry of Defense offices and no vice ministers to shape national defense policies or exercise civilian control over the armed forces. Under the Law of Military Organization of the Sandinista Popular Army enacted just before Chamorro's election victory, Humberto Ortega retained authority over promotions, military construction, and force deployments. He contracted for weapons procurement and drafted the military budget presented to the government. Only an overall budget had to be submitted to the legislature, thus avoiding a line-item review by the National Assembly. Sandinista officers remained at the head of all general staff directorates and military regions. The chief of the army, Major General Joaquín Cuadra Lacayo, continued in his pre-Chamorro position. Facing domestic pressure to remove Humberto Ortega and the risk of curtailment of United States aid as long as Sandinistas remained in control of the armed forces, Chamorro announced that Ortega would be replaced in 1994. Ortega challenged her authority to relieve him and reiterated his intention to remain at the head of the EPS until the army reform program was completed in 1997. The army reform measures were launched with deep cuts in personnel strengths, the abolition of conscription, and disbanding of the militia. The size of the army declined from a peak strength of 97,000 troops to an estimated 15,200 in 1993, accomplished by voluntary discharges and forced retirements. Under the Sandinistas, the army general staff embodied numerous branches and directorates artillery, combat readiness, communications, Frontier Guards, military construction, intelligence, counterintelligence, training, operations, organization and mobilization, personnel, and logistics. Most of these bodies appear to have been retained, although they have been trimmed and reorganized. The Nicaraguan Air Force and Navy were also subordinate to the army general staff. Since 1990 the mission of the EPS has been to ensure the security of the national borders and to deal with internal disturbances. Its primary task has been to prevent disorder and violence wrought by armed bands of former Contra and Sandinista soldiers. In November and December 1992, the EPS was deployed alongside the National Police to prevent violence during demonstrations by the National Workers' Front for improved pay and benefits. The EPS and the Frontier Guards also assist the police in narcotics control. A small EPS contingent works alongside demobilized Contras in a Special Disarmament Brigade to reduce the arsenal of weapons in civilian hands. National Army of Nicaragua 1995-present With the constitutional reforms made in 1995, the EPS got its current apolitical nature, turning into a professional, national military institution newly named "Ejército de Nicaragua" (National Army of Nicaragua). Army Equipment Light equipment Makarov PM AK-47 Assault Rifle AKM Assault Rifle M16 Assault Rifle IMI Galil Assault Rifle G3 Battle Rifle RPK Light Machine Gun PK Machine Gun DShK Heavy Machine Gun Dragunov SVD Sniper Rifle RPG-7 AGS-17 Armoured Vehicles T-54/55- 1301 Inventory 31 operational PT-76- 22 BTR-60- 64 9K31 Strela-1- ? BRDM-1 BRDM-2 BTR-152 BTR-50 Towed artillery D-30-36 D-20-60 Multiple rocket launchers Type 63-30 BM-21-30 Air Force Aircraft inventory ! style="text-align:left; background:#aacccc"|Aircraft ! style="text-align:left; background:#aacccc"|Origin ! style="text-align:left; background:#aacccc"|Type ! style="text-align:left; background:#aacccc"|Versions ! style="text-align:left; background:#aacccc"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007. |----- |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip||||transport helicopter||Mi-8Mil Mi-17 Hip-H||515 |----- | Cessna 172 Skyhawk||||trainer||T-41D||1 |----- | Cessna 210 Centurion||||utility|| ||2 |----- | Cessna 337 Skymaster||||liaison||O-2AO-2B||81 |----- | Antonov An-26 Curl||||transport||An-26C||2 |----- | Douglas C-47 Skytrain||||tactical transport||Basler Turbo 67Douglas C-47||11 |----- | Mil Mi-2 Hoplite||||trainer||Mi-2||3 |----- | Hughes H-6 Cayuse||||attack/tactical helicopter||OH-6||10 |----- | Fouga Magister||||trainer||CM.170||1 |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind||||attack helicopter||Mil Mi-25 Hind-D||5 |----- | Piper PA-23 Aztec||||utility||PA-23-250||1 |----- | Aero L-39 Albatros||||attack/trainer||Aero L-39||6 |} See also T-54/T-55 operators and variants References 1 http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/nicaragua/ni_appen.html#table12 http: http:// External links Ejercito.mil.ni Ejercito de Nicaragua | Military_of_Nicaragua |@lemmatized article:1 deal:2 armed:5 force:13 nicaragua:10 history:1 national:17 guard:14 long:2 year:1 strife:1 liberal:1 conservative:1 political:1 faction:1 existence:1 private:1 army:13 lead:2 united:6 state:6 sponsor:1 apolitical:2 institution:2 assume:1 military:13 police:6 function:2 marine:4 provide:1 training:3 effort:1 complicate:1 guerrilla:1 movement:1 augusto:1 césar:1 sandino:1 continue:3 resist:1 fledgling:1 stronghold:1 mountainous:1 area:1 northern:1 upon:1 advent:1 good:1 neighbor:2 policy:2 withdraw:1 reach:1 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7,618 | Murray_River | The Murray River, or River Murray and sometimes informally referred to as the "Mighty Murray", is Australia's largest river. At in length, the Murray rises in the Australian Alps, draining the western side of Australia's highest mountains and, for most of its length, meanders across Australia's inland plains, forming the border between New South Wales and Victoria as it flows to the northwest, before turning south for its final or so into South Australia then ends at the mouth at Lake Alexandrina. The waters of the Murray flow through several lakes that fluctuate in salinity (and were often fresh until recent decades) including Lake Alexandrina and The Coorong before emptying through the Murray Mouth into the southeastern portion of the Indian Ocean, often referenced on Australian maps as the Southern Ocean, near Goolwa. Despite discharging considerable volumes of water at times, particularly before the advent of large scale river regulation, the Mouth has always been comparatively small and shallow. As of 2008, the Murrary River only receives 36% of its natural flow. Geography The Murray River The Murray River forms part of the 3,750 kilometre (2,300 miles) long combined Murray-Darling river system which drains most of inland Victoria, New South Wales, and southern Queensland. Overall the catchment area is one seventh of Australia's land mass. The Murray carries only a small fraction of the water of comparably-sized rivers in other parts of the world, and with a great annual variability of its flow. In its natural state it has even been known to dry up completely in extreme drought, although that is extremely rare, with only two or three instances of this occurring since official record keeping began. The Murray makes up much of the border of the Australian states of Victoria and New South Wales. The border is generally agreed upon to be the southern high water mark of the river (ie, none of the river itself is actually in Victoria). This boundary definition can be ambiguous, as the river has changed its course slightly since the boundary was defined in 1851. West of the 141°E line of longitude, the river continues as the Victoria - South Australia border for , this being the only stretch where a state border runs down the middle of the river. This was due to a miscalculation in the 1840s when the border was originally surveyed. Past this point, the Murray River is entirely within the state of South Australia. Major Settlements Albury/Wodonga - VIC/NSW - 83,000 Echuca - VIC - 12,500 Swan Hill - VIC - 9,700 Mildura - VIC - 30,000 Renmark - SA - 8,000 Murray Bridge - SA - 20,500 River life Aerial view of Nangiloc, Iraak and Colignan during the 1956 Murray River flood. The Murray River (and associated tributaries) support a variety of unique river life adapted to its vagaries. This includes a variety of native fish such as the famous Murray cod, trout cod, golden perch, Macquarie perch, silver perch, eel-tailed catfish, Australian smelt and western carp gudgeon, to name a few, and other aquatic species like the Murray short-necked turtle, Murray River crayfish, broad-clawed yabbies and the large clawed Macrobrachium shrimp, as well as aquatic species more widely distributed through south-eastern Australia such as common long-necked turtles, common yabbies, the small claw-less Parataya shrimp, water rats and Platypus. The Murray River also supports fringing corridors and forests of the famous river red gum. The health of the Murray River has declined significantly since European settlement, particularly due to river regulation, and much of its aquatic life including native fish are now declining, rare or endangered. Recent extreme droughts (2000–2007) have put significant stress on river red gum forests, with mounting concern over their long term survival. The Murray has also flooded on occasion, the most significant of which was the 1956 flood which inundated many towns on the lower Murray and lasted for up to six months. Introduced fish species such as Carp, Gambusia, weather loach, redfin perch and brown trout and rainbow trout have also had serious negative effects on native fish, while Carp have contributed to environmental degradation of the Murray River and tributaries by destroying aquatic plants and permanently raising turbidity. In some segments of the Murray, carp have been the only species found. Ancient history Lake Bungunia Between 2.5 and 0.5 million years ago the Murray River terminated in a vast freshwater lake called Lake Bungunia. Lake Bungunia was formed by earth movement that blocked the Murray River near Swan Reach during this period of time. At its maximum extent Lake Bungunia covered , extending to near the Menindee Lakes in the north and to near Boundary Bend on the Murray in south. The draining of Lake Bungunia approximately 0.5 million years ago must have been a dramatic event. Deep clays deposited by the lake are evident in cliffs around Chowilla in South Australia. Considerably higher rainfall would have been required to keep such a lake full; the draining of Lake Bungunia appears to mark the end of a wet phase in the history of the Murray-Darling Basin and the onset of widespread arid conditions similar to today. A species of Neoceratodus lungfish existed in Lake Bungunia (McKay & Eastburn, 1990); today Neoceratodus lungfish are only found in several Queensland rivers. Cadell Fault and formation of the Barmah Red Gum Forests The famous Barmah Red Gum Forests owe their existence to the Cadell Fault. About 25,000 years BP, displacement occurred along the Cadell fault, raising the eastern edge of the fault (which runs north-south) 8-12 metres above the floodplain. This created a complex series of events. A section of the original Murray River channel immediately behind the fault was abandoned, and exists today as an empty channel known as Green Gully. The Goulburn River was dammed by the southern end of the fault to create a natural lake. The Murray River flowed to the north around the Cadell Fault, creating the channel of the Edward River which exists today and through which much of the Murray River's waters still flow. Then the natural dam on the Goulburn River failed, the lake drained, and the Murray River avulsed to the south and started to flow through the smaller Goulburn River channel, creating "The Barmah Choke" and "The Narrows" (where the river channel is unusually narrow), before entering into the proper Murray River channel again. This complex series of events however divert attention from the primary result of the Cadell Fault. The primary result of the Cadell Fault is that the west-flowing water of the Murray River strikes the north-south running fault and diverts both north and south around the fault in the two main channels (Edward and ancestral Goulburn) as well as a fan of small streams, and regularly floods a large amount of low-lying country in the area. These conditions are perfect for River Red Gums, which rapidly formed forests in the area. Thus the displacement of the Cadell Fault 25,000 BP lead directly to the formation of the famous Barmah River Red Gum Forests The Barmah Choke and The Narrows mean the amount of water that can travel down this part of the Murray River is restricted. In times of flood and high irrigation flows the majority of the water, in addition to flooding the Red Gum forests, actually travels through the Edward River channel. The Murray River has not had enough flow power to naturally enlarge The Barmah Choke and The Narrows to increase the amount of water they can carry. The town of Barmah, Victoria is unusual in that it is north of part of New South Wales, although everywhere else Victoria is south of New South Wales. Echuca on the map above is very close to Barmah. The Cadell Fault is quite noticeable as a continuous, low, earthen embankment as one drives into Barmah from the west, although to the untrained eye it may appear man-made. The confluence of the Darling and Murray Rivers at Wentworth, New South Wales Murray Mouth The Murray Mouth is the point at which the Murray River empties into the sea. Since the early 2000s, dredging machines have operated at the Murray Mouth, moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the Coorong's lagoon system. Without the 24 hour dredging, the Mouth would silt up and close, cutting the supply of fresh sea-water into the Coorong, which would then warm up, stagnate and die. Mythology Being one of the major river systems in one of the driest continents of Earth, the Murray has significant cultural relevance to Indigenous Australians. According to the peoples of Lake Alexandrina, the Murray was created by the tracks of the Great Ancestor, Ngurunderi, as he pursued Pondi, the Murray Cod. The chase originated in the interior of New South Wales. Ngurunderi pursued the fish (who, like many totem animals in Aboriginal myths, is often portrayed as a man) on rafts (or lala) made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target. But Pondi was a wily prey and carved a weaving path, carving out the river's various tributaries. Ngurundi was forced to beach his rafts, and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river. At Kobathatang, Ngurunderi finally got lucky, and struck Pondi in the tail with a spear. However, the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called Peindjalang, near Tailem Bend. Eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey, the hunter and his two wives (sometimes the escaped sibling wives of Waku and Kanu) hurried on, and took positions high on the cliff on which Tailem Bend now stands. They sprung an ambush on Pondi only to fail again. Ngurunderi set off in pursuit again, but lost his prey as Pondi dived into Lake Alexandrina. Ngurunderi and his women settled on the shore, only to suffer bad luck with fishing, being plagued by a water fiend known as Muldjewangk. They later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present-day Ashville. The twin summits of Mount Misery are supposed to be the remnants of his rafts, they are known as Lalangengall or the two watercraft. Remarkably, this story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out the Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system. The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. European Exploration The first Europeans to explore the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell, who crossed the river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the Hume River after his father. In 1830 Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the Murray River in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Sir George Murray, not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream. Sturt continued down the remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth. The area of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831. In 1852 Francis Cadell built a canoe and set off to become the first European to travel the whole length of the river. In 1858 the Government Zoologist, William Blandowski, along with Gerard Krefft, explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling a list of birds and mammals. During the expedition they accumulated 17,400 specimens and described several new species. River transport The PS Murray Princess is the largest paddlewheeler operating on the Murray river The P.S. Melbourne passing through Lock 11 at Mildura The lack of an estuary means that shipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea. However in the 19th century the river used to support a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft steamboats, the first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853. One vessel, Lady Augusta reached Swan Hill while another, Mary Ann made it as far as Moama (near Echuca). In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal, Wahgunya and Albury Railways and Riverboats Rowland, E.C. Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin, January, 1976 pp1-16 . The arrival of steamboat transport was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields. By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries. Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne. The Murray was plagued by "snags", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches. In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these "snags" by placing dead gum trees back into the river. The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of "snags". Drawing of a paddle steamer travelling the Murray at night, c.1880 The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion. By this time up to thirty steamers and a similar number of barges were working the river in season. River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points. The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport. However, the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length. Today, most traffic on the river is recreational. Small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing. Houseboats are common, both commercial for hire and privately owned. There are a number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from a half-hour to 5 days. River crossings The Murray River has been a significant barrier to land-based travel and trade. Many of the ports for transport of goods along the Murray have also developed as places to cross the river, either by bridge or ferry. Water storage and irrigation A branch of the Murray in its middle reaches, near Howlong, New South Wales Small-scale pumping plants began drawing water from the Murray in the 1850s and the first large-volume plant was constructed at Mildura in 1887. The introduction of pumping stations along the river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas (including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area). In 1915 the three Murray states — New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia — signed the River Murray Agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river's headwaters as well as at Lake Victoria near the South Australian border. Along the intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built. These were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water, but river-borne transport was already declining due to improved road and rail systems. In 2006 the state government of South Australia revealed their plan to investigate the construction of the controversial Wellington Weir. Locks Lock 11, Mildura. Lock 1 was completed near Blanchetown in 1922. Torrumbarry Weir downstream of Echuca began operating in December 1923. Of the numerous locks that were proposed, only thirteen were completed; Locks 1 to 11 on the stretch downstream of Mildura, Lock 15 at Euston and Lock 26 at Torrumbarry. Construction of the remaining weirs purely for navigation purposes was abandoned in 1934. The last lock to be completed was Lock 15, in 1937. Lock 11, just downstream of Mildura, creates a long lock pool which aided irrigation pumping from Mildura and Red Cliffs. Each lock has a navigable passage next to it through the weir, which is opened during periods of high river flow, when there is too much water for the lock. The weirs can be completely removed, and the locks completely covered by water during flood conditions. Lock 11 is unique in that the lock was built inside a bend of the river, with the weir in the bend itself. A Channel was dug to the lock, creating an island between it and the weir. The weir is also of a different design, being dragged out of the river during high flow, rather than lifted out. Four large reservoirs were built along the Murray; in addition to Lake Victoria (completed late 1920s) is Lake Hume near Albury-Wodonga (completed 1936), Lake Mulwala at Yarrawonga (completed 1939) and Lake Dartmouth, which is actually on the Mitta Mitta River upstream of Lake Hume (completed 1979). The Murray also receives water from the complex dam and pipeline system of the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Dead and dying River Red Gums on the lower Murray near Berri, South Australia. These dams inverted the patterns of the river's natural flow from the original winter-spring flood and summer-autumn dry to the present low level through winter and higher during summer. These changes ensured the availability of water for irrigation and made the Murray Valley Australia's most productive agricultural region, but have seriously disrupted the life cycles of many ecosystems both inside and outside the river, and the irrigation has led to dryland salinity that now threatens the agricultural industries. The disruption of the river's natural flow, run-off from agriculture, and the introduction of pest species like the European Carp has led to serious environmental damage along the river's length and to concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term — a serious problem given that the Murray supplies 40% of Adelaide's domestic water. Efforts to alleviate the problems proceed but disagreement between interested groups stalls progress. See also Major tributaries Mitta Mitta River Kiewa River Murrumbidgee River Goulburn River Darling River Population centres Albury-Wodonga Echuca Swan Hill Mildura Renmark Murray Bridge Goolwa External links The Murray Darling Crisis - ABC TV Catalyst Murray-Darling Basin Commission: The River Murray and Lower Darling River pilot maps 1880-1918 / Echuca Historical Society Down the River Murray An ABC 5 part series on the river and its people Notes and references Isaacs J (1980) Australian Dreaming: 40,000 Years of Aboriginal History, Lansdowne Press, Sydney, New South Wales, ISBN 0-7018-1330-X | Murray_River |@lemmatized murray:75 river:99 sometimes:2 informally:1 refer:1 mighty:1 australia:14 large:7 length:6 rise:1 australian:8 alp:1 drain:3 western:2 side:1 high:9 mountain:1 meander:1 across:1 inland:2 plain:1 form:5 border:7 new:13 south:28 wale:10 victoria:12 flow:15 northwest:1 turn:2 final:1 end:3 mouth:9 lake:24 alexandrina:5 water:23 several:3 fluctuate:1 salinity:2 often:4 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7,619 | Garbage_in,_garbage_out | Garbage In, Garbage Out (abbreviated to GIGO, coined as a pun on First-In, First-Out) is a phrase in the field of computer science or Information Communication technology. It is used primarily to call attention to the fact that computers will unquestioningly process the most nonsensical of input data and produce nonsensical output. It was most popular in the early days of computing, but applies even more today, when powerful computers can spew out mountains of erroneous information in a short time. The actual term "Garbage in, Garbage out", coined as a teaching mantra by George Fuechsel, an IBM 305 RAMAC technician/instructor in New York, soon contracted to the acronym GIGO. Early programmers were required to test virtually each program step and cautioned not to expect that the resulting program would "do the right thing" when given imperfect input. The underlying principle was noted by the inventor of the first programmable device, who said: It is also commonly used to describe failures in human decision making due to faulty, incomplete, or imprecise data. For example, a poorly typeset TeX document will look bad because the user did not write the TeX source well. The term can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although digitizing can be the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original analog signal will be faithfully recorded, but may be identified and removed by a subsequent step. (See Digital signal processing.) Garbage In, Gospel Out is a more recent expansion of the acronym. It is a sardonic comment on the tendency to put excessive trust in 'computerized' data, and on the propensity for individuals to blindly accept what the computer says. Because the data goes through the computer, people tend to believe it. Non-computer-related use of the term The term can be used in any field in which it is difficult to create a good result when given bad input. For example, in translation, it is difficult to convert a source text that is confused, illogical or missing pertinent information into a quality translation. A translator may use the phrase "Garbage in, garbage out" to explain the importance of good source text to a client. As another example, in quality implications, the quality of the materials a manufacturer procures directly affects the quality of the finished product. Management of Business Logistics, 7th ed. The phrase is also used in the professional audio field in reference to the importance of high quality microphones and/or source material. In the former case, the term describes the fact that no matter how great the quality of the source material, if the microphone is not suited for the application or is simply poor quality, then it's "garbage in, garbage out" on your recording. The latter case describes the reverse scenario in which the source material (such as a singer with a weak voice or a detuned instrument) is of poor quality, and not even the highest quality microphone can make it sound better. The term is used as a guiding principle in organic chemistry. If materials used in an organic synthesis are not pure enough, the result can be a complex mixture with little of the desired product. Colloquially, the term has been used to refer to anything from human health to relationships. For example, eating junk food ("garbage in") will result in low energy and poor health ("garbage out"). Notes and references See also FIFO KIBO SNAFU FUBAR signal-to-noise ratio | Garbage_in,_garbage_out |@lemmatized garbage:11 abbreviate:1 gigo:2 coin:2 pun:1 first:4 phrase:3 field:3 computer:6 science:1 information:3 communication:1 technology:1 use:10 primarily:1 call:1 attention:1 fact:2 unquestioningly:1 process:1 nonsensical:2 input:3 data:4 produce:1 output:1 popular:1 early:2 day:1 computing:1 applies:1 even:2 today:1 powerful:1 spew:1 mountain:1 erroneous:1 short:1 time:1 actual:1 term:7 teaching:1 mantra:1 george:1 fuechsel:1 ibm:1 ramac:1 technician:1 instructor:1 new:1 york:1 soon:1 contract:1 acronym:2 programmer:1 require:1 test:1 virtually:1 program:2 step:3 caution:1 expect:1 resulting:1 would:1 right:1 thing:1 give:2 imperfect:1 underlying:1 principle:2 note:2 inventor:1 programmable:1 device:1 say:2 also:4 commonly:1 describe:3 failure:1 human:2 decision:1 make:2 due:1 faulty:1 incomplete:1 imprecise:1 example:4 poorly:1 typeset:1 tex:2 document:1 look:1 bad:2 user:1 write:1 source:6 well:2 explanation:1 poor:4 quality:11 digitized:1 audio:2 video:1 file:1 although:1 digitizing:1 clean:1 signal:4 improve:1 defect:1 original:1 analog:1 faithfully:1 record:1 may:2 identify:1 remove:1 subsequent:1 see:2 digital:1 processing:1 gospel:1 recent:1 expansion:1 sardonic:1 comment:1 tendency:1 put:1 excessive:1 trust:1 computerized:1 propensity:1 individual:1 blindly:1 accept:1 go:1 people:1 tend:1 believe:1 non:1 related:1 difficult:2 create:1 good:2 result:3 translation:2 convert:1 text:2 confuse:1 illogical:1 miss:1 pertinent:1 translator:1 explain:1 importance:2 client:1 another:1 implication:1 material:5 manufacturer:1 procure:1 directly:1 affect:1 finished:1 product:2 management:1 business:1 logistics:1 ed:1 professional:1 reference:2 high:2 microphone:3 former:1 case:2 matter:1 great:1 suit:1 application:1 simply:1 recording:1 latter:1 reverse:1 scenario:1 singer:1 weak:1 voice:1 detuned:1 instrument:1 sound:1 guide:1 organic:2 chemistry:1 synthesis:1 pure:1 enough:1 complex:1 mixture:1 little:1 desired:1 colloquially:1 refer:1 anything:1 health:2 relationship:1 eat:1 junk:1 food:1 low:1 energy:1 fifo:1 kibo:1 snafu:1 fubar:1 noise:1 ratio:1 |@bigram garbage_garbage:4 signal_processing:1 organic_chemistry:1 |
7,620 | David_Fincher | David Leo Fincher (born August 28, 1962) is an Academy Award-nominated American filmmaker and music video director known for his dark and stylish movies such as Seven, Fight Club, Zodiac and The Curious Case of Benjamin Button. Early life and career Fincher was born in Denver, Colorado, the son of Jack Fincher, a bureau chief and writer for Life magazine. http://www.filmreference.com/film/69/David-Fincher.html Fincher was raised in Marin County, California. He moved to Ashland, Oregon in his teens where he graduated from Ashland High School. Inspired by Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, Fincher began making movies at age eight with an 8 mm camera. Fincher eschewed the film school route, getting a job loading cameras and doing other hands-on work for John Korty's Korty Films. He was later hired by Industrial Light & Magic in 1980, where he worked on productions for Twice Upon a Time, Return of the Jedi and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. In 1984, he left ILM to direct a commercial for the American Cancer Society, that would show a fetus smoking a cigarette. This quickly brought Fincher to the attention of producers in Los Angeles and he was given the chance to direct the documentary The Beat of the Live Drum featuring Rick Springfield in 1985. Though he would continue to direct spots for companies like Revlon, Converse, Nike, Pepsi, Sony, and Levi's, Fincher soon discovered music videos and went on to direct many promos. Propaganda Films Set on a directing career, Fincher joined video-production company Propaganda Films and started off directing music videos and commercials. Like Fincher, other directors such as Meiert Avis, David Kellogg, Michael Bay, Antoine Fuqua, Neil LaBute, Spike Jonze, Mark Romanek, Michel Gondry, Paul Rachman, Zack Snyder, Gore Verbinski, and Alex Proyas honed their talents at Propaganda Films before moving on to feature films. Music videos Fincher directed big budget music videos for artists such as Madonna (including "Express Yourself", "Vogue", "Oh Father" and "Bad Girl"), Billy Idol ("Cradle of Love"), Paula Abdul (including "(It's Just) The Way That You Love Me", "Straight Up", "Forever Your Girl" and "Cold Hearted"), Aerosmith ("Janie's Got a Gun"), The Rolling Stones (including "Love Is Strong"), Nine Inch Nails ("Only"), A Perfect Circle ("Judith"), Jody Watley (including "Real Love" and "Most of All"), Rick Springfield, Steve Winwood, Neneh Cherry ("Heart"), George Michael, Michael Jackson, The Wallflowers, Wire Train and The Outfield. Features Alien³ After directing several popular music videos, Fincher's feature debut was Alien³ (1992), which was at the time the most expensive picture ever made by a first-time director. While it received an Oscar nomination for special effects, the film was not well received by critics or moviegoers. Fincher became involved with several disputes with 20th Century Fox over script and budget issues, which eventually led Fincher to disassociate himself with the production in later years, as evidenced by his refusal to record a commentary track for the 9-disc Alien Quadrilogy box-set released in 2003 as well as having the film removed from his filmography sections on the DVDs for Fight Club and Panic Room. In "The Director's Cut", Conversations with 21 Hollywood directors he blames the producers for not putting the necessary trust in him. He has said that they were not interested in making a good film but instead wanted to exploit the franchise in the most profitable manner. Even after the film had already opened in the USA, a Japanese trailer still advertised a storyline that was not in the movie but which the producers would have preferred because of greater expected popularity at the international box office. After this, Fincher retreated back into the world of commercial and music video directing, earning a Grammy for the Rolling Stones' video "Love Is Strong" (1994). Seven In 1995 Fincher directed Seven. The film, based on a screenplay by Andrew Kevin Walker, told the story of two detectives (played in the movie by Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman) tracking down a serial killer (Kevin Spacey) who bases his killings on the seven deadly sins. The film grossed more than $100 million domestically (over $300 million internationally). Seven (1995) The chairman of New Line Cinema, Arnold Kopelson, originally refused to allow filming of the shocking climactic scene. With the aid of Brad Pitt, who stated that he would not be involved with the picture if its ending were changed, Fincher was allowed to film the original scene and use it in the final cut. The Game After the success of Seven, Fincher went on to film The Game (1997), a Twilight Zone-style thriller which shared many similarities in style with Seven. The film failed to get the warm reception enjoyed by its predecessor. The story focused on a closed off San Francisco businessman (played by Michael Douglas) who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), in which he becomes the main player of a role-playing game that takes over his life. It was well received by critics despite middling box-office returns. Fight Club Fight Club was a screen adaptation of Chuck Palahniuk's novel of the same name about an insomniac office worker who opens up a club devoted exclusively to bare knuckle fighting for men. Featuring Edward Norton, Helena Bonham Carter, and Seven collaborator Brad Pitt, the 1999 film was easily one of the most publicized of the year but was an early disappointment at the box-office and received mixed reviews. Fight Club was panned by several critics and alienated audiences leading to its box office failure in the United States. However many critics and audiences later changed their perceptions and the film appeared on many 'best of the year' lists and soon developed a following. Entertainment Weekly, which had originally given the film a negative grade of D, later ranked the DVD #1 on its list of "The Top 50 DVDs You Need To Own." In 2006 the British magazine Total Film voted Fight Club number four in the 100 Greatest Movies of All Time, beaten only by Jaws, Vertigo and Goodfellas at 3, 2 and 1 respectively. Total Film - Who is the greatest? Panic Room In 2002, Fincher followed up with the thriller Panic Room. Though the film impressively pulled in over $92 million at the U.S. box office, it was not as well received by critics as Seven, Fight Club or The Game. The story follows a single mother (Jodie Foster) and her daughter as they hide in a safe room of their new house, away from criminals (Forest Whitaker, Dwight Yoakam and Fight Club collaborator Jared Leto) bent on finding a missing fortune. Fincher acknowledged Panic Room as a more mainstream thriller, describing the film as "[basically] a date movie" and a "really good B movie" about "two people trapped in a closet" on the DVD's audio commentary. Zodiac Five years after Panic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007 with Zodiac, an adaptation of Robert Graysmith's books about the hunt for the Zodiac Killer that starred Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Edwards, and Brian Cox. The vast majority of the film was shot digitally on a Thompson Viper Film Stream Camera. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot digitally. However, it was not entirely digital: High-speed film cameras were used for the Blue Rock Springs and Presidio Heights murder scenes for the slow-motion shots. Zodiac Director's Cut DVD, 2nd Disc, Visual Effects featurette It was originally to be released in the fall of 2006 but was pushed back after Fincher refused to cut 20 minutes off the film. Zodiac was one of the best-reviewed films of that year, with only two other 2007 films appearing on more top-10 lists (No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood). Best of 2007 « CriticsTop10 However, the film struggled at the box office, earning only $33 Million in the U.S. Box Office Report - 2007 Box Office Despite an aggressive campaign by the studio, expectations surrounding Robert Downey Jr.'s supporting performance, Fincher's direction and Vanderbilt's adapted script, the film did not earn a single Academy Award nomination. Nominees | 80th Annual Academy Awards | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences The Curious Case of Benjamin Button A story about life and death, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button is Fincher's latest film. It is an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's short story of the same name. The film was Fincher's third with Brad Pitt. The film started shooting in November 2006 in New Orleans, before moving on to the Virgin Islands, Montreal, and L.A.. Both Zodiac and this film are co-productions of Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures. The budget for the film was estimated at $150 million, partly due to the CGI effects used to reverse the aging in Brad Pitt's character. The film is the first PG-13 film directed by Fincher. It received 13 nominations at the 81st Academy Awards, including Fincher's first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director. The box office office performance was a considerable total gross of $302,386,000 as of March 2. Future projects Ness On September 5, 2008, Firstshowing.net reported that Matt Damon is in talks to play Eliot Ness in Ness with Fincher lined up to direct, as well as being attatched to direct an adaptation of the graphic novel Torso by Brian Michael Bendis and Marc Andreyko, and that the producers were looking for locations in Cleveland, Ohio. Rumor: Matt Damon in David Fincher's Torso Adaptation? The Killer On November 1, 2007, Variety reported that Fincher was attached to do an adaptation of a French graphic novel called The Killer by Alexis Nolent, which was optioned by Paramount Pictures and Brad Pitt's Plan B Entertainment, with Pitt attached to star in the film. Scripted by Allesandro Camon, the film is about a top assassin, with his conscience getting the better of him, and a cop on his tail. Paramount, Fincher catch 'Killer' - Entertainment News, Film News, Media - Variety Black Hole On February 20, 2008, Variety reported that Fincher was set to direct an adaptation of the Charles Burns comic book, Black Hole. The film, set up at Paramount Pictures, is set to follow sexually active teens who begin to transmit a 'bug' sexually, which causes strange mutations. As of now, no production timetable has been set. The Goon On July 2, 2008, it was announced that Fincher has optioned Eric Powell's award winning comic, The Goon. BLUR STUDIO is to develop as a CG animated feature film with Dark Horse Entertainment for Universal Pictures. Ready for this GOON fans? Eric Powell's comic book optioned... by someone really cool... - Ain't It Cool News: The best in movie, TV, DVD, and comic book news Heavy Metal Variety reported that Paramount Pictures will make another animated film with David Fincher, based on the Heavy Metal comics. Fincher is set to direct one of the film's eight or nine segments, which will also feature other directors such as animator Tim Miller and magazine owner and publisher Kevin Eastman directing another. The film is envisioned as being an animated, adult-themed R-rated film. Par, Fincher put pedal to 'Metal' Eastman, Miller to direct animated segments On July 14, 2008 Paramount Pictures announced the movie is put on hold. Heavy Metal remake on hold On September 4, 2008, it was announced the film was to be made by Columbia Pictures, and a few of the directors attached to make a segment each includes Zack Snyder, Gore Verbinski and Guillermo del Toro. Zack Snyder, Gore Verbinski, Guillermo del Toro Directing Heavy Metal Segments? Chef In November 2008, Production Weekly announced Sony picked up the rights to a sex comedy entitled Chef with Keanu Reeves in a starring role. Written by Steven Knight, the project is now set up at Paramount Pictures with Fincher set to direct, a project he has planned for many years. Rumor: Matt Damon in David Fincher's Torso Adaptation? Filmography Theatrical films Alien³ (1992) Seven (1995) The Game (1997) Fight Club (1999) Panic Room (2002) Zodiac (2007) The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008) Ness (2010) (announced) Heavy Metal (2010, segment) Black Hole (TBA) Integrity (TBA) Chef (TBA) The Goon (TBA) Gross of films (including known rental and DVD sales) Total Gross not including The Curious Case of Benjamin Button is $1.1 billion. Music videos "Dance This World Away" Rick Springfield (1984) "Celebrate Youth" Rick Springfield (1984) "Bop Til You Drop" Rick Springfield (1984) "Shame," The Motels (1985) "Shock," The Motels (1985) "All The Love," The Outfield (1986) "Every Time You Cry," The Outfield (1986) "One Simple Thing," Stabilizers (1986) "She Comes On," Wire Train (1987) "Should She Cry," Wire Train (1987) "Endless Nights," Eddie Money (1987) "Downtown Train," Patty Smyth (1987) "I Don't Mind At All," Bourgeois Tagg (1987) "Notorious," Loverboy (1987) "Love Will Rise Again," Loverboy (1987) "Johnny B," The Hooters (1987) "Storybook Story," Mark Knopfler (1987) "Can I Hold You," Colin Hay (1987) "No Surrender," The Outfield (1987) "Say You Will," Foreigner (1987) "Don't Tell Me The Time," Martha Davis (1987) "Tell It To the Moon," Martha Davis (1988) "Heart of Gold," Johnny Hates Jazz (1988) "Englishman in New York," Sting (1988) "Shattered Dreams" (second version), Johnny Hates Jazz (1988) "Get Rhythm," Ry Cooder (1988) "Most of All," Jody Watley (1988) "Roll With It," Steve Winwood (1988) "(It's Just) The Way That You Love Me" (version 1988), Paula Abdul (1988) "Holding On," Steve Winwood (1988) "Heart," Neneh Cherry (1989) "Bamboleo" (second version), Gypsy Kings (1989) "Straight Up," Paula Abdul (1989) "Most Of All" Jody Watley (1989) "Real Love," Jody Watley (1989) "Bamboleo" (third version), Gypsy Kings (1989) "She's A Mystery To Me," Roy Orbison (1989) "Forever Your Girl," Paula Abdul (1989) "Express Yourself," Madonna (1989) "The End of the Innocence," Don Henley (1989) "Cold Hearted," Paula Abdul (1989) "(It's Just) The Way That You Love Me" (version 1989), Paula Abdul (1988) "Oh Father," Madonna (1989) "Janie's Got a Gun," Aerosmith (1989) "Vogue," Madonna (1990) "Cradle of Love," Billy Idol (1990) "L.A. Woman," Billy Idol (1990) "Freedom '90," George Michael (1990) "Bad Girl," Madonna (1993) "Who Is It?," Michael Jackson (1993) "Love Is Strong," The Rolling Stones (1994) "6th Avenue Heartache," The Wallflowers (1996) "Judith," A Perfect Circle (2000) "Only," Nine Inch Nails (2005) Commercials Adidas - "Legs" (2002) American Cancer Society - "Smoking Fetus" (1984) Apple Inc. - "iPhone 3G" (2008) AT&T - "You Will" (1993) Budweiser - "Pool Hall" (1993) Chanel - "The Director" (1992) Coke - "Blade Roller" (1993) Coke - "The Arquettes" (2003) Heineken - "Beer Run" (2004) HP - "Constant Change" (2004) Honda - "Escape" (1995) Levi's - "Restaurant" (1994) Levi's - "Chase" (1996) Levi's - "Reason #259" (1998) Motorola - "Pebl" (2005) Nike - "Barkley On Broadway" (1992) Nike - "Instant Karma" (1993) Nike - "Game Breakers" (2003) Nike - "Speed Chain" (2003) Nike - "Fate" (2008) Softbank - "Wind" (2008) Sprite (2007) - featured artists: Se7en, JJ Lin, and He Jie 세븐, '파이트클럽' 데이비드 핀처 감독 만났다 Xbox 360 - Gears of War "Mad World" (2006, as "creative consultant" only) Fight Club Director's Gears Of War Trailer Out Now: News from 1UP.com Xelibri - "Beauty For Sale" (2003) Interviews David Fincher interview with Paul Guyot of www.dvdtalk.com David Fincher interview with Michael Moses of www.drdrew.com David Fincher interview with Gavin Smith of edward-norton.org Esquire magazine interview with Fincher IndieLondon interview with Fincher David Fincher Didn't Want To Make 'Another Serial-Killer Movie' ... Until 'Zodiac' Came Along - Part 1 interview with MTV David Fincher Discusses Reunion With Brad Pitt, Possible 'Fight Club' Musical - Part 2 interview with MTV CHUD: Exclusive Interview: David Fincher Movieweb: David Fincher Talks Zodiac: Director's Cut LA Weekly - David Fincher discusses Zodiac's rising star See also List of directors Books Dark Eye: The Films of David Fincher by James Swallow. Reynolds & Hearn (June 1, 2003) ISBN 1-905287-30-5 Henry Keazor, Thorsten Wübbena: Video Thrills The Radio Star. Musikvideos: Geschichte, Themen, Analysen. Bielefeld 2005, p. 260ss., p. 271ss., p. 303ss ISBN 3-89942-383-6 References External links David Fincher Blog at fincherfanatic.blogspot.com David Fincher at Allmovie Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database Music Videos & Commercials at anonymous content | David_Fincher |@lemmatized david:17 leo:1 fincher:53 bear:2 august:1 academy:6 award:6 nominated:1 american:3 filmmaker:1 music:9 video:11 director:14 know:2 dark:3 stylish:1 movie:10 seven:10 fight:12 club:12 zodiac:11 curious:5 case:5 benjamin:5 button:5 early:2 life:4 career:2 denver:1 colorado:1 son:1 jack:1 bureau:1 chief:1 writer:1 magazine:4 http:1 www:3 filmreference:1 com:5 film:52 html:1 raise:1 marin:1 county:1 california:1 move:3 ashland:2 oregon:1 teen:2 graduate:1 high:2 school:2 inspire:1 butch:1 cassidy:1 sundance:1 kid:1 begin:2 make:7 age:1 eight:2 mm:1 camera:4 eschew:1 route:1 get:6 job:1 load:1 hand:1 work:2 john:1 korty:2 later:3 hire:1 industrial:1 light:1 magic:1 production:6 twice:1 upon:1 time:6 return:3 jedi:1 indiana:1 jones:1 temple:1 doom:1 leave:1 ilm:1 direct:18 commercial:5 cancer:2 society:2 would:4 show:1 fetus:2 smoke:1 cigarette:1 quickly:1 bring:1 attention:1 producer:4 los:1 angeles:1 give:2 chance:1 documentary:1 beat:2 live:1 drum:1 feature:7 rick:5 springfield:5 though:2 continue:1 spot:1 company:2 like:2 revlon:1 converse:1 nike:6 pepsi:1 sony:2 levi:4 soon:2 discovered:1 go:2 many:5 promos:1 propaganda:3 set:9 join:1 start:2 meiert:1 avis:1 kellogg:1 michael:8 bay:1 antoine:1 fuqua:1 neil:1 labute:1 spike:1 jonze:1 mark:3 romanek:1 michel:1 gondry:1 paul:2 rachman:1 zack:3 snyder:3 gore:3 verbinski:3 alex:1 proyas:1 hone:1 talent:1 big:1 budget:3 artist:2 madonna:5 include:8 express:2 vogue:2 oh:2 father:2 bad:2 girl:4 billy:3 idol:3 cradle:2 love:12 paula:6 abdul:6 way:3 straight:2 forever:2 cold:2 hearted:2 aerosmith:2 janie:2 gun:2 rolling:3 stone:3 strong:3 nine:3 inch:2 nail:2 perfect:2 circle:2 judith:2 jody:4 watley:4 real:2 steve:3 winwood:3 neneh:2 cherry:2 heart:3 george:2 jackson:2 wallflower:2 wire:3 train:4 outfield:4 several:3 popular:1 debut:1 expensive:1 picture:12 ever:1 first:4 receive:7 oscar:1 nomination:4 special:1 effect:3 well:5 critic:5 moviegoer:1 become:2 involve:2 dispute:1 century:1 fox:1 script:3 issue:1 eventually:1 lead:2 disassociate:1 late:2 year:6 evidence:1 refusal:1 record:1 commentary:2 track:2 disc:2 alien:1 quadrilogy:1 box:10 release:2 remove:1 filmography:2 section:1 dvd:7 panic:6 room:7 cut:5 conversation:1 hollywood:1 blame:1 put:3 necessary:1 trust:1 say:2 interested:1 good:3 instead:1 want:2 exploit:1 franchise:1 profitable:1 manner:1 even:1 already:1 open:2 usa:1 japanese:1 trailer:2 still:1 advertise:1 storyline:1 prefer:1 great:4 expect:1 popularity:1 international:1 office:11 retreat:1 back:2 world:3 directing:1 earn:3 grammy:1 base:3 screenplay:1 andrew:1 kevin:3 walker:1 tell:3 story:6 two:3 detective:1 play:3 brad:7 pitt:8 morgan:1 freeman:1 serial:2 killer:6 spacey:1 killing:1 deadly:1 sin:1 gross:4 million:5 domestically:1 internationally:1 chairman:1 new:4 line:2 cinema:2 arnold:1 kopelson:1 originally:3 refuse:2 allow:2 filming:1 shock:2 climactic:1 scene:3 aid:1 state:2 end:2 change:3 original:1 use:3 final:1 game:6 success:1 twilight:1 zone:1 style:2 thriller:3 share:1 similarity:1 fail:1 warm:1 reception:1 enjoy:1 predecessor:1 focus:1 close:1 san:1 francisco:1 businessman:1 douglas:1 unusual:1 gift:1 young:1 brother:1 sean:1 penn:1 main:1 player:1 role:2 playing:1 take:1 despite:2 middle:1 screen:1 adaptation:8 chuck:1 palahniuk:1 novel:3 name:2 insomniac:1 worker:1 devote:1 exclusively:1 bare:1 knuckle:1 men:2 edward:3 norton:2 helena:1 bonham:1 carter:1 collaborator:2 easily:1 one:4 publicized:1 disappointment:1 mixed:1 review:2 pan:1 alienate:1 audience:2 failure:1 united:1 however:3 perception:1 appear:2 best:5 list:4 develop:2 following:1 entertainment:4 weekly:3 negative:1 grade:1 rank:1 top:3 need:1 british:1 total:4 vote:1 number:1 four:1 jaw:1 vertigo:1 goodfellas:1 respectively:1 follow:3 impressively:1 pull:1 u:2 single:2 mother:1 jodie:1 foster:1 daughter:1 hide:1 safe:1 house:1 away:2 criminal:1 forest:1 whitaker:1 dwight:1 yoakam:1 jar:1 leto:1 bent:1 find:1 miss:1 fortune:1 acknowledge:1 mainstream:1 describe:1 basically:1 date:1 really:2 b:3 people:1 trap:1 closet:1 audio:1 five:1 march:2 robert:3 graysmith:1 book:5 hunt:1 star:4 jake:1 gyllenhaal:1 ruffalo:1 downey:2 jr:2 anthony:1 brian:2 cox:1 vast:1 majority:1 shoot:3 digitally:2 thompson:1 viper:1 stream:1 entirely:1 digital:1 speed:2 blue:1 rock:1 spring:1 presidio:1 height:1 murder:1 slow:1 motion:2 shot:1 visual:1 featurette:1 fall:1 push:1 minute:1 country:1 old:1 blood:1 struggle:1 report:5 aggressive:1 campaign:1 studio:2 expectation:1 surround:1 support:1 performance:2 direction:1 vanderbilt:1 adapt:1 nominee:1 annual:1 art:1 sciences:1 death:1 f:1 scott:1 fitzgerald:1 short:1 third:2 november:3 orleans:1 virgin:1 island:1 montreal:1 l:2 co:1 paramount:7 warner:1 bros:1 estimate:1 partly:1 due:1 cgi:1 reverse:1 aging:1 character:1 pg:1 considerable:1 future:1 project:3 ness:4 september:2 firstshowing:1 net:1 matt:3 damon:3 talk:2 eliot:1 attatched:1 graphic:2 torso:3 bendis:1 marc:1 andreyko:1 look:1 location:1 cleveland:1 ohio:1 rumor:2 variety:4 attach:3 french:1 call:1 alexis:1 nolent:1 optioned:3 plan:2 allesandro:1 camon:1 assassin:1 conscience:1 cop:1 tail:1 catch:1 news:5 medium:1 black:3 hole:3 february:1 charles:1 burn:1 comic:5 sexually:2 active:1 transmit:1 bug:1 cause:1 strange:1 mutation:1 timetable:1 goon:4 july:2 announce:5 eric:2 powell:2 win:1 blur:1 cg:1 animated:2 horse:1 universal:1 ready:1 fan:1 someone:1 cool:2 tv:1 heavy:5 metal:6 another:3 animate:2 segment:5 also:2 animator:1 tim:1 miller:2 owner:1 publisher:1 eastman:2 envision:1 adult:1 theme:1 r:1 rat:1 par:1 pedal:1 hold:4 remake:1 columbia:1 guillermo:2 del:2 toro:2 chef:3 pick:1 right:1 sex:1 comedy:1 entitle:1 keanu:1 reef:1 starring:1 write:1 steven:1 knight:1 theatrical:1 tba:4 integrity:1 rental:1 sale:2 billion:1 videos:1 dance:1 celebrate:1 youth:1 bop:1 til:1 drop:1 shame:1 motel:2 every:1 cry:2 simple:1 thing:1 stabilizer:1 come:2 endless:1 night:1 eddie:1 money:1 downtown:1 patty:1 smyth:1 mind:1 bourgeois:1 tagg:1 notorious:1 loverboy:2 rise:2 johnny:3 hooter:1 storybook:1 knopfler:1 colin:1 hay:1 surrender:1 foreigner:1 martha:2 davis:2 moon:1 gold:1 hate:2 jazz:2 englishman:1 york:1 sting:1 shatter:1 dream:1 second:2 version:5 rhythm:1 ry:1 cooder:1 roll:1 bamboleo:2 gypsy:2 king:2 mystery:1 roy:1 orbison:1 innocence:1 henley:1 woman:1 freedom:1 avenue:1 heartache:1 adidas:1 leg:1 smoking:1 apple:1 inc:1 iphone:1 budweiser:1 pool:1 hall:1 chanel:1 coke:2 blade:1 roller:1 arquettes:1 heineken:1 beer:1 run:1 hp:1 constant:1 honda:1 escape:1 restaurant:1 chase:1 reason:1 motorola:1 pebl:1 barkley:1 broadway:1 instant:1 karma:1 breaker:1 chain:1 fate:1 softbank:1 wind:1 sprite:1 featured:1 jj:1 lin:1 jie:1 세븐:1 파이트클럽:1 데이비드:1 핀처:1 감독:1 만났다:1 xbox:1 gear:2 war:2 mad:1 creative:1 consultant:1 xelibri:1 beauty:1 interview:9 guyot:1 dvdtalk:1 moses:1 drdrew:1 gavin:1 smith:1 org:1 esquire:1 indielondon:1 along:1 part:2 mtv:2 discuss:2 reunion:1 possible:1 musical:1 chud:1 exclusive:1 movieweb:1 la:1 see:1 eye:1 james:1 swallow:1 reynolds:1 hearn:1 june:1 isbn:2 henry:1 keazor:1 thorsten:1 wübbena:1 thrill:1 radio:1 musikvideos:1 geschichte:1 themen:1 analysen:1 bielefeld:1 p:3 reference:1 external:1 link:1 blog:1 fincherfanatic:1 blogspot:1 allmovie:1 sens:1 critical:1 database:1 anonymous:1 content:1 |@bigram denver_colorado:1 http_www:1 filmreference_com:1 david_fincher:15 marin_county:1 butch_cassidy:1 sundance_kid:1 indiana_jones:1 smoke_cigarette:1 los_angeles:1 rick_springfield:5 michel_gondry:1 billy_idol:3 paula_abdul:6 rolling_stone:3 inch_nail:2 jody_watley:4 steve_winwood:3 oscar_nomination:1 brad_pitt:7 morgan_freeman:1 serial_killer:2 kevin_spacey:1 deadly_sin:1 climactic_scene:1 twilight_zone:1 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7,621 | Malden_Island | NASA orbital photo of Malden Island (north at bottom) Malden Island (), sometimes called Independence Island in the nineteenth century, is a low, arid, uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean, about in area. It is one of the Line Islands belonging to the Republic of Kiribati. The island is chiefly notable for its "mysterious" prehistoric ruins, its once-extensive deposits of phosphatic guano (exploited by Australian interests from c. 1860-1927), its former use as the site of the first British H-bomb tests (Operation Grapple, 1957), and its current importance as a protected area for breeding seabirds. Geography Malden Island is located south of the equator, south of Honolulu, Hawaii, and more than 4,000 nautical miles (5,000 statute miles or 8,000 km) west of the coast of South America. The nearest land is uninhabited Starbuck Island, to the southwest. The closest inhabited place is Tongareva (Penrhyn Island), to the southwest. The nearest airport is on Kiritimati (Christmas Island), to the northwest. Other nearby islands (all uninhabited) include Jarvis Island, to the northwest, Vostok Island, to the south-southeast, and Caroline (Millennium) Island, to the southeast. The island has roughly the shape of an equilateral triangle, with on a side, aligned with the southwest side running northwest to southeast. The west and south corners are slightly truncated, shortening the north, east and southwest coasts to about , and adding shorter west and south coasts about 1 to 2 km (–1 mi) in length. A large, mostly shallow, irregularly shaped lagoon, containing a number of small islets, fills the east central part of the island. The lagoon is entirely enclosed by land, but only by relatively narrow strips along its north and east sides. It is connected to the sea by underground channels, and is quite salty. Most of the land area of the island lies to the south and west of the lagoon. The total area of the island is about . The island is very low, no more than above sea level at its highest point. The highest elevations are found along a rim that closely follows the coastline. The interior forms a depression that is only a few meters above sea level in the western part and is below sea level (filled by the lagoon) in the east central part. Because of this topography, the ocean cannot be seen from much of Malden's interior. There is no standing fresh water on Malden Island, though a fresh water lens may exist. Protected Areas Programme: Malden Island. Retrieved on 7 July 2008. A continuous heavy surf falls all along the coast, forming a narrow white to gray sandy beach. Except on the west coast, where the white sandy beach is more extensive than elsewhere, a strip of dark gray coral rubble, forming a series of low ridges parallel to the coast, lies within the narrow beach, extending inward to the island rim. Flora and Fauna Because of Malden's isolation and aridity, its vegetation is extremely limited. Sixteen species of vascular plants have been recorded, of which nine are indigenous. The island is largely covered in stunted Sida fallax scrub, low herbs and grasses. Few, if any, of the clumps of stunted Pisonia Grandis once found on the island still survive. Coconut palms planted by the guano diggers did not thrive, although a few dilapidated trees may still be seen. Introduced weeds, including the low-growing woody vine Tribulus cistoides, now dominate extensive open areas, providing increased cover for young Sooty Terns. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wetlands/malden_i.htm Protected Areas Programme: Malden Island.] Retrieved on 7 July 2008. Two kinds of lizards, the Mourning Gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris) and Snake-eyed Skink (Ablepharus boutonii) are present on Malden, together with brown libellulid dragonfly and large colonies of sooty terns and other migratory seabirds (nineteen species in all). Cats, pigs, goats and house mice were introduced to Malden during the guano-digging period; all did incalculable damage. While the goats and pigs have all died off, feral cats and house mice are still present. Small numbers of green turtles nest on the beaches, and hermit crabs abound.. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wetlands/malden_i.htm Protected Areas Programme: Malden Island.] Retrieved on 7 July 2008. History Discovery Malden was discovered on 30 July 1825 The discovery date is given incorrectly as 29 July in some sources, e.g. by Captain George Anson (Lord) Byron (a cousin of the poet). Byron, commanding the British warship HMS Blonde, was returning to London from a special mission to Honolulu to repatriate the remains of the young king and queen of Hawaii, who had died of measles during a visit to Britain. The island was named for Lt. Charles Robert Malden, navigator of the Blonde, who sighted the island and briefly explored it. Andrew Bloxam, naturalist of the Blonde, and James Macrae, a botanist travelling for the Royal Horticultural Society, joined in exploring the island and recorded their observations. Prehistoric ruins At the time of its discovery, Malden was found to be unoccupied, but the remains of ruined temples and other structures indicated that the island had at one time been inhabited. At various times these remains have been speculatively attributed to "wrecked seamen", "buccaneers", "South American Incas", "early Chinese navigators", etc. In 1924, the Malden ruins were examined by an archaeologist from the Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Kenneth Emory, who concluded that they were the creation of a small Polynesian population which had resided there for perhaps several generations some centuries earlier. The ancient stone structures are located around the beach ridges, principally on the north and south sides. A total of 21 archaeological sites have been discovered, three of which (on the island's northwest side) are larger than the others. Living Archipelagos: Malden Island. Retrieved on 7 July 2008. These sites include temple platforms, called marae, house sites, and graves. Comparisons with stone structures on Tuamotu atolls show that a population of between 100 and 200 natives could have produced all of the Malden structures. Maraes of a similar type are found on Raivavae, one of the Austral Islands. Various wells used by these ancients were found by later settlers to be dry, or brackish. Bryan, E.H. Malden Island. Retrieved on 7 July 2008. Whalers and guano diggers In the first half of the nineteenth century, during the heyday of American whaling in the central Pacific, Malden was visited on a number of occasions by American whalers. Malden was claimed by the U.S. Guano Company under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, which authorized citizens to take possession of uninhabited islands under the authority of the United States for the purpose of removing guano, a valuable agricultural fertilizer. Before the American company could begin their operations, however, the island was occupied by an Australian company under British license. This company and its successors exploited the island continuously from the 1860s through 1927. Beatrice Grimshaw, a visitor to Malden in the guano digging era, decried the "glaring barrenness of the bit island", Grimshaw, Beatrice. In the Strange South Seas. Retrieved on 7 July 2008. Contains a fascinating account of a journey to Malden Island during the guano-digging era. declaring that "...shade, coolness, refreshing fruit, pleasant sights and sounds: there are none. For those who live on the island, it is the scene of an exile which has to be endured somehow or other". She described Malden as containing "a little settlement fronted by a big wooden pier, and a desolate plain of low greyish-green herbage, relieved here and there by small bushes bearing insignificant yellow flowers". Water for settlers was produced by large distillation plants, since no fresh-water wells could be successfully dug on the island. The five or six Caucasian supervisors on the island were given "a row of little tin-roofed, one-storeyed houses above the beach", while the native laborers from Niue Island and Aitutaki were housed in "big, barn-like shelters". Grimshaw described these edifices as being "large, bare, shady buildings fitted with wide shelves, on which the men spread their mats and pillows to sleep". Their food consisted of "rice, biscuits, yams, tinned beef, and tea, with a few cocoanuts for those who may fall sick". Food for the white supervisors consisted of "tinned food of various kinds, also bread, rice, fowls, pork, goat, and goat's milk", but vegetables were hard to come by. Indentured laborers on Malden were contracted for one-year, paid ten shillings per week plus room and board, and repatriated to their home islands when their contracts expired. Salaries for the supervisors were described as "quite high." Grimshaw, 1908. Work hours were 5am to 5pm, with one hour and 45 minutes given off for meals. The guano diggers constructed a unique railroad on Malden Island, with cars powered by large sails. Laborers pushed empty carts from the loading area up the tramway to the digging pits, where they were then loaded with guano. At the end of the day, the sails were unfurled, and the train cars whisked back to the settlement by the prevailing southeastern winds. While cars were known to jump the tracks more than once during these excursions, the system seems to have worked fairly well. Railroad handcars were also used. This tramway remained in use on Malden as late as 1924, and its roadbed still exists on the island today. Although guano digging continued on Malden through the early 1920s, all human activity on the island had ceased by the early 1930s. No further human use seems to have been made of Malden until 1956. British nuclear testing In 1956 the United Kingdom selected Malden as the "instrumentation site" for its first series of thermonuclear (H-bomb) weapons tests, based at Kiritimati (Christmas Island). British officials insisted that Malden should not be called a "target island". Nevertheless, the bombing target marker was located at the south point of the island and three thermonuclear devices were detonated at high altitude a short distance offshore in 1957. The airstrip constructed on the island by the Royal Engineers in 1956-57 remained usable in July 1979. Malden Island today Malden was incorporated in the British Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony in 1972, and included in the portion of the colony which became the Republic of Kiribati in 1979. The U.S. continued to dispute British sovereignty, based on its nineteenth century Guano Act claims, until after Kiribati became independent. On 20 September 1979, representatives of the United States and Kiribati met on Tarawa Atoll in the Gilberts group of Kiribati, and signed a treaty of friendship between their two nations (commonly referred to as the Treaty of Tarawa of 1979) by which the United States recognized Kiribati's sovereignty over Malden and thirteen other islands in the Line and Phoenix Islands groups. This treaty entered into force on 23 September 1983. The main value of the island to Kiribati lies in the resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone which surrounds it, particularly the rich tuna fisheries. Gypsum deposits on the island itself are extensive, but do not appear to be economically viable under foreseeable market conditions, mainly due to cost of transportation. Some revenue has been realized from ecotourism; the World Discoverer, an adventure cruise ship operated by Society Expeditions, visited the island once or twice annually for several years in the mid-1990s. A pair of Masked Boobies (Sula dactylatra) calling on Malden Island Malden was reserved as a wildlife sanctuary and closed area, and officially designated as the "Malden Island Wildlife Sanctuary", on 29 May 1975, under the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance. The principal purpose of this reservation was to protect the large breeding populations of seabirds. This sanctuary is administered by the Wildlife Conservation Unit of the Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development, headquartered on Kiritimati. There is no resident staff at Malden, however, and occasional visits by foreign yachtsmen and fishermen cannot be monitored from Kiritimati. A fire in 1977, possibly caused by visitors, threatened breeding seabirds; this remains a potential threat, particularly during periods of drought. Notes External links Malden Atoll from Space in Google maps | Malden_Island |@lemmatized nasa:1 orbital:1 photo:1 malden:38 island:60 north:4 bottom:1 sometimes:1 call:4 independence:1 nineteenth:3 century:4 low:6 arid:1 uninhabited:4 central:4 pacific:2 ocean:2 area:10 one:6 line:3 islands:2 belong:1 republic:2 kiribati:7 chiefly:1 notable:1 mysterious:1 prehistoric:2 ruin:3 extensive:4 deposit:2 phosphatic:1 guano:13 exploit:2 australian:2 interest:1 c:1 former:1 use:5 site:7 first:3 british:7 h:3 bomb:2 test:2 operation:2 grapple:1 current:1 importance:1 protected:1 breed:1 seabird:4 geography:1 locate:3 south:11 equator:1 honolulu:3 hawaii:2 nautical:1 mile:2 statute:1 km:2 west:5 coast:6 america:1 near:2 land:3 starbuck:1 southwest:4 close:2 inhabited:1 place:1 tongareva:1 penrhyn:1 airport:1 kiritimati:4 christmas:2 northwest:4 nearby:1 include:4 jarvis:1 vostok:1 southeast:3 caroline:1 millennium:1 roughly:1 shape:2 equilateral:1 triangle:1 side:5 align:1 run:1 corner:1 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7,622 | Knife | A knife is any cutting edge or blade, handheld or otherwise, with or without a handle. Knives were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. History [[Image:The knife Grinder - 1853.jpg|thumb|left|The Knife Grinder - Drawn by P. Weenix and engraving by W. French - Published for the Proprietors by AH Payne, Dresden & Leipzig - 1853 (From the Dr. Nuno Carvalho de Sousa Private Collections - Lisbon)]] The earliest knives were shaped by knapping (percussive flaking) of rock, particularly harder rocks such as obsidian and flint. During the Paleolithic era Homo habilis probably made similar tools out of wood, bone, and similar perishable materials that have not survived. As recent as five thousand years ago, as advances in metallurgy progressed, stone, wood, and bone blades were gradually succeeded by copper, bronze, iron, and eventually steel. The first metal (copper) knives were symmetrical double edged daggers, which copied the earlier flint daggers. In Europe the first single edged knives appeared during the middle bronze age. Modern knives may be made from many different materials such as alloy tool steels, carbon fiber, ceramics, and titanium. Materials and construction Today, knives come in many forms but can be generally categorized between two broad types: fixed blade knives and folding, or pocket, knives. Characteristic parts of the knife Modern knives consist of a blade (1) and handle (2). The blade edge can be plain or serrated or a combination of both. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include the tang, a portion of the blade that extends into the handle. Knives are made with partial tangs (extending part way into the handle, known as a "Stick Tang") or full tangs (extending the full length of the handle, often visible on top and bottom). The handle can also include a bolster, which is a piece of material used to balance the knife, usually brass or other metal, at the front of the handle where it meets the blade. The blade consists of the point (3), the end of the knife used for piercing, the edge (4), the cutting surface of the knife extending from the point to the heel, the grind (5), the cross-section shape of the blade, the spine, (6), the top, thicker portion of the blade, the fuller (7), the groove added to lighten the blade, and the ricasso (8), the thick portion of the blade joining the blade and the handle. The guard (9) is a barrier between the blade and the handle which protects the hand from an opponent, or the blade of the knife itself. A choil, where the blade is unsharpened and possibly indented as it meets the handle, may be used to prevent scratches to the handle when sharpening or as a forward-finger grip. The end of the handle, or butt (10), may allow a lanyard (11), used to secure the knife to the wrist, or a portion of the tang to protrude as a striking surface for pounding or glass breaking. Blade Knife blade mass production. Knife blades can be manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp, hold its edge well, and remain easy to sharpen, but is vulnerable to rust and stains. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to take quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel, but is highly resistant to corrosion. High carbon stainless steel is stainless steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes of carbon steel and stainless steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, and maintain a sharp edge. Laminate blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between an outer layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, the edge, is still vulnerable. Pattern-welding is similar to laminate construction. Layers of different steel types are welded together, but then the stock is manipulated to create patterns in the steel. Titanium is metal that has a better strength-to-weight ratio, is more wear resistant, and more flexible than steel. Although less hard and unable to take as sharp an edge, carbides in the titanium alloy allow them to be heat-treated to a sufficient hardness. Ceramic blades are hard, brittle, and lightweight: they may maintain a sharp edge for years with no maintenance at all, but are as fragile as glass and will break if dropped on a hard surface. They are immune to common corrosion, and can only be sharpened on silicon carbide sandpaper and some grinding wheels. Plastic blades are not especially sharp and typically serrated. They are often disposable. Steel blades are commonly shaped by forging or stock removal. Forged blades are made by heating a single piece of steel, then shaping the metal while hot using a hammer or press. Stock removal blades are shaped by grinding and removing metal. With both methods, after shaping, the steel must be heat treated. This involves heating the steel above its critical point, then quenching the blade to harden it. After hardening, the blade is tempered to remove stresses and make the blade tougher. Mass manufactured kitchen cutlery uses both the forging and stock removal processes. Forging tends to be reserved for manufacturers' more expensive product lines, and can often be distinguished from stock removal product lines by the presence of an integral bolster, though integral bolsters can be crafted through either shaping method. Knives are sharpened in various ways. Flat ground blades have a profile that tapers from the thick spine to the sharp edge in a straight or convex line. Seen in cross section, the blade would form a long, thin triangle, or where the taper does not extend to the back of the blade, a long thin rectangle with one peaked side. Hollow ground blades have concave, beveled edges. The resulting blade has a thinner edge, so it may have better cutting ability for shallow cuts, but it is lighter and less durable than flat ground blades and will tend to bind in deep cuts. Serrated blade knives have a wavy, scalloped or saw-like blade. Serrated blades are more well suited for tasks that require aggressive 'sawing' motions, whereas plain edge blades are better suited for tasks that require push-through cuts (e.g., shaving, chopping). Fixed blade features A fixed blade knife does not fold or slide, and is typically stronger due to the tang, the extension of the blade into the handle, and lack of moving parts. Folding blade features A folding knife connects the blade to the handle through a pivot, allowing the blade to fold into the handle. To prevent injury to the knife user through the blade accidentally closing on the user's hand, folding knives typically have a locking mechanism. Different locking mechanisms are favored by various individuals for reasons such as perceived strength (lock safety), legality, and ease of use. Popular locking mechanisms include: Slip joint – Found most commonly on traditional pocket knives, the opened blade does not lock, but is held in place by a spring device that allows the blade to fold if a certain amount of pressure is applied. Lockback – Also known as the spine lock, the lockback includes a pivoted latch connected to a spring, and can be disengaged only by pressing the latch down to release the blade. Liner Lock – Invented by Michael Walker, uses a leaf spring-type liner within the groove of the handle that snaps into position under the blade when it is deployed. The lock is released by pushing the liner to the side, to allow the blade to return to its groove set into the handle.Frame Lock – Also known as the integral lock or monolock, this locking mechanism was invented by custom knifemaker Chris Reeve for the Sebenza as an update to the liner lock. The frame lock works in a manner similar to the liner lock but uses a partial cutout of the actual knife handle, rather than a separate liner inside the handle to hold the blade in place.Button LockAxis Lock – A locking mechanism exclusively licensed to the Benchmade Knife Company.PickLock – A round post on the back base of the blade locks into a hole in a spring tab in the handle. To close, manually lift (pick) the spring tab (lock) off the blade post with your fingers, or in "Italian Style Stilettos" swivel the bolster (hand guard) clockwise to lift the spring tab off the blade post. Another prominent feature on many folding knives is the opening mechanism. Traditional pocket knives and Swiss Army Knives commonly employ the nail nick, while modern folding knives more often use a stud, hole, disk, or flipper located on the blade, all which have the benefit of allowing the user to open the knife with one hand. Automatic or switchblade knives open using the stored energy from a spring that is released when the user presses a button or lever or other actuator built into the handle of the knife. Automatic knives are popular amongst law enforcement and military users for their ease of rapid deployment and their ability to be opened using only one hand. Automatic knives are severely restricted by law in most American states. State Knife Laws Increasingly common are assisted opening knives which use springs to propel the blade once the user has moved it past a certain angle. These differ from automatic or switchblade knives in that the blade is not released by means of a button or catch on the handle; rather, the blade itself is the actuator. Most assisted openers use flippers as their opening mechanism. Assisted opening knives can be as fast or faster than automatic knives to deploy. Sliding blade features A sliding knife is a knife which can be opened by sliding the knife blade out the front of the handle. One method of opening is where the blade exits out the front of the handle point-first and then is locked into place (an example of the this is the gravity knife). Another form is a O-T-F (out-the-front) switchblade, which only requires the push of a button or spring to cause the blade to slide out of the handle, and lock into place. To retract the blade back into the handle, a release lever or button, usually the same control as to open, is pressed. A very common form of sliding knife is the sliding utility knife (commonly known as a stanley knife or boxcutter). Handle The handles of knives can be made from a number of different materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Handles are produced in a wide variety of shapes and styles. Handles are often textured to enhance grip. Wood handles provide good grip and are warm in the hand, but are more difficult to care for. They do not resist water well, and will crack or warp with prolonged exposure to water. Modern stabilized and laminated woods have largely overcome these problems. Many beautiful and exotic hardwoods are employed in the manufacture of custom and some production knives. In some countries it is now forbidden for commercial butchers' knives to have wood handles, for sanitary reasons. Plastic handles are more easily cared for than wooden handles, but can be slippery and become brittle over time. Rubber handles such as Kraton or Respirine-C are generally preferred over plastic due to their durable and cushioning nature. Micarta is a popular handle material on user knives due to its toughness and stability. Micarta is impervious to water, is grippy when wet, and is an excellent insulator. Micarta has come to refer to any fibrous material cast in resin. There are many varieties of micarta available. One very popular version is a fibreglass impregnated resin called G-10. Leather handles are seen on some hunting and military knives, notably the KA-BAR. Leather handles are typically produced by stacking leather washers, or less commonly, as a sleeve surrounding another handle material. Skeleton handles refers to the practice of using the tang itself as the handle, usually with sections of material removed to reduce weight. Skeleton handled knives are often wrapped with parachute cord or other wrapping materials to enhance grip. Stainless steel handles are durable and sanitary, but can be slippery. To counter this, premium knife makers make handles with ridges, bumps, or indentations to provide extra grip. More exotic materials usually only seen on art or ceremonial knives include: Stone, bone, mammoth tooth, mammoth ivory, oosic (walrus penis bone), walrus tusk, antler (often called stag in a knife context), sheep horn, buffalo horn, teeth, etc. Many materials have been employed in knife handles. Types of knives Knives as weapons As a weapon, the knife is universally adopted as an essential tool. For example: Bayonet: A knife-shaped close-quarters fighting weapon designed to attach to the muzzle of a rifle or similar weapon Combat knife: Any knife intended to be used mainly for fighting Throwing knife: A knife designed and weighted for throwing Trench knife: Purpose-made or improvised knives, intended for close-quarter fighting, particularly in trench warfare characterised by a d-shaped integral hand guard. Shiv: A crudely made homemade knife out of everyday materials, especially prevalent in prisons among inmates. An alternate name in some prisons is Shank. Knives as utensils Table knives A primary aspect of the knife as a tool includes dining, used either in food preparation or as cutlery. Examples of this include: Bread knife: A knife with a serrated blade for cutting bread Boning knife: A knife used for removing the bones of poultry, meat, and fish Carving knife: A knife for carving large cooked meats such as poultry, roasts, hams Chef's knife: Also known as a French knife, a cutting tool used in preparing food Electric knife: An electrical device consisting of two serrated blades that are clipped together, providing a sawing action when powered on Kitchen knife: Any knife, including the chef's knife, that is intended to be used in food preparation Oyster knife: Has a short, thick blade for prying open oyster shells Table knife or Case knife: A piece of cutlery, either a butter knife, steak knife, or both, that is part of a table setting, accompanying the fork and spoon Ulu: An Inuit woman's all-purpose knife Knives as tools As a utility tool the knife can take many forms, including:Diver's knife from Three bolt equipment Bowie knife: Commonly, any large sheath knife, or a specific style of large knife popularized by Jim Bowie. Butterfly knife: A folding knife also known as a balisong, with two handles counter-rotating around the tang such that, when closed, the blade is concealed within the handles. Diver's knife: A knife adapted for use in diving and water sports and a necessary part of standard diving dress. Electrician's knife: An insulated knife used to cut electrical wire. Hunting knife: A knife used to dress large game.A man holding a linoleum knife intently. Linoleum Knife: is a small knife that has a short, stiff blade with a curved point and a handle and is used to cut linoleum or other sheet materials. Machete: A large heavy knife used to cut through thick vegetation such as sugar cane or jungle undergrowth; it also may be used as an offensive weapon. Multitool: Often with a knife as its most elemental feature, these tools may also include a variety of other tools. Made famous by the Swiss Army Knife. Pocket knife: Also known as a multi-tool or jackknife, a knife which may contain several folding blades, as well as other tools. Palette knife: A knife, or frosting spatula, lacking a cutting edge, used by artists for tasks such as mixing and applying paint and in cooking for spreading icing. Scalpel: A medical knife, used to perform surgery. Straight razor: A reusable knife blade used for shaving hair. Survival knife: A sturdy knife, sometimes with a hollow handle filled with survival equipment. Switchblade: A knife with a folding blade that springs out of the grip when a button or lever on the grip is pressed. Utility knife: A short knife with a replaceable triangular blade, used for cutting sheet materials including cardboard boxes. Wood carving knife: Knives used for wood carving, often with short, thin replaceable blades for better control. Knives as a traditional or religious implement Athame: A typically black-handled and double-edged ritual knife used in Wicca and other derivative forms of Neopagan witchcraft. (see also Boline. Kirpan: A ceremonial knife that all baptised Sikhs must wear as one of the five visible symbols of the Sikh faith (Kakars) Kilaya: A dagger used in Tibetan Buddhism Kris: A dagger used in Indo-Malay cultures, often by royalty and sometimes in religious rituals. Kukri: A Nepalese knife used as both tool and weapon Puukko: A traditional Finnish or Scandinavian style woodcraft belt-knife used as a tool rather than a weapon Seax: A Germanic single-edged knife, used primarily as a tool, but may also have been a weapon Sgian Dubh: A small dagger traditionally worn with highland dress (kilt) Rituals and superstitions The knife plays a significant role in some cultures through ritual and superstition, as the knife was an essential tool for survival since early man. Knife symbols can be found in various cultures to symbolize all stages of life; for example, a knife placed under the bed while giving birth is said to ease the pain, or, stuck into the headboard of a cradle, to protect the baby. ; knives were included in some Anglo-Saxon burial rites, so the dead would not be defenseless in the next world. The knife plays an important role in some initiation rites, and many cultures perform rituals with a variety of knives, including the ceremonial sacrifices of animals. Samurai warriors, as part of bushido, could perform ritual suicide, or seppuku, with a tantō, a common Japanese knife. An athame, a ceremonial black-handled knife, is used in Wicca and derived forms of neopagan witchcraft. In Greece a black-handled knife placed under the pillow is used to keep away nightmares. As early as 1646 reference is made to a superstition of laying a knife across another piece of cutlery being a sign of witchcraft. A common belief is that if a knife is given as a gift, the relationship of the giver and recipient will be severed. Something such as a small coin or dove is exchanged for the gift, rendering "payment." Legislation Knives are typically restricted by law, although restrictions vary greatly by country or state and type of knife. For example, some laws restrict carrying an unconcealed knife in public while other laws can restrict even private ownership of certain knives, such as switchblades. Further readingEverybody's Knife Bible'' by Don Paul, ISBN 0-938263-23-4 References See also Bayonet Dagger Dirk Knife fight Multitool Sword External links American Knife & Tool Institute A collection of Knife Wallpapers A photo collection of 362 Knife Patterns Knives from around the World | Knife |@lemmatized knife:153 cut:12 edge:17 blade:75 handheld:1 otherwise:1 without:1 handle:51 use:42 least:1 two:4 half:1 million:1 year:3 ago:2 evidence:1 oldowan:1 tool:17 history:1 image:1 grinder:2 jpg:1 thumb:1 leave:1 drawn:1 p:1 weenix:1 engraving:1 w:1 french:2 publish:1 proprietor:1 ah:1 payne:1 dresden:1 leipzig:1 dr:1 nuno:1 carvalho:1 de:1 sousa:1 private:2 collection:3 lisbon:1 early:4 shape:9 knap:1 percussive:1 flaking:1 rock:2 particularly:2 hard:4 obsidian:1 flint:2 paleolithic:1 era:1 homo:1 habilis:1 probably:1 make:11 similar:5 wood:7 bone:6 perishable:1 material:16 survive:1 recent:1 five:2 thousand:1 advance:1 metallurgy:1 progress:1 stone:2 gradually:1 succeed:1 copper:2 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7,623 | Personal_digital_assistant | The Palm TX First "PDA": EO Personal Communicator (440) from AT&T A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld computer, also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs also have both color screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smartphones), web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi, or Wireless Wide-Area Networks (WWANs). Many PDAs employ touch screen technology. The first PDA is considered to be the CASIO PF-3000 released in May 1983. GO Corp. was also pioneering in the field. The term was first used on January 7, 1992 by Apple Computer CEO John Sculley at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, referring to the Apple Newton. In 1996 Nokia introduced the first mobile phone with full PDA functionality, the 9000 Communicator, which has since grown to become the world's best-selling PDA and which spawned a category of phones called the smartphone. Today the vast majority of all PDAs are smartphones, selling over 150 million units while non-phone ("stand-alone") PDAs sell only about 3 million units per year. The RIM Blackberry, the Apple iPhone and the Nokia N-Series are typical smartphones. Typical features Currently, a typical PDA has a touch screen for entering data, a memory card slot for data storage and at least one of the following for connectivity: IrDA, Bluetooth and/or WiFi. However, many PDAs (typically those used primarily as telephones) may not have a touch screen, using softkeys, a directional pad and either the numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input. Software typically required to be a PDA includes an appointment calendar, a to-do list, an address book for contacts and some sort of note program. Connected PDAs also typically include E-mail and Web support. Touch screen Many original PDAs, such as the Apple Newton and Palm Pilot, featured touch screens for user interaction, having only a few buttons usually reserved for shortcuts to often used programs. Touch screen PDAs, including Windows Pocket PC devices, usually have a detachable stylus that can be used on the touch screen. Interaction is then done by tapping the screen to activate buttons or menu choices, and dragging the stylus to, for example, highlight. Text input is usually done in one of four ways: Using a virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touch screen. Input is done by tapping letters on the screen. Using external keyboard or chorded keyboard connected by USB, IR or Bluetooth. Using letter or word recognition, where letters or words are written on the touch screen, and then "translated" to letters in the currently activated text field. Despite rigorous research and development projects, end-users experience mixed results with this input method, with some finding it frustrating and inaccurate, while others are satisfied with the quality. HWR accuracy: See comments in Wired's Apple Newton Just Won't Drop (4 yrs later) See text under "Handwriting Recognition" in Pen Computing's First Look at Newton OS 2.0 See "Opportunity Squandered" in Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton? See comments under "Software" in MacTech's MessagePad 2000 review Comments by Pen Computing's editor See user testing results discussed in part 6 of this A.I. Magazine article on Newton HWR MessagePad 2000 review at Small Dog Electronics See comments under "Note-taking" in MessagePad 2000 review at "The History and Macintosh Society" What's Right With The Newton: HWR Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as "1 + 2 =" was also under development. Stroke recognition (one Palm implementation is called Graffiti). In this system a predefined set of strokes represents the various characters used in input. The user learns to draw these strokes on the screen or in an input area. The strokes are often simplified character shapes to make them easier for the device to recognize. PDAs for business use, including the BlackBerry and Treo, have full keyboards and scroll wheels or thumb wheels to facilitate data entry and navigation, in addition to supporting touch-screen input. There are also full-size foldable keyboards available that plug directly, or use wireless technology to interface with the PDA and allow for normal typing. BlackBerry has additional functionality, such as push-based email and applications. Newer PDAs, such as the Apple iPhone and iPod touch include new user interfaces using other means of input. The iPhone and iPod touch uses a technology called Multi-touch. Memory cards Although many early PDAs did not have memory card slots now most have either an SD (Secure Digital) and/or a Compact Flash slot. Although originally designed for memory, SDIO and Compact Flash cards are available for such things as Wi-Fi and Webcams. Some PDAs also have a USB port, mainly for USB flash drives. Some PDAs are now compatible with micro SD cards, which are physically much smaller than standard SD cards. Wired connectivity While many earlier PDAs connected via serial ports or other proprietary format, many today connect via USB cable. This served primarily to connect to a computer, and few, if any PDAs were able to connect to each other out of the box using cables, as USB requires one machine to act as a host - functionality which was not often planned. Some PDAs were able to connect to the internet, either by means of one of these cables, or by using an extension card with an ethernet port/RJ-45 adaptor. Wireless connectivity Most modern PDAs have Bluetooth wireless connectivity, an increasingly popular tool for mobile devices. It can be used to connect keyboards, headsets, GPS and many other accessories, as well as sending files between PDAs. Many mid-range and superior PDAs have Wi-Fi/WLAN/802.11-connectivity, used for connecting to Wi-Fi hotspots or wireless networks. Older PDAs predominantly have an IrDA (infrared) port; however fewer current models have the technology, as it is slowly being phased out due to support for Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. IrDA allows communication between two PDAs: a PDA and any device with an IrDA port or adapter. Most universal PDA keyboards use infrared technology because many older PDAs have it, and infrared technology is low-cost and has the advantage of being permitted aboard aircraft. Synchronization An important function of PDAs is synchronizing data with a PC. This allows up-to-date contact information stored on software such as Microsoft Outlook or ACT! to update the database on the PDA. The data synchronization ensures that the PDA has an accurate list of contacts, appointments and e-mail, allowing users to access the same information on the PDA as the host computer. The synchronizing also prevents the loss of information stored on the device in case it is lost, stolen, or destroyed. Another advantage is that data input is usually a lot quicker on a PC, since text input via a touch screen is still not quite optimal. Transferring data to a PDA via the computer is therefore a lot quicker than having to manually input all data on the handheld device. Most PDAs come with the ability to synchronize to a PC. This is done through synchronization software provided with the handheld, such as HotSync Manager, which comes with Palm OS handhelds, Microsoft ActiveSync for Windows XP and older operating systems, or Windows Mobile Device Center for Windows Vista, both of which sync with Windows Mobile or Pocket PC devices. These programs allow the PDA to be synchronized with a Personal information manager. This personal information manager may be an outside program or a proprietary program. For example, the BlackBerry PDA comes with the Desktop Manager program which can synchronize to both Microsoft Outlook and ACT!. Other PDAs come only with their own proprietary software. For example, some early Palm OS PDAs came only with Palm Desktop while later Palms such as the Treo 650 has the built-in ability to sync to Palm Desktop and/or Microsoft Outlook, while Microsoft's ActiveSync and Windows Mobile Device Center only synchronize with Microsoft Outlook or a Microsoft Exchange server. Third-party synchronization software is also available for many PDAs from companies like Intellisync and CompanionLink. This software synchronizes these handhelds to other personal information managers which are not supported by the PDA manufacturers, such as GoldMine and Lotus Notes. Uses PDAs are used to store information that can be accessed at any time and anywhere. Automobile navigation Many PDAs are used in car kits and are fitted with differential Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers to provide realtime automobile navigation. PDAs are increasingly being fitted as standard on new cars. Many systems can also display traffic conditions, dynamic routing and roadside mobile radar guns. Popular software in Europe and in America for this functionality are TomTom, Garmin, iGO etc. showing road conditions and 2D or 3D environments. Ruggedized PDAs For many years businesses and government organizations have relied upon rugged PDAs also known as enterprise digital assistants (EDAs) for mobile data applications. Typical applications include supply chain management in warehouses, package delivery, route accounting, medical treatment and record keeping in hospitals, facilities maintenance and management, parking enforcement, access control and security, capital asset maintenance, meter reading by utilities, and "wireless waitress" applications in restaurants and hospitality venues. A common feature of EDAs are the integration of Data Capture devices like Bar Code, RFID and Smart Card Readers. Medical and scientific uses In medicine, PDAs have been shown to aid diagnosis and drug selection and some studies have concluded that their use by patients to record symptoms improves the effectiveness of communication with hospitals during follow-up. A range of resources have been developed to cater for the demand from the medical profession which supply drug databases, treatment information and relevant news in formats specific to mobile devices and services such as AvantGo translate medical journals into readable formats and provide updates from journals. WardWatch organizes medical records to remind doctors making ward rounds of information such as the treatment regimens of patients and programs. Finally, Pendragon and Syware provide tools for conducting research with mobile devices, and connecting to a central server allowing the user to enter data into a centralized database using their PDA. Additionally, Microsoft Visual Studio and Sun Java provide programming tools for developing survey instruments on the handheld. These development tools allow for integration with SQL databases that are stored on the handheld and can be synchronized with a desktop/server based database. Recently the development of Sensor Web technology has led to discussion of using wearable bodily sensors to monitor ongoing conditions like diabetes and epilepsy and alerting medical staff or the patient themselves to the treatment required via communication between the web and PDAs. Educational uses As mobile technology has become very common, it is no surprise that personal computing has become a vital learning tool. Educational institutions have commenced a trend of integrating PDAs into their teaching practices (mobile learning). With the capabilities of PDAs, teachers are now able to provide a collaborative learning experience for their students. They are also preparing their students for possible practical uses of mobile computing upon their graduation. PDAs and handheld devices have recently been allowed for digital note taking. This has increased student’s productivity by allowing individuals to quickly spell-check, modify, and amend their class notes or e-notes. Educators are currently able to distribute course material through the use of the internet connectivity or infrared file sharing functions of the PDA. Concerning actual class material, textbook publishers have begun to release e-books, or electronic textbooks, which can be uploaded directly to a PDA. This then lessens the effort of carrying multiple textbooks at one time. To meet the instructional needs sought by educational institutions, software companies have developed programs with the learning aspects in mind. Simple programs such as dictionaries, thesauri, and word processing software are important to the digital note taking process. In addition to these simple programs, encyclopedias and digital planning lessons have created added functionality for users. With the increase in mobility of PDAs, school boards and educational institutions have now encountered issues with these devices. School boards are now concerned with students utilizing the internet connectivity to share test answers or to gossip during class time, which creates disruptions. Many school boards have modernized their computer policies to address these new concerns. Software companies such as Scantron Corp. have now created a program for distributing digital quizzes. The quiz software disables the infrared function on PDAs, which eliminates the element of information sharing among individuals during the examination. Many colleges encourage the use of PDAs, and some business, nursing, and physician assistant (PA) programs even require them. Sporting uses PDAs are used by glider pilots for pre-flight planning and to assist navigation in cross-country competitions. They are linked to a GPS to produce moving-map displays showing the tracks to turn-points, airspace hazards and other tactical information. PDAs may also be used by music enthusiasts. They can be used to play a variety of file formats (unlike most MP3 Players) during physical exercise (e.g. running), unlike certain larger devices such as laptops. PDAs can be used by road rally enthusiasts. PDA software can be used for calculating distance, speed, time, and GPS navigation as well as unassisted navigation. PDA for people with disabilities PDAs offer varying degrees of accessibility for people with differing abilities, based on the particular device and service. People with vision, hearing, mobility, and speech impairments may be able to use PDAs on a limited basis, and this may be enhanced by the addition of accessibility software (e.g. speech recognition for verbal input instead of manual input). Universal design is relevant to PDAs as well as other technology, and a viable solution for many user-access issues, though it has yet to be consistently integrated into the design of popular consumer PDA devices. PDAs have recently become quite useful in the Traumatic Brain Injury/Posttraumatic Stress Disorder population, especially seen in troops returning home from Operation Iraqi Freedom(OIF)/Operation Enduring Freedom(OEF). PDAs address memory issues and help these men and women out with daily life organization and reminders. As of quite recently, the Department of Veterans' Affairs (VA) has begun issuing thousands of PDAs to troops who present the need for them. Occupational therapists have taken on a crucial role within this population helping these veterans return to the normality of life they once had. Decline of stand-alone PDAs vs phones At their peak, Stand-alone PDA sold 12 million units annually in 2003 but since then have declined and now sell only 3 million (Gartner 2008). Popular consumer PDAs E-TEN Abacus PDA Watch Acer N Series AlphaSmart Audiovox (Sprint) PPC Series Amida Simputer Encore Simputer BlackBerry Fujitsu Siemens Loox HP iPAQ High Tech Computer Corporation (Dopod, Qtek)'s series of Windows Mobile PDA/phones (HTC) Nokia E Series Palm, Inc. (Tungsten E2, TX, Treo and Zire) PocketMail (email PDA with inbuilt acoustic coupler) Psion - obsolete Sharp Wizard and Sharp Zaurus - obsolete T-Mobile Dash and T-Mobile Wing Sidekick Royal Motorola Rokr E6 MotoRokr E8 HTC, especially the HTC P3470 aka Pharos SonyEricsson P-series Apple Inc.'s iPhone & iPod Touch Discontinued Apple Newton Dell Axim GMate Yopy Earlier Palm Handhelds hp Jornada Pocket PC (phased out/merged with iPAQ line in 2002) Compaq iPAQ Merged with HP iPAQ in 2000 LifeDrive NEC MobilePro Osaris running EPOC OS distributed by Oregon Scientific Casio Pocket Viewer Roland PMA-5 (Personal Music Assistant) Sony CLIÉ Tapwave Zodiac Mindspring Sony Magic Link with the Magic Cap operating system Rugged PDAs Datalogic Mobile Hand Held Products (HHP) Intermec Psion Teklogix Symbol Technologies Trimble Navigation See also Personal Navigation Assistant (PNA) Automotive navigation system Construction Field Computing Danger Hiptop Desknote G1 Graffiti (Palm OS) Hipster PDA Information appliance Laptop Mobile software Mobile learning Mobile web Netbook Personal area network Personal Communicator Personal Information Display Personal information manager Smartphone Sony Clie Subnotebook Tablet PC Ultra-Mobile PC Wearable computer Sena Cases Timex Datalink Virtual assistance References | Personal_digital_assistant |@lemmatized palm:11 tx:2 first:5 pda:77 eo:1 personal:12 communicator:3 digital:7 assistant:5 handheld:6 computer:9 also:14 know:2 palmtop:1 new:5 color:1 screen:15 audio:1 capability:2 enable:1 use:30 mobile:21 phone:6 smartphones:3 web:5 browser:1 portable:1 medium:1 player:2 many:17 access:5 internet:4 intranet:1 extranets:1 via:6 wi:5 fi:5 wireless:6 wide:1 area:3 network:3 wwans:1 employ:1 touch:15 technology:10 consider:1 casio:2 pf:1 release:2 may:6 go:1 corp:2 pioneer:1 field:3 term:1 january:1 apple:9 ceo:1 john:1 sculley:1 consumer:3 electronics:2 show:5 la:1 vega:1 nevada:1 refer:1 newton:8 nokia:3 introduce:1 full:3 functionality:5 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7,624 | Glorious_Revolution | The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland and II of Ireland) in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians with an invading army led by the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange) who as a result ascended the English throne as William III of England. The expression "Glorious Revolution" was first used by John Hampden in late 1689, In testimony before a House of Lords committee in the fall of 1689; (2004), The Revolution of 1688-89: Changing Perspectives, Cambridge U.P., 310 pages ISBN 0521526140, p. 3 and is an expression that is still used by the Westminster Parliament. The Glorious Revolution www.parliament.uk The Glorious Revolution is also occasionally termed the Bloodless Revolution, albeit inaccurately. In England there were two significant clashes between the two armies, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns. The English Civil War (also known as the Great Rebellion) was still within living memory for most of the major English participants in the events of 1688, and for them, in comparison to that war (or even the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685) the deaths in the conflict of 1688 were mercifully few. There was also the Williamite War in Ireland and serious fighting in Scotland (notably the Battles of Killicrankie and the Dunkeld). England, Scotland, and Ireland at time shared a king but were still in theory separate realms with their own parliaments. However in practice the Irish parliament had been completely under the control of Westminster since Poynings Law of 1494, but Scotland still had a degree of independence. The revolution also led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England and the overthrow of Maryland's government. The Revolution is closely tied in with the events of the War of the Grand Alliance on mainland Europe, and may be seen as the last successful invasion of England. See e.g. Jonathan I. Israel, "The Dutch role in the Glorious Revolution", in (1991) The Anglo-Dutch Moment. Essays on the Glorious Revolution and its world impact, Cambridge U.P. ISBN 0-521-39075-3, p. 105; see also Jonathan I. Israel and Geoffrey Parker, "Of Providence and Protestant Winds: the Spanish Armada of 1588 and the Dutch armada of 1688", pp 335-364 in the same volume. It can be argued that James's overthrow began modern English parliamentary democracy: never since has the monarch held absolute power, and the Bill of Rights has become one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain. The deposition of the Roman Catholic James II ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England, and also led to limited toleration for nonconformist Protestants—it would be some time before they had full political rights. For Catholics, however, it was disastrous both socially and politically. Catholics were denied the right to vote and sit in the Westminster Parliament for over 100 years afterwards. They were also denied commissions in the army and the monarch was forbidden to be Catholic or marry a Catholic, thus ensuring the Protestant succession. The invasion ended all attempts by England, in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century, to subdue the Dutch Republic by military force. However, the personal union, the common market and the cooperation between the English and Dutch navies shifted the dominance in world trade from the Republic to England (and then to the United Kingdom of Great Britain). Background During his three-year reign, King James II became directly involved in the political battles in England between Catholicism and Protestantism on the one hand, and on the other, between the Divine Right of Kings and the political rights of Parliament. James's greatest political problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in Parliament. The low church Whigs had failed in their attempt to exclude James from the throne between 1679 and 1681, and James's supporters were the High Church Anglican Tories. When James inherited the throne in 1685, he had much support in the 'Loyal Parliament', which was composed mostly of Tories. His Catholicism was a concern to many, but that he had no son, and his daughters were Protestants, was a "saving grace". James's attempt to relax the penal laws alienated his natural supporters, however, because the Tories viewed this as tantamount to disestablishment of the Church of England. Abandoning the Tories, James looked to form a 'King's party' as a counterweight to the Anglican Tories, so in 1687 James supported the policy of religious toleration and issued the Declaration of Indulgence. By allying himself with the Catholics, Dissenters, and nonconformists, James hoped to build a coalition that would advance Catholic emancipation. In 1686, James coerced the Court of the King's Bench into deciding that the King could dispense with religious restrictions of the Test Actss. James ordered the removal of Henry Compton, the anti-Catholic Bishop of London, and dismissed the Protestant fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford and replaced them with Catholics. James also created a large standing army and employed Catholics in positions of power in the army. To his opponents in Parliament this seemed like a prelude to arbitrary rule, so James prorogued Parliament without gaining Parliament's consent. At this time, the English regiments of the army were encamped at Hounslow, near the capital. The army in Ireland was purged of Protestants who were replaced with Catholics, and by 1688 James had more than 34,000 men under arms in his three kingdoms. Group portrait of the Seven Bishops whom James ordered imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1688, but who were acquitted of charges of seditious libel. In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence and ordered all clergymen to read it in their churches. When the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, and six other bishops (the Seven Bishops) wrote to James asking him to reconsider his policies, they were arrested on charges of seditious libel, but at trial they were acquitted to the cheers of the London crowd. Matters came to a head in 1688, when James fathered a son; until then, the throne would have passed to his daughter, Mary, a Protestant. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland was now likely. Some leaders of the Tory Party united with members of the opposition Whigs and set out to solve the crisis. Conspiracy William III, King of England, Scotland and Ireland, stadtholder of Guelders, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht and Overijssel.</small> In 1686, a group of conspirators met at Charborough House in Dorset to plan the overthrow of "the tyrant race of Stuarts". In June 1688, a further conspiracy was launched at Old Whittington, in Chesterfield, Derbyshire, to depose James and replace him with his daughter Mary and her husband, William Henry of Orange — both Protestants and both grandchildren of Charles I of England. Before the birth of James's son on June 10 (Julian calendar), In this article "New Style" means the start of year is adjusted to 1 January. Events on the European mainland are usually given using the Gregorian calendar, while events in Great Britain and Ireland are usually given using the Julian calendar with the year adjusted to 1 January. Dates with no explicit Julian or Gregorian postscript will be using the same calendar as the last date with an explicit postscript. Mary had been the heir to the throne and William was third in line. After Mary's sister Anne. This line of succession was overturned by the Bill of Rights; see Succession to the British throne James however had only wanted to treat them as possible heirs on condition that they accepted his pro-Catholic position, which they had been unwilling to do for fear that French influence would become too great. William was also stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic, then in the preliminary stages of joining the War of the Grand Alliance against France. He had already acquired the reputation of being the main champion in Europe of the Protestant cause against Catholicism and French absolutism; it seems that he saw an opportunity for fulfilling his principal goal: crushing the power of France. It is still a matter of controversy whether the initiative for the conspiracy was taken by the English or by the stadtholder and his wife. William had been trying to influence English politics for well over a year, letting Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel publish an open letter to the English people in November 1687 deploring the religious policy of James, which action had generally been interpreted as a covert bid for kingship. On December 18 the Duke of Norfolk warned James of a conspiracy on the side of his son-in-law. After his envoy Everhard van Weede Dijkvelt in April 1687 had approached the main Whig and Tory leaders William had maintained a close secret correspondence with them, using as a contact Frederik van Nassau. Jardine (2008), p. 37 In it he had not committed himself to any definite action, but an understanding had been reached that if William should, for whatever reason, ascend, he would in accordance with his anti-absolutist reputation restrain the use of Royal power; in return William desired a full employment of English military resources against France. It has been suggested that the crisis caused by the prospect of a new Catholic heir made William decide to invade the next summer as early as November 1687, D. Hoak, The Anglo-Dutch revolution of 1688-89, p.24 but this is disputed. It is certain however that in April 1688, when France and England concluded a naval agreement that stipulated that the French would finance an English squadron in The Channel, he seriously began to prepare for a military intervention and seek political and financial support for such an undertaking. Revolution or Invasion? Historically the events of 1688 have been called a "revolution" but since an intensified historical interest due to the third centennial of the event, it has become popular to portray the "glorious revolution" as a Dutch invasion of Britain. See Lisa Jardine, Going Dutch (2008); The Glorious Revolution By Dr Edward Vallance. BBC History. 2007. The "Glorious Revolution" fulfills the criteria for revolution, being an internal change of constitution; and also the criteria for invasion, because it involved the landing of large numbers of foreign troops. The events were unusual because the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and English Bill of Rights meant that the apparently invading monarchs, who were legitimate heirs to the throne, were prepared to be governed by the English Parliament. It is difficult to classify the entire proceedings of 1687–89 but it can be seen that the events occurred in three phases: conspiracy, invasion by Dutch forces and "Glorious Revolution". It has been argued that the invasion aspect had been downplayed as a result of a combination of British pride and successful Dutch propaganda, trying to depict the course of events as a largely internal English affair. Jardine (2008), p. 27. Planning for an invasion Henry Sydney, author of the Invitation to William, which was signed by six noblemen (both Whigs and Tories) and one bishop. William and Mary laid careful plans over a number of months for an invasion, which they hoped to execute in September. Their first concern was to avoid any impression of foreign conquest, and so in April, they asked for a formal invitation to be issued by a group of worthies. Only after the Prince of Wales had been born, however, and many suspected he was suppositious It was rumoured that he was a baby who had been smuggled into the royal bedchamber in a warming pan, but this is not now taken seriously. , did the Immortal Seven (who consisted of one bishop and six nobles) decide to comply, with the letter reaching William on June 30 (Julian calendar). It should be emphasized that this was not an invitation to become king, but rather to "save the Protestant religion" and that the "seven" were not fully aware this would probably lead to a war with France. Also, William's confidante Hans Willem Bentinck launched a propaganda campaign in England, presenting William as being, in fact, a true Stuart but one blessedly free from the, according to the pamphlets, usual Stuart vices of cryptocatholicism, absolutism, and debauchery. Much of the later "spontaneous" support for William had been carefully organised by him and his agents. In May, William sent an envoy, Johann von Görtz, to Vienna to secretly ensure the support of the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I. Learning that William promised not to persecute the Catholics in England, the emperor approved, promising in turn to make peace with the Ottoman Empire to free his forces for a campaign in the West; on September 4 1688 he would join an alliance with the Republic against France. The Duke of Hanover, Ernest Augustus and the Elector of Saxony, John George III, assured William that they would remain neutral. The next concern was to assemble a powerful invasion force — contrary to the wishes of the English conspirators, who predicted that a token force would be sufficient. William, financed by the city of Amsterdam after secret and difficult negotiations by Bentinck with the hesitant Amsterdam burgomasters during June, hired 400 transports; also Bentinck negotiated contracts for 13,616 German mercenaries from Brandenburg, Würtemberg, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) and Celle, to man Dutch border fortresses in order to free an equal number of Dutch elite mercenary troops for use against England. Jardine (2008), p. 38 Further financial support was obtained from the most disparate sources: the Jewish banker Francisco Lopes Suasso lent two million guilders; Jardine (2008), p. 52 when asked what security he desired, Suasso answered: "If you are victorious, you will surely repay me; if not, the loss is mine". Even Pope Innocent XI, an inveterate enemy of Louis XIV of France, provided a loan to William, though a relation with the invasion has been denied. Kelly, 288 Total costs were seven million guilders, four million of which would ultimately be paid for by a state loan. In the summer the Dutch navy was expanded to 9000 sailors on the pretext of fighting the Dunkirkers. In August, it became clear that William had surprisingly strong support within the English army, a situation brought about by James himself. In January 1688 he had forbidden any of his subjects to serve the Dutch and had demanded that the Republic dissolve its mercenary Scottish and English regiments. When this was refused, he asked that at least those willing would be released from their martial oath to be free to return to Britain. To this William consented as it would purify his army from Jacobite elements. In total 104 officers and 44 soldiers returned. The officers were enlisted within the British armies and so favoured that the established officer corps began to fear for its position. On August 14 Lord Churchill wrote to William: "I owe it to God and my country to put my honour into the hands of Your Highness". Nothing comparable happened within the Royal Navy, however. Still, William had great trouble convincing the Dutch ruling elite, the regents, that such an expensive expedition was really necessary. Also he personally feared that the French might attack the Republic through Flanders, when its army was tied up in England. By early September he was on the brink of cancelling the entire expedition, when French policy played into his hand. On September 9 (Gregorian calendar) the French envoy Jean Antoine de Mesmes, the Comte d'Avaux, handed two letters from the French king, who had known of the invasion plans since May, to the States-General of the Netherlands. Jardine (2008), p. 41 In the first they were warned not to attack James. In the second they were urged not to interfere with the French policy in Germany. James hurriedly distanced himself from the first message, trying to convince the States that there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them. As there had been in 1672 with the concerted attack by France and England on the Republic on the basis of the Secret treaty of Dover. This however had precisely the opposite effect; many members became extremely suspicious. The second message proved that the main French effort was directed to the east, not the north, so there was no immediate danger of a French invasion for the Republic itself. From September 22, Louis XIV, after having waged a tariff war against the Republic for over a year, seized all Dutch ships present in French ports, Jardine (2008), p. 39 seeming to prove that real war with France was imminent, though Louis had meant it to be a mere warning. On September 26 the powerful city council of Amsterdam decided to officially support the invasion. On September 27 Louis crossed the Rhine into Germany and William began to move his army from the eastern borders to the coast. On September 29 the States of Holland gathering in secret session and fearing a French-English alliance, approved the operation, agreeing to make the English "useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this state". They accepted William's argument that a preventive strike was necessary to avoid a repeat of the events of 1672, when England and France had jointly attacked the Republic, "an attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find the occasion". The States ordered a Dutch fleet of 53 warships to escort the troop transports. This fleet was in fact commanded by Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde but in consideration for English sensitivities on October 6 placed under nominal command of Rear-Admiral Arthur Herbert, the very messenger who, disguised as a common sailor, had brought the invitation to William in The Hague. Though William was himself Admiral-General of the Republic he abstained from operational command, sailing conspicuously on the yacht Den Briel, accompanied by Lieutenant-Admiral Willem Bastiaensz Schepers, the Rotterdam shipping magnate who had organised the transport fleet. The States-General allowed the core regiments of the Dutch field army to participate under command of Marshall Frederick Schomberg. William's landing The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret. The English envoy Ignatius White, the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament.... Louis XIV threatened the Dutch with an immediate declaration of war, should they carry out their plans. Embarkations, started on September 22 (Gregorian calendar), had been completed on October 8 and the expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest. On October 10 William issued the Declaration of The Hague (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were after the landing distributed in England, Jardine (2008), p. 29 in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales. He would respect the position of James. On October 14 he responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or conquer England. Whether he had any at that moment is still controversial. The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers. Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set the expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically such an enterprise would take at least some months. Being ready after the first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month. This year they came early however. For three weeks the invasion fleet was prevented by adverse southwesterly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this "popish wind" might endure. However, by late October it became the famous "Protestant Wind" by turning to the east, allowing a departure on October 28. It had originally been intended that the Dutch navy defeat the English first to free the way for the transport fleet but because it was now so late in the season and conditions onboard deteriorated rapidly, it was decided to sail in convoy. Hardly had the fleet reached open sea when the wind changed again to the southwest forcing most ships to return to port, becoming a favourable easterly only on November 9. First the fleet, reassembled on November 11, four times larger than the Spanish Armada and having about 5,000 horses and 50,000 men aboard including 20,000 sailors and supply train, sailed north in the direction of Harwich where Bentinck had a landing site prepared. It was forced south however when the wind turned to the north and sailed in an enormous square formation, 25 ships deep, into the English Channel on November 13, saluting Dover Castle and Calais simultaneously to show off its size. The English navy positioned in the Thames estuary saw the Dutch pass twice but was unable to intercept, first because of the strong easterly wind, the second time due to an unfavourable tide. Landing with a large army in Torbay near Brixham, Devon on November 5 (Julian calendar (November 15 Gregorian calendar), 1688, William was greeted with much show of popular support (this was Bentinck's alternative landing site) and some local men joined his army. His personal disembarkation was delayed somewhat to make it coincide with Bonfire Night, the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot. Hunt, Tristram. Why everyone in Britain should light a bonfire tonight, Daily Mail, 5 November, 2006 The banner of Den Briel proclaimed: "For Liberty and the Protestant Religion" above the motto of the House of Orange, Je maintiendrai ("I will maintain"). Jardine (2008), pp. 10-11 William's army totalled approximately 15,000–18,000 on foot and 3,660 cavalry. It was composed mainly of 14,352 regular Dutch mercenary troops (many of them actually Scots, Scandinavians, Germans and Swiss), and about 5,000 English and Scottish volunteers with a substantial Huguenot element in the cavalry and Guards as well as two hundred men of Black African descent from plantations in the South American colony of Suriname. Robert Beddard, A Kingdom without a King: The Journal of the Provisional Government in the Revolution of 1688 (Phaidon, 1988), p. 19. Many of the mercenaries were Catholic. (2002), Restoring the Temple of Vision: Cabalistic Freemasonry and Stuart, Brill ISBN 9004124896, p. 762 On November 7 (November 17 Gregorian calendar), the wind turned southwest, preventing the pursuing English fleet commanded by George Legge from attacking the landing site. The French fleet was at the time concentrated in the Mediterranean, to assist a possible attack on the Papal State. Louis delayed his declaration of war until November 26 (Gregorian calendar) hoping at first that their involvement in a protracted English civil war would keep the Dutch from interfering with his German campaign. The Dutch call their fleet action the Glorieuze Overtocht, the "Glorious Crossing". William considered his veteran army to be sufficient in size to defeat any forces (all rather inexperienced) James could throw against him, but it had been decided to avoid the hazards of battle and maintain a defensive attitude in the hope James's position might collapse by itself; thus he landed far away from James's army, expecting that his English allies would take the initiative in acting against James while he ensured his own protection against potential attacks. William was prepared to wait; he had paid his troops in advance for a three-month campaign. A slow advance, apart from being necessitated by heavy rainfall anyway, had the added benefit of not over-extending the supply lines; the Dutch troops were under strict orders not even to forage, for fear that this would degenerate into plundering which would alienate the population. On November 9 William took Exeter after the magistrates had fled the city, entering on a white palfrey, with the two hundred Black men forming a guard of honour, dressed in white, with turbans and feathers. Jardine (2008), p. 16 In the South support from the local gentry was disappointingly limited, Jardine (2008), p. 15 but from November 12, in the North, many nobles began to declare for William, as they had promised, often by a public reading of the Declaration. Jardine (2008), p. 32 In Yorkshire, printer John White started to print the same document for a more widespread distribution. Jardine (2008), p. 31 However, in the first weeks most people carefully avoided taking sides; as a whole the nation neither rallied behind its king, nor welcomed William, but passively awaited the outcome of events. In general, the mood was one of confusion, mutual distrust and depression. The collapse of James' regime James refused a French offer to send an expeditionary force, fearing that it would cost him domestic support. He tried to bring the Tories to his side by making concessions but failed because he still refused to endorse the Test Act. His forward forces had gathered at Salisbury, and James went to join them on 19 November (Julian calendar) with his main force, having a total strength of about 19,000. Amid anti-Catholic rioting in London, it rapidly became apparent that the troops were not eager to fight, and the loyalty of many of James' commanders was doubtful; he had been informed of the conspiracy within the army as early as September, but for unknown reasons had refused to arrest the officers involved. Some have argued, however, that if James had been more resolute, the army would have fought and fought well. J. Childs, The army, James II, and the Glorious Revolution, Manchester, 1980 The first blood was shed at about this time in a skirmish at Wincanton, Somerset, where Royalist troops retreated after defeating a small party of scouts; the total body count on both sides came to about fifteen. In Salisbury, after hearing that some officers had deserted, among them Lord Cornbury, a worried James was overcome by a serious nose-bleed that he interpreted as an evil omen indicating that he should order his army to retreat, which the supreme army commander, the Earl of Feversham, also advised on 23 November. The next day, Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, one of James' chief commanders, deserted to William. On 26 November, James's own daughter, Princess Anne, who doubted the authenticity of her new brother, Jardine (2008), p. 56 did the same. Both were serious losses. James returned to London that same day. After Plymouth surrendered to him on 18 November, William began to advance on 21 November. By 24 November, William's forces were at Salisbury; three days later they had reached Hungerford, where the following day they met with the King's Commissioners to negotiate. James offered free elections and a general amnesty for the rebels. In reality, by that point James was simply playing for time, having already decided to flee the country. He feared that his English enemies would insist on his execution and that William would give in to their demands. Convinced that his army was unreliable, he sent orders to disband it. On 10 December, the two sides fought a second engagement with the Battle of Reading, a defeat for the King's men. In December, there was anti-Catholic rioting in Bristol, Bury St. Edmunds, Hereford, York, Cambridge, and Shropshire. On 9 December, a Protestant mob stormed Dover Castle, where the Catholic Sir Edward Hales was Governor, and seized it. On December 8 William met at last with James's representatives; he agreed to James's proposals but also demanded that all Catholics would be immediately dismissed from state functions and that England would pay for the Dutch military expenses. He received no reply, however. In the night of 9–10 December, the Queen and the Prince of Wales fled for France. The next day saw James's attempt to escape, the king dropping The Great Seal in the Thames along the way, as no lawful Parliament could be summoned without it. Jardine (2008), p. 17. However, he was captured on 11 December by fishermen in Faversham opposite Sheerness, the town on the Isle of Sheppey. On the same day, 27 Lords Spiritual and Temporal, forming a provisional government, decided to ask William to restore order but at the same time asked the king to return to London to reach an agreement with his son-in-law. On the night of the 11th there were riots and lootings of the houses of Catholics and several foreign embassies of Catholic countries in London. The following night a mass panic gripped London during what was later termed the Irish Night. False rumours of an impending Irish army attack on London circulated in the capital, and a mob of over 100,000 assembled, ready to defend the city. Upon returning to London on 16 December, James was welcomed by cheering crowds. He took heart at this and attempted to recommence government, even presiding over a meeting of the Privy Council. He sent Lord Feversham to William to arrange for a personal meeting to continue negotiations. Now for the first time it became evident that William had no longer any desire to keep James in power in England. He was extremely dismayed by the arrival of Lord Feversham. He refused the suggestion that he simply arrest James because this would violate his own declarations and burden his relationship with his wife. In the end it was decided that he should exploit James's fears; the three original commissioners were sent back to James with the message that William felt he could no longer guarantee the king's wellbeing and that James for his own safety had better leave London for Ham. William at the same time ordered all English troops to depart from the capital, while his forces entered on 17 December; no local forces were allowed within a twenty mile radius until the spring of 1690. Already the English navy had declared for William. James, by his own choice, went under Dutch protective guard to Rochester in Kent on December 18 (Julian calendar), just as William entered London, cheered by crowds dressed in orange ribbons or waving, lavishly distributed, oranges. Jardine (2008), p. 19. The Dutch officers had been ordered that "if he [James] wanted to leave, they should not prevent him, but allow him to gently slip through". Journaal van Constantijn Huygens, i, 62 James then left for France on 23 December after having received a request from his wife to join her, even though his followers urged him to stay. The lax guard on James and the decision to allow him so near the coast indicate that William may have hoped that a successful flight would avoid the difficulty of deciding what to do with him, especially with the memory of the execution of Charles I still strong. By fleeing, James ultimately helped resolve the awkward question whether he was still the legal king or not, having created according to many a situation of interregnum. William and Mary made joint monarchs On December 28, William took over the provisional government by appointment of the peers of the realm, as was the legal right of the latter in circumstances when the King was incapacitated, and, on the advice of his Whig allies, summoned an assembly of all the surviving MPs of Charles II's reign, thus bypassing the Tories of the Loyal Parliament of 1685. This assembly called for a chosen Convention, elected on January 5, which convened on January 22. The name "Convention" was chosen because only the King could call a Parliament, though as William had been appointed de facto regent by the peers the Convention was, strictly speaking, a legal Parliament. Although James had fled the country, he still had many followers, and William feared that the king might return, relegating William to the role of a mere regent, a solution that was unacceptable to him. On December 30, William (in a conversation with the Marquess of Halifax) threatened not to stay in England "if King James came again" and determined to go back to the Netherlands "if they went about to make him Regent". H. C. Foxcroft, The Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, Marquis of Halifax: Volume II (London, 1898), pp. 203–4. Quoted in Beddard, p. 65. The Convention Parliament was very divided on the issue. The radical Whigs in the Lower House proposed to elect William as a king (meaning that his power would be derived from the people); the moderates wanted an acclamation of William and Mary together; the Tories wanted to make him regent or only acclaim Mary as Queen. The Lower House resolved that the throne was vacant as a result of James's desertion, amounting to abdication; the Lords voted that either James was still King or Mary already Queen, but that the Throne of England couldn't possibly be "vacant". Mary, however, opposed this position, and William made it known to the Tory leaders at this point that they could either accept him as king or deal with the Whigs without his military presence, for then he would leave for the Republic. Confronted with this choice, the Tory majority of Lords decided on February 6 that the throne was vacant after all. However, it is important to note what the Lords and Commons meant when they said that the Throne was vacant, it was not that there was no King (though James had de facto abdicated in their eyes only an Act of Parliament could give that legal effect) but rather 'there was no-one from whom the people of England could expect Regal Protection', in the words of the Commons representative to the Lords. The vacancy of the Throne was thus a vacancy in the exercise of royal powers rather than an actual interregnum. Generally there was a great fear that the situation might deteriorate into a civil war. Jardine (2008), p. 26 William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted. On February 13, 1689 (Old Style), February 23 (Gregorian calendar) Mary II and William III jointly acceded to the throne of England. A commission had on February 2 formulated 23 Heads of Grievances which were renamed the Declaration of Rights; these were read aloud before William and Mary accepted the throne. They were crowned on April 11, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. Although their succession to the English throne was relatively peaceful, much blood would be shed before William's authority was accepted in Ireland and Scotland. In Scotland there had been no serious support for the rebellion, but when James fled for France, most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London to offer their services to William; on January 7 they asked William to take over the responsibilities of government. On March 14 a Convention convened in Edinburgh, dominated by the Presbyterians because the episcopalians continued to support James. There was nevertheless a strong Jacobite faction, but a letter by James received on March 16, in which he threatened to punish all who rebelled against him, resulted in his followers leaving the Convention, which then on April 4 decided that the throne of Scotland was vacant. The Convention formulated the Claim of Right and the Articles of Grievances. On May 11 William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland; after their acceptance, the Claim and the Articles were read aloud, leading to an immediate debate over whether or not an endorsement of these documents was implicit in that acceptance. Jacobite uprisings James had cultivated support on the fringes of his Three Kingdoms — in Catholic Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Supporters of James, known as Jacobites, were prepared to resist what they saw as an illegal coup by force of arms. The first Jacobite rebellion, an uprising in support of James in Scotland, took place in 1689. It was led by John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount of Dundee, known as "Bonnie Dundee", who raised an army from Highland clans. In Ireland, Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell led local Catholics, who had been discriminated against by previous English monarchs, in the conquest of all the fortified places in the kingdom except Derry, and so held the Kingdom for James. James himself landed in Ireland with 6,000 French troops to try to regain the throne in the Williamite war in Ireland. The war raged from 1689–91. James fled Ireland following a humiliating defeat at the Battle of the Boyne, but Jacobite resistance was not ended until after the battle of Aughrim in 1691, when over half of their army was killed or taken prisoner. The Irish Jacobites surrendered under the conditions of the Treaty of Limerick on 3 October 1691. England stayed relatively calm throughout, although some English Jacobites fought on James's side in Ireland. Despite the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Killiecrankie, the uprising in the Scottish Highlands was quelled due to death of its leader, Claverhouse, and Williamite victories at Dunkeld and Cromdale. Many, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, continued to see the Stuarts as the legitimate monarchs of the Three Kingdoms, and there were further Jacobite rebellions in Scotland during the years 1715, 1719 and 1745 Anglo-Dutch Alliance Though he had carefully avoided making it public, William's main motive in organizing the expedition had been the opportunity to bring England into an alliance against France. On December 9, 1688 he had already asked the States-General to send a delegation of three to negotiate the conditions. On February 18 (Julian calendar) he asked the Convention to support the Republic in its war against France, but it refused, only consenting to pay ₤600,000 for the continued presence of the Dutch army in England. On March 9 (Gregorian calendar) the States-General responded to Louis's earlier declaration of war by declaring war on France in return. On April 19 (Julian calendar) the Dutch delegation signed a naval treaty with England. It stipulated that the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet would always be commanded by an Englishman, even when of lower rank; also it specified that the two parties would contribute in the ratio of five English vessels against three Dutch vessels, meaning in practice that the Dutch navy would in future remain smaller than the English. The Navigation Acts were not repealed. On May 18 the new Parliament allowed William to declare war on France. On September 9 1689 (Gregorian calendar), William as King of England joined the League of Augsburg against France. Having England as an ally meant that the military situation of the Republic was strongly improved; but this very fact induced William to be uncompromising in his position towards France. This policy led to a large number of very expensive campaigns which were largely paid for with Dutch funds. In 1712 the Republic was financially exhausted; it withdrew from international politics and was forced to let its fleet deteriorate, making England the dominant maritime power of the world. The Dutch economy, already burdened by the high national debt and concommitant high taxation, suffered from the other European states' protectionist policies, which its weakened fleet was no longer able to resist. To make matters worse, the main Dutch trading and banking houses moved much of their activity from Amsterdam to London after 1688. Between 1688 and 1720, world trade dominance shifted from the Republic to England. Legacy The Glorious Revolution of 1688 is considered by some as being one of the most important events in the long evolution of the respective powers of Parliament and the Crown in England. With the passage of the Bill of Rights, it stamped out once and for all any possibility of a Catholic monarchy, and ended moves towards absolute monarchy in the British kingdoms by circumscribing the monarch's powers. These powers were greatly restricted; he or she could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, make royal appointments, or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's permission — to this day the Army is known as the "British Army" not the "Royal Army" as it is Parliament's Army and not that of the King. Since 1689, government under a system of constitutional monarchy in England, and later the United Kingdom, has been uninterrupted. Since then, Parliament's power has steadily increased while the Crown's has steadily declined. Unlike in the English civil war of the mid-seventeenth century, the "Glorious Revolution" did not involve the masses of ordinary people in England (the majority of the bloodshed occurred in Ireland). This fact has led many historians to suggest that in England at least the events more closely resemble a coup d'état than a social revolution. The importance of the event has divided historians ever since Friedrich Engels judged it "a relatively puny event". Friedrich Engels, "Introduction to Socialism: Utopian and Scientific", in: (1997), German Socialist Philosophy, Continuum International Publishing Group, 324 pages ISBN 082640748X, p. 269 Prior to his arrival in England, the new king William III of England was not Anglican, but rather was a member of the Dutch Reformed Church. Consequently, as a Calvinist and Presbyterian he was now in the unenviable position of being the head of the Church of England, while technically being a Nonconformist. This was, however, not his main motive for promoting religious toleration. More important in that respect was the need to keep happy his Catholic allies i.e. Spain and the German Emperor in the coming struggle with Louis XIV. Israel, pp.137-138 Though he had promised legal toleration for Catholics in his Declaration of October, 1688, he was ultimately unsuccessful in this respect, due to opposition by the Tories in the new Parliament. Israel, p.20 The Revolution led to the Act of Toleration of 1689, which granted toleration to Nonconformist Protestants, but not to Catholics. The Williamite victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the Orange Order for preserving British and Protestant dominance in the country. Lord Macaulay's account of the Revolution in "The History of England from the Accession of James the Second" exemplifies its semi-mystical significance to later generations. See also List of James II deserters to William of Orange Sources Ashley, Maurice. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 Hodder & Stoughton, 1966; also Panther History 1968 Beddard, Robert. A Kingdom without a King: The Journal of the Provisional Government in the Revolution of 1688 (Phaidon, 1988). Cruickshanks, Eveline. The Glorious Revolution (British History in Perspective) (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000). ISBN 0312230095. excerpt and text search Dolan, Richard L., Jr. "Buttressing a Monarchy: Literary Representations of William III and the Glorious Revolution." PhD dissertation Georgia State U. 2005. 333 pp. DAI 2006 67(4): 1347-A. DA3215558 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Israel, Jonathan I. The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the Glorious Revolution and its World Impact (Cambridge University Press, 2003). ISBN 0521544068. Jardine, Lisa. Going Dutch: How England Plundered Holland's Glory (Harper, 2008), one of the few scholarly studies that sides with James II and denounces the episode as a Dutch invasion and British defeat MacCubbin, R. P., and M. Hamilton-Phillips, eds. The Age of William III and Mary II (1988). Miller, John. The Glorious Revolution (2nd ed. 1997) 152pp excerpt and text search ISBN 0582292220 Ogg, David. William III (1956), 145pp; a brief scholarly biography online edition Onnekink, David The Anglo-Dutch Favourite: The Career of Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (1649-1709), Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, ISBN 0-754-65545-8 Pincus, Steven C. A. England's Glorious Revolution 1688–89: A Brief History with Documents (Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005). ISBN 0312167148. Prall, Stuart The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688 (Anchor Books, 1972). Vallance, Edward. The Glorious Revolution: 1688 — Britain's Fight for Liberty (Brown Little, 2006). ISBN 1933648244. Notes External links BBC History: Charles II The Glorious Revolution of 1688 Declaration of the Prince of Orange, October 10, 1688 Economic analysis of the Glorious Revolution from EH.NET Catholic Encyclopedia article A Marxist view of the Glorious Revolution by Duncan Hallas BBC run site, with an article about the Revolution History of the Monarchy > The Stuarts > Mary II and William III | Glorious_Revolution |@lemmatized glorious:24 revolution:39 also:19 call:5 overthrow:4 king:31 james:79 ii:13 england:48 vii:1 scotland:14 ireland:17 union:2 parliamentarian:1 invade:2 army:33 lead:10 dutch:49 stadtholder:4 william:80 iii:10 orange:9 nassau:2 result:4 ascend:2 english:39 throne:18 expression:2 first:13 use:8 john:5 hampden:1 late:6 testimony:1 house:7 lord:12 committee:1 fall:1 changing:1 perspective:2 cambridge:4 u:3 p:26 page:2 isbn:10 still:13 westminster:3 parliament:27 www:1 uk:1 occasionally:1 term:2 bloodless:2 albeit:1 inaccurately:1 two:8 significant:1 clash:1 anti:5 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7,625 | Transport_in_Kenya | Kenya has a relatively well-developed transport system that compares well with other counties in the region. Kenya has an extensive network of paved and unpaved roads. The railway system links the nations ports and major cities. A line also connects Kenya with neighbouring Uganda. There are 15 airports with paved runways. Roads Map of Kenya showing main roads and railways Total: 63,265 km (interurban roads) Paved: 8,933 km Unpaved: 54,332 km Note: there also are 100,000 km of rural roads and 14,500 km of urban roads, leading to a national total of 177,765 km (2004) Kenya has one of the better paved road networks and some of the busiest roads south of the Sahara, but maintenance is often neglected. Bus transport There are around 25,000 matatus (minibuses), which constitute the bulk of the country's public transport system. In February 2004 the Ministry of Transport introduced new regulations governing the operation of Matatus. These regulations include: the compulsory fitting of safety belts and speed governors. In addition, standing on matatus was banned. As a result of these regulations, many matatus were taken off the road, which caused great disruption to public transport, forcing many people to walk to work. Now the situation has stabilised, and the new regulations have great reduction in the number of people killed and injured in accidents. Due to lax enforcement after the initial push the number of deaths in road accidents has increased in recent years. The largest bus company in Kenya (Kenya Bus Services) has run into financial difficulties, which has forced them to reduce the number of buses they can operate worsening existing problems with public transport. Although new, smaller, city buses, that offer passengers higher standards of comfort and safety have been introduced on some inner-city routes. International highways Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through Kenya and the capital, Nairobi: The Cairo-Cape Town Highway, Trans-African Highway 4, linking North Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. From Nairobi southwards this is one of the most heavily used routes in the network, and includes one of the longest complete paved sections. However, it still has missing links to the north and it is not practical to travel to Cairo without off-road vehicles. The Lagos-Mombasa Highway, Trans-African Highway 8, links East Africa and West Africa. It is only complete between the Ugandan–DR Congo border and Mombasa, linking the African Great Lakes region to the sea. It is referred to as the 'Trans-African Highway'. Airports Airports - with paved runways total: 15 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 1 (2006) Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, located in Nairobi, is Kenya's largest airport and serves the most destinations. Some international flights go to Moi International Airport in Mombasa. Kisumu Airport will be upgraded to an international airport in 2008. Airports - with unpaved runways total: 210 1,524 to 2,437 m: 11 914 to 1,523 m: 115 under 914 m: 84 (2006) Many airports with unpaved runways serve private purposes, such as private game parks and safari lodges, but are still serviced by airlines like AirKenya Railways See also: Rail transport in Kenya Total: 2,778 km Narrow gauge: 2,778 km 1000 mm gauge The former Uganda Railway, was run by the company East African Railways. It jointly served the present countries of Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. Since the dissolution of the EAR corporation in 1977, the national company Kenya Railways Corporation runs the former Uganda Railway and its branches in Kenya. The most important line in the country runs between the port of Mombasa and Nairobi, sleeping car accommodation is offered for tourists. In 2006, the Rift Valley Railways Consortium led by South African companies took over the operation of the Kenyan and Ugandan railway network on a contract lasting 25 years, with the opportunity of renewal. After criticism from the Kenya Railways Corporation, RVR doubled the frequency of service, and also imposed restrictions to reduce train derailments caused by the ageing infrastructure. RVR run passenger trains within Kenya only, primarily from Nairobi to Mombasa but also to local towns such as Kisumu. Passenger services on these lines are offered on peak periods only. Freight services are the bulk of RVR's operations. In 2008, agreements were made with Uganda about gauge standardisation. http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/10/05/more-investors-sought-for-kenya-uganda-railway-system-following-failure-of-rvr/ Waterways Part of the Lake Victoria system is within the boundaries of Kenya. Kenya has a major international port at Mombasa, serving both Kenya and Uganda. Merchant Marine Total:" 3 ships (with a volume of or over) /By type: passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1Registered in other countries:'' 6 (2006) Ports and harbors Mombasa has the only commercial port that reaches international standards. Mombasa's commercial port is called Kilindini Harbour and is run by the Kenya Ports Authority, it lies on the Indian Ocean. There are plans to build another international port in Lamu to the north east of Mombassa. There is an inland port at Kisumu which serves Lake Victoria. Pipelines transporting Petroleum products, 483 km - possible extension to Uganda See also Matatu Kenya Akamba bus East African Railway Master Plan External links lonelyplanet.com's article on Getting around in Kenya http://www.world66.com/africa/kenya/gettingaround http://www.kenyaweb.com/transport/transporters.html Study on matatu, 1999 Flight to Kenya State corporations that regulate transport Air Accident Investigation Unit Kenya Airports Authority Kenya Civil Aviation Authority Kenya Ferry Services Limited Kenya National Shipping Line Kenya Pipeline Company Kenya Ports Authority Kenya Railways Corporation Kenya Roads Board National Irrigation Board References | Transport_in_Kenya |@lemmatized kenya:32 relatively:1 well:2 develop:1 transport:10 system:5 compare:1 county:1 region:2 extensive:1 network:5 paved:3 unpaved:4 road:12 railway:11 link:6 nation:1 port:10 major:2 city:3 line:4 also:6 connect:1 neighbouring:1 uganda:8 airport:10 runway:4 map:1 show:1 main:1 total:6 km:9 interurban:1 pave:3 note:1 rural:1 urban:1 lead:2 national:4 one:3 good:1 busy:1 south:2 sahara:1 maintenance:1 often:1 neglect:1 bus:6 around:2 matatus:4 minibus:1 constitute:1 bulk:2 country:4 public:3 february:1 ministry:1 introduce:2 new:3 regulation:4 govern:1 operation:3 include:2 compulsory:1 fitting:1 safety:2 belt:1 speed:1 governor:1 addition:1 stand:1 ban:1 result:1 many:3 take:2 cause:2 great:3 disruption:1 force:2 people:2 walk:1 work:1 situation:1 stabilise:1 reduction:1 number:3 kill:1 injure:1 accident:3 due:1 lax:1 enforcement:1 initial:1 push:1 death:1 increase:1 recent:1 year:2 large:2 company:5 service:6 run:6 financial:1 difficulty:1 reduce:2 operate:1 worsen:1 exist:1 problem:1 although:1 small:1 offer:3 passengers:1 high:1 standard:2 comfort:1 inner:1 route:3 international:8 highway:7 two:1 trans:4 african:8 pas:1 capital:1 nairobi:5 cairo:2 cape:1 town:2 north:3 africa:6 east:5 southern:1 southward:1 heavily:1 use:1 long:1 complete:2 section:1 however:1 still:2 miss:1 practical:1 travel:1 without:1 vehicle:1 lagos:1 mombasa:8 west:1 ugandan:2 dr:1 congo:1 border:1 lake:3 sea:1 refer:1 jomo:1 kenyatta:1 locate:1 serve:5 destination:1 flight:2 go:1 moi:1 kisumu:3 upgrade:1 private:2 purpose:1 game:1 park:1 safari:1 lodge:1 airline:1 like:1 airkenya:1 see:2 rail:1 narrow:1 gauge:3 mm:1 former:2 jointly:1 present:1 tanzania:1 since:1 dissolution:1 ear:1 corporation:5 railways:2 branch:1 important:1 sleep:1 car:1 accommodation:1 tourist:1 rift:1 valley:1 consortium:1 kenyan:1 contract:1 last:1 opportunity:1 renewal:1 criticism:1 rvr:4 double:1 frequency:1 impose:1 restriction:1 train:2 derailment:1 ageing:1 infrastructure:1 passenger:3 within:2 primarily:1 local:1 peak:1 period:1 freight:1 agreement:1 make:1 standardisation:1 http:3 africanpress:1 wordpress:1 com:4 investor:1 seek:1 follow:1 failure:1 waterways:1 part:1 victoria:2 boundary:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:1 volume:1 type:1 cargo:1 petroleum:2 tanker:1 harbor:1 commercial:2 reach:1 call:1 kilindini:1 harbour:1 authority:4 lie:1 indian:1 ocean:1 plan:2 build:1 another:1 lamu:1 mombassa:1 inland:1 pipeline:2 product:1 possible:1 extension:1 matatu:2 akamba:1 master:1 external:1 lonelyplanet:1 article:1 get:1 www:2 gettingaround:1 kenyaweb:1 transporter:1 html:1 study:1 state:1 regulate:1 air:1 investigation:1 unit:1 airports:1 civil:1 aviation:1 ferry:1 limit:1 shipping:1 board:2 irrigation:1 reference:1 |@bigram airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 pave_runway:1 jomo_kenyatta:1 nairobi_kenya:1 airport_unpaved:2 unpaved_runway:2 narrow_gauge:1 uganda_tanzania:1 rift_valley:1 wordpress_com:1 kenya_uganda:2 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
7,626 | Books_of_Chronicles | The Books of Chronicles (Hebrew Divrei Hayyamim, דברי הימים, Greek Paraleipomêna) are part of the Hebrew Bible (Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament). In the masoretic text, it appears as the first or last book of the Ketuvim (the latter arrangement also making it the final book of the Jewish bible). Chronicles largely parallels the Davidic narratives in the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings. Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible: 2nd Edition. Mayfield: Palo Alto. 1985. p 188. For this reason it is called "Supplements" in the Septuagint, where it appears in two parts (I & II Chronicles), immediately following 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings as a supplement to them. The division of Chronicles and its place in the Christian canon of the Old Testament are based upon the Septuagint. The author of Chronicles, termed "the Chronicler," may also have written Ezra and Nehemiah. His work is an important source of information about Israel after the Babylonian exile. Name In Hebrew the book is called Divrei Hayyamim, (i.e. "matters [of] the days") based on the phrase sefer divrei ha-yamim le-malkhei Yehudah ("book of the days of the kings of Judah"), which appears several times in the Books of Kings. In the Greek Septuagint (LXX), Chronicles bears the title Paraleipomêna, i.e., "things omitted," or "supplements," because it contains details not found in the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings. Thus in the Douai Bible translation the books are accordingly styled the "Books of Paralipomenon." Jerome, in the introduction to his Latin translation of the books of Samuel and Kings, (part of the Vulgate), referred to the book as a chronikon ("Chronicles" in English). The book itself is titled Paralipomena in the Vulgate. Japhet, Sara. I & II Chronicles: A Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1993. p. 1. Location In the masoretic text, Chronicles is part of the third part of the Tanakh, namely Ketuvim ("Writings"). In most printed versions it is the last book in Ketuvim (following Ezra-Nehemiah). This order is based on medieval Ashkenazic manuscripts. The order of the books of Ketuvim given in the Talmud (Bava Batra 14b-15a), though it differs from the Ashkenazic order, also places Chronicles at the end of Ketuvim. In these traditions, Chronicles becomes the final book of the Bible. However, in early Tiberian manuscripts such as the Aleppo codex and the Leningrad codex, Chronicles is placed as the first book in Ketuvim, preceding Psalms. The Jewish ordering of the canon suggests that Chronicles is a summary of the entire span of history to the time it was written. (This might also be the reason the Chronicler commences his genealogy with Adam.) Steven Tuell argues that having Chronicles as the last book in the canon is appropriate since it "attempts to distill and summarize the entire history of God's dealings with God's people." Tuell, Steven S. First and Second Chronicles. Louisville: John Knox Press, 2001. p. 158. In Christian Bibles, Chronicles I & II are part of the "historical" books of the Old Testament, following Kings and before Ezra. This order is based upon that found in the Septuagint, followed by the Vulgate, and relates to the view of Chronicles as "supplements" to Samuel and Kings. Formal division In the, Chronicles is part of the third part of the namely ("Writings"). In most printed versions it is the last book in Ketuvim (following Ezra-Nehemiah). This order is based on medieval manuscripts. The order of the books of Ketuvim given in the (Bava Batra 14b-15a), though it differs from the Ashkenazic order, also places Chronicles at the end of Ketuvim. In these traditions, Chronicles becomes the final book of the Bible. However, in early Tiberian manuscripts such as the and the Chronicles is placed as the first book in Ketuvim, preceding The Jewish ordering of the canon suggests that Chronicles is a summary of the entire span of history to the time it was written. (This might also be the reason the Chronicler commences his genealogy with Steven Tuell argues that having Chronicles as the last book in the canon is appropriate since it "attempts to distill and summarize the entire history of God's dealings with God's people In Christian Bibles, Chronicles I & II are part of the "historical" books of the Old Testament, following Kings and before Ezra. This order is based upon that found in the Septuagint, followed by the Vulgate, and relates to the view of Chronicles as "supplements" to Samuel and Kings. Contextual division Based on its contents, the book may be divided into four parts: The beginning of I Chronicles (chapters 1-10) mostly contains genealogical lists, concluding with the House of Saul and Saul's rejection by God, which sets the stage for the rise of David. The remainder of I Chronicles (chapters 11-29) is a history of David's reign. The beginning of II Chronicles (chapters 1-9) is a history of the reign of King Solomon, son of David. The remainder of II Chronicles (chapters 10-36) is a chronicle of the kings of Judah to the time of the Babylonian exile, and concluding with the call by Cyrus the Great for the exiles to return to their land. However, it is also possible to divide the book into three parts rather than four by combining the sections treating David and Solomon, since they both ruled over a combined Judah and Israel, unlike the last section that contains the chronicle of the Davidic kings who ruled the Kingdom of Judah alone. Authorship Jewish tradition regards Ezra the scribe as the author of Chronicles, and there are many points of resemblance which seem to confirm this opinion: the conclusion of the one and the beginning of the other are almost identical in expression. J. N. Newsome, however, argues that the Chronicler's treatment of prophecy "betrays a difference of theological concern between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah." [4] Composition The time of the composition of the Chronicles is believed to have been subsequent to the Babylonian captivity, possibly between 450 and 435 B.C., though Martin Noth was of the opinion that it dated from the 3rd century B.C.; and Gary Knoppers, while acknowledging that Chronicles theoretically could be written anywhere between 500 - 250 B.C., tends to see it as probably dating between 325 and 275 B.C.). The contents of Chronicles, both as to matter and form, correspond closely with this idea. The close of the book records the proclamation of Cyrus the Great permitting the Jews to return to their own land, and this forms the opening passage of the Book of Ezra, which is viewed as a continuation of the Chronicles, together with the Book of Nehemiah. The peculiar form of the language, being Hebrew in vocabulary but Aramaean in its general character, harmonizes also with that of the other books which were written after the Exile. The author was likely contemporary with Zerubbabel, details of whose family history are given (1 Chronicles 3:19). In its general scope and design Chronicles is not so much historical as didactic. The principal aim of the writer appears to be to present moral and religious truth. He does not give prominence to political occurrences, as is done in the books of Samuel and Kings, but to religious institutions, such as the details of the temple service. The genealogies were an important part of the public records of the Hebrew state. They were the basis on which the land was distributed and held, and by which the public services of the temple were arranged and conducted. The Chronicles are an epitome of the sacred history from the days of Adam down to the return from Babylonian exile, a period of about 3,500 years. The writer gathers up the threads of the old national life broken by the captivity. The sources whence the chronicler compiled his work were public records, registers, and genealogical tables belonging to the Jews. These are referred to in the course of the book (1 Chr. 27:24; 29:29; 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18, 19; 27:7; 35:25). There are in Chronicles, and the books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, often verbal, proving that the writer of Chronicles both knew and used those other books. As compared with Samuel and Kings, the Book of Chronicles omits many particulars there recorded and includes many things not found in the other two documents. Often the Chronicles paint a somewhat more positive picture of the same events. This corresponds to their time of composition: Samuel and Kings were probably completed during the exile, at a time when the history of the newly wiped out Hebrew kingdoms was still fresh in the minds of the writers, a period largely considered a colossal failure. The Chronicles, on the other hand, were written much later, after the restoration of the Jewish community in Palestine, at a time when the kingdoms were beginning to be regarded as the nostalgic past, something to be at least partially imitated, not something to be avoided. Some scholars consider Samuel and Kings, which were written earlier, to provide a more reliable history than Chronicles. Twenty whole chapters of the Chronicles, and twenty-four parts of chapters, are occupied with matters not found elsewhere. It also records many people and events in fuller detail, as the list of David's heroes (1 Chr. 12:1-37), the removal of the Ark of the Covenant from Kirjath-jearim to Mount Zion (1 Chr. 13; 15:2-24; 16:4-43; comp. 2 Sam. 6), Uzziah's tzaraas (commonly translated as "leprosy") and its cause (2 Chr. 26:16-21; comp. 2 Kings 15:5), etc. It has also been observed that another peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes more modern and more common expressions for those that had then become unusual or obsolete. This is seen particularly in the substitution of modern names of places, such as were in use in the writer's day, for the old names; thus Gezer (1 Chr. 20:4) is used instead of Gob (2 Sam. 21:18), etc. The Book of Chronicles is alluded to, though not directly quoted, in the New Testament (Hebrews 5:4; Matthew 12:42; 23:35; Luke 1:5; 11:31, 51). See also The Chronicler Achaemenid Empire Persian Empire Rashi Martin Noth Gary N. Knoppers Notes References Avioz, Michael, Nathan's Oracle (2 Samuel 7)and Its Interpreters (Bern: Peter Lang, 2005) Ben Zvi, Ehud, History, Literature, and Theology in the Book of Chronicles, London: Equinox, 2006 Japhet, Sara, I and II Chronicles: A Commentary, London: SCM Press, 1993 Kalimi, Isaac, The Reshaping of Ancient Israelite History in Chronicles, Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005 Kelly, Brian E. Retribution and Eschatology in Chronicles, Sheffield Academic Press, 1996 Klein, Ralph W., 1 Chronicles: A Commentary, Philadelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, 2006 Knoppers, Gary N., 1 Chronicles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, New York, NY: Doubleday, 2004 (2 volumes) McKenzie, Steven L., 1-2 Chronicles, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 2004 External links Jewish translations Divrei Hayamim I - Chronicles I (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Divrei Hayamim II - Chronicles II (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations Online Bible at GospelHall.org 1 Chronicles at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) 2 Chronicles at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) 1 Chronicles at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) 2 Chronicles at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) | Books_of_Chronicles |@lemmatized book:43 chronicle:61 hebrew:6 divrei:5 hayyamim:2 דברי:1 הימים:1 greek:2 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7,627 | Compact_disc | A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data, originally developed for storing digital audio. The CD, available on the market since October 1982, remains the standard physical medium for sale of commercial audio recordings to the present day. Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 mm and can hold up to 80 minutes of audio (700 MB of data). The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 mm; they are sometimes used for CD singles or device drivers, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. The technology was later adapted and expanded to include data storage CD-ROM, write-once audio and data storage CD-R, rewritable media CD-RW, Video Compact Discs (VCD), Super Video Compact Discs (SVCD), PhotoCD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD. CD-ROMs and CD-Rs remain widely used technologies in the computer industry. The CD and its extensions are successful: in 2004, worldwide sales of CD audio, CD-ROM, and CD-R reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. Compact Disc hits 25th birthday History The compact disc is a spin-off of the Laserdisc technology. Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc" in Eindhoven, The Netherlands on March 8, 1979. Three years earlier, Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. In September 1978, they demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 minute playing time, and with specifications of 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear resolution, cross-interleaved error correction code, that were similar to those of the Compact Disc introduced in 1982. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd AES Convention, held on March 13-16, 1979 in Brussels. Later that year, Sony and Philips Consumer Electronics (Philips) set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. The task force, led by prominent members Kees Schouhamer Immink and Toshitada Doi (土井利忠), progressed the research into laser technology and optical discs that had been started independently by Philips and Sony in 1977 and 1975, respectively. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the taskforce produced the Red Book, the Compact Disc standard. Philips contributed the general manufacturing process, based on video Laserdisc technology. Philips also contributed Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM), which offers both a long playing time and a high resilience against disc defects such as scratches and fingerprints, while Sony contributed the error-correction method, CIRC. The Compact Disc Story, told by a former member of the taskforce, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter. The taskforce consisted of around 4-8 persons, though according to Philips, the compact disc was thus "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team." The first commercially available CD was pressed in Hanover, Germany by the Polydor Pressing Operations plant in 1980. The disc contained a recording of Richard Strauss's Eine Alpensinfonie, played by the Berlin Philharmonic and conducted by Herbert von Karajan. In August 1982 the real pressing was ready to begin in the new factory, not far from the place where Emil Berliner had produced his first gramophone record 93 years earlier. By now, Deutsche Grammophon, Berliner’s company and the publisher of the Strauss recording, had become a part of PolyGram. The first CD to be manufactured at the new factory was The Visitors by ABBA. The first album to be released on CD was Billy Joel's 52nd Street, that reached the market alongside Sony's CD player CDP-101 on October 1, 1982 in Japan. Early the following year on March 2, 1983 CD players and discs (16 titles from CBS Records) were released in the United States and other markets. This event is often seen as the "Big Bang" of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early-adopting classical music and audiophile communities and its handling quality received particular praise. As the price of players sank rapidly, the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with its 1985 album Brothers in Arms. Maxim, 2004 The first major artist to have his entire catalogue converted to CD was David Bowie, whose 15 studio albums were made available by RCA in February 1985, along with 4 Greatest Hits albums. The New Schwann Record & Tape Guide Volume 37 No. 2 February 1985 In 1988, 400 million CDs were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world. MAC Audio News. No. 178, November 1989. pp 19-21 Glenn Baddeley. November 1989 News Update. Melbourne Audio Club Inc. To date, the biggest selling CD (as opposed to the biggest selling title) is Beatles "1", released in November, 2000, with worldwide sales of 30 million discs. The CD was planned to be the successor of the gramophone record for playing music, rather than primarily as a data storage medium. Only later did the concept of an "audio file" arise, and its generalization to a data file. From its origins as a musical format, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In June 1985, the computer readable CD-ROM (read-only memory) and, in 1990, CD-Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips. The world's first CD-R was made by the Japanese firm Taiyo Yuden Co., Ltd. in 1988 as part of the joint Philips-Sony development effort. The CD's compact format has largely replaced the audio cassette player in new automobile applications, and recordable CDs are an alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods. Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blue-ray have used the same form factor as CDs, and video players can usually play audio CDs as well. With the advent of the MP3 in the 2000s, the sales of CDs has dropped in seven out of the last eight years. In 2008, large label CD sales dropped 20%. , although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according to figures released March 30, 2009. http://indiemusicstop.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/cd-baby-payouts-surge/ Physical details Diagram of CD layers. A. A polycarbonate disc layer has the data encoded by using bumps. B. A reflective layer reflects the laser back. C. A lacquer layer is used to prevent oxidation D. Artwork is screen printed on the top of the disc. E. A laser beam reads the polycarbonate disc, is reflected back, and read by the player. A CD is made from 1.2 mm thick, almost-pure polycarbonate plastic and weighs approximately 16 grams. From the center outward components are at the center (spindle) hole, the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the information (data) area, and the rim. A thin layer of aluminum or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface to make it reflective, and is protected by a film of lacquer that is normally spin coated directly on top of the reflective layer, upon which the label print is applied. Common printing methods for CDs are screen-printing and offset printing. CD data are stored as a series of tiny indentations known as “pits”, encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as “lands”. Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm in length. The optical lens of a CD drive. The distance between the tracks, the pitch, is 1.6 µm. A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in intensity in the light reflected. By measuring the intensity change with a photodiode, the data can be read from the disc. The pits and lands themselves do not directly represent the zeros and ones of binary data. Instead, Non-return-to-zero, inverted (NRZI) encoding is used: a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a zero. This in turn is decoded by reversing the Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc. CDs are susceptible to damage from both daily use and environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, so that defects and dirt on the clear side can be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs suffer more scratch damage on the label side whereas scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic, or by careful polishing. Initial music CDs were known to suffer from "CD rot", or "laser rot", in which the internal reflective layer degrades. When this occurs the CD may become unplayable. Disc shapes and diameters A Mini-CD is 8 centimetres in diameter. The digital data on a CD begin at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different size formats available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far the most common is 120 mm in diameter, with a 74- or 80-minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700 MB data capacity. This diameter has also been adopted by later formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc. 80 mm discs ("Mini CDs") were originally designed for CD singles and can hold up to 21 minutes of music or 184 MB of data but never really became popular. Today, nearly every single is released on a 120 mm CD, called a Maxi single. "Shaped CD" Novelty CDs are also available in numerous shapes and sizes, and are used mostly for marketing. A common variant is a "business card" CD, a single with portions removed at the top and bottom to more closely resemble a business card. Physical size Audio Capacity CD-ROM Data Capacity Note 12 cm 74–80 min 650–703 MB Standard size 8 cm 21–24 min 185–210 MB Mini-CD size 85x54 mm - 86x64 mm ~6 min 10-65 MB "Business card" size Logical formats Audio CD The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips in 1980. The document is known colloquially as the "Red Book" after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Four-channel sound is an allowable option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented. Monaural audio has no existing standard on a Red Book CD; mono-source material is usually presented as two identical channels on a 'stereo' track. The selection of the sample rate was primarily based on the need to reproduce the audible frequency range of 20 Hz - 20 kHz. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a sampling rate of more than double the maximum frequency of the signal to be recorded is needed, resulting in a 40 kHz rate. The exact sampling rate of 44.1 kHz was inherited from a method of converting digital audio into an analog video signal for storage on U-matic video tape, which was the most affordable way to transfer data from the recording studio to the CD manufacturer at the time the CD specification was being developed. The device that turns an analog audio signal into PCM audio, which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a PCM adaptor. This technology could store six samples (three samples per stereo channel) in a single horizontal line. A standard NTSC video signal has 245 usable lines per field, and 59.94 fields/s, which works out at 44,056 samples/s/stereo channel. Similarly, PAL has 294 lines and 50 fields, which gives 44,100 samples/s/stereo channel. This system could either store 14-bit samples with some error correction, or 16-bit samples with almost no error correction. There was a long debate over whether to use 14-bit (Philips) or 16-bit (Sony) quantization, and 44,056 or 44,100 samples/s (Sony) or around 44,000 samples/s (Philips). When the Sony/Philips task force designed the Compact Disc, Philips had already developed a 14-bit D/A converter, but Sony insisted on 16-bit. In the end, 16 bits and 44.1 kilosamples per second prevailed. Philips found a way to produce 16-bit quality using their 14-bit DAC by using four times oversampling. Storage capacity and playing time The partners aimed at a playing time of 60 minutes with a disc diameter of 100 mm (Sony) or 115 mm (Philips). Von Karajan suggested extending the capacity to 74 minutes to accommodate Wilhelm Furtwängler's recording of Beethoven’s 9th Symphony from the 1951 Bayreuth Festival. The extra 14-minute playing time subsequently required changing to a 120 mm disc. Kees Immink, Philips' chief engineer, however, denies this, claiming that the increase was motivated by technical considerations, and that even after the increase in size, the Furtwängler recording would not have fit on one of the earliest CDs. According to a Sunday Tribune interview, the story is slightly more involved. In 1979, Philips owned Polygram, one of the world’s largest distributors of music. Polygram had set up a large experimental CD plant in Hanover, Germany, which could produce huge numbers of CDs having, of course, a diameter of 115 mm. Sony did not yet have such a facility. If Sony had agreed on the 115-mm disc, Philips would have had a significant competitive edge in the market. Sony decided that something had to be done. The long playing time of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony imposed by Ohga was used to push Philips to accept 120 mm, so that Philips’ Polygram lost its edge on disc fabrication. The 74-minute playing time of a CD, which was longer than the 20 minutes per side Goldmark, Peter. Maverick inventor; My Turbulent Years at CBS. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973. typical of long-playing (LP) vinyl albums, was often used to the CD’s advantage during the early years when CDs and LPs vied for commercial sales. CDs would often be released with one or more bonus tracks, enticing consumers to buy the CD for the extra material. However, attempts to combine double LPs onto one CD occasionally resulted in an opposing situation in which the CD would actually offer fewer tracks than the LP equivalent. An example is the 1987 album Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me by The Cure, which states in the CD liner notes: "The track Hey You!!! which appears on the double album and cassette has been omitted so as to facilitate a single compact disc." The 2006 re-release of this album saw the inclusion of the missing track. Another example is the original late-1980s Warner Bros. Records reissue of Fleetwood Mac's Tusk album, which substituted the long album version of "Sara" with the shorter single version. Enough complaints were lodged to eventually convince Warner Bros. to remaster the album in the mid-1990s with the original contents intact. Main physical parameters The main parameters of the CD (taken from the September 1983 issue of the Red Book are as follows: Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity) – equivalent to approximately 500 rpm at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 rpm at the outside edge. (A disc played from beginning to end slows down during playback.) Track pitch: 1.6 µm Disc diameter 120 mm Disc thickness: 1.2 mm Inner radius program area: 25 mm Outer radius program area: 58 mm Center spindle hole diameter: 15 mm The program area is 86.05 cm² and the length of the recordable spiral is (86.05 cm² / 1.6 µm) = 5.38 km. With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes, or around 650 MB of data on a CD-ROM. If the disc diameter were only 115 mm, the maximum playing time would have been 68 minutes, i.e., less six minutes. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s and a track pitch of 1.5 µm leads to a playing time of 80 minutes, or a capacity of 700 MB. Even higher capacities on non-standard discs (up to 99 minutes) are available at least as recordables, but generally the tighter the tracks are squeezed, the worse the compatibility. Data structure The smallest entity in a CD is called a frame, which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16-bit stereo samples (two bytes × two channels × six samples: equals 24 bytes). The other nine bytes consist of eight CIRC error-correction bytes and one subcode byte, used for control and display. Each byte is translated into a 14-bit word using eight-to-fourteen modulation, which alternates with three-bit merging words. In total there are 33 × (14 + 3) = 561 bits. A 27-bit unique synchronization word is added, so that the number of bits in a frame totals 588 (of which only 192 bits are music). These 588-bit frames are in turn grouped into sectors. Each sector contains 98 frames, totaling 98 × 24 = 2352 bytes of music. The CD is played at a speed of 75 sectors per second, which results in 176,400 bytes per second. Divided by two channels and two bytes per sample, this results in a sample rate of 44,100 samples per second. For CD-ROM data discs, the physical frame and sector sizes are the same. Since error concealment cannot be applied to non-audio data in case the CIRC error correction fails to recover the user data, a third layer of error correction is defined, reducing the payload to 2048 bytes per sector for the Mode-1 CD-ROM format. To increase the data-rate for Video CD, Mode-2 CD-ROM, the third layer has been omitted, increasing the payload to 2336 user-available bytes per sector, only 16 bytes (for synchronization and header data) less than available in Red-Book audio. "Frame" For the Red Book stereo audio CD, the time format is commonly measured in minutes, seconds and frames (mm:ss:ff), where one frame corresponds to one sector, or 1/75th of a second of stereo sound. Note that in this context, the term frame is erroneously applied in editing applications and does not denote the physical frame described above. In editing and extracting, the frame is the smallest addressable time interval for an audio CD, meaning that track start and end positions can only be defined in 1/75 second steps. Logical structure The largest entity on a CD is called a track. A CD can contain up to 99 tracks (including a data track for mixed mode discs). Each track can in turn have up to 100 indexes, though players which handle this feature are rarely found outside of pro audio, particularly radio broadcasting. The vast majority of songs are recorded under index 1, with the pre-gap being index 0. Sometimes hidden tracks are placed at the end of the last track of the disc, often using index 2 or 3. This is also the case with some discs offering "101 sound effects", with 100 and 101 being indexed as two and three on track 99. The index, if used, is occasionally put on the track listing as a decimal part of the track number, such as 99.2 or 99.3. (Information Society's Hack was one of very few CD releases to do this, following a release with an equally-obscure CD+G feature.) The track and index structure of the CD carried forward to the DVD as title and chapter, respectively. Manufacturing tolerances Current manufacturing processes allow an audio CD to contain up to 80 minutes (variable from one replication plant to another) without requiring the content creator to sign a waiver releasing the plant owner from responsibility if the CD produced is marginally or entirely unreadable by some playback equipment. Thus, in current practice, maximum CD playing time has crept higher by reducing minimum engineering tolerances; by and large, this has not unacceptably reduced reliability. CD-Text CD-Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for audio CD that allows for storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes. CD + Graphics Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with. CD + Extended Graphics Compact Disc + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG utilizes basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W. Very few, if any, CD+EG discs have been published. Super Audio CD Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution read-only optical audio disc format that provides much higher fidelity digital audio reproduction than the Red Book. Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the Red Book. SACD was in a format war with DVD-Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs. In contrast to DVD-Audio, the SACD format has the feature of being able to produce hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible. CD-MIDI CD-MIDI is a format used to store music-performance data which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike Red Book, these recordings are not audio. CD-ROM For the first few years of its existence, the Compact Disc was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1985 the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. Video CD (VCD) Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles. The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard. Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise, and does not deteriorate further with each use, which may be preferable. 352x240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical, and half the horizontal resolution of NTSC video. 352x288 is similarly one quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution. Super Video CD Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video, and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality. SVCD has two-thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, in order to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second. Photo CD Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high quality images, scanned prints and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CD discs are defined in the Beige Book and conform to the CD-ROM XA and CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players and any computer with the suitable software irrespective of the operating system. The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format. CD-i The Philips "Green Book" specifies the standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i players. This format is unusual because it hides the initial tracks which contains the software and data files used by CD-i players by omitting the tracks from the disc's TOC (table of contents). This causes audio CD players to skip the CD-i data tracks. This is different from the CD-i Ready format, which puts CD-i software and data into the pregap of track 1. Enhanced CD Enhanced CD, also known as CD Extra and CD Plus, is a certification mark of the Recording Industry Association of America for various technologies that combine audio and computer data for use in both compact disc and CD-ROM players. The primary data formats for Enhanced Compact Disc's are mixed mode (Yellow Book/Red Book), CD-i, hidden track, and multisession (Blue Book). Manufacture Replicated CDs are mass-produced initially using a hydraulic press. Small granules of raw polycarbonate plastic are fed into the press while under heat. A screw forces the liquefied plastic into the mold cavity. The mold closes with a metal stamper in contact with the disc surface. The plastic is allowed to cool and harden. Once opened, the disc substrate is removed from the mold by a robotic arm, and a 15 mm diameter center hole (called a stacking ring) is removed. The cycle time, the time it takes to "stamp" one CD, is usually 2–3 seconds. This method produces the clear plastic blank part of the disc. After a metallic reflecting layer (usually aluminum, but sometimes gold or other metals) is applied to the clear blank substrate, the disc goes under a UV light for curing and it is ready to go to press. To prepare to press a CD, a glass master is made, using a high-powered laser on a device similar to a CD writer. The glass master is a positive image of the desired CD surface (with the desired microscopic pits and lands). After testing, it is used to make a die by pressing it against a metal disc. The die is a negative image of the glass master: several are typically made, depending on the number of pressing mills that are to be making the CD. The die then goes into a press and the physical image is imposed onto the blank CD, leaving a final positive image on the disc. A small amount of lacquer is then applied as a ring around the center of the disc, and fast spinning spreads it evenly over the surface. Edge protection lacquer is also applied before the disc is finished. The disc can then be printed and packed. Manufactured CDs that are sold in stores are sealed via a process called "polywrapping" or shrink wrapping. Recordable CD 700 MB CD-R Recordable compact discs, CD-Rs, are injection molded with a "blank" data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time the dye's physical characteristics may change, however, causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. However, testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions. This failure is known as CD rot. CD-Rs follow the Orange Book standard. Recordable Audio CD The Recordable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3% AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. High Capacity Recordable CD A higher density recording format that can hold about: 98.5 minutes of audio on a 12 cm disc (compared to about 80 minutes for Red Book audio). 30 minutes of audio on an 8 cm disc (compared to about 24 minutes for Red Book audio). ReWritable CD CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the Orange Book standard. High Speed ReWritable CD Due to technical limitations, the original ReWritable CD could be written no faster than 4x speed. High Speed ReWritable CD has a different design that permits writing at speeds ranging from 4x to 12x. Original CD-RW drives can only write to original ReWritable CD discs. High Speed CD-RW drives can typically write to both original ReWritable CD discs and High Speed ReWritable CD discs. Both types of CD-RW discs can be read in most CD drives. Even higher speed CD-RW discs, Ultra Speed (16x to 24x write speed) and Ultra Speed+ (32x write speed), are now available. ReWritable Audio CD The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which won't (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMSerial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-RW due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3% AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. Copy protection The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple 'anti-copy' bit in the subcode, does not include any serious copy protection mechanism. Starting in early 2002, attempts were made by record companies to market "copy-protected" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to MP3s. One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives, or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked Compact Disc Digital Audio logo because they violate the Red Book specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software. See also 5.1 Music Disc Audio format Audio storage Bit rot CD bronzing CD-Text CD Video CD+G CD-RW Compact disc player Digipak Disk image emulator DualDisc DVD-Audio Enhanced CD HDCD Hi-Fi Home cinema Jewel case Laserdisc MildDisc miniCD Shaped CD MP3 CD Optical disc Blu-ray DVD Rainbow books Red Book (audio CD standard) Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards) SPARS Code for information on the three-letter codes AAD, ADD, and DDD Super Audio CD Super Video CD Video CD Video Single Disc References Further reading du Gay, Paul, Stuart Hall, Linda Janes, et al. (1997). Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. Ecma International. Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM), 2nd edition (June 1996). Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). The Compact Disc Handbook. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 0-89579-300-8. Peek, Hans et al. (2009) Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. ISBN 978-1-4020-9552-8 External links General Information Video How Compact Discs are Manufactured History Philips history of the CD (cache) Sony's CD history Patent History (CD Player) - published by Philips 2005 Patent History CD Disc - published by Philips 2003 Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章 レコードに代わるものはこれだ) - Sony website in Japanese 25 YEARS Digital Audio Compact Disc | Compact_disc |@lemmatized compact:34 disc:112 also:11 know:8 cd:228 optical:10 use:42 store:15 digital:19 data:42 originally:2 develop:5 audio:81 available:12 market:6 since:2 october:2 remain:2 standard:27 physical:9 medium:9 sale:7 commercial:2 recording:8 present:3 day:1 diameter:13 mm:23 hold:6 minute:23 mb:9 mini:4 various:2 range:3 sometimes:4 single:9 device:4 driver:1 technology:7 later:3 adapt:1 expand:1 include:5 storage:10 rom:21 write:10 r:14 rewritable:11 rw:11 video:37 vcd:9 super:9 svcd:7 photocd:1 picturecd:1 enhance:4 widely:1 computer:9 industry:4 extension:2 successful:1 worldwide:3 reach:2 billion:2 sell:4 hit:2 birthday:1 history:7 spin:3 laserdisc:3 philip:27 publicly:2 demonstrate:4 prototype:1 press:12 conference:1 call:7 introduce:5 eindhoven:1 netherlands:1 march:4 three:5 year:11 earlier:2 sony:24 first:10 september:3 playing:12 time:20 specification:7 hz:2 sample:19 rate:10 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7,628 | High-density_lipoprotein | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL) which enable lipids like cholesterol and triglycerides to be transported within the water based blood stream. In healthy individuals, about thirty percent of blood cholesterol is carried by HDL LDL and HDL Cholesterol: What's Bad and What's Good? . It is hypothesized that HDL can remove cholesterol from atheroma within arteries and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization—which is the main reason why HDL-bound cholesterol is sometimes called "good cholesterol", or HDL-C. A high level of HDL-C seems to protect against cardiovascular diseases, and low HDL cholesterol levels (less than 40 mg/dL) increase the risk for heart disease. Cholesterol contained in HDL particles is considered beneficial for the cardiovascular health, in contrast to "bad" LDL cholesterol. Structure and function HDL is the smallest of the lipoprotein particles. They are the densest because they contain the highest proportion of protein. Their most abundant apolipoproteins are apo A-I and apo A-II. The liver synthesizes these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble cholesterol-free flattened spherical lipoprotein particles. They are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells by interaction with the ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1). A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol) which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle eventually making the newly synthesized HDL spherical. They increase in size as they circulate through the bloodstream and incorporate more cholesterol and phospholipid molecules from cells and other lipoproteins, for example by the interaction with the ABCG1 transporter and the phospholipid transport protein (PLTP). HDL transports cholesterol mostly to the liver or steroidogenic organs such as adrenals, ovary and testes by direct and indirect pathways. HDL is removed by HDL receptors such as scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), which mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol from HDL. In humans, probably the most relevant pathway is the indirect one, which is mediated by cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). This protein exchanges triglycerides of VLDL against cholesteryl esters of HDL. As the result, VLDL are processed to LDL which are removed from the circulation by the LDL receptor pathway. The triglycerides are not stable in HDL, but degraded by hepatic lipase so that finally small HDL particles are left which restart the uptake of cholesterol from cells. The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and hence intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries and testes are important for the synthesis of steroid hormones. Several steps in the metabolism of HDL can contribute to the transport of cholesterol from lipid laden macrophages of atherosclerotic arteries, termed foam cells to the liver for secretion into the bile. This pathway has been termed reverse cholesterol transport and is considered as the classical protective function of HDL towards atherosclerosis. However, HDL carries many lipid and protein species, many of which have very low concentrations but are biologically very active. For example, HDL and their protein and lipid constituents help to inhibit oxidation, inflammation, activation of the endothelium, coagulation or platelet aggregation. All these properties may contribute to the ability of HDL to protect from atherosclerosis, and it is not yet known what is most important. In the stress response, serum amyloid A, which is one of the acute phase proteins and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of cytokines (IL-1, IL-6) and cortisol produced in the adrenal cortex and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles. At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes. In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as amyloidosis. It has been postulated that the concentration of large HDL particles more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles. Kwiterovich PO. The Metabolic Pathways of High-Density Lipoprotein, Low-Density Lipoprotein, and Triglycerides: A Current Review. Am J Cardiol 2000;86(suppl):5L. This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is only measured by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either electrophoresis (the original method developed in the 1970s), or newer NMR spectroscopy methods (See also: NMR and spectroscopy), developed in the 1990s. Epidemiology Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL levels, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women. Men also have an increased incidence of atherosclerotic heart disease. Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) increase the risk for atherosclerotic diseases. Data from the landmark Framingham Heart Study showed that for a given level of LDL, the risk of heart disease increases 10-fold as the HDL varies from high to low. Conversely, for a fixed level of HDL, the risk increases 3-fold as LDL varies from low to high. Even people with very low LDL levels are exposed to some increased risk if their HDL levels are not high enough. Philip Barter, M.D. HDL Cholesterol, Very Low Levels of LDL Cholesterol, and Cardiovascular Events, September 27, 2007; NEJM Recommended range The American Heart Association, NIH and NCEP provides a set of guidelines for fasting HDL levels and risk for heart disease. Level mg/dL Level mmol/L Interpretation <40 for men, <50 for women <1.03 Low HDL cholesterol, heightened risk for heart disease 40–59 1.03–1.55 Medium HDL level >60 >1.55 High HDL level, optimal condition considered protective against heart disease Measuring HDL Many laboratories used a two-step method : chemical precipitation of lipoproteins containing apoprotein B, then calculating HDL as cholesterol remaining in the supernate http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/short/44/5/1050 but there are also direct methods http://www.med.umich.edu/mdrtc/cores/ChemCore/lipids.htm Lipid Measurement Fact Sheet . Labs use the routine dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation method with ultracentrifugation/dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation as reference method http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TDD-3X5GP14-5&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=ee1cd62ecd1496a88a9e46b8e4ff1b90 Homogeneous HDL-cholesterol assay versus ultracentrifugation/dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation and dextran sulfate-Mg2+ precipitation. 1998 . HPLC can be used http://www.citeulike.org/user/biblio24/article/2461070 Evaluation of precipitation and direct methods for HDL-cholesterol assay by HPLC. 1997 . Subfractions (HDL-2C, HDL-3C) can be measured http://www.jlr.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/5/1130 measuring HDL-cholesterol subfractions by a single precipitation followed by homogenous HDL-cholesterol assay and have clinical significance. Memory A link has been shown between level of HDL and onset of dementia. Those with high HDL were less likely to have dementia. New York Times July 1st 2008 Low HDL-C in late-middle age has also been associated with memory loss. Low HDL cholesterol is a risk factor for deficit a...[Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008] - PubMed Result Raising HDL Diet and lifestyle Certain changes in lifestyle can have a positive impact on raising HDL levels: Aerobic exercise Spate-Douglas, T., Keyser, R. E. Exercise intensity: its effect on the high-density lipoprotein profile. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80, 691-695. Weight loss Smoking cessation Removing trans fatty acids from the diet One drink of alcohol a day or less yields higher HDL-C levels, more so in women than men. HDL transports cholesterol to the liver and cholesterol is known to have a protective effect on the cell membrane. It is likely that this reflects the liver's need for more cholesterol to protect itself from the alcohol. Adding soluble fiber to diet Using supplements such as omega 3 fish oil Increasing intake of cis-unsaturated fats http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/77/5/1146?ijkey=b4beee837576a5fcf5214b5d40700374e1efb1cd and cholesterol, decreasing intake of trans-fats. A very low carbohydrate diet involving ketogenesis may have similar response to taking niacin as described above (lowered LDL and increased HDL) through beta-hydroxybutyrate coupling the Niacin_receptor_1 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17238156 . Drugs Pharmacological therapy to increase the level of HDL cholesterol includes use of fibrates and niacin. Fibrates, however, have shown that they have no effect on overall deaths from all causes despite their effects on lipids. "Is it time to stop treating dyslipidaemia with fibrates?" (review), Jocelyne R. Benatar, Ralph A. Stewar, New Zealand Medical Journal, Vol. 120, No. 2261, Sept. 7, 2007 Niacin (B3), increases HDL by selectively inhibiting hepatic Diacylglycerol_acyltransferase 2, reducing triglyceride synthesis and VLDL secretion through a receptor HM74 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15529025 otherwise known as Niacin_receptor_2 and HM74A / GPR109A http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17238156 , Niacin_receptor_1. Pharmacologic (1-3 gram) doses increase HDL levels by 10–30%, making it the most powerful agent to increase HDL-cholesterol. Raising HDL-Cholesterol and Reducing Cardiovascular Risk. Medscape Cardiology http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/520393 Chapman M, Assmann G, Fruchart J, Shepherd J, Sirtori C. Raising high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with reduction of cardiovascular risk: the role of nicotinic acid - a position paper developed by the European Consensus Panel on HDL-C. Cur Med Res Opin. 2004 Aug;20(8):1253-68. A randomized clinical trial demonstrated that treatment with niacin can significantly reduce atherosclerosis progression and cardiovascular events. Reducing risk by raising HDL-cholesterol: the evidence. # European Heart Journal Supplements Vol 8 Suppl F p. F23-F29 http://eurheartjsupp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/8/suppl_F/F23 However, niacin products sold as "no-flush", i.e. not having side effects such as "niacin flush", do not contain free nicotinic acid and are therefore ineffective at raising HDL, while products sold as "sustained release" may contain free nicotinic acid, but "some brands are hepatotoxic"; therefore the recommended form of niacin for raising HDL is the cheapest, immediate release preparation. "Varying Cost and Free Nicotinic Acid Content in Over-the-Counter Niacin Preparations for Dyslipidemia"; C. Daniel Meyers, MD; Molly C. Carr, MD; Sang Park, PhD; and John D. Brunzell, MD; Annals of Internal Medicine 139, issue 12; December 16, 2003, pages 996-1002 . Both fibrates and niacin increase artery toxic homocysteine, an effect that can be counteracted by also consuming a multivitamin with relatively high amounts of the B-vitamins. In contrast, while the use of statins is effective against high levels of LDL cholesterol, it has little or no effect in raising HDL cholesterol. Torcetrapib, a drug developed by Pfizer to raise HDL by inhibition of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), was terminated after a greater percentage of patients treated with torcetrapib-Lipitor combination died compared with patients treated with Lipitor alone. Merck is currently researching a similar molecule called anacetrapib. See also Asymmetric dimethylarginine Cardiovascular disease Endothelium Low density lipoprotein Footnotes External links El hdl Adult Treatment Panel III Full Report ATP III Update 2004 | High-density_lipoprotein |@lemmatized high:14 density:6 lipoprotein:14 hdl:70 one:4 five:1 major:1 group:1 chylomicron:1 vldl:4 idl:1 ldl:11 enable:1 lipid:7 like:1 cholesterol:43 triglyceride:5 transport:7 within:2 water:1 base:1 blood:2 stream:1 healthy:1 individual:1 thirty:1 percent:1 carry:4 bad:2 good:2 hypothesize:1 remove:4 atheroma:1 artery:3 back:1 liver:7 excretion:1 utilization:1 main:1 reason:1 bound:1 sometimes:1 call:3 c:9 level:19 seem:1 protect:3 cardiovascular:8 disease:10 low:15 less:3 mg:5 dl:5 increase:14 risk:11 heart:9 contain:5 particle:9 consider:3 beneficial:1 health:1 contrast:2 structure:1 function:2 small:3 dense:1 proportion:1 protein:8 abundant:1 apolipoproteins:2 apo:2 ii:1 synthesize:2 complex:1 phospholipid:3 resemble:1 free:5 flatten:1 spherical:2 capable:1 pick:1 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7,629 | Mammal | Mammals (formally Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate animals whose females are characterized by the possession of mammary glands while both males and females are characterized by sweat glands, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain. Except for the five species of monotremes (which lay eggs), all mammal species give birth to live young. Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during gestation. The mammalian brain regulates endothermic and circulatory systems, including a four-chambered heart. There are approximately 5,400 species of mammals, distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders (though this varies by classification scheme). Mammals range in size from the Bumblebee Bat to the Blue Whale. Mammals are divided into two subclasses, the prototheria, which includes the egg-laying monotremes, and the theria, which includes the live-bearing marsupials and placentals. Most mammals, including the six largest orders, belong to the placental group. The three largest orders, in descending order, are Rodentia (mice, rats, and other small, gnawing mammals), Chiroptera (bats), and Soricomorpha (shrews, moles and solenodons). The next three largest orders include the Carnivora (dogs, cats, weasels, bears, seals, and their relatives), the Cetartiodactyla (including the even-toed hoofed mammals and the whales) and the Primates to which the human species belongs. The relative size of these latter three orders differs according to the classification scheme and definitions used by various authors. Phylogenetically, Mammalia is defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of monotremes (e.g., echidnas and platypuses) and therian mammals (marsupials and placentals). This means that some extinct groups of "mammals" are not members of the crown group Mammalia, even though most of them have all the characteristics that traditionally would have classified them as mammals. These "mammals" are now usually placed in the unranked clade Mammaliaformes. The mammalian line of descent diverged from an amniote line at the end of the Carboniferous period. One line of amniotes would lead to reptiles, while the other would lead to synapsids, including mammals. The first true mammals appeared in the Jurassic period. Modern mammalian orders appeared in the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs of the Palaeogene period. Distinguishing features Living mammal species can be identified by the presence of sweat glands, including those that are specialized to produce milk. However, other features are required when classifying fossils, since soft tissue glands and some other features are not visible in fossils. Paleontologists use a distinguishing feature that is shared by all living mammals (including monotremes), but is not present in any of the early Triassic synapsids: mammals use two bones for hearing that were used for eating by their ancestors. The earliest synapsids had a jaw joint composed of the articular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and the quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw). Most reptiles and non-mammalian synapsids use this system including lizards, crocodilians, dinosaurs (and their descendants the birds), and therapsids (mammal-like "reptiles"). Mammals have a different jaw joint, however, composed only of the dentary (the lower jaw bone which carries the teeth) and the squamosal (another small skull bone). In mammals the quadrate and articular bones have become the incus and malleus bones in the middle ear. Note: "non-mammalian synapsids" above implies that mammals are a sub-group of synapsids, and that is exactly what cladistics says they are. Mammals also have a double occipital condyle: they have two knobs at the base of the skull which fit into the topmost neck vertebra, and other vertebrates have a single occipital condyle. Paleontologists use only the jaw joint and middle ear as criteria for identifying fossil mammals, since it would be confusing if they found a fossil that had one feature, but not the other. Anatomy and morphology Skeletal system The majority of mammals have seven cervical vertebrae (bones in the neck); this includes bats, giraffes, whales, and humans. The few exceptions include the manatee and the two-toed sloth, which have only six cervical vertebrae, and the three-toed sloth with nine cervical vertebrae. Respiratory system The lungs of mammals have a spongy texture and are honeycombed with epithelium having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are typical of this type of lung. Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome with its convexity towards the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome increasing the volume of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx, trachea and bronchi and expands the alveoli. Relaxation of the diaphragm has the opposite effect, passively recoiling during normal breathing. During exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing visceral pressure on the diaphragm, thus forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. The rib cage itself also is able to expand and contract the thoracic cavity to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows. Nervous system All mammalian brains possess a neocortex, a brain region that is unique to mammals. Integumentary system The integumentary system is made up of three layers: the outermost epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis. The epidermis is typically ten to thirty cells thick; its main function being to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is fifteen to forty times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue. Its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species. Although mammals and other animals have cilia that superficially may resemble it, no other animals except mammals have hair. It is a definitive characteristic of the order. Some mammals have very little, but nonetheless, careful examination reveals the characteristic, often in obscure parts of their bodies. None are known to have hair that naturally is blue or green in color although some cetaceans, along with the mandrills appear to have shades of blue skin. Many mammals are indicated as having blue hair or fur, but in all known cases, it has been found to be a shade of gray. The two-toed sloth and the polar bear may seem to have green fur, but this color is caused by algae growths. Reproductive system Goat kids will stay with their mother until they are weaned Most mammals give birth to live young (vivipary), but a few, namely the monotremes, lay eggs, and at least one of them, the platypus, presents a particular sex determination system that in some ways resembles that of birds. Some of the glands contained by mammals have specialized to produce milk (in what are called mammary glands), a liquid used by newborns as their primary source of nutrition. The monotremes branched from other mammals early on, and do not have the nipples seen in most mammals, but they do have mammary glands. Physiology Endothermy Nearly all mammals are endothermic ("warm-blooded"). Most mammals also have hair to help keep them warm. Like birds, mammals can forage or hunt in cold weather and climates where reptiles and large insects cannot. Endothermy requires plenty of food energy, so pound for pound mammals eat more food than reptiles. Small insectivorous mammals eat prodigious amounts for their size. A rare exception, the naked mole rat is ectothermic ("cold-blooded"). Birds are also endothermic, so endothermy is not a defining mammalian feature. Intelligence In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain. Intelligence itself is not easy to define, but indications of intelligence include the ability to learn, matched with behavioral flexibility. Rats, for example, are considered to be highly intelligent as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonize a fresh habitat. In some mammals, food gathering appears to be related to intelligence: a deer feeding on plants has a brain relatively smaller than a cat, who must think to outwit its prey. Social structure Locomotion Mammals evolved from four-legged ancestors. They use their limbs to walk, climb, swim, and fly. Some land mammals have toes that produce claws and hooves for climbing and running. Aquatic mammals such as whales and dolphins have fins which evolved from legs. Terrestrial An African Elephant Arboreal Sloths travel slowly along branches rather than swinging energetically. Aquatic Buoyed by their aquatic environment, whales have evolved into the largest mammals and indeed the largest animals ever. Aerial Townsends's Big-eared Bat, Corynorhinus townsendii Feeding To maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive- mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways. Some eat animal prey- this is a carnivorous diet (and includes insectivorous diets). Other mammals, called herbivores, eat plants. An herbivorous diet includes sub-types such as fruit-eating and grass-eating. An omnivore eats boths prey and plants. Carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract, because the proteins, lipids, and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion. Plants, on the other hand, contain complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose. The digestive tract of an herbivore is therefore host to bacteria that ferment these substances, and make them available for digestion. The bacteria are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum. The size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type. Since small mammals have a high ratio of heat losing surface area to heat generating volume, they tend to have high-energy requirements and a high metabolic rate. Mammals that weigh less than about 18 oz (500g) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of a herbivore. Larger animals on the other hand generate more heat and less of this heat is lost. They can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process (those that prey on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive process (herbivores). Furthermore, mammals that weigh more than 18 oz (500g) usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves. The only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects (ants or termites). Specializations in herbivory include: Granivory "seed eating", Folivory "leaf eating", Fruivory "fruit eating", Nectivory "nectar eating", Gumivory "gum eating", and Mycophagy "fungus eating" Evolutionary history Synapsida, the group which contains mammals and their extinct relatives, originated during the Pennsylvanian epoch, when they split from the lineage that led to reptiles and birds. Non-mammalian synapsids were once called "mammal-like reptiles", although they are usually no longer considered reptiles. Mammals evolved from non-mammalian synapsids during the Early Jurassic. Evolution The original synapsid skull structure has one hole behind each eye, in a fairly low position on the skull (lower right in this image). The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes. Like the amphibians they evolved from, they had legs and lungs. Amniotes' eggs, however, had internal membranes which allowed the developing embryo to breathe but kept water in. This allowed amniotes to lay eggs on dry land, while amphibians generally need to lay their eggs in water. The first amniotes apparently arose in the late Carboniferous. They descended from earlier tetrapods, which lived on land already inhabited by insects, and other invertebrates, and by ferns, mosses, and other plants. Within a few million years two important amniote lineages became distinct: the synapsids, which include mammals; and the sauropsids, which include lizards, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds. Synapsids have a single hole (temporal fenestra) low on each side of the skull. One synapsid group, the pelycosaurs, were the most common land vertebrates of the early Permian and included the largest land animals of the time. Therapsids descended from pelycosaurs in the middle Permian, about 260M years ago, and took over their position as the dominant land vertebrates. They differ from pelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws, including: larger temporal fenestrae; incisors which are equal in size. The therapsids went through a series of stages, beginning with animals which were very like their pelycosaur ancestors and ending with the Triassic cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals. Those stages were characterized by: gradual development of a bony secondary palate. the dentary gradually becomes the main bone of the lower jaw. progress towards an erect limb posture, which would increase the animals' stamina by avoiding Carrier's constraint. But this process was slow and erratic - for example: all herbivorous therapsids retained sprawling limbs (some late forms may have had semi-erect hind limbs); Permian carnivorous therapsids had sprawling forelimbs, and some late Permian ones also had semi-sprawling hindlimbs. In fact modern monotremes still have semi-sprawling limbs. in the Triassic, progress towards the mammalian jaw and middle ear. there is possible evidence of hair in Triassic therapsids, but none for Permian therapsids. some scientists have argued that some Triassic therapsids show signs of lactation. The Permian–Triassic extinction event ended the dominance of the therapsids, and in the Early Triassic all the medium to large land animal niches were taken over by early archosaurs, which were the ancestors of crocodilians, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds. After this "Triassic Takeover" the cynodonts and their descendants could only survive as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores. This may actually have accelerated the evolution of mammals - for example the surviving cynodonts and their descendants had to evolve towards warm-bloodedness because their small bodies would otherwise have lost heat quickly, especially as they were active mainly at night. The first true mammals appeared in the early Jurassic, over 70 million years after the first therapsids and approximately 30 million years after the first mammaliaformes. Hadrocodium appears to be in the middle of the transition to true mammal status — it had a mammalian jaw joint (formed by the dentary and squamosal bones), but there is some debate about whether its middle ear was fully mammalian. The earliest known monotreme is Teinolophos, which lived about 123M years ago in Australia. Monotremes have some features which may be inherited from the original amniotes: they use the same orifice to urinate, defecate and reproduce ("monotreme" means "one hole") - as lizards and birds also do. they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified, like those of lizards, turtles and crocodilians. Unlike other mammals, female monotremes do not have nipples and feed their young by "sweating" milk from patches on their bellies. The oldest known marsupial is Sinodelphys, found in 125M-year old early Cretaceous shale in China's northeastern Liaoning Province. The fossil is nearly complete and includes tufts of fur and imprints of soft tissues. Reconstruction based on Megalonyx jeffersonii, Iowa Museum of Natural History, University of Iowa. The living Eutheria ("true beasts") are all placentals. But the earliest known eutherian, Eomaia, found in China and dated to 125M years ago, has some features which are more like those of marsupials (the surviving metatherians): Epipubic bones extending forwards from the pelvis, which are not found in any modern placental, but are found in marsupials, monotremes and mammaliformes such as multituberculates. In other words, they appear to be an ancestral feature which subsequently disappeared in the placental lineage. A narrow pelvic outlet, which indicates that the young were very small at birth and therefore pregnancy was short, as in modern marsupials. This suggests that the placenta was a later development. It is not certain when placental mammals evolved - the earliest undisputed fossils of placentals come from the early Paleocene, after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mammals and near-mammals expanded out of their nocturnal insectivore niche from the mid Jurassic onwards - for example Castorocauda had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish. The traditional view is that: mammals only took over the medium- to large-sized ecological niches in the Cenozoic, after the extinction of the dinosaurs; but then they diversified very quickly; for example the earliest known bat dates from about 50M years ago, only 15M years after the extinction of the dinosaurs. On the other hand recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged about 100M to 85M years ago, but that modern families first appeared in the late Eocene and early Miocene But paleontologists object that no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous During the Cenozoic several groups of mammals appeared which were much larger than their nearest modern equivalents - but none was even close to the size of the largest dinosaurs with similar feeding habits. Earliest appearances of features Hadrocodium, whose fossils date from the early Jurassic, provides the first clear evidence of fully mammalian jaw joints. It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was to keep eggs moist. Much of the argument is based on monotremes (egg-laying mammals): The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda, from 164M years ago in the mid Jurassic. From 1955 onwards some scientists have interpreted the foramina (passages) in the maxillae (upper jaws) and premaxillae (small bones in front of the maxillae) of cynodonts as channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers), and suggested that this was evidence of hair or fur. But foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae - for example the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina which are almost identical to those found in the non-mammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon. Bennett, A. F. and Ruben, J. A. (1986) "The metabolic and thermoregulatory status of therapsids"; pp. 207–218 in N. Hotton III, P. D. MacLean, J. J. Roth and E. C. Roth (eds), "The ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles", Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. American Lion was one of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna, a wide variety of very large mammals who lived during the Pleistocene and went extinct about 10,000 years ago. Ice Age Animals, Illinois State Museum The evolution of erect limbs in mammals is incomplete — living and fossil monotremes have sprawling limbs. In fact some scientists think that the parasagittal (non-sprawling) limb posture is a synapomorphy (distinguishing characteristic) of the Boreosphenida, a group which contains the Theria and therefore includes the last common ancestor of modern marsupial and placentals - and therefore that all earlier mammals had sprawling limbs. Sinodelphys (the earliest known marsupial) and Eomaia (the earliest known eutherian) lived about 125M years ago, so erect limbs must have evolved before then. It is currently very difficult to be confident when endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals. Modern monotremes have a lower body temperature and more variable metabolic rate than marsupials and placentals. So the main question is when a monotreme-like metabolism evolved in mammals. The evidence found so far suggests Triassic cynodonts may have had fairly high metabolic rates, but is not conclusive. In particular it is difficult to see how small animals can maintain a high and stable body temperature without fur. Classification Over 70% of mammal species are in the orders Rodentia (blue), Chiroptera (red), and Soricomorpha (yellow) George Gaylord Simpson's "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals" (AMNH Bulletin v. 85, 1945) was the original source for the taxonomy listed here. Simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the 20th century. Since Simpson's classification, the paleontological record has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics. Though field work gradually made Simpson's classification outdated, it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals. Standardized textbook classification A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. (2000). Class Mammalia Subclass Prototheria: monotremes: platypuses and echidnas Subclass Theria: live-bearing mammals Infraclass Metatheria: marsupials Infraclass Eutheria: placentals McKenna/Bell classification In 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, which has resulted in the "McKenna/Bell classification". McKenna and Bell, Classification of Mammals: Above the species level, (1997) is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics, relationships, and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus. The new McKenna/Bell classification was quickly accepted by paleontologists. The authors work together as paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History, New York. McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and, with Bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia. The McKenna/Bell hierarchical listing of all of the terms used for mammal groups above the species includes extinct mammals as well as modern groups, and introduces some fine distinctions such as legions and sublegions (ranks which fall between classes and orders) that are likely to be glossed over by the nonprofessionals. The published re-classification forms both a comprehensive and authoritative record of approved names and classifications and a list of invalid names. Extinct groups are represented by a cross (†). Class Mammalia Subclass Prototheria: monotremes: echidnas and the Platypus Subclass Theriiformes: live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives Infraclass †Allotheria: multituberculates Infraclass †Triconodonta: triconodonts Infraclass Holotheria: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals Cohort Marsupialia: marsupials Magnorder Australidelphia: Australian marsupials and the Monito del Monte Magnorder Ameridelphia: New World marsupials Cohort Placentalia: placentals Magnorder Xenarthra: xenarthrans Magnorder Epitheria: epitheres Grandorder Anagalida: lagomorphs, rodents, and elephant shrews Grandorder Ferae: carnivorans, pangolins, †creodonts, and relatives Grandorder Lipotyphla: insectivorans Grandorder Archonta: bats, primates, colugos, and treeshrews Grandorder Ungulata: ungulates Order Tubulidentata incertae sedis: aardvark Mirorder Eparctocyona: †condylarths, whales, and artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates) Mirorder †Meridiungulata: South American ungulates Mirorder Altungulata: perissodactyls (odd-toed ungulates), elephants, manatees, and hyraxes Molecular classification of placentals Molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years. Most of these findings have been independently validated by Retrotransposon presence/absence data. The most recent classification systems based on molecular studies have proposed four groups or lineages of placental mammals. Molecular clocks suggest that these clades diverged from early common ancestors in the Cretaceous, but fossils have not been found to corroborate this hypothesis. These molecular findings are consistent with mammal zoogeography: Following molecular DNA sequence analyses, the first divergence was that of the Afrotheria 110–100 million years ago. The Afrotheria proceeded to evolve and diversify in the isolation of the African-Arabian continent. The Xenarthra, isolated in South America, diverged from the Boreoeutheria approximately 100–95 million years ago. According to an alternative view, the Xenarthra has the Afrotheria as closest allies, forming the Atlantogenata as sistergroup to Boreoeutheria. The Boreoeutheria split into the Laurasiatheria and Euarchontoglires between 95 and 85 mya; both of these groups evolved on the northern continent of Laurasia. After tens of millions of years of relative isolation, Africa-Arabia collided with Eurasia, exchanging Afrotheria and Boreoeutheria. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama linked South America and North America, which facilitated the exchange of mammal species in the Great American Interchange. The traditional view that no placental mammals reached Australasia until about 5 million years ago when bats and murine rodents arrived has been challenged by recent evidence and may need to be reassessed. These molecular results are still controversial because they are not reflected by morphological data, and thus not accepted by many systematists. Further there is some indication from Retrotransposon presence/absence data that the traditional Epitheria hypothesis, suggesting Xenarthra as the first divergence, might be true. With the old order Insectivora shown to be polyphylectic and more properly subdivided (as Afrosoricida, Erinaceomorpha, and Soricomorpha), the following classification for placental mammals contains 21 orders: Clade Atlantogenata Group I: Afrotheria Clade Afroinsectiphilia Order Macroscelidea: elephant shrews (Africa) Order Afrosoricida: tenrecs and golden moles (Africa) Order Tubulidentata: aardvark (Africa south of the Sahara) Clade Paenungulata Order Hyracoidea: hyraxes or dassies (Africa, Arabia) Order Proboscidea: elephants (Africa, Southeast Asia) Order Sirenia: dugong and manatees (cosmopolitan tropical) Group II: Xenarthra Order Pilosa: sloths and anteaters (Neotropical) Order Cingulata: armadillos (Americas) Clade Boreoeutheria Group III: Euarchontoglires (Supraprimates) Superorder Euarchonta Order Scandentia: treeshrews (Southeast Asia). Order Dermoptera: flying lemurs or colugos (Southeast Asia) Order Primates: lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes (cosmopolitan), humans Superorder Glires Order Lagomorpha: pikas, rabbits, hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas) Order Rodentia: rodents (cosmopolitan) Group IV: Laurasiatheria Order Erinaceomorpha: hedgehogs Order Soricomorpha: moles, shrews, solenodons Clade Ferungulata Clade Cetartiodactyla Order Cetacea: whales, dolphins and porpoises Order Artiodactyla: even-toed ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats Clade Pegasoferae Order Chiroptera: bats (cosmopolitan) Clade Zooamata Order Perissodactyla: odd-toed ungulates, including horses, donkeys, zebras, tapirs, and rhinoceroses Clade Ferae Order Pholidota: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia) Order Carnivora: carnivores (cosmopolitan) See also List of extinct mammals List of mammals List of prehistoric mammals Lists of mammals by region Mammal classification Mammals discovered in the 2000s Prehistoric mammals References Bibliography Bergsten, Johannes. February 2005. "A review of long-branch attraction". Cladistics 21:163–193. (pdf version) Brown, W.M. (2001). Natural selection of mammalian brain components. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16, 471–473. Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Mammalia Palaestina: The Mammals of Palestine.Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 55, July 2006. pp. 1–46. McKenna, Malcolm C., and Bell, Susan K. 1997. Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level. Columbia University Press, New York, 631 pp. ISBN 0-231-11013-8 Nowak, Ronald M. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936 pp. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9 Simpson, George Gaylord. 1945. "The principles of classification and a classification of mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 85:1–350. William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al., Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics,Science, Vol 294, Issue 5550, 2348–2351 , 14 December 2001. Springer, Mark S., Michael J. Stanhope, Ole Madsen, and Wilfried W. de Jong. 2004. "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree". Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19:430–438. (PDF version) Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Capzaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy: Fourth Edition. Saunders College Publishing, 565 pp. ISBN 0-03-025034-X (Brooks Cole, 1999) Jan Ole Kriegs, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz. (2006) Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals. PLoS Biol 4(4): e91. David MacDonald, Sasha Norris. 2006. The Encyclopedia of Mammals, 3rd edition. Printed in China, 930 pp. ISBN 0-681-45659-0. External links GlobalTwitcher.com - All species in the world with distribution maps and images North American Fossil Mammal Systematics Database Paleocene Mammals, a site covering the rise of the mammals Evolution of Mammals, a brief introduction to early mammals Tree of Life poster - Shows mammals' evolutionary relation to other organisms The Evolution of Mesozoic Mammals, a Rough Sketch, an informal introduction Carnegie Museum of Natural History, some discoveries of early mammal fossils Mammal Taxonomy, database of mammals of the world, updated each month High-Resolution Images of various Mammalian Brains Mammal Species, collection of information sheets about various mammal species Summary of molecular support for Epitheria Mikko's Phylogeny Archive European Mammal Atlas EMMA from Societas Europaea Mammalogica Marine Mammals of the World—An overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, multimedia and a key MAMMALOGY .org The American Society of Mammalogists was established 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7,630 | Apocrypha | Apocrypha (from the Greek word , meaning "those having been hidden away" Specifically, is the neuter plural of ἀπόκρυφος, a participle derived from the verb ἀποκρύπτω [infinitive: ἀποκρύπτειν], "to hide something away." ) are texts of uncertain authenticity, or writings where the authorship is questioned. When used in the specific context of Judeo-Christian theology, the term apocrypha refers to any collection of scriptural texts that falls outside the canon. Given that different denominations have different ideas about what constitutes canonical scripture, there are several different versions of the apocrypha. During sixteenth-century controversies over the biblical canon the word "apocrypha" acquired a negative connotation, and it has become a synonym for "spurious" or "false". This usage usually involves fictitious or legendary accounts that are plausible enough to be commonly considered as truth. For example, Laozi's alleged authorship of the Tao Te Ching, Napoleon Bonaparte's self-coronation rather than at the hands of Pope Pius VII, and the Parson Weems account of George Washington and the cherry tree, are all considered 'apocryphal'. Denotation and connotation The term "apocrypha" has evolved in meaning somewhat, and its associated implications have ranged from positive to pejorative. The term apocryphal, according to Merriam-Webster, means "writings or statements of dubious authenticity." Esoteric writings The word "apocryphal" () was first applied, in a positive sense, to writings which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered too profound or too sacred to be disclosed to anyone other than the initiated. It is used in this sense to describe A Holy and Secret Book of Moses, called Eighth, or Holy (), a text taken from a Leiden papyrus of the third or fourth century AD, but which may be as old as the first century. In a similar vein, the disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted that they possessed the secret () books of Zoroaster. The term in general enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (see Acts of Thomas, 10, 27, 44). 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Writings of questionable value "Apocrypha" was also applied to writings that were hidden not because of their divinity but because of their questionable value to the church. Many in Protestant traditions cite Revelation 22:18-19 as a potential curse for those who attach any canonical authority to extra-biblical writings such as the Apocrypha. However, a strict exegesis of this text would indicate it was meant for only the Book of Revelation. Revelation 22:18-19 (KJV) states: "(18) For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: (19) And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book." In this case, if we hold to a strict hermeneutic, this "book of prophecy" does not refer to the Bible as a whole but to the Book of Revelation. However, the Book of Revelation is considered to be the completion of the Bible, the ribbon around the package, if you will. Origen, in Commentaries on Matthew, X. 18, XIII. 57, distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: (writing not found on the common and published books in one hand, actually found on the secret ones on the other). The meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church", and prepares the way for an even less favourable use of the word. Spurious writings In general use, the word "apocrypha" came to mean "false, spurious, bad, or heretical." This meaning also appears in Origen's prologue to his commentary on the Song of Songs, of which only the Latin translation survives: De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem. "Concerning these scriptures, which are called apocryphal, for the reason that many things are found in them corrupt and against the true faith handed down by the elders, it has pleased them that they not be given a place nor be admitted to authority." (Translation by a Wikipedia editor.) Other meanings Other uses of apocrypha developed over the history of Western Christianity. The Gelasian Decree refers to religious works by church fathers Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria as apocrypha. Augustine defined the word as meaning simply "obscurity of origin," implying that any book of unknown authorship or questionable authenticity would be considered as apocrypha. On the other hand, Jerome (in Protogus Galeatus) declared that all books outside the Hebrew canon were apocryphal. In practice, Jerome treated some books outside the Hebrew canon as if they were canonical, and the Western Church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, instead retaining the word's prior meaning (see: Deuterocanon). As a result, various church authorities labeled different books as apocrypha, treating them with varying levels of regard. Some apocryphal books were included in the Septuagint with little distinction made between them and the rest of the Old Testament. Origen, Clement and others cited some apocryphal books as "scripture", "divine scripture", "inspired", and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine and familiar with the Hebrew canon excluded from the canon all of the Old Testament not found there. This view is reflected in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. A third view was that the books were not as valuable as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, but were of value for moral uses, as introductory texts for new converts from paganism, and to be read in congregations. They were referred to as "ecclesiastical" works by Rufinus. These three opinions regarding the apocryphal books prevailed until the Protestant Reformation, when the idea of what constitutes canon became a matter of primary concern for Roman Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1546 the Catholic Council of Trent reconfirmed the canon of Augustine, dating to the second and third centuries, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1st and 2nd Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses, were declared canonical at Trent. The Protestants, in comparison, were diverse in their opinion of the deuterocanon. Some reckoned them among the inspired books, others rejected them. Anglicans took a middle way between the Catholic Church and the Protestant sects; they kept them as Christian intertestamental readings, and while a part of the Bible, no doctrine should be based on them. John Wycliffe, a 14th century humanist, had declared in his Biblical translation that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief." Nevertheless, his translation of the Bible included the apocrypha and the Epistle of the Loadiceans. Wyclif's Bible The respect accorded to apocryphal books varied between Protestant denominations. In both the German (1537) and English (1535) translations of the Bible, the apocrypha are published in a separate section from the other books, although the Lutheran and Anglican lists are different. In some editions, (like the Westminster), readers were warned that these books were not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings." A milder distinction was expressed elsewhere, such as in the "argument" introducing them in the Geneva Bible, and in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine. According to The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments at orthodoxanglican.net: Apocryphal texts by denomination Jewish apocrypha Although traditional rabbinical Judaism insists on the exclusive canonization of the current 24 books in the Tanakh, it also claims to have an oral law handed down from Moses. The Sadducees - unlike the Pharisees but like the Samaritans - seem to have maintained an earlier and smaller number of texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses Jewish Encyclopedia: Sadducees (making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, apocryphal in their eyes). Certain circles in Judaism, such as the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls). Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity. The Old Testament Canon The Ethiopic Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament cf Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol 6, p 1147. A large part of this literature consisted of the apocalypses. Based on prophecies, these apocalyptic books were not considered scripture by all, but rather part of a literary form that flourished from 200 BC to AD 100. Biblical books called apocrypha During the birth of Christianity, some of the Jewish apocrypha that dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom became popular in the rising Jewish-Christian communities. Occasionally these writings were changed or added to, but on the whole it was found sufficient to reinterpret them as conforming to a Christian viewpoint. Christianity eventually gave birth to new apocalyptic works, some of which were derived from traditional Jewish sources. Some of the Jewish apocrypha were part of the ordinary religious literature of the early Christians. This was not strange, as the large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek Septuagint, which is the source of the deuterocanonical books Deuterocanonical books literally means books of the second canon. The term was coined in the 16th century. as well as most of the other biblical apocrypha. The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical literature instead of apocrypha in academic writing, although not all apocryphal books are properly deuterocanonical. Slightly varying collections of additional Books (called deuterocanonical by the Roman Catholic Church) form part of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox canons. The Book of Enoch is included in the biblical canon only of the Oriental Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Epistle of Jude quotes the book of Enoch, and some believe the use of this book also appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria and much of the early church. The epistles of Paul and the gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees, which is part of the Ethiopian canon, as well as the Assumption of Moses and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which are included in no biblical canon. The high position which some apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences in the Christian church. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition (as held by many Gnostic sects) were denied by the influential theologians like Irenaeus and Tertullian, the timeframe of true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as proof of apostolic authorship. As these principles gained currency, books deemed apocryphal tended to become regarded as spurious and heretical writings, though books now considered deuterocanonical have been used in liturgy and theology from the first century to the present. New Testament apocryphal literature New Testament apocrypha — books similar to those in the New Testament but almost universally rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants — include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some of these were clearly produced by Gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox. Many texts believed lost for centuries were unearthed in the 19th and 20th centuries, producing lively speculation about their importance in early Christianity among religious scholars, while many others survive only in the form of quotations from them in other writings; for some, no more than the title is known. Artists and theologians have drawn upon the New Testament apocrypha for such matters as the names of Dismas and Gestas and details about the Three Wise Men. The first explicit mention of the perpetual virginity of Mary is found in the pseudepigraphical Infancy Gospel of James. The Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels. While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, as with most Christians of the first and second centuries, apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006. Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians as well as Protestants generally agree on the canon of the New Testament. However there is one notable exception, although the order is not always the same. The Ethiopian Orthodox have in the past also included I & II Clement, and Shepherd of Hermas in their New Testament canon. This is no longer the case. The Shakespeare Apocrypha "The Shakespeare Apocrypha" is the name given to a group of plays that have sometimes been attributed to William Shakespeare, but whose attribution is questionable for various reasons. This is separate from the debate on Shakespearean authorship, which addresses the authorship of the works traditionally attributed to Shakespeare. Zbigniew Herbert's Apocrypha The Polish poet and writer Zbigniew Herbert chose to use the name "Apocrypha" for his writings about historical periods, such as the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th Century. As used in his case, Herbert made no pretense that such "apocrypha" were anything but his own creation. Critic John Carpenter noted that "the term 'apocrypha' is Herbert's own label to designate an event from history that he himself interprets, feeling that he must re-present history because conventional historians have misled us" Notes Information concerning the Hellenist Jews was incorporated from the Catholic Encyclopedia at newadvent.com. See also Biblical canon Biblical apocrypha Deuterocanonical Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture Pseudepigraphy External links EarlyChristianWritings.com A chronological list of early Christian books and letters, both complete and incomplete works; canonical, apocryphal and Gnostic. Many with links to English translations. Read the Apocrypha Free online downloadable version of the Apocrypha. Bel and the Dragon online text which is included in the longer version of the Septuagint in the book of Daniel but is apocryphal to the Masoretic texts. Ethiopian Orthodox Canon Cowley, R.W. "The Biblical Canon Of The Ethiopian Orthodox Church Today." Ostkirchliche Studien, 1974, Volume 23, pp. 318-323. Accessed online via islamicawareness.org. Complete NT Apocrypha Claims to be the largest collection of New Testament apocrypha online Major collection of pseudepigrapha Large number of NT and OT apocrypha and general pseudepigrapha German Apocrypha research Scholarly research site on individual manuscripts. Deuterocanonical books - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also presents the full text in Arabic) The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary from the Apocrypha and other little-known sources. LDS Bible Dictionary > Apocrypha Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions. Noncanonical Literature Dark Mirrors of Heaven A look at Biblical creation from non-canonical literature. Christian Cyclopedia article on Apocrypha New Testament Allusions to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha | Apocrypha |@lemmatized apocrypha:42 greek:2 word:9 mean:6 hide:3 away:4 specifically:1 neuter:1 plural:1 ἀπόκρυφος:1 participle:1 derive:2 verb:1 ἀποκρύπτω:1 infinitive:1 ἀποκρύπτειν:1 something:1 texts:1 uncertain:1 authenticity:3 writing:17 authorship:6 question:2 use:11 specific:1 context:1 judeo:2 christian:13 theology:2 term:7 refers:2 collection:5 scriptural:1 text:13 fall:1 outside:3 canon:21 give:4 different:6 denomination:3 idea:2 constitute:2 canonical:10 scripture:7 several:2 version:3 sixteenth:1 century:12 controversy:1 biblical:12 acquire:1 negative:1 connotation:2 become:4 synonym:1 spurious:4 false:2 usage:1 usually:1 involve:1 fictitious:1 legendary:1 account:2 plausible:1 enough:1 commonly:1 consider:7 truth:1 example:2 laozi:1 allege:1 tao:1 te:1 ching:1 napoleon:1 bonaparte:1 self:1 coronation:1 rather:2 hand:6 pope:1 pius:1 vii:1 parson:1 weems:1 george:1 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7,631 | Bluetooth | Bluetooth logo. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs). It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Name and logo The word Bluetooth is an anglicized version of Old Norse Blátönn or Danish Blåtand, the name of the tenth-century king Harald I of Denmark and Norway, who united dissonant Scandinavian tribes into a single kingdom. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, uniting them into one universal standard. The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Germanic runes (Hagall, analogous to the modern Latin letter H, for Harald) and (Berkanan, like B, for Bluetooth). Implementation Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum, which chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 frequencies. In its basic mode, the modulation is Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK). It can achieve a gross data rate of 1 Mb/s. Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones, telephones, laptops, personal computers, printers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, digital cameras, and video game consoles through a secure, globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency bandwidth. The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The Bluetooth SIG consists of companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. Newton, Harold. (2007). Newton’s telecom dictionary. New York: Flatiron Publishing. Uses Bluetooth is a standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 meter, 10 meters, 100 meters) based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Bluetooth makes it possible for these devices to communicate with each other when they are in range. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in line of sight of each other. Class Maximum Permitted PowermW (dBm) Range(approximate) Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) ~100 meters Class 2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) ~10 meters Class 3 1 mW (0 dBm) ~1 meter In most cases the effective range of class 2 devices is extended if they connect to a class 1 transceiver, compared to a pure class 2 network. This is accomplished by the higher sensitivity and transmission power of Class 1 devices. Version Data Rate Version 1.2 1 Mbit/s Version 2.0 + EDR 3 Mbit/s Bluetooth profiles In order to use Bluetooth, a device must be compatible with certain Bluetooth profiles. These define the possible applications and uses of the technology. List of applications A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset. Nokia BH-208 headset internals. More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include: Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular. Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required. Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer. Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX. Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices. For controls where infrared was traditionally used. For low bandwidth applications where higher [USB] bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection desired. Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices. Two seventh-generation game consoles, Nintendo's Wii and Sony's PlayStation 3, use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers. Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a modem. Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1 vs. Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11 in networking Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have many applications in today's offices, homes, and on the move: setting up networks, printing, or transferring presentations and files from PDAs to computers. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. Wi-Fi is intended for resident equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as WLAN, the wireless local area networks. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for cabling for general local area network access in work areas. Bluetooth is intended for non resident equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any ambience. Bluetooth devices A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m range. Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii, PlayStation 3, Lego Mindstorms NXT and recently in some high definition watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files). Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier because more of the security, network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types. Wi-Fi Wi-Fi is a traditional Ethernet network, and requires configuration to set up shared resources, transmit files, and to set up audio links (for example, headsets and hands-free devices). Wi-Fi uses the same radio frequencies as Bluetooth, but with higher power, resulting in a stronger connection. Wi-Fi is sometimes called "wireless Ethernet." This description is accurate, as it also provides an indication of its relative strengths and weaknesses. Wi-Fi requires more setup but is better suited for operating full-scale networks; it enables a faster connection, better range from the base station, and better security than Bluetooth. Computer requirements A typical Bluetooth USB dongle. An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm). A personal computer must have a Bluetooth adapter in order to communicate with other Bluetooth devices (such as mobile phones, mice and keyboards). While some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth adapter, others will require an external one in the form of a dongle. Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth allows multiple devices to communicate with a computer over a single adapter. Operating system support Apple has supported Bluetooth since Mac OS X v10.2 which was released in 2002. For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and later releases have native support for Bluetooth. Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft. Microsoft's own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Linux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Affix. The BlueZ BlueZ - Official Linux Bluetooth protocol stack stack is included with most Linux kernels and was originally developed by Qualcomm. The Affix stack was developed by Nokia. FreeBSD features Bluetooth support since its 5.0 release. NetBSD features Bluetooth support since its 4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack has been ported to OpenBSD as well. Mobile phone requirements A mobile phone that is Bluetooth enabled is able to pair with many devices. To ensure the broadest support of feature functionality together with legacy device support, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform (OMTP) forum has recently published a recommendations paper, entitled "Bluetooth Local Connectivity"; see external links below to download this paper. This publication recommends two classes, Basic and Advanced, with requirements that cover imaging, printing, stereo audio and in-car usage. Specifications and features The Bluetooth specification was developed in 1994 by Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson, who were working for Ericsson Mobile Platforms in Lund, Sweden. The specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The SIG was formally announced on May 20, 1998. Today it has a membership of over 11,000 companies worldwide. It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba, and Nokia, and later joined by many other companies. Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments. Bluetooth 1.1 Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2002. Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed. Added support for non-encrypted channels. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI). Bluetooth 1.2 This version is backward compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include the following: Faster Connection and Discovery Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 kbit/s, than in 1.1. Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide better support for concurrent data transfer. Host Controller Interface (HCI) support for three-wire UART. Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2005. Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP. Bluetooth 2.0 This version of the Bluetooth specification was released on November 10, 2004. It is backward compatible with the previous version 1.2. The main difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The nominal rate of EDR is about 3 megabits per second, although the practical data transfer rate is 2.1 megabits per second. The additional throughput is obtained by using a different radio technology for transmission of the data. Standard, or Basic Rate, transmission uses Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) modulation of the radio signal with a gross air data rate of 1 Mbit/s. EDR uses a combination of GFSK and Phase Shift Keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK. These have gross air data rates of 2, and 3 Mbit/s respectively. According to the 2.0 specification, EDR provides the following benefits: Three times faster transmission speed — up to 10 times (2.1 Mbit/s) in some cases. Reduced complexity of multiple simultaneous connections due to additional bandwidth. Lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle. The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) published the specification as "Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR" which implies that EDR is an optional feature. Aside from EDR, there are other minor improvements to the 2.0 specification, and products may claim compliance to "Bluetooth 2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one commercial device, the HTC TyTN Pocket PC phone, states "Bluetooth 2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet. Bluetooth 2.1 Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 is fully backward compatible with 1.2, and was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on July 26, 2007. This specification includes the following features: Extended Inquiry Response (EIR): provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection. This information may include the name of the device, a list of services the device supports, the transmission power level used for inquiry responses, and manufacturer defined data. Sniff Subrating: reduces the power consumption when devices are in the sniff low-power mode, especially on links with asymmetric data flows. Human interface devices (HID) are expected to benefit the most, with mouse and keyboard devices increasing their battery life by a factor of 3 to 10. It lets devices decide how long they will wait before sending keepalive messages to one another. Previous Bluetooth implementations featured keep alive message frequencies of up to several times per second. In contrast, the 2.1 specification allows pairs of devices to negotiate this value between them to as infrequently as once every 5 or 10 seconds. Encryption Pause Resume (EPR): enables an encryption key to be changed with less management required by the Bluetooth host. Changing an encryption key must be done for a role switch of an encrypted an ACL link, or every 23.3 hours (one Bluetooth day) encryption is enabled on an ACL link. Before this feature was introduced, when an encryption key is refreshed the Bluetooth host would be notified of a brief gap in encryption while the new key was generated; so the Bluetooth host was required to handle pausing data transfer (however data requiring encryption may already have been sent before the notification that encryption is disabled has been received). With EPR, the Bluetooth host is not notified of the gap, and the Bluetooth controller ensures that no unencrypted data is transferred while they key is refreshed. Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): radically improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. It is expected that this feature will significantly increase the use of Bluetooth. Near Field Communication (NFC) cooperation: automatic creation of secure Bluetooth connections when NFC radio interface is also available. This functionality is part of the Secure Simple Pairing where NFC is one way of exchanging pairing information. For example, a headset should be paired with a Bluetooth 2.1 phone including NFC just by bringing the two devices close to each other (a few centimeters). Another example is automatic uploading of photos from a mobile phone or camera to a digital picture frame just by bringing the phone or camera close to the frame. Bluetooth 3.0 The 3.0 specification was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on April 21st, 2009. Its main new feature is AMP (Alternate MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high speed transport. Two technologies had been anticipated for AMP: 802.11 and UWB, but UWB is missing from the specification . Alternate MAC PHY: enables the use of alternative MAC and PHY's for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth Radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration, however when lots of data needs to be sent, the high speed alternate MAC PHY (802.11, typically associated with Wi-Fi) will be used to transport the data. This means that the proven low power connection models of Bluetooth are used when the system is idle, and the low power per bit radios are used when lots of data needs to be sent. Unicast Connectionless Data: permits service data to be sent without establishing an explicit L2CAP channel. It is intended for use by applications that require low latency between user action and reconnection/transmission of data. This is only appropriate for small amounts of data. Read Encryption Key Size: introduces a standard HCI command for a Bluetooth host to query the encryption key size on an encrypted ACL link. The encryption key size used on a link is required for the SIM Access Profile, so generally Bluetooth controllers provided this feature in a proprietary manner. Now the information is available over the standard HCI interface. Bluetooth low energy On April 20, 2009, Bluetooth SIG presented the new Bluetooth low energy as an entirely additional protocol stack, compatible with other existing Bluetooth protocol stacks. The preceding naming as 'Wibree' and 'Bluetooth ULP' (Ultra Low Power) has been outdated by the final naming as 'Bluetooth low energy'. On June 12, 2007, Nokia and Bluetooth SIG had announced that Wibree will be a part of the Bluetooth specification, as an ultra-low power Bluetooth technology. Expected use cases include watches displaying Caller ID information, sports sensors monitoring your heart rate during exercise, and medical devices. The Medical Devices Working Group is also creating a medical devices profile and associated protocols to enable this market. Bluetooth low energy technology is designed for devices to have a battery life of up to one year. Future Broadcast Channel: enables Bluetooth information points. This will drive the adoption of Bluetooth into mobile phones, and enable advertising models based around users pulling information from the information points, and not based around the object push model that is used in a limited way today. Topology Management: enables the automatic configuration of the piconet topologies especially in scatternet situations that are becoming more common today. This should all be invisible to the users of the technology, while also making the technology just work. QoS improvements: enable audio and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same piconet. UWB for AMP The high speed (AMP) feature of Bluetooth 3.0 is based on 802.11, but the AMP mechanism was designed to be usable with other radios as well. It was originally intended for UWB, but the WiMedia Alliance, the body responsible for the flavor of UWB intended for Bluetooth, announced in March 2009 that it was disbanding. On March 16, 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced it was entering into technology transfer agreements for the WiMedia Ultra-wideband (UWB) specifications. WiMedia will transfer all current and future specifications, including work on future high speed and power optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and the USB Implementers Forum. After the successful completion of the technology transfer, marketing and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance will cease operations. , , , , , Technical information Bluetooth protocol stack “Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols”. Stallings, William. (2005). Wireless communications & networks. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are: LMP, L2CAP and SDP Additionally, these protocols are almost universally supported: HCI and RFCOMM LMP (Link Management Protocol) Used for control of the radio link between two devices. Implemented on the controller. L2CAP (Logical Link Control & Adaptation Protocol) Used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level protocols. Provides segmentation and reassembly of on-air packets. In Basic mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload configurable up to 64kB, with 672 bytes as the default MTU, and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory supported MTU. In Retransmission & Flow Control modes, L2CAP can be configured for reliable or isochronous data per channel by performing retransmissions and CRC checks. Bluetooth Core Specification Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to the core specification. These modes effectively deprecate original Retransmission and Flow Control modes: Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM): This mode is an improved version of the original retransmission mode. This mode provides a reliable L2CAP channel. Streaming Mode (SM): This is a very simple mode, with no retransmission or flow control. This mode provides an unreliable L2CAP channel. Reliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or additionally guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth BDR/EDR air interface by configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout (time after which the radio will flush packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed by the lower layer. Only L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over AMP logical links. SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) Used to allow devices to discover what services each other support, and what parameters to use to connect to them. For example, when connecting a mobile phone to a Bluetooth headset, SDP will be used to determine which Bluetooth profiles are supported by the headset (Headset Profile, Hands Free Profile, Advanced Audio Distribution Profile etc) and the protocol multiplexer settings needed to connect to each of them. Each service is identified by a Universally Unique Identifier (UUID), with official services (Bluetooth profiles) assigned a short form UUID (16 bits rather than the full 128) HCI (Host/Controller Interface) Standardised communication between the host stack (e.g. a PC or mobile phone OS) and the controller (the Bluetooth I.C.) This standard allows the host stack or controller I.C. to be swapped with minimal adaptation. There are several HCI transport layer standards, each using a different hardware interface to transfer the same command, event and data packets. The most commonly used are USB (in PCs) and UART (in mobile phones and PDAs). In Bluetooth devices with simple functionality, e.g. headsets, the host stack and controller can be implemented on the same microprocessor. In this case the HCI is optional, although often implemented as an internal software interface. RFCOMM (Cable replacement protocol) Radio frequency communications (RFCOMM) is the cable replacement protocol used to create a virtual serial data stream. RFCOMM provides for binary data transport and emulates EIA-232 (formerly RS-232) control signals over the Bluetooth baseband layer. RFCOMM provides a simple reliable data stream to the user, similar to TCP. It is used directly by many telephony related profiles as a carrier for AT commands, as well as being a transport layer for OBEX over Bluetooth. Many Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of its widespread support and publicly available API on most operating systems. Additionally, applications that used a serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use RFCOMM. BNEP (Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol) BNEP is used to transfer another protocol stack's data via an L2CAP channel. Its main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the Personal Area Networking Profile. BNEP performs a similar function to SNAP in Wireless LAN. AVCTP (Audio/Visual Control Transport Protocol) Used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP channel. The music control buttons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the music player AVDTP (Audio/Visual Data Transport Protocol) Used by the advanced audio distribution profile to stream music to stereo headsets over an L2CAP channel. Intended to be used by video distribution profile. Telephone control protocol Telephony control protocol-binary (TCS BIN) is the bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, “TCS BIN defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices” TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest. Adopted protocols Adopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations and incorporated into Bluetooth’s protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to create protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include: Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) – Internet standard protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link TCP/IP/UDP – Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP protocol suite Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) – Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation representation Wireless Application Environment / Wireless Application Protocol (WAE/WAP) – WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services. Communication and connection A master Bluetooth device can communicate with up to seven devices in a Wireless User Group. This network group of up to eight devices is called a piconet. A piconet is an ad-hoc computer network, using Bluetooth technology protocols to allow one master device to interconnect with up to seven active devices. Up to 255 further devices can be inactive, or parked, which the master device can bring into active status at any time. At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device, however, the devices can switch roles and the slave can become the master at any time. The master switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. (Simultaneous transmission from the master to multiple other devices is possible, but not used much.) The Bluetooth specification allows connecting two or more piconets together to form a scatternet, with some devices acting as a bridge by simultaneously playing the master role in one piconet and the slave role in another. Many USB Bluetooth adapters are available, some of which also include an IrDA adapter. Older (pre-2003) Bluetooth adapters, however, have limited services, offering only the Bluetooth Enumerator and a less-powerful Bluetooth Radio incarnation. Such devices can link computers with Bluetooth, but they do not offer much in the way of services that modern adapters do. Baseband Error Correction Three types of error correction are implemented in Bluetooth systems, 1/3 rate (Forward Error Correction) (FEC) 2/3 rate FEC Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Setting up connections Any Bluetooth device will transmit the following information on demand: Device name. Device class. List of services. Technical information, for example, device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification used, clock offset. Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of a device's services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device. Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by the user. This name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices. Most phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several phones in range named T610 (see Bluejacking). Pairing Pairs of devices may establish a relationship by creating a shared secret known as a link key, this process is known as pairing. If a link key is stored by both devices they are said to be bonded. A device that wants to communicate only with a bonded device can cryptographically authenticate the identity of the other device, and so be sure that it is the same device it previously paired with. Once a link key has been generated, an authenticated ACL link between the devices may be encrypted so that the data that they exchange over the airwaves is protected against eavesdropping. Link keys can be deleted at any time by either device, if done by either device this will implicitly remove the bonding between the devices; so it is possible one of the device to have a link key stored but not be aware that it is no longer bonded to the device associated with the given link key. Bluetooth services generally require either encryption or authentication, as such require pairing before they allow a remote device to use the given service. Some services, such as the Object Push Profile, elect not to explicitly require authentication or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the user experience associated with the service use-cases. Pairing mechanisms have changed significantly with the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth 2.1. The following summarizes the pairing mechanisms: Legacy pairing: This is the only method available before Bluetooth 2.1. Each device must enter a PIN code, pairing is only successful if both devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-digit ACSII string may be used as a PIN code, however not all devices may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes. Limited Input Devices: The obvious example of this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free headset, which generally have few inputs. These devices usually have a fixed PIN, for example "0000" or "1234", that are hard-coded into the device. Numeric Input Devices: Mobile phones are classic examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter a numeric value up-to 16 digits in length. Alpha-numeric Input Devices: PCs and smartphones are examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter full ASCII text as a PIN code. If pairing with a less capable device the user needs to be aware of the input limitations on the other device, there is no mechanism available for a capable device to determine how it should limit the available input a user may use. Secure Simple Pairing: This is required by Bluetooth 2.1. A Bluetooth 2.1 device may only use legacy pairing to interoperable with a 2.0 or older device. Secure Simple Pairing uses a type of public key cryptography, and has the following modes of operation: Just Works: As implied by the name, this method just works. No user interaction is required; however, a device may prompt the user to confirm the pairing process. This method is typically used by headsets with very limited IO capabilities, and is more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism which is typical for this set of limited devices. This method provides no man in the middle (MITM) protection. Numeric Comparison: If both devices have a display and at least one can accept a binary Yes/No user input, they may use Numeric Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit numeric code on each device. The user should compare the numbers to insure they are identical. If the comparison succeeds, the user(s) should confirm pairing on the device(s) that can accept an input. This method provides MITM protection, assuming the user confirms on both devices and actually performs the comparison properly. Passkey Entry: This method may be used between a device with a display and a device with numeric keypad entry (such as a keyboard), or two devices with numeric keypad entry. In the first case, the display is used to show a 6-digit numeric code to the user, who then enters the code on the keypad. In the second case, the user of each device enters the same 6-digit number. Both cases provide MITM protection. Out of Band (OOB): This method uses an external means of communication (such as NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the OOB mechanism. This method provides some level of MITM protection, assuming the OOB method used provides MITM. SSP is considered simple for the following reasons: In most cases it does not require a user to generate a passkey. For use-cases not requiring MITM, user interaction has been eliminated. For Numeric Comparison, MITM protection can be achieved with a simple Yes/No decision by the user. Using OOB with NFC will enable pairing when devices simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy discovery process. Security Concerns Prior to Bluetooth 2.1, encryption is not required and can be turned off at any time. Moreover, the encryption key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a single encryption key longer than this time allows simple XOR attacks to retrieve the encryption key. Turning off encryption is required for several normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if encryption is disabled for a valid reason or for a security attack. Bluetooth 2.1 addresses this in the following ways: Encryption is required for all non SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) connections A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is used for all normal operations requiring encryption to be disabled. This enables easy identification of normal operation from security attacks. The encryption key is required to be refreshed before it expires. Link keys may be stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooh chip manufacturers allow link keys to be stored on the device; however, if the device is removable this means that the link key will move with the device. Air interface The protocol operates in the license-free ISM band at 2.4-2.4835 GHz. To avoid interfering with other protocols that use the 2.45 GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz wide) and changes channels up to 1600 times per second. Implementations with versions 1.1 and 1.2 reach speeds of 723.1 kbit/s. Version 2.0 implementations feature Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) and reach 2.1 Mbit/s. Technically, version 2.0 devices have a higher power consumption, but the three times faster rate reduces the transmission times, effectively reducing power consumption to half that of 1.x devices (assuming equal traffic load). Security Overview Bluetooth implements confidentiality, authentication and key derivation with custom algorithms based on the SAFER+ block cipher. In Bluetooth, key generation is generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be entered into both devices. This procedure might be modified if one of the devices has a fixed PIN, e.g. for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user interface. During pairing, an initialization key or master key is generated, using the E22 algorithm. The E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting confidentiality and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into one or both devices. An overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits has been published by Andreas Becker. In September 2008, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth Security that will serve as reference to organization on the security capabilities of Bluetooth and steps for securing Bluetooth technologies effectively. While Bluetooth has its benefits, it is susceptible to denial of service attacks, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modification, and resource misappropriation. Users/organizations must evaluate their acceptable level of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of Bluetooth devices. To help mitigate risks, included in the NIST document are security checklists with guidelines and recommendations for creating and maintaining secure Bluetooth piconets, headsets, and smart card readers. Bluejacking Bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message from one user to an unsuspecting user through Bluetooth wireless technology. Common applications are short messages (e.g., "You’ve just been bluejacked!"), advertisements (e.g., "Eat at Joe’s"), and business information. Bluejacking does not involve the removal or alteration of any data from the device. History of security concerns 2001 In 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from Bell Laboratories discovered flaws in the pairing protocol of Bluetooth, and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption scheme. 2003 In November 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data. It should be noted, however, that the reported security problems concerned some poor implementations of Bluetooth, rather than the protocol itself. In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was able to do a field-trial at the CeBIT fairgrounds, showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called BlueBug was used for this experiment. This is one of a number of concerns that have been raised over the security of Bluetooth communications. 2004 In 2004 the first purported virus using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the Symbian OS. The virus was first described by Kaspersky Lab and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. The virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as "29A" and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth or Symbian OS since the virus has never spread in the wild. In August 2004, a world-record-setting experiment (see also Bluetooth sniping) showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to 1.78 km (1.08 mile) with directional antennas and signal amplifiers. This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth-devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on. 2005 In January 2005, a mobile malware worm known as Lasco.A began targeting mobile phones using Symbian OS (Series 60 platform) using Bluetooth-enabled devices to replicate itself and spread to other devices. The worm is self-installing and begins once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file (velasco.sis ) from another device. Once installed, the worm begins looking for other Bluetooth-enabled devices to infect. Additionally, the worm infects other .SIS files on the device, allowing replication to another device through use of removable media (Secure Digital, Compact Flash, etc.). The worm can render the mobile device unstable. In April 2005, Cambridge University security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the PIN-based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices, confirming the attacks to be practicably fast and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method to be vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they carried out an implementation which showed that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices, such as mobile phones. In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published a paper describing both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof, if the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary. In August 2005, police in Cambridgeshire, England, issued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth-enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure that any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way. 2006 In April 2006, researchers from Secure Network and F-Secure published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm. 2007 In October 2007, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via Bluetooth on Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and Shaked. Health concerns Bluetooth uses the microwave radio frequency spectrum in the 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz range. Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is 100 mW, 2.5 mW, and 1 mW for Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 devices respectively, which puts Class 1 at roughly the same level as mobile phones, and the other two classes much lower. Accordingly, Class 2 and Class 3 Bluetooth devices are considered less of a potential hazard than mobile phones, and Class 1 may be comparable to that of mobile phones. See also Bluejacking Bluesniping Java APIs for Bluetooth Jellingspot Data Server Handsfree IEEE 802.15 List of computer standards Near Field Communication Personal Area Network Tethering Wibree - complementary standard with lower power consumption, developed by Nokia, now named ULP Bluetooth. Wireless USB ZigBee - low power lightweight wireless protocol in the ISM band. References External links Bluetooth Special Interest Group Site (includes specifications) Official Bluetooth site aimed at users Official Bluetooth gadget guide, aimed at users OMTP Bluetooth Local Connectivity Paper Bluetooth affect other 3G & IMT-2000 (aka WiMAX devices), Softpedia Report | Bluetooth |@lemmatized bluetooth:189 logo:3 open:3 wireless:20 protocol:52 exchange:7 data:46 short:5 distance:2 fix:4 mobile:27 device:152 create:6 personal:8 area:8 network:19 pan:1 originally:3 conceive:1 alternative:2 cable:7 connect:12 several:5 overcome:1 problem:4 synchronization:1 name:11 word:1 anglicized:1 version:16 old:3 norse:1 blátönn:1 danish:1 blåtand:1 tenth:1 century:1 king:1 harald:2 denmark:1 norway:1 unite:2 dissonant:1 scandinavian:1 tribe:1 single:3 kingdom:1 implication:1 communication:15 one:19 universal:1 standard:15 bind:1 rune:2 merge:1 germanic:1 hagall:1 analogous:1 modern:2 latin:1 letter:1 h:1 berkanan:1 like:1 b:1 implementation:8 use:81 radio:19 technology:17 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7,632 | Temple_of_Olympian_Zeus,_Athens | The Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens The Temple of Olympian Zeus (), also known as the Olympieion, is a colossal ruined temple in the centre of the Greek capital Athens that was dedicated to Zeus, king of the Olympian gods. Construction began in the 6th century BC during the rule of the Athenian tyrants, who envisaged building the greatest temple in the ancient world, but it was not completed until the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD some 650 years after the project had begun. During the Roman periods it was renowned as the largest temple in Greece and housed one of the largest cult statues in the ancient world. The temple's glory was shortlived, as it fell into disuse after being pillaged in a barbarian invasion in the 3rd century AD. It was probably never repaired and was reduced to ruins thereafter. In the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, the temple was extensively quarried for building materials to supply building projects elsewhere in the city. Despite this, substantial remains remain visible today and it continues to be a major tourist attraction. History Classical and Hellenistic periods Detail of the temple's Corinthian capitals View of the temple from the Acropolis Remains of the temple, with a column that collapsed in 1852 in the foreground The temple is located about 500 m (1640 feet) south-east of the Acropolis, and about 700 m (2,300 feet) south of the centre of Athens, Syntagma Square. Its foundations were laid on the site of an ancient outdoor sanctuary dedicated to Zeus. An earlier temple had stood there, constructed by the tyrant Pisistratus around 550 BC. The building was demolished after the death of Pisistratus and the construction of a colossal new Temple of Olympian Zeus was begun around 520 BC by his sons, Hippias and Hipparchos. They sought to surpass two famous contemporary temples, the Heraion of Samos and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Designed by the architects Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides and Porinus, the Temple of Olympian Zeus was intended to be built of local limestone in the Doric style on a colossal platform measuring 41 m (134.5 feet) by 108 m (353.5) feet. It was to be flanked by a double colonnade of eight columns across the front and back and twenty-one on the flanks, surrounding the cella. The work was abandoned when the tyranny was overthrown and Hippias was expelled in 510 BC. Only the platform and some elements of the columns had been completed by this point, and the temple remained in this state for 336 years. The temple was left unfinished during the years of Athenian democracy, apparently because the Greeks thought it hubristic to build on such a scale. In the treatise Politics, Aristotle cited the temple as an example of how tyrannies engaged the populace in great works for the state and left them no time, energy or means to rebel. Arisotle, Politics, Book V, chapter 11 It was not until 174 BC that the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who presented himself as the earthly embodiment of Zeus, revived the project and placed the Roman architect Decimus Cossutius in charge. The design was changed to feature three rows of eight columns across the front and back of the temple and a double row of twenty on the flanks, for a total of 104 columns. The columns would stand 17 m (55.5 feet) high and 2 m (6.5 ft) in diameter. The building material was changed to the expensive but high-quality Pentelic marble and the order was changed from Doric to Corinthian, marking the first time that this order had been used on the exterior of a major temple. However, the project ground to a halt again in 164 BC with the death of Antiochus. The temple was still only half-finished by this stage. Serious damage was inflicted on the partly-built temple by Lucius Cornelius Sulla's sack of Athens in 86 BC. While looting the city, Sulla seized some of the incomplete columns and transported them back to Rome, where they were re-used in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A half-hearted attempt was made to complete the temple during Augustus' reign as the first Roman emperor, but it was not until the accession of Hadrian in the 2nd century AD that the project was finally completed around 650 years after it had begun. In 124-125 AD, when the strongly Philhellene Hadrian visited Athens, a massive building programme was begun that included the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus. A walled marble-paved precinct was constructed around the temple, making it a central focus of the ancient city. Cossutius's design was used with few changes and the temple was formally dedicated by Hadrian in 132, who took the title of "Panhellenios" in commemoration of the occasion. Hans Rupprecht Goette, Athens, Attica and the Megarid: An Archaeological Guide, p. 100. Routledge, 2001. ISBN 041524370X The temple and the surrounding precinct were adorned with numerous statues depicting Hadrian, the gods and personifications of the Roman provinces. A colossal statue of Hadrian was raised behind the building by the people of Athens in honour of the emperor's generosity. An equally colossal chryselephantine statue of Zeus occupied the cella of the temple. The statue's form of construction was unusual, as the use of chryselephantine was by this time regarded as archaic. It has been suggested that Hadrian was deliberately imitating Phidias' famous statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, seeking to draw attention to the temple and himself by doing so. K. W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers, p. 174. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0521604184 The Temple of Olympian Zeus was badly damaged during the Herulian sack of Athens in 267. It is unlikely to have been repaired, given the extent of the damage to the rest of the city. Assuming that it was not abandoned it would certainly have been closed down in 425 by the Christian emperor Theodosius II when he prohibited the worship of the old Roman and Greek gods. Material from the (presumably now ruined) building was incorporated into a basilica constructed nearby during the 5th or 6th century AD. "Athens." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Classical Art and Architecture. Ed. John B. Hattendorf. Oxford University Press, 2007. Medieval and modern periods View of the temple Over the following centuries, the temple was systematically quarried to provide building material for the houses and churches of medieval Athens. By the end of the Byzantine period, it had been almost totally destroyed; when Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli (Cyriacus of Ancona) visited Athens in 1436 he found only 21 of the original 104 columns still standing. The fate of one of the columns is recorded by a Greek inscription on one of the surviving columns, which states that "on 27 April 1759 he pulled down the column". This refers to the Turkish governor of Athens, Tzisdarakis, who is recorded by a chronicler as having "destroyed one of Hadrian's columns with gunpowder" in order to re-use the marble to make plaster for the mosque that he was building in the Monastiraki district of the city. During the Ottoman period the temple was known to the Greeks as the Palace of Hadrian, while the Turks called it the Palace of Belkis, from a Turkish legend that the temple had been the residence of Solomon's wife. John Freely, Strolling Through Athens, pp. 209-214. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2004. ISBN 1850435952 Fifteen columns remain standing today and a sixteenth column lies on the ground where it fell during a storm in 1852. Nothing remains of the cella or the great statue that it once housed. The temple was excavated in 1889-1896 by Francis Penrose of the British School in Athens (who also played a leading role in the restoration of the Parthenon), in 1922 by the German archaeologist Gabriel Welter and in the 1960s by Greek archaeologists led by Ioannes Travlos. The temple, along with the surrounding ruins of other ancient structures, is a historical precinct administered by Ephorate of Antiquites of the Greek Interior Ministry. On 21 January 2007, a group of Hellenic neopagans held a ceremony honoring Zeus on the grounds of the temple. The event was organized by Ellinais, an organization which won a court battle to obtain recognition for Ancient Greek religious practices in the fall of 2006. Zeus worshippers want to head for Acropolis, eKathemerini (English edition), April 17, 2006 Modern Pagans honor Zeus in Athens, ABC News International, January 21, 2007 Sources Janina K. Darling, Architecture of Greece, pp. 201–203. Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313321523. See also List of megalithic sites References External links Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Temple of Olympian Zeus website | Temple_of_Olympian_Zeus,_Athens |@lemmatized temple:40 olympian:8 zeus:14 athens:15 also:3 know:2 olympieion:1 colossal:5 ruin:4 centre:2 greek:8 capital:2 dedicate:3 king:2 god:3 construction:3 begin:5 century:7 bc:7 rule:1 athenian:2 tyrant:2 envisage:1 build:6 great:3 ancient:8 world:3 complete:4 reign:2 roman:8 emperor:4 hadrian:9 ad:5 year:4 project:5 period:5 renowned:1 large:2 greece:3 house:3 one:6 cult:1 statue:7 glory:1 shortlived:1 fell:2 disuse:1 pillage:1 barbarian:1 invasion:1 probably:1 never:1 repair:2 reduce:1 thereafter:1 fall:2 empire:1 extensively:1 quarry:2 building:7 material:4 supply:1 elsewhere:1 city:5 despite:1 substantial:1 remains:1 remain:5 visible:1 today:2 continue:1 major:2 tourist:1 attraction:1 history:1 classical:2 hellenistic:1 detail:1 corinthian:2 view:2 acropolis:3 column:14 collapse:1 foreground:1 locate:1 foot:5 south:2 east:1 syntagma:1 square:1 foundation:1 lay:1 site:2 outdoor:1 sanctuary:1 early:1 stand:4 construct:3 pisistratus:2 around:4 demolish:1 death:2 new:1 son:1 hippias:2 hipparchos:1 seek:2 surpass:1 two:1 famous:2 contemporary:1 heraion:1 samos:1 artemis:1 ephesus:1 seven:1 wonder:1 design:3 architect:2 antistates:1 callaeschrus:1 antimachides:1 porinus:1 intend:1 local:1 limestone:1 doric:2 style:1 platform:2 measure:1 flank:3 double:2 colonnade:1 eight:2 across:2 front:2 back:3 twenty:2 surround:3 cella:3 work:2 abandon:2 tyranny:2 overthrow:1 expel:1 element:1 point:1 state:3 leave:2 unfinished:1 democracy:1 apparently:1 think:1 hubristic:1 scale:1 treatise:1 politics:2 aristotle:1 cite:1 example:1 engage:1 populace:1 time:3 energy:1 mean:1 rebel:1 arisotle:1 book:1 v:1 chapter:1 seleucid:1 antiochus:2 iv:1 epiphanes:1 present:1 earthly:1 embodiment:1 revive:1 place:1 decimus:1 cossutius:2 charge:1 change:4 feature:1 three:1 row:2 total:1 would:2 high:2 ft:1 diameter:1 expensive:1 quality:1 pentelic:1 marble:3 order:3 mark:1 first:2 use:5 exterior:1 however:1 ground:3 halt:1 still:2 half:2 finish:1 stage:1 serious:1 damage:3 inflict:1 partly:1 lucius:1 cornelius:1 sulla:2 sack:2 loot:1 seize:1 incomplete:1 transport:1 rome:1 jupiter:1 capitoline:1 hill:1 hearted:1 attempt:1 make:3 augustus:1 accession:1 finally:1 strongly:1 philhellene:1 visit:2 massive:1 programme:1 include:1 completion:1 walled:1 pave:1 precinct:3 central:1 focus:1 formally:1 take:1 title:1 panhellenios:1 commemoration:1 occasion:1 han:1 rupprecht:1 goette:1 attica:1 megarid:1 archaeological:1 guide:1 p:2 routledge:1 isbn:4 adorn:1 numerous:1 depict:1 personification:1 provinces:1 raise:1 behind:1 people:1 honour:1 generosity:1 equally:1 chryselephantine:2 occupy:1 form:1 unusual:1 regard:1 archaic:1 suggest:1 deliberately:1 imitate:1 phidias:1 athena:1 parthenos:1 parthenon:2 draw:1 attention:1 k:2 w:1 arafat:1 pausanias:1 artist:1 ruler:1 cambridge:1 university:2 press:3 badly:1 herulian:1 unlikely:1 give:1 extent:1 rest:1 assume:1 certainly:1 close:1 christian:1 theodosius:1 ii:1 prohibit:1 worship:1 old:1 presumably:1 incorporate:1 basilica:1 nearby:1 oxford:2 encyclopedia:1 art:1 architecture:2 ed:1 john:2 b:1 hattendorf:1 medieval:2 modern:2 following:1 systematically:1 provide:1 church:1 end:1 byzantine:1 almost:1 totally:1 destroyed:1 ciriaco:1 de:1 pizzicolli:1 cyriacus:1 ancona:1 find:1 original:1 fate:1 record:2 inscription:1 survive:1 april:2 pull:1 refers:1 turkish:2 governor:1 tzisdarakis:1 chronicler:1 destroy:1 gunpowder:1 plaster:1 mosque:1 monastiraki:1 district:1 ottoman:1 palace:2 turk:1 call:1 belkis:1 legend:1 residence:1 solomon:1 wife:1 freely:1 stroll:1 pp:2 tauris:1 parke:1 paperback:1 fifteen:1 sixteenth:1 lie:1 storm:1 nothing:1 excavate:1 francis:1 penrose:1 british:1 school:1 play:1 leading:1 role:1 restoration:1 german:1 archaeologist:2 gabriel:1 welter:1 lead:1 ioannes:1 travlos:1 along:1 structure:1 historical:1 administer:1 ephorate:1 antiquites:1 interior:1 ministry:2 january:2 group:1 hellenic:2 neopagans:1 hold:1 ceremony:1 honor:2 event:1 organize:1 ellinais:1 organization:1 win:1 court:1 battle:1 obtain:1 recognition:1 religious:1 practice:1 worshipper:1 want:1 head:1 ekathemerini:1 english:1 edition:1 pagan:1 abc:1 news:1 international:1 source:1 janina:1 darling:1 greenwood:1 see:1 list:1 megalithic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 culture:1 website:1 |@bigram temple_olympian:7 olympian_zeus:7 fell_disuse:1 tourist_attraction:1 syntagma_square:1 temple_artemis:1 artemis_ephesus:1 athenian_democracy:1 antiochus_iv:1 iv_epiphanes:1 lucius_cornelius:1 cornelius_sulla:1 capitoline_hill:1 colossal_statue:1 athena_parthenos:1 badly_damage:1 emperor_theodosius:1 external_link:1 |
7,633 | Escort_carrier | Escort Carrier The escort aircraft carrier or escort carrier (popularly known as the jeep carrier or baby flattop), was a small aircraft carrier used by the British Royal Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy in World War II. They were typically half the length and one-third the displacement of the larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, less well armed and armored, and carried fewer planes, they were less expensive and built in much larger numbers. In the Atlantic, the escort carriers were employed to deal with the U-boat crisis of the Battle of the Atlantic, while in the Pacific they provided air support to ground forces during amphibious operations, served as backup aircraft transports for fleet carriers, and transported aircraft of all military services to points of delivery. In the Pacific, while they were too slow to keep up with fast carriers, they were tasked in the Battle of Leyte Gulf with bombing ground forces and sinking submarines. In the Battle off Samar, the Japanese Center Force stumbled across the small and completely unprepared task force known as "Taffy 3". The action would help seal the fate of the Yamato, the largest battleship ever built when matched against the cheapest carriers and a handful of screening tin-can destroyers. Rather than "shooting fish in a barrel", the powerful fleet was bloodied and turned back by the furious defence put up by the "Taffy" task forces and its Wildcat and Avenger planes. Of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the United States during WWII, 122 were escort carriers. Though no examples survive to this day, the Casablanca class holds the distinction of being the most numerous single class of aircraft carrier ever built, with 50 having been launched. The Bogue class escort carrier comes in a close second, with 45 launched. Development Aircraft carrier construction between the world wars had been insufficient to meet operational needs for aircraft carriers as the second world war expanded from Europe. Too few fleet carriers were available to simultaneously transport aircraft to distant bases, support amphibious invasions, offer carrier landing training for replacement pilots, conduct anti-submarine patrols, and provide defensive air cover for deployed battleships and cruisers. The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers' unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto and the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Conversion of existing ships (and hulls under construction for other purposes) provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available. Conversions of cruisers, passenger liners, and fleet oilers with speed similar to fleet carriers were identified by the United States as light aircraft carriers (hull classification symbol CVL) able to operate at battle fleet speeds. Slower conversions were considered naval auxiliaries suitable for pilot training and transport of aircraft to distant bases. The Royal Navy had recognized a need for trade defense carriers in the 1930s. Hague 2000 p.83 No construction was undertaken until was converted from the captured German merchant ship MV Hannover and commissioned in July 1941. In 1940, Admiral William Halsey recommended construction of naval auxiliaries for pilot training. Friedman 1983 p.162 On 1 February 1941, the United States Chief of Naval Operations gave priority to construction of naval auxiliaries for aircraft transport. Friedman 1983 p.165 United States ships built to meet these needs were initially referred to as auxiliary aircraft escort vessels (AVG) in February 1942 and then auxiliary aircraft carrier (ACV) on 5 August 1942. Evans, Robert L. "Cinderella Carriers" United States Naval Institute Proceedings August 1976 pp.53-60 The first United States example of the type was . Operation Torch and North Atlantic anti-submarine warfare proved these ships capable aircraft carriers for ship formations moving at the speed of trade or amphibious invasion convoys. United States classification revision to escort aircraft carrier (CVE) on 15 July 1943 reflected upgraded status from auxiliary to combatant. Friedman 1983 pp.159-160 They were informally known as "Jeep carriers" or "baby flattops." It was quickly found that the escort carriers had better performance than light carriers, which tended to pitch badly in moderate to high seas. The Commencement Bay class was designed to incorporate the best features of American CVLs on a more stable hull with a less expensive propulsion system. Friedman 1983 p.159 CVE was sarcastically said to stand for "Combustible, Vulnerable, and Expendable". Magazine protection was minimal in comparison to fleet aircraft carriers. Friedman 1983 p.176 HMS Avenger was sunk within minutes by a single torpedo, and exploded from undetermined causes with very heavy loss of life. Three escort carriers — , Ommaney Bay (CVE-79) and Bismarck Sea (CVE-95) — were destroyed by kamikazes, the largest ships to meet such a fate. Allied escort carriers were typically around 500 ft (150 m) long, not much more than half the length of the almost 900 ft (300 m) fleet carriers of the same era, but actually less than one-third of the weight. A typical escort carrier displaced about 8,000 tons, as compared to almost 30,000 tons for a full-size fleet carrier. The aircraft hangar typically ran only a third of the way under the flight deck and housed a combination of 24 to 30 fighters and bombers organized into one single 'composite squadron'. (A late Essex class fleet carrier could carry a total of 103 aircraft organized into separate fighter, bomber and torpedo-bomber squadrons) The island on these ships was small and cramped, and located well forward of the funnels (unlike on a normal-sized carrier where the funnels were integrated into the island). Although the first escort carriers had only one aircraft elevator, two elevators, one fore and one aft, quickly became standard, so did the one aircraft catapult. The carriers employed the same system of arresting cables and tailhooks as on the big carriers, and procedures for launch and recovery were the same as well. The crew size was less than a third of that of a large carrier, but this was still a bigger complement than most naval vessels. It was large enough to justify the existence of facilities such as a permanent canteen or snack bar, called a gedunk bar, in addition to the mess. The bar was open for longer hours than the mess and sold several flavors of ice cream, along with cigarettes and other consumables. There were also several vending machines, which made a "gedunk" sound when operated. In all, 130 Allied escort carriers were launched or converted during the war. Of these, six were British conversions of merchant ships: , Nairana (D05), Campania (D48), Activity (D94), Pretoria Castle F61) and Vindex (D15). The remaining escort carriers were US-built. Like the British, the first US escort carriers were converted merchant vessels (or in the Sangamon class, converted military oilers). The Bogue class carriers were based on the hull of the Type C3 cargo ship. The last 69 escort carriers of the Casablanca and Commencement Bay classes were purpose-designed and purpose-built carriers drawing on the experience gained with the previous classes. Royal Navy Originally developed at the behest of the United Kingdom to operate as part of a North Atlantic convoy escort rather than as part of a naval strike force, many of the escort carriers produced were assigned to the Royal Navy for the duration of the war under the Lend-lease act. They supplemented and then replaced the converted merchant aircraft carriers which were put into service by the British and Dutch as an emergency measure until the escort carriers became available. As convoy escorts, they were used by the Royal Navy to provide air scouting, to ward off enemy long-range scouting aircraft and, increasingly, to spot and hunt submarines. Often additional escort carriers also joined convoys, not as fighting ships but as transporters, ferrying aircraft from the US to Britain. In this case the aircraft cargo could be doubled by storing aircraft on the flight deck as well as in the hangar. The ships sent to the Royal Navy were slightly modified, partly to suit the traditions of that service. Among other things the ice cream making machines were removed, since they were considered unnecessary luxuries on ships, which served grog and other alcoholic beverages. The heavy duty washing machines of the laundry room were also removed since "all a British sailor needs to keep clean is a bucket and a bar of soap" (quoted from Warrilow). Other modifications were due to the need for a completely enclosed hangar when operating in the North Atlantic and in support of the Arctic convoys. US Navy Service Meanwhile the US discovered their own use for the escort carriers. In the North Atlantic, they supplemented the escorting destroyers by providing air support for their anti-submarine warfare. One of these escort carriers, the , was instrumental in the capture of the German submarine (U-boat) U-505 off North Africa in 1944. The Guadalcanal and her task force were commanded by Captain (later Admiral) Daniel V. Gallery. In 1955 the U-505 was moved to Chicago, restored, and made a permanent exhibit at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry. In the Pacific theatre, escort carriers often escorted the landing ships and troop carriers during the island-hopping campaign. In this role they provided air cover for the troopships and flew the first wave of attacks on beach fortifications in amphibious landing operations. On occasion they even escorted the large carriers, serving as emergency airstrips and providing fighter cover for their larger sisters while these were busy readying or refueling their own planes. They also transported aircraft and spare parts from the US to remote island airstrips. After the war, the Guadalcanal was scrapped whereas it should be in the museum alongside the U-505. Battle off Samar USS Gambier Bay, burning from earlier gunfire damage, is bracketed by a salvo from a Japanese cruiser (faintly visible in the background, center-right) shortly before sinking during the Battle off Samar. Perhaps the finest moment for these escort carriers was the relatively little known Battle of Leyte Gulf's Battle off Samar, where aircraft of three escort carrier groups (many unarmed or armed only for harassment), along with their hopelessly outmatched escorting destroyers not only fended off but turned back the battleship Yamato and the Japanese Combined Fleet, allowing General Douglas MacArthur's Army to complete the liberation of Leyte. In this battle, the slow ships could not hope to outrun 30-knot cruisers, nevertheless they launched their aircraft, and maneuvered out of the way of shellfire for over an hour. They then endured dozens of hits, mostly from ineffective armor-piercing shots, with the the only US carrier lost to surface fire in the war. The carriers carried only a single 5-inch anti-aircraft gun as a stinger, but to land accurate hits, pursuing cruisers had close to within range where one of the guns finished off the burning Japanese cruiser Chokai with a lucky hit on the Achilles' heel torpedo mount. Several kamikaze aircraft were shot down by carrier gunners, with only the St Lo lost to air attack. In the costly victory, the small task force had suffered a number of ships and men lost comparable to the Battle of Coral Sea and Battle of Midway combined. USN escort carrier Division Commanders in World War II Rear Admiral Gerald R. Henderson Vice Admiral Ralph A. Ofstie Rear Admiral William Sample Vice Admiral Clifton A. F. Sprague Vice Admiral Thomas L. Sprague Admiral Felix B. Stump Escort carrier tactics when escorting convoys There are three basic tactics for operating an escort carrier in defence of a convoy: Within the convoy, which gives it the protection of the convoy's escort but limits the space to turn into the wind to operate aircraft. Near the convoy, which gives the carrier freedom of manoeuvre, but puts it outside the screen provided by the convoy's escort, making it necessary for the carrier to have its own separate escort. The carrier is also likely to be spotted by enemy forces approaching the convoy, making it vulnerable to attack. Some distance away from the convoy. This increases the time required for aircraft to reach the convoy but reduces the risk of being spotted by forces attacking the convoy. HMS Audacity was sunk while operating in the second position which was later banned by the Admiralty as too risky. The ships Many escort carriers were Lend-Leased to the United Kingdom, this list specifies the breakdown in service to each navy. Long Island class - 2 ships, 1 in USN service () and 1 in British service (). Charger class - 4 ships, 1 mainly in USN service (), 3 in British service as Avenger class. Sangamon class - 4 ships, all in USN service. Bogue class - 45 ships, 11 in USN service, 34 in British service as Attacker class (first batch) and Ameer class (second batch). Casablanca class - 50 ships, all in USN service. Commencement Bay class - 19 ships, all in USN service, including two which were accepted but not commissioned and laid up for many years after the war. 4 more units were canceled and scrapped on the building slips. The Commencement Bay class ships were seen as the finest escort carriers ever built Friedman 1983 p.199 , and several units continued in service after the war as training carriers, aircraft ferries and other auxiliary uses. In addition, 6 escort carriers were produced by the British during the war {all converted from other vessels}. The table below lists escort carriers and similar ships performing the same missions. The first four were built as early fleet aircraft carriers. Merchant aircraft carriers (MAC) carried trade cargo in addition to operating aircraft. Aircraft transports carried larger numbers of planes by eliminating accommodation for operating personnel and storage of fuel and ammunition. NameDateNationDisplacementSpeedAircraftNotes1918Britain14,000 tons (net)20 knots18converted liner1922United States11,500 tons15 knots30converted collierHōshō1923Japan7,500 tons (standard)25 knots12early fleet carrier1924UK10,850 tons (standard)25 knots12early fleet carrier, 1940UK~10,000 tons17 knots40aircraft transports1941UK5,500 tons15 knots6merchant conversion, 1941United States and UK9000 tons17 knots15-21merchant conversions, , , 1941United States and UK8,200 tons17 knots15-21merchant conversionsTaiyō, Unyō, Chūyō1941Japan17,830 tons (standard)21 knots27converted liners, , 1941United States8,100 tons 17 knotsmerchant conversion aircraft ferries1942UK11,800 tons (standard)18 knots10-15merchant conversionBogue class1942United States and UK9,800 tons18 knots15-2145 conversions of C-3 merchant hulls, , , 1942United States11,400 tons (standard)18 knots31converted oilers1943UK12,400 tons (standard)18 knots18merchant conversion1943UK13,400 tons (standard)16 knots15-20merchant conversion1943UK14,000 tons (standard)16 knots15-20merchant conversionAcavus, Adula, Alexia, Amastra, Ancylus, Gadila, Macoma, Miralda, Rapana1943UK12,000 tons12 knots3tankers converted to Merchant aircraft carriersCasablanca class1943United States7,800 tons19 knots2850 built as escort aircraft carriersKaiyō1943Japan13,600 tons (standard)23 knots24converted liner1943UK17400 tons (standard)18 knots21merchant conversionEmpire MacAlpine, Empire MacAndrew, Empire MacRae, Empire MacKendrick, Empire MacCallum, Empire MacDermott1943Britain8,000 tons (gross)12 knots4grain carrying Merchant aircraft carriersEmpire MacCabe, Empire MacKay, Empire MacMahon, Empire MacColl1943UK9,000 tons (gross)11 knots3tanker Merchant aircraft carriersCommencement Bay class1944United States10900 tons19 knots3419 built as escort aircraft carriersShinyō1944Japan17500 tons22 knots33converted liner Relative carrier sizes in World War II +Relative carrier sizes Bogue class Escort carrier Independence class light carrier Brown 1977 p.63 Essex class fleet carrier Brown 1977 p.61 Illustrious class carrierLength: 151 m 190 m 266 m 205 mBeam: 21 m 22 m 28 m 29 mDisplacement: 9,800 t 11,000 t 27,100 t 23,000 t Armament 1x 127 mm, light AA light AA 8x 127 mm, light AA 16x 114 mmArmor None 50-125 mm 150-200 mm 75 mm deckAircraft: 24 33 90 72Speed: 17 knots (32 km/h) 31 knots (58 km/h) 33 knots (61 km/h) 30 knotsCrew: 850 1,569 3,448 817 + 390 Post World War II The years following World War II brought many revolutionary new technologies to the navy, most notably the helicopter and the jet fighter, and with this a complete rethinking of its strategies and ships' tasks. Although several of the latest Commencement Bay-class CVE were deployed as floating airfields during the Korean war, the main reasons for the development of the escort carrier had disappeared or could be dealt with better by newer weapons. The emergence of the helicopter meant that helicopter-deck equipped frigates could now take over the CVE's role in a convoy while also performing their own traditional role as submarine hunters. Ship-mounted guided missile launchers took over much of the aircraft protection role, and in-flight refueling abolished the need for floating stopover points for transport or patrol aircraft. As a result, after the Commencement Bay class, no new escort carriers were designed, and with every downsizing of the navy, the CVEs were the first to be mothballed. Several escort carriers were pressed back into service during the first years of the Vietnam War because of their ability to carry large numbers of aircraft. Redesignated AKV (air transport auxiliary), they were manned by a civilian crew and used to ferry whole aircraft and spare parts from the United States to Army, Air Force and Marine bases in South Vietnam. However, CVEs were only useful in this role for a limited period. Once all major aircraft were equipped with refueling probes, instead of shipping a plane overseas to its pilot, it became much easier to fly the aircraft directly to its base. The last chapter in the saga of the escort carriers consisted out of two conversions: As an experiment, the was converted from an aircraft carrier into a pure helicopter carrier (CVHA-1) and used by the Marine Corps to carry assault helicopters for the first wave of amphibious warfare operations. Later, the Thetis Bay became a full amphibious assault ship (LHP-6). Although in service only from 1955 (the year of her conversion) to 1964, the experience gained in her training exercises greatly influenced the design of today's amphibious assault ships. In the second conversion, in 1961, the had all her aircraft handling equipment removed and four tall radio antennas installed on her long, flat deck. In lieu of aircraft, the hangar deck now had no less than 24 military radio transmitter trucks bolted to its floor. Rechristened USS Annapolis (AGMR-1), the ship was used as a communication relay ship and served dutifully through the Vietnam War as a floating radio station, relaying transmissions between the forces on the ground and the command centers back home. Like the Thetis Bay, the experience gained before she was stricken in 1976 helped develop today's purpose-built amphibious command ships of the Blue Ridge class. Unlike almost all other major classes of ships and patrol boats from World War II, most of which can be found in a museum or port, no escort carrier or light carrier has survived: all were destroyed during the war or broken up in the following decades. The last escort carrier, USS Gilbert Islands, was broken up for scrap starting in 1976. The last light carrier (the escort carrier's faster sister type) was the , which was broken up in 2002 after a decade-long attempt to preserve the vessel. See also CAM ship Merchant aircraft carrier For complete lists see: list of escort aircraft carriers of the United States Navy list of escort aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy List of ships of the Japanese Navy Notes References Galuppini, Gino. Le guide des porte-avions. Paris: Fernand Nathan, 1981 Poolman, Kenneth. Escort carrier 1941-1945: An account of British Escort Carriers in Trade Protection. London: Ian Allan, 1972 Warrilow, Betty. Nabob, the first Canadian-manned aircraft carrier. Owen Sound, Ont. : Escort Carriers Association, 1989. Gallery, Daniel V. 20 Million Tons Under The Sea. Ballantine, 1965. Al Adcock. Escort Carriers in action. Squadron/Signal publications. 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7,634 | Ayahuasca | This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew; for information on the vine of the same name, see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca (ayawaska in the Quechua language) is any of various psychoactive infusions or decoctions prepared from the Banisteriopsis spp. vine, usually mixed with the leaves of DMT-containing species of shrubs from the Psychotria genus. It was first described academically in the early 1950s by the late Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes who found it employed for divinatory and healing purposes by Amerindians of Amazonian Colombia. Preparation Ayahuasca being prepared in the Napo region of Ecuador. Freshly harvested caapi vine ready for preparation Sections of B. caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis (chakruna in Quechua) or Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga). The resulting brew contains the powerful hallucinogenic alkaloid N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and MAO inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active. Though B. caapi is a central ingredient in traditional ayahuasca brews, harmala-containing plants from other plant-medicine cultures, such as Syrian Rue, can be used instead of the vine to make an ayahuasca analogue, yet it isn't considered ayahuasca, as Caapi vine is considered the main plant in the brew. Banisteriopsis caapi preparation Beaten caapi ready for boiling Caapi cooking over an open fire Brews can also be made with no DMT-containing plants; Psychotria viridis being substituted by plants such as Justicia pectoralis, Brugmansia, or sacred tobacco, also known as Mapacho (Nicotiana rustica), or sometimes left out with no replacement. The potency of this brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in strength and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids. Callaway JC (2005). Various alkaloid profiles in decoctions of Banisteriopsis caapi. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 37(2): 151–155 Callaway JC, Brito GS & Neves ES (2005). Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 37(2): 145–150. Individual polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450-2D6 enzyme affect the ability of individuals to metabolize harmine. Callaway JC (2005). Fast and slow metabolizers of hoasca. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 37(2): 157–161. Some natural tolerance to habitual use of ayahuasca (roughly once weekly) may develop through upregulation of the serotonergic system. Callaway JC, Airaksinen MM, McKenna DJ, Brito GS & Grob CS (1994). Platelet serotonin uptake sites increased in drinkers of ayahuasca. Psychopharmacology 116(3): 385–387. A phase 1 pharmacokinetic study on Ayahuasca (as Hoasca) with 15 volunteers was conducted in 1993, during the Hoasca Project. Callaway JC, McKenna DJ, Grob CS, Brito GS, Raymon LP, Poland RE, Andrade EN, Andrade EO (1999). Pharmacology of hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65(3): 243–256. A review of the Hoasca Project has been published. McKenna DJ, Callaway JC, Grob CS (1998). The scientific investigation of ayahuasca: A review of past and current research. The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research 1: 65–77. Names "cipó" (generic vine, liana), "caapi", "hoasca" or "daime" in Brazil "yagé" or "yajé" (both ) in Colombia; popularized in English by the beat generation writers William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg in The Yage Letters. The name yajé is also mentioned in the X-files episode "Teso Dos Bichos". "ayahuasca" or "ayawaska" ("Spirit vine" or "vine of the souls": in Quechua, aya means "vine" while huasca or waska means "spirit") in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru, and to a lesser extent in Brazil. The spelling ayahuasca is the hispanicized version of the name; many Quechua or Aymara speakers would prefer the spelling ayawaska. The name is properly that of the plant B. caapi, one of the primary sources of beta-carbolines for the brew. "natem" amongst the indigenous Shuar people of Peru. "Grandmother" Chemistry Harmine compounds are of beta-carboline origin. The three most studied beta-carboline compounds found in the B. caapi vine are harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are selective and reversible inhibitors of MAO-A, while tetrahydroharmine is a weak serotonin uptake inhibitor. This inhibition of MAO-A allows DMT to diffuse unmetabolized past the membranes in the stomach and small intestine and eventually get through the blood-brain barrier to activate receptor sites in the brain. Without the MAOI of MAO-A, DMT would be metabolized in the digestive tract and would not have an effect when taken orally. Usage Urarina shaman, 1988 Ayahuasca is used largely as a religious sacrament. Those whose usage of ayahuasca is performed in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism, as practiced among indigenous peoples like the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia. The religion Santo Daime uses it. While non-native users know of the spiritual applications of ayahuasca, a less well-known traditional usage focuses on the medicinal properties of ayahuasca. Its purgative properties are highly important (many refer to it as la purga, "the purge"). The intense vomiting and occasional diarrhea it induces can clear the body of worms and other tropical parasites, Andritzky, W. (1989). Sociopsychotherapeutic functions of ayahuasca healing in Amazonia. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 21(1), 77-89. and harmala alkaloids themselves have been shown to be anthelmintic Hassan, I. 1967. Some folk uses of Peganum harmala in India and Pakistan. Economic Botany 21: 384. Thus, this action is twofold; a direct action on the parasites by these harmala alkaloids (particularly harmine in ayahuasca) works to kill the parasites, and parasites are expelled through the increased intestinal motility that is caused by these alkaloids. Dietary taboos are almost always associated with the use of Ayahuasca. In the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self - abstaining from spicy and heavily-seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or both before and after a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis. However, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Psychonautic experiments and the absence of dietary restrictions in the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal also suggest that the risk is much lower than conceived, and probably non-existent. Ott, J. Jonathan Ott. Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangaean Entheogens. Kennewick, WA: Natural Books, 1994. The name 'ayahuasca' specifically refers to a botanical decoctions that contains Banisteriopsis caapi. A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. Thus, ayahuasqueros and most others working with the brew maintain that the B. caapi vine is the defining ingredient, and that this beverage is not ayahuasca unless B. caapi is in the brew. The vine is considered to be the "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper and guide to the otherworldly realms. In some areas, it is even said that the chakruna or chaliponga admixtures are added only to make the brew taste sweeter. This is a strong indicator of the often wildly divergent intentions and cultural differences between the native ayahuasca-using cultures and psychedelics enthusiasts in other countries. In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogues are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant are often used as a substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chakruna. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia. Ayahuasca cooking in the Napo region of Ecuador. In modern Western culture, entheogen users sometimes base concoctions on Ayahuasca. When doing so, most often Rue or B. caapi is used with an alternative form of the DMT molecule, such as psilocin, or a non-DMT based hallucinogen such as mescaline. Nicknames such as Psilohuasca, Mush-rue-asca, or 'Shroom-a-huasca, for mushroom based mixtures, or Pedrohuasca (from the San Pedro Cactus, which contains mescaline) are often given to such brews. Such nicknames are considered by many to be inappropriate and culturally insensitive. Further, the psychedelic experimentalist trappings of such concoctions bear little resemblance to the medicinal use of Ayahuasca in its original cultural context, where ayahuasca is usually ingested only by experienced entheogen users who are more familiar with the chemicals and plants being used, as the uninformed combination of various neurochemicals can be dangerous. It seems unlikely that Ayahuasca could ever emerge as a "street-drug", given the difficulty of making the brew and the intense experience it provides. Most Western users employ it almost exclusively for spiritual purposes, in line with both traditional, animist usage and organized churches such as the União do Vegetal (or UDV). With the exception of UDV, a diet is almost always followed before use, including a day of fasting. In traditional settings, the "dieta" is followed to spiritually cleanse the body before and after the experience. Introduction to the West Ayahuasca is mentioned in the writings of some of the earliest missionaries to South America, but it only became commonly known in the West much later. The early missionary reports generally claim it as demonic, and great efforts were made by the Roman Catholic Church to stamp it out. When originally researched in the 20th century, the active chemical constituent of B. caapi was called telepathine, but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and was given the name harmaline. The original botanical description done was the Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes. Having read Schultes's paper, Beat writer William Burroughs sought yagé (still referred to as "telepathine") in the early 1950s while traveling through South America in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon as the Invisible Landscape. Dennis later studied the pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis. In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal (or UDV), usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic or, more often (as with Santo Daime and the UDV), integrated with Christianity. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world. Similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use. PaDeva, an American Wiccan group, has become the first incorporated legal church which holds the use of ayahuasca central to their beliefs. Some Westerners have teamed up with shamans in the Amazon rainforest regions, forming Ayahuasca healing retreats that claim to be able to cure mental and physical illness and allow communication with the spirit world. Anecdotal reports and scientific studies affirm that ritualized use of ayahuasca may improve mental and physical health, See research by Doctor John Halpern in New Scientist but it is thought to be a potential risk for a psychotic outbreaks in susceptible individuals, although no supporting scientific research data is available. Several notable celebrities have publicly discussed their use of ayahuasca, including Sting (detailed in his 2003 memoir Broken Music), Tori Amos, and Paul Simon (who wrote the song "Spirit Voices" about his experience with the brew in the Amazon). In the Travel channel series, Mark & Olly:Machigenga, the 2nd episode features the two title characters taking the powerful hallucinogen. Recent years have seen notable media attention to the position of the UDV church in the United States. After having their importation and use of Hoasca tea challenged by the U.S. Department of Justice, and then having the issue settled in their favor by the U.S. Supreme Court, the church gained some notoriety. This mirrors in some ways the experiences of UDV and Santo Daime churches in Europe, where legal authorities have taken interest in their activities in France, Germany, Holland and Spain. Holland was an early Western context for the spread of ayahuasca use. Supporting a large Brazilian population, Santo Daime members in particular made efforts to spread the philosophy of ritualized ayahuasca use. In the mid-to-late 1990s one group, the Amsterdam-based Friends of the Forest, was formed by Santo Daime members to introduce ayahuasca to Europeans and others with "allergies to Christianity." They did this by introducing "New Age" rituals incorporating basic ritual structure, celebrating with songs in the Daime tradition (Portuguese waltzes), English language songs, ambient music and mantras and kirtan. They existed at least until the Dutch authorities raided a Santo Daime ritual in progress, and other ayahuasca-oriented groups sensed that an obvious public profile was not in their best interest. Amsterdam is also among the few cities in Europe where one can find, in addition to cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms and peyote, ayahuasca vine, chacruna leaves, and plants for ayahuasca analogues in the tradition of Jonathan Ott's so-called "ayahuasca borealis." "Ayahuasca tourism" "Ayahuasca tourist" refers to a tourist wanting a taste of an exotic ritual or who partakes in modified services geared specifically towards non-indigenous persons. Some seek to clear emotional blocks and gain a sense of peace. Other participants include explorers of consciousness, writers, medical doctors, journalists, anthropologists and ethnobotanists. Ayahuasca tourism is greatest in Peru, and attracts visitors from all over the world, especially from Europe, USA and Australia, but also from other Latin American countries like Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Mexico. Initiation Usually a visitor who wishes to become a "dietero" or "dietera", that is, a male or female apprentice-shaman learning the way of the teacher plants, undergoes a rigorous initiation. This can involve spending up to a year or more in the jungle. This initiation challenges and trains the initiate through extreme circumstances involving a special diet and numerous different plant medicines to complement the Ayahuasca, the lack of western food and conveniences, the harsh environmental conditions of heavy rains, storms, intense heat, insects, and poisonous animals. The initiate is also tested for their unwavering commitment to Ayahuasca and the shaman who oversees the training. Modern descriptions Wade Davis (author of The Serpent and The Rainbow [non-fiction] There is a 1988 American horror film, directed by Wes Craven and starring Bill Pullman. The film is very loosely based on a non-fiction book by ethnobotanist Wade Davis. Statement by Mr. Davis: ''Davis has frequently voiced his displeasure with the final film. "When I wrote my first book, 'The Serpent and the Rainbow', it was made into one of the worst Hollywood movies in history. I tried to escape the hysteria and the media by going to Borneo." http://www.ed.psu.edu/icik/2004Proceedings/section7-davis.pdf ) describes the traditional mixture as tough in his book One River: "The smell and acrid taste was that of the entire jungle ground up and mixed with bile." [p.194] Writer Kira Salak describes her personal experiences with ayahuasca in the March 2006 issue of National Geographic Adventure magazine The article includes a candid description of how ayahuasca cured her depression, as well as provides detailed information about the brew. Here is an excerpt from the article about Dr. Charles Grob's landmark findings Grob CS, McKenna DJ, Callaway JC, Brito GS, Neves ES, Oberlander G, Saide OL, Labigalini E, Tacla C, Miranda CT, Strassman RJ, Boone KB (1996). Human psychopharmacology of Hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brasil. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 184(2):86-94. : The taking of ayahuasca has been associated with a long list of documented cures: the disappearance of everything from metastasized colorectal cancer to cocaine addiction, even after just a ceremony or two. It has been medically proven to be nonaddictive and safe to ingest. Yet Western scientists have all but ignored it for decades, reluctant to risk their careers by researching a substance containing the outlawed DMT. Only in the past decade, and then only by a handful of researchers, has ayahuasca begun to be studied. At the vanguard of this research is Charles Grob, M.D., a professor of psychiatry and pediatrics at UCLA’s School of Medicine. In 1993 Dr. Grob directed the Hoasca Project, the first in-depth study of the physical and psychological effects of ayahuasca on humans. He and his team went to Brazil, where the plant mixture can be taken legally, to study members of a church, the União do Vegetal (UDV), who use ayahuasca as a sacrament, and compared them to a control group that had never ingested the substance. The studies found that all the ayahuasca-using UDV members had experienced remission without recurrence of their addictions, depression, or anxiety disorders. Unlike most common anti-depressants, which Grob says can create such high levels of serotonin that cells may actually compensate by losing many of their serotonin receptors, the Hoasca Project showed that ayahuasca strongly enhances the body’s ability to absorb the serotonin that’s naturally there [4]. 'Ayahuasca is perhaps a far more sophisticated and effective way to treat depression than SSRIs [antidepressant drugs],' Grob concludes, adding that the use of SSRIs is 'a rather crude way' of doing it. And ayahuasca, he insists, has great potential as a long-term solution in maintaining abstinence. Chilean novelist Isabel Allende told The Sunday Telegraph in London that she once took the drug in an attempt to "punch through" writer's block Isabel Allende: kith and tell - Telegraph . The paper wrote: But after forcing down the foul-tasting brew, she was catapulted to a place so dark her husband feared he had 'lost his wife to the world of spirits'. Her life flashed before her as the hallucinogen took hold. She faced demons, saw herself as a terrified four-year-old and curled up on the floor, shivering, retching and muttering for two days. 'I think I went through an experience of death at a certain point, when I was no longer a body or a soul or a spirit or anything,' Allende says matter-of-factly. 'There was just a total, absolute void that you cannot even describe because you are not. And I think that's death.' Nevertheless, the process proved transformative. Allende emerged aching but lucid and was able to complete [a trilogy she was writing], now being adapted for film by the co-producers of The Chronicles of Narnia. Related phenomena There have been reports that a phenomenon similar to folie à deux had been induced most recently by anthropologists in the South American rainforest by consuming ayahuasca Ayahuasca: Human Consciousness and the Spirits of Nature, edited by Ralph Metzner, Thunder's Mouth Press, NY and by military experiments for chemical warfare in the late 60's using the incapacitating agent BZ. In both incidents there were very rare claims of shared visual hallucinations. Plant constituents Traditional Traditional Ayahuasca brews are always made with Banisteriopsis caapi as a MAOI, although DMT sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi, often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses. DMT admixtures: Psychotria viridis (Chakruna) - leaves Diplopterys cabrerana (Chaliponga, Banisteriopsis rusbyana) - leaves Psychotria carthagenensis (Amyruca) - leaves Other common admixtures: Justicia pectoralis Brugmansia (Toé) Nicotiana rustica (Mapacho, variety of tobacco) Ilex guayusa, a relative of yerba mate MAOI: Harmal (Peganum harmala, Syrian Rue) - seeds Passion flower synthetic MAOIs DMT admixture sources: Acacia maidenii (Maiden's Wattle), Acacia phlebophylla, and other Acacias, most commonly employed in Australia - bark Anadenanthera peregrina, A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa Mimosa hostilis (Jurema) - root bark - not traditionally employed with ayahuasca by any existing cultures, though likely it was in the past. Popular in Europe and North America. Legal status Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plant itself is excluded from international control: MAPS: DMT - UN report The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, mescaline, DMT and psilocin. A fax from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board to the Netherlands Ministry of Public Health sent in 2001 goes on to state that "Consequently, preparations (e.g.decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca, are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention." Erowid Ayahuasca Vault : Law : UNDCP's Ayahuasca Fax, Jan 17 2001 The legal status in the United States of DMT-containing plants is somewhat questionable. Ayahuasca plants and preparations are legal, as they contain no scheduled chemicals. However, brews made using DMT containing plants are illegal since DMT is a Schedule I drug. That said, some people are challenging this, using arguments similar to those used by peyotist religious sects, such as the Native American Church. A court case allowing União do Vegetal to use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies pursuant to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In a similar case an Ashland, Oregon based Santo Daime church sued for their right to import and consume ayahuasca tea. In March 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Panner ruled in favor of the Santo Daime, acknowledging its protection from prosecution under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. Ruling by District Court Judge Panner in Santo Daime case in Oregon Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses. More on the legal status of ayahuasca can be found in the Erowid vault on the legality of ayahuasca. In France, Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled. Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of Ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared stupéfiants, or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess. International Research The Institute of Medical Psychology at the University Hospital in Heidelberg, Germany has set up a Research Department Ayahuasca / Santo Daime 'Research Department Ayahuasca / Santo Daime' at the University Hospital in Heidelberg, Germany , which in May 2008 held a 3-day conference under the title The globalization of Ayahuasca - An Amazonian psychoactive and its users Conference schedule "The globalization of Ayahuasca" (May 2008, Heidelberg, Germany) . See also Icaros Chakapa External links Ayahuasca churches Ayahuasca Shamanic Amazon Perú - Cusco Irmandade Beneficente Natureza Divina PaDeva Church Santo Daime Soga del Alma The Temple of the Way of Light União do Vegetal Law Justices Take Issue With Ban Of Religious Tea Tea Case Could Cause Religious Liberty Tempest (backgrounder w/sources) Native Centres in the Amazon "Onanyan Shobo", Native Shipibo Centre run entirely by Indigenous People: Ayahuasca, Shamanic rituals and Traditional Plant Apprenticeship Other www.ayahuasca.com Research project devoted to ayahuasca Website for documentary film "Metamorphosis" Informational and Experiential Conferences A general introduction to Ayahuasca (botany, usage, chemistry, news etc.) M. Goldberg, E. Mosquera, R. Arawanza, and E. Rodriguez, Ethnobotany and Bioactivity of Ayahuasca General resource for ayahuasca and many other psychotropic substances (erowid.org) National Geographic Adventure article on ayahuasca Ayahuasca and other "plant teachers"—educational potential? Lila : Shamanism and Ayahuasca Library The Globalization of Ayahuasca: Harm Reduction or Benefit Maximization? International Journal of Drug Policy, vol. 19, no. 4, 2008 Ayahuasca Healing Beyond the Amazon: The Globalization of a Traditional Indigenous Entheogenic Practice Global Networks: A Journal of Transnational Affairs, vol. 9, no. 1, 2009 - site for the documentary "Metamorphosis" on Ayahuasca Shamanism. Other worlds DVD Gathered acconts on ayahuasca experience Literature Nonfiction Adelaars, Arno. Ayahuasca. Rituale, Zaubertränke und visionäre Kunst aus Amazonien, ISBN 978-3-03800-270-3 William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg Ginsberg, Allen. The Yage Letters. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1963. ISBN 0-87286-004-3 Marlene Dobkin De Rios. Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in the Peruvian Amazon, (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1984. ISBN 0-88133-093-0 Marlene Dobkin de Rios & Roger Rumrrill. A Hallucinogenic Tea, Laced with Controversy: Ayahuasca in the Amazon and the United States. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008. ISBN 97-0-313-34542-5 Graham Hancock, Supernatural: Meetings with the Ancient Teachers of Mankind. London: Century, 2005. ISBN 1844136817 Ross Heaven and Howard G. Charing. 'Plant Spirit Shamanism: Traditional Techniques for Healing the Soul'. Vermont: Destiny Books, 2006. ISBN 1-59477-118-9 Bruce F. Lamb. Rio Tigre and Beyond: The Amazon Jungle Medicine of Manuel Córdova. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1985. ISBN 0-938190-59-8 Luis Eduardo Luna. Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1986. ISBN 91-22-00819-5 Luis Eduardo Luna & Pablo Amaringo. Ayahuasca Visions: The Religious Iconography of A Peruvian Shaman. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1999. ISBN 1-55643-311-5 Luis Eduardo Luna & Stephen F. White, eds. Ayahuasca Reader: Encounters with the Amazon's Sacred Vine. Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic, 2000. ISBN 0-907791-32-8 E. Jean Matteson Langdon & Gerhard Baer, eds. Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8263-1345-0 Terence McKenna. Food of the Gods: A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution. Ralph Metzner, ed. Ayahuasca: Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature. New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1999. ISBN 1-56025-160-3 Ralph Metzner (Editor) Sacred Vine of Spirits: Ayahuasca: Park Street Press,U.S.; 2 edition (Jan 2006). ISBN-10: 1594770530, ISBN-13: 978-1594770531 Jeremy Narby. The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998. ISBN 0-87477-911-1 P. J. O'Rourke, All the Trouble in the World. New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994. ISBN 0-87113-611-2 Jonathan Ott. Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens. Kennewick, Wash.: Natural Products, 1994. ISBN 0-9614234-5-5 Jonathan Ott. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History (Paperback). Natural Products Company; 2 edition (February 1993). ISBN-10: 0961423498. ISBN-13: 978-0961423490 Ott, J. 1999. Pharmahuasca: Human pharmacology of oral DMT plus harmine, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 31(2): I7I-177. John Perkins. The World Is As You Dream It: Shamanic Teachings from the Amazon and Andes. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1994. ISBN 0-89281-459-4 Daniel Pinchbeck. Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism. New York: Broadway, 2002. ISBN 0-7679-0743-4 Alex Polari de Alverga. Forest of Visions: Ayahuasca, Amazonian Spirituality, and the Santo Daime Tradition. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1999. ISBN 0-89281-716-X Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff. The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-87722-038-7 Richard Evans Schultes & Robert F. Raffauf. Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia. Oracle, AZ: Synergetic, 1992. ISBN 0-907791-24-7 Benny Shanon. The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-925293-9 Peter G. Stafford. Heavenly Highs: Ayahuasca, Kava-Kava, Dmt, and Other Plants of the Gods. Berkeley: Ronin, 2004. ISBN 1-57951-069-8 Rick Strassman. DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2001. ISBN 0-89281-927-8 Sting. Broken Music. New York, NY: Bantam Dell, 2003. ISBN 978-0-440-24115-7 Michael Taussig. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0-226-79012-6 Joan Parisi Wilcox (2003). Ayahuasca: The Visionary and Healing Powers of the Vine of the Soul. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street. ISBN 0-89281-131-5 Jaya Bear "Amazon Magic: The Life Story of Ayahuasquero & Shaman Don Agustin Rivas Vasquez". Libros Colibri (January 2000). ISBN 0967425506. ISBN-13: 978-096742550 Fiction Bruce Balfour Prometheus Road, ISBN 0-441-01221-3 Alice Walker "Now is the Time to Open your Heart", ISBN 0-8129-7139-6 Filmography Documentaries Alistair Appleton, The Man Who Drank the Universe, 30 minutes 2005 Dean Jefferys; Shamans of the Amazon, 52 min. Australia 2001 Jan Kounen, Autres mondes Glenn Switkes, Night of the Liana, 45 min. Brazil 2002 Armand BERNARDI, L'Ayahuasca, le Serpent et Moi, 52 min. France 2003 Anna Stevens, Woven Songs of the Amazon, 54 min. 2006 Rudolf Pinto do Amaral & Harald Scherz, ["Heaven Earth"], 60 min. Peru/Austria 2008 Keith Aronowitz "METAMORPHOSIS" 95 min. / 2009 Madventures Season 3 Episode 1: Riku & Tunna venture deep into the Amazon to find themselves and drink ayahuasca with a shaman. Fiction films Jan Kounen, Blueberry l'expérience secrète, 124 minutes References | Ayahuasca |@lemmatized entry:1 focus:2 ayahuasca:109 brew:18 information:2 vine:20 name:7 see:6 banisteriopsis:8 caapi:20 ayawaska:3 quechua:4 language:2 various:4 psychoactive:9 infusion:1 decoction:4 prepare:2 spp:1 usually:4 mixed:2 leaf:3 dmt:27 contain:9 specie:2 shrub:1 psychotria:6 genus:1 first:4 describe:4 academically:1 early:6 late:3 harvard:2 ethnobotanist:3 richard:3 evans:3 schultes:4 find:7 employ:4 divinatory:1 healing:4 purpose:4 amerindian:1 amazonian:3 colombia:4 preparation:5 napo:2 region:5 ecuador:3 freshly:1 harvest:1 ready:2 section:1 b:8 macerate:1 boil:2 alone:1 number:2 plant:33 include:7 viridis:4 chakruna:4 diplopterys:2 cabrerana:2 also:11 know:8 chaliponga:3 result:1 powerful:2 hallucinogenic:3 alkaloid:13 n:2 dimethyltryptamine:1 mao:5 inhibit:1 harmala:11 necessary:1 make:12 orally:3 active:3 though:2 central:2 ingredient:5 traditional:12 medicine:5 culture:4 syrian:3 rue:5 use:36 instead:1 analogue:5 yet:2 consider:5 main:2 beat:3 cooking:3 open:3 fire:1 containing:3 substitute:2 justicia:2 pectoralis:2 brugmansia:2 sacred:3 tobacco:2 mapacho:2 nicotiana:2 rustica:2 sometimes:3 leave:4 replacement:1 potency:2 vary:3 radically:1 one:7 batch:1 next:1 strength:1 effect:4 base:8 mainly:1 skill:1 shaman:10 brewer:1 well:4 admixture:6 add:3 intent:1 ceremony:4 natural:5 variation:1 content:1 profile:4 affect:2 final:2 concentration:1 physical:4 act:4 may:7 serve:1 modify:1 callaway:7 jc:7 journal:9 drug:15 brito:4 g:8 neve:1 es:2 phytochemical:1 analysis:1 individual:3 polymorphism:1 cytochrome:1 enzyme:1 ability:2 metabolize:2 harmine:6 fast:2 slow:1 metabolizers:1 hoasca:10 tolerance:1 habitual:1 roughly:1 weekly:1 develop:2 upregulation:1 serotonergic:1 system:1 airaksinen:1 mm:1 mckenna:6 dj:4 grob:9 c:5 platelet:1 serotonin:5 uptake:2 site:3 increase:3 drinker:1 psychopharmacology:2 phase:1 pharmacokinetic:1 study:10 volunteer:1 conduct:1 project:5 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scherz:1 earth:1 austria:1 keith:1 aronowitz:1 madventures:1 riku:1 tunna:1 venture:1 deep:1 blueberry:1 expérience:1 secrète:1 reference:1 |@bigram banisteriopsis_caapi:6 caapi_vine:5 psychotria_viridis:4 n_dimethyltryptamine:1 harmala_alkaloid:5 ayahuasca_analogue:5 callaway_jc:7 psychoactive_drug:5 cytochrome_enzyme:1 william_burroughs:3 allen_ginsberg:2 ecuador_bolivia:1 bolivia_peru:1 quechua_aymara:1 reversible_inhibitor:1 digestive_tract:1 santo_daime:16 união_vegetal:7 non_existent:1 jonathan_ott:4 mimosa_hostilis:3 san_pedro:1 almost_exclusively:1 vegetal_udv:3 amazon_rainforest:1 torus_amos:1 supreme_court:2 gain_notoriety:1 psilocybin_mushroom:1 male_female:1 wes_craven:1 bill_pullman:1 http_www:1 psu_edu:1 colorectal_cancer:1 cocaine_addiction:1 depression_anxiety:1 anxiety_disorder:1 anti_depressant:1 serotonin_receptor:1 isabel_allende:2 chronicle_narnia:1 folie_à:1 à_deux:1 thunder_mouth:2 wattle_acacia:1 convention_psychotropic:2 psychotropic_substance:4 gonzales_v:1 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7,635 | Bohemian | Bohemians are the people of Bohemia, in the Czech Republic, inhabitants of the former Kingdom of Bohemia, located in the modern day Czech Republic. The ancient Kingdom of Bohemia was absorbed into the Habsburg Empire after 1527 and came under the control of Vienna. The name "Bohemia" derives from the Latin term for the Celtic tribe inhabiting that area, the Boii, who were called Boiohaemum in the early Middle Ages. The word "Bohemians" was never used by the local Czech (Slavic) population. In Czech, the region since the early Middle Ages has been called only Čechy ("Bohemia") or Království české ("Kingdom of Bohemia"), and its mainly Czech-speaking inhabitants were called Čechové (in modern Czech Češi). In other European vernaculars and in Latin (as Bohemi), the word "Bohemian" or a derivate was used to designate all inhabitants of Bohemia. If the Czech ethnic origin was to be stressed, combinations like "Bohemian of Bohemian language" (Čech českého jazyka), "a real Bohemian" (pravý Čech) etc. were used. It was not until the 19th century that other European languages began to use the word "Czechs" (in English – Tschechen in German, Tchèques in French) in a deliberate (and successful) attempt to distinguish between Bohemian Slavs and other inhabitants of Bohemia (mostly Germans). Currently, "Bohemians" is still used when there is need to distinguish between inhabitants of the western part of the Czech Republic (Bohemia), and the eastern (Moravia) or the north-eastern part (Silesia). The term "Bohemian" as related to Bohemianism – i.e. describing the untraditional lifestyles of marginalized and impoverished artists, writers, musicians, and actors in major European cities – has little or nothing to do with the above, though, often leading to confusion. In some languages, like for instance French, the name Bohemian (bohémien) is also used as a synonym for Gypsy, which explains the above-mentioned meaning of the word. | Bohemian |@lemmatized bohemian:9 people:1 bohemia:9 czech:9 republic:3 inhabitant:5 former:1 kingdom:3 locate:1 modern:2 day:1 ancient:1 absorb:1 habsburg:1 empire:1 come:1 control:1 vienna:1 name:2 derive:1 latin:2 term:2 celtic:1 tribe:1 inhabit:1 area:1 boii:1 call:3 boiohaemum:1 early:2 middle:2 age:2 word:4 never:1 use:6 local:1 slavic:1 population:1 region:1 since:1 čechy:1 království:1 české:1 mainly:1 speaking:1 čechové:1 češi:1 european:3 vernacular:1 bohemi:1 derivate:1 designate:1 ethnic:1 origin:1 stress:1 combination:1 like:2 language:3 čech:2 českého:1 jazyka:1 real:1 pravý:1 etc:1 century:1 begin:1 english:1 tschechen:1 german:1 tchèques:1 french:2 deliberate:1 successful:1 attempt:1 distinguish:2 slav:1 mostly:1 germans:1 currently:1 bohemians:1 still:1 need:1 western:1 part:2 eastern:2 moravia:1 north:1 silesia:1 relate:1 bohemianism:1 e:1 describe:1 untraditional:1 lifestyle:1 marginalized:1 impoverished:1 artist:1 writer:1 musician:1 actor:1 major:1 city:1 little:1 nothing:1 though:1 often:1 lead:1 confusion:1 instance:1 bohémien:1 also:1 synonym:1 gypsy:1 explain:1 mention:1 meaning:1 |@bigram czech_republic:3 |
7,636 | Kiosk | Kiosk in Kharkiv, Ukraine, which sells cigarettes and Coca-Cola drinks. Kiosks like this one in Patmos can be found all over Greece. Kiosks like this one were found all over Romania from 1959 till 1989 A kiosk in Istanbul, in 19th century A kiosk in Esplanadi, Helsinki, Finland, selling coffee and ice cream in summertime. In the Mediterranean Basin and the Near East, a kiosk ( kušk; košk; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; kyoshk; ; or kiosk; and or kiosco) is a small, separated garden pavilion open on some or all sides. Kiosks were common in Persia, India, Pakistan, and in the Ottoman Empire from the 13th century onward. Today, there are many kiosks in and around the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, and they are still a relatively common sight in Greece. Turkish kiosks are usually polygonal. Indian Kiosk are generally called "Gumti" and sometimes "khokha" too. The word, which is of Persian origin, refers to an object that acts as a shadow or shade-maker. The word "köşk" is currently used to refer to an old Ottoman style building, made of wood and clad with metal stones, with multiple stories, mainly used as a summer or winter recreational residence for the wealthy within the old Ottoman Imperial Palace. During the 18th century, Turkish influences in Europe established the kiosk (gazebo) as an important feature in European gardens. In English-speaking countries, a kiosk is a booth with an open window on one side. Some vendors operate from kiosks, selling small, inexpensive consumables such as newspapers, magazines, lighters, street maps, cigarettes, and confections. An information kiosk (or information booth) dispenses free information in the form of maps, pamphlets, and other literature, and/or advice offered by an attendant. An electronic kiosk (or computer kiosk or interactive kiosk) houses a computer terminal that often employs custom kiosk software designed to function flawlessly while preventing users from accessing system functions. Indeed, kiosk mode is a euphemism for such a mode of software operation. Computerized kiosks may store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer network. Some computer kiosks provide a free, informational public service, while others serve a commercial purpose. Touchscreens, trackballs, computer keyboards, and pushbuttons are all typical input devices for interactive computer kiosk. History and origins The kiosk is defined as an open summer-house or pavilion usually having its roof supported by pillars with screened or totally open walls. As a building type it was first introduced by the Seljuks as a small building attached to the main mosque, which consisted of a domed hall with open arched sides. This architectural concept gradually evolved into a small yet grand residence used by Ottoman sultans, the most famous examples of which are quite possibly the Tiled Kiosk ("Çinili Köşk" in Turkish) and Baghdad Kiosk ("Bağdat Köşkü" in Turkish). The former was built in 1473 by Mehmed II ("the Conqueror") at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, and consists of a two storey building topped with a dome and having open sides overlooking the gardens of the palace. The Baghdad Koshk was also built at the Topkapı Palace in 1638-39, by Sultan Murad IV. The building is again domed, offering direct views onto the gardens and park of the Palace as well as the architecture of the city of Istanbul. Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730) also built a glass room of the Sofa Kiosk at the Topkapı Palace incorporating some Western elements, such as the gilded brazier designed by the elder John Claude Duplessis which was given to the Ottoman Ambassador by King Louis XV of France. The first English contact with Turkish Kiosk came through Lady Wortley Montagu (1689-1762), the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul, who in a letter written in 1 April 1717 to Anne Thistlethwayte, mentions a “chiosk” describing it as "raised by 9 or 10 steps and enclosed with gilded lattices" (Halsband, 1965 ed.). Historic sources confirm the transfer of these kiosks to European monarchs. Stanisław Leszczyński, king of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV, built kiosks for himself based on his memories of his captivity in Turkey. These kiosks were used as garden pavilions serving coffee and beverages but later were converted into band stands and tourist information stands decorating most European gardens, parks and high streets. Conservatories Were in the form of corridors connecting the Pavilion to the stables and consisting of a passage of flowers covered with glass and linked with orangery, a greenhouse, an aviary, a pheasantry and hothouses. The influence of Muslim and Islamo-Indian forms appears clearly in these buildings and particularly in the pheasantry where its higher part was an adaptation of the kiosks found on the roof of Allahabad Palace and illustrated by Thomas Daniell. Today’s conservatories incorporate many Muslim elements, although modern art forms have shifted from the classical motifs. See also Bandstand Belvedere (structure) Fotomat Gazebo Self-service kiosk Internet kiosk Kiosk software Pavilion Telephone booth Automated teller machine Mall kiosk Balaji References Halsband, R. (1965 edn.), ‘The complete letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’, Clarendon Press, Oxford. | Kiosk |@lemmatized kiosk:36 kharkiv:1 ukraine:1 sell:3 cigarette:2 coca:1 cola:1 drink:1 like:2 one:3 patmos:1 find:3 greece:2 romania:1 till:1 istanbul:5 century:3 esplanadi:1 helsinki:1 finland:1 coffee:2 ice:1 cream:1 summertime:1 mediterranean:1 basin:1 near:1 east:1 kušk:1 košk:1 kyoshk:1 kiosco:1 small:4 separate:1 garden:6 pavilion:5 open:6 side:4 common:2 persia:1 india:1 pakistan:1 ottoman:5 empire:1 onward:1 today:2 many:2 around:1 topkapı:4 palace:8 still:1 relatively:1 sight:1 turkish:5 usually:2 polygonal:1 indian:2 generally:1 call:1 gumti:1 sometimes:1 khokha:1 word:2 persian:1 origin:1 refers:1 object:1 act:1 shadow:1 shade:1 maker:1 köşk:2 currently:1 use:4 refer:1 old:2 style:1 building:6 make:1 wood:1 clad:1 metal:1 stone:1 multiple:1 story:1 mainly:1 summer:2 winter:1 recreational:1 residence:2 wealthy:1 within:1 imperial:1 influence:2 europe:1 establish:1 gazebo:2 important:1 feature:1 european:3 english:3 speaking:1 country:1 booth:3 window:1 vendor:1 operate:1 inexpensive:1 consumables:1 newspaper:1 magazine:1 lighter:1 street:2 map:2 confection:1 information:4 dispense:1 free:2 form:4 pamphlet:1 literature:1 advice:1 offer:2 attendant:1 electronic:1 computer:6 interactive:2 house:2 terminal:1 often:1 employ:1 custom:1 software:3 design:2 function:2 flawlessly:1 prevent:1 user:1 access:1 system:1 indeed:1 mode:2 euphemism:1 operation:1 computerized:1 may:1 store:1 data:1 locally:1 retrieve:1 network:1 provide:1 informational:1 public:1 service:2 others:1 serve:2 commercial:1 purpose:1 touchscreen:1 trackball:1 keyboard:1 pushbuttons:1 typical:1 input:1 device:1 history:1 origins:1 define:1 roof:2 support:1 pillar:1 screened:1 totally:1 wall:1 type:1 first:2 introduce:1 seljuk:1 attach:1 main:1 mosque:1 consist:3 domed:2 hall:1 arch:1 architectural:1 concept:1 gradually:1 evolve:1 yet:1 grand:1 sultan:3 famous:1 example:1 quite:1 possibly:1 tiled:1 çinili:1 baghdad:2 bağdat:1 köşkü:1 former:1 build:4 mehmed:1 ii:1 conqueror:1 two:1 storey:1 top:1 dome:1 overlook:1 koshk:1 also:3 murad:1 iv:1 direct:1 view:1 onto:1 park:2 well:1 architecture:1 city:1 ahmed:1 iii:1 glass:2 room:1 sofa:1 incorporate:2 western:1 element:2 gild:1 brazier:1 elder:1 john:1 claude:1 duplessis:1 give:1 ambassador:2 king:2 louis:2 xv:2 france:1 contact:1 come:1 lady:2 wortley:2 montagu:2 wife:1 letter:2 write:1 april:1 anne:1 thistlethwayte:1 mention:1 chiosk:1 describe:1 raise:1 step:1 enclose:1 gilded:1 lattice:1 halsband:2 ed:1 historic:1 source:1 confirm:1 transfer:1 monarch:1 stanisław:1 leszczyński:1 poland:1 father:1 law:1 base:1 memory:1 captivity:1 turkey:1 beverage:1 later:1 convert:1 band:1 stand:2 tourist:1 decorate:1 high:2 conservatory:2 corridor:1 connect:1 stable:1 passage:1 flower:1 cover:1 link:1 orangery:1 greenhouse:1 aviary:1 pheasantry:2 hothouse:1 muslim:2 islamo:1 appear:1 clearly:1 particularly:1 part:1 adaptation:1 allahabad:1 illustrate:1 thomas:1 daniell:1 although:1 modern:1 art:1 shift:1 classical:1 motif:1 see:1 bandstand:1 belvedere:1 structure:1 fotomat:1 self:1 internet:1 telephone:1 automate:1 teller:1 machine:1 mall:1 balaji:1 reference:1 r:1 edn:1 complete:1 mary:1 clarendon:1 press:1 oxford:1 |@bigram coca_cola:1 helsinki_finland:1 ice_cream:1 ottoman_empire:1 topkapı_palace:4 palace_istanbul:2 mehmed_ii:1 sultan_murad:1 murad_iv:1 sultan_ahmed:1 louis_xv:2 wortley_montagu:2 automate_teller:1 clarendon_press:1 |
7,637 | EFnet | There are 42 EFnet servers in the world as of December 2008. EFnet or Eris Free network is a major IRC network, with over 50,000 users http://searchirc.com/network/EFnet . It is the modern-day descendant of the original IRC network. IRC clients can connect to EFnet via irc.efnet.org which will connect to an EFnet IRC server at random (using round robin), or clients may wish to connect to a geographically closer server. http://stats.efnet.org/ History Initially, most IRC servers formed a single IRC network, to which new servers could join without restriction, but this was soon abused by people who set up servers to sabotage other users, channels, or servers. In August 1990, the server eris.berkeley.edu remained the only one to allow anyone to connect servers, IRC server operator Greg Lindahl ("wumpus") broke away to start EFnet. The resulting argument split the IRC community of admins into EFnet and A-net (Anarchy Network), which soon vanished, leaving EFnet as the only IRC network. Continuing problems with performance and abuse eventually led to the rise of another major IRC network, Undernet, which split off in October 1992. In July 1996, disagreement on policy caused EFnet to break in two: the slightly larger European half (including Australia and Japan) formed IRCnet, while the American servers continued as EFnet. This was widely known as the Great Split The Great Split . Characteristics EFnet is probably the least "unified" IRC network, with large variations in rules and policy between different servers as well as the three major regions (EU, CA, and US) each have their own policy structure. Each region votes on their own server applications. However, central policies are voted upon by the server admin community which is archived for referencing. EFnet voting site Due to EFnet nature it has gained recognition over the years (as other IRC networks have) for warez http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2000/03/35141 , hackers http://edition.cnn.com/2002/TECH/internet/04/10/hackers.chat.rooms/index.html DoS attacks http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2115605/efnet-eff-dos-attack and online help http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/bsd/2001/12/27/Big_Scary_Daemons.html . EFnet has always been known for its lack of IRC services that other IRC networks support (such as NickServ and ChanServ, although it had a NickServ until April 8, 1994 From <Bonehead> to <cLoNehEAd>: Nicknames, Play, and Identity on Internet Relay Chat, by Haya Bechar-Israeli, in: Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol 1 nr 2, Nov 1995 (see full text) However, in July 2001, a service called CHANFIX http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircd/chanfix.html (originally named JUPES) was created, which is designed to give back ops to channels which have lost ops or been taken over. For help with CHANFIX a user can find an IRC operator with the command: /stats p or by entering the #chanfix channel. February 2009 sees the introduction of a new CHANFIX module called OPME, a mechanism for EFnet Admins to use to restore ops in an opless channel. https://voting.efnet.org/proposals/opme.txt It provides a much cleaner alternative to masskill, which is unnecessarily invasive and disruptive to the network. A vast majority of servers on EFnet run ircd-ratbox. A handful run ircd-hybrid, and two run csircd. EFnet channel operators are generally free to run their channels however they see fit without the intervention of IRCops. IRCops are primarily there to handle network and server related issues, and rarely get involved with channel level issues. http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircd/ircopguide.html In 2007 various EFnet servers began implementing SSL. http://forum.efnet.org/ssl-test-t2131.html References External links EFnet IRC Network - EFnet Website irc.efnet.org - Primary DNS | EFnet |@lemmatized efnet:26 server:17 world:1 december:1 eris:2 free:2 network:14 major:3 irc:18 user:3 http:9 searchirc:1 com:5 modern:1 day:1 descendant:1 original:1 client:2 connect:4 via:1 org:7 random:1 use:2 round:1 robin:1 may:1 wish:1 geographically:1 close:1 stats:2 history:1 initially:1 form:2 single:1 new:2 could:1 join:1 without:2 restriction:1 soon:2 abuse:2 people:1 set:1 sabotage:1 channel:7 august:1 berkeley:1 edu:1 remain:1 one:1 allow:1 anyone:1 operator:3 greg:1 lindahl:1 wumpus:1 break:2 away:1 start:1 result:1 argument:1 split:4 community:2 admins:2 net:1 anarchy:1 vanish:1 leave:1 continue:2 problem:1 performance:1 eventually:1 lead:1 rise:1 another:1 undernet:1 october:1 july:2 disagreement:1 policy:4 cause:1 two:2 slightly:1 large:2 european:1 half:1 include:1 australia:1 japan:1 ircnet:1 american:1 widely:1 know:2 great:2 characteristic:1 probably:1 least:1 unified:1 variation:1 rule:1 different:1 well:1 three:1 region:2 eu:1 ca:1 u:1 structure:1 vote:2 application:1 however:3 central:1 upon:1 admin:1 archive:1 reference:2 voting:2 site:1 due:1 nature:1 gain:1 recognition:1 year:1 warez:1 www:5 wire:1 culture:1 lifestyle:1 news:2 hacker:2 edition:1 cnn:1 tech:1 internet:2 chat:2 room:1 index:1 html:5 attack:2 vnunet:2 eff:1 online:1 help:2 onlamp:1 pub:1 bsd:1 always:1 lack:1 service:2 support:1 nickserv:2 chanserv:1 although:1 april:1 bonehead:1 clonehead:1 nickname:1 play:1 identity:1 relay:1 haya:1 bechar:1 israeli:1 journal:1 computer:1 mediated:1 communication:1 vol:1 nr:1 nov:1 see:3 full:1 text:1 call:2 chanfix:5 irchelp:4 ircd:4 originally:1 name:1 jupes:1 create:1 design:1 give:1 back:1 ops:3 lose:1 take:1 find:1 command:1 p:1 enter:1 february:1 introduction:1 module:1 opme:2 mechanism:1 restore:1 opless:1 https:1 proposal:1 txt:1 provide:1 much:1 cleaner:1 alternative:1 masskill:1 unnecessarily:1 invasive:1 disruptive:1 vast:1 majority:1 run:4 ratbox:1 handful:1 hybrid:1 csircd:1 generally:1 fit:1 intervention:1 ircops:2 primarily:1 handle:1 related:1 issue:2 rarely:1 get:1 involve:1 level:1 ircopguide:1 various:1 begin:1 implement:1 ssl:2 forum:1 test:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 primary:1 dns:1 |@bigram irc_client:1 efnet_org:5 irc_server:3 http_www:5 cnn_com:1 chat_room:1 relay_chat:1 vast_majority:1 external_link:1 |
7,638 | Aberfoyle,_Stirling | The main street in Aberfoyle Aberfoyle () is a village in the region of Stirling, Scotland, northwest of Glasgow. The town is situated at the base of Craigmore ( high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the River Forth. Since 1885, when the Duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the public in 1931 when the Forestry Commission acquired the land. Loch Ard, about two miles (3 km) west of Aberfoyle, lies above the sea. It is three miles (5 km) long (including the narrows at the east end) and one mile (1½ km) broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two miles northwest is Loch Chon, at above the sea, 1¼ miles (2 km) long, and about half a mile broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan. Industry The slate quarries on Craigmore which operated from the 1820s to the 1950s are now defunct; at its peak this was a major industry. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the 1720s, as well as wool spinning and a lint mill. In 1880 a railway line from Glasgow, via Dumgoyne, to Aberfoyle was established. However the line was closed in 1959. The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry industry and tourism. Aberfoyle Feature Page on Undiscovered Scotland Tourism Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of The Lady of the Lake by Sir Walter Scott in 1810. The poem described the beauty of Loch Katrine. Aberfoyle describes itself as The Gateway to the Trossachs, and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as Loch Lomond and Inchmahome Priory at the Lake of Menteith. A tourist information office run by VisitScotland sits in the centre of town, offering free information, selling souvenirs and acting as a booking office for many of the local B&B's and hotels. Aberfoyle Golf Club was built in 1860 and is located just south of town near the Rob Roy restaurant. Aberfoyle is also part of the Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park. About Aberfoyle Historical Figures Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as Rob Roy and Mary Queen of Scots. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary Queen of Scots visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army. However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into Gaidhlig of the Book of Psalms, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book "The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies" in 1661. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them. It was after this, while Kirk was minister of Aberfoyle parish, that he died in unusual circumstances. Kirk had long believed that the local Doon Hill (or Fairy Knowe as it is more commonly known), was the gateway to the "Secret Commonwealth", or the land of the Fairies. It was a place that Kirk visited often, taking daily walks there from his manse. The story goes that the Fairies of Doon Hill were angry with the Rev. Kirk for going into the domain of the Unseelie court, where he had been warned not to go, and decided to imprison him in Doon Hill - for one night in May 1692, the Rev. Kirk went out for a walk to the hill, in his nightshirt. Some accounts claim that he simply vanished, however he suddenly collapsed. He was found and brought home, but died soon afterwards. He was buried in his own kirkyard, although local legends claim that the fairies took his body away, and the coffin contains only stones. The huge pine tree that still stands at the top of Doon Hill is said to contain Kirk's imprisoned spirit. Kirk's cousin, Graham of Duchray, was then to claim that the spectre of Kirk had visited him in the night, and told him that he had been carried off by the Fairies. Having left his widow expecting a child, the spectre of Kirk told Graham that he would appear at the baptism, whereupon Graham was to throw an iron knife at the apparition, thus freeing Kirk from the Fairies' clutches. However when Kirk's spectre appeared, Graham was apparently too shocked by the vision to throw the knife, and Kirk's ghost faded away forever. Today, visitors to Doon Hill write their wishes on pieces of white silk, or other white cloth, and tie them to the branches of the trees for the Fairies to grant. It is also said that if you run around the great pine tree at the summit seven times, then the Fairies will appear. In recent years the largest of the trees, Kirk's "Minister's Pine", has sadly been damaged by vandals who have hammered coins into the bark. Other Scots pines in the surrounding area are increasingly commonly festooned with tied bits of plastic, crisp packets and the like rather than 'white pieces of silk'. See also List of places in Stirling (district) References External links | Aberfoyle,_Stirling |@lemmatized main:1 street:1 aberfoyle:15 village:2 region:1 stirling:2 scotland:2 northwest:2 glasgow:2 town:3 situate:2 base:1 craigmore:3 high:1 laggan:2 head:2 water:1 river:1 forth:1 since:2 duke:3 montrose:1 construct:1 road:4 eastern:1 shoulder:1 join:1 old:1 entrance:1 trossachs:4 pas:2 become:1 alternative:1 route:1 loch:8 katrine:3 know:3 open:1 public:1 forestry:2 commission:1 acquire:1 land:2 ard:2 two:2 mile:6 km:4 west:2 lie:1 sea:2 three:1 long:4 include:2 narrow:1 east:1 end:2 one:2 broad:2 towards:1 eilean:1 gorm:1 green:1 isle:1 near:2 north:1 western:1 shore:1 fall:1 ledard:1 chon:1 half:1 drain:2 avon:1 dhu:1 turn:1 industry:5 slate:1 quarry:1 operate:1 defunct:1 peak:1 major:1 ironwork:1 establish:2 well:4 wool:1 spinning:1 lint:1 mill:1 railway:1 line:2 via:1 dumgoyne:1 however:5 close:1 die:3 support:1 mainly:1 tourism:2 feature:1 page:1 undiscovered:1 visitor:3 first:2 attract:1 surround:2 area:3 publication:2 lady:1 lake:2 sir:1 walter:1 scott:1 poem:1 describe:2 beauty:1 gateway:2 access:1 attraction:1 lomond:2 inchmahome:2 priory:3 menteith:1 tourist:1 information:2 office:2 run:2 visitscotland:1 sits:1 centre:1 offer:1 free:2 sell:1 souvenir:1 act:1 booking:1 many:2 local:4 b:2 hotel:1 golf:1 club:1 build:1 locate:1 south:1 rob:2 roy:3 restaurant:1 also:5 part:1 national:1 park:1 historical:3 figure:3 connection:1 mary:2 queen:2 scot:2 robert:2 macgregor:2 bear:2 nearby:2 cattle:1 steal:1 exploit:1 take:3 around:2 currently:1 stand:2 tree:5 repute:1 climb:1 hide:1 escape:1 clutch:2 law:1 visit:3 often:2 child:2 short:2 reign:2 use:1 particularly:1 felt:1 safe:1 english:1 army:1 reverend:1 kirk:16 rev:3 provide:1 translation:1 gaidhlig:1 book:3 psalm:1 remember:1 secret:2 commonwealth:2 elf:1 faun:1 fairy:10 research:1 collect:1 several:1 personal:1 account:2 story:2 folk:1 claim:4 encounter:1 minister:2 parish:1 unusual:1 circumstance:1 believe:1 doon:5 hill:6 knowe:1 commonly:2 place:2 daily:1 walk:2 manse:1 go:4 angry:1 domain:1 unseelie:1 court:1 warn:1 decide:1 imprison:2 night:2 may:1 nightshirt:1 simply:1 vanish:1 suddenly:1 collapse:1 find:1 bring:1 home:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 bury:1 kirkyard:1 although:1 legend:1 body:1 away:2 coffin:1 contain:2 stone:1 huge:1 pine:4 still:1 top:1 say:2 spirit:1 cousin:1 graham:4 duchray:1 spectre:3 tell:2 carry:1 leave:1 widow:1 expect:1 would:1 appear:3 baptism:1 whereupon:1 throw:2 iron:1 knife:2 apparition:1 thus:1 apparently:1 shock:1 vision:1 ghost:1 fade:1 forever:1 today:1 write:1 wish:1 piece:2 white:3 silk:2 cloth:1 tie:1 branch:1 grant:1 great:1 summit:1 seven:1 time:1 recent:1 year:1 large:1 sadly:1 damage:1 vandal:1 hammer:1 coin:1 bark:1 scots:1 surrounding:1 increasingly:1 festoon:1 tied:1 bit:1 plastic:1 crisp:1 packet:1 like:1 rather:1 see:1 list:1 district:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram mile_km:4 loch_lomond:2 rob_roy:2 doon_hill:5 soon_afterwards:1 external_link:1 |
7,639 | Economy_of_Cameroon | For a quarter-century following independence, Cameroon was one of the most prosperous countries in Africa. The drop in commodity prices for its principal exports —petroleum, cocoa, coffee, and cotton — in the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued currency and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long recession. Real per capita GDP fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal deficits widened, and foreign debt grew. Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Cameroon at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Central African CFA Francs. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1980 1,600,186 209.20 Francs 1985 4,355,977 471.12 Francs 1990 3,804,428 300.65 Francs 1995 4,686,286 518.62 Francs 2000 6,612,385 658.21 Francs 2005 8,959,279 527.29 Francs Cameroonian farmers tend to cultivate at the subsistence level.The government embarked upon a series of economic reform programs supported by the World Bank and IMF beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful; the government slashed civil service salaries by 65% in 1993. The CFA franc — the common currency of Cameroon and 13 other African states — was devalued by 50% in January 1994. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first four IMF programs. Recent signs, however, are encouraging. As of March 1998, Cameroon's fifth IMF program — a 3-year enhanced structural adjustment program approved in August 1997 — is on track. Cameroon has rescheduled its Paris Club debt at favorable terms. GDP has grown by about 5% a year beginning in 1995. There is cautious optimism that Cameroon is emerging from its long period of economic hardship. Cameroonian exports in 2006 The Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) signed recently by the IMF and Government of Cameroon calls for greater macroeconomic planning and financial accountability; privatization of most of Cameroon's nearly 100 remaining non-financial parastatal enterprises; elimination of state marketing board monopolies on the export of cocoa, certain coffees, and cotton; privatization and price competition in the banking sector; implementation of the 1992 labor code; a vastly improved judicial system; and political liberalization to boost investment. France is Cameroon's main trading partner and source of private investment and foreign aid. Cameroon has an investment guaranty agreement and a bilateral accord with the United States. USA investment in Cameroon is about $1 million, most of it in the oil sector. Inflation has been brought back under control. See also Cameroon External links | Economy_of_Cameroon |@lemmatized quarter:1 century:1 follow:1 independence:1 cameroon:13 one:2 prosperous:1 country:1 africa:2 drop:1 commodity:2 price:3 principal:1 export:3 petroleum:1 cocoa:2 coffee:2 cotton:2 mid:1 combine:1 overvalued:1 currency:2 economic:4 mismanagement:1 lead:1 decade:1 long:2 recession:1 real:1 per:1 caput:1 gdp:2 fell:1 current:1 account:1 fiscal:1 deficit:1 widen:1 foreign:2 debt:2 grow:2 yet:1 oil:2 resource:1 favorable:2 agricultural:1 condition:2 still:1 best:1 endow:1 primary:1 economy:1 sub:1 saharan:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:2 product:2 market:1 estimate:1 international:1 monetary:1 fund:1 figure:1 million:2 central:1 african:2 cfa:2 franc:8 year:3 u:1 dollar:1 exchange:1 cameroonian:2 farmer:1 tend:1 cultivate:1 subsistence:1 level:1 government:4 embark:1 upon:1 series:1 reform:1 program:4 support:1 world:1 bank:1 imf:4 beginning:2 late:1 many:1 measure:1 painful:1 slash:1 civil:1 service:1 salary:1 common:1 state:3 devalue:1 january:1 fail:1 meet:1 first:1 four:1 recent:1 sign:2 however:1 encourage:1 march:1 fifth:1 enhance:1 structural:2 adjustment:2 approve:1 august:1 track:1 reschedule:1 paris:1 club:1 term:1 cautious:1 optimism:1 emerge:1 period:1 hardship:1 enhanced:1 facility:1 esaf:1 recently:1 call:1 great:1 macroeconomic:1 planning:1 financial:2 accountability:1 privatization:2 nearly:1 remain:1 non:1 parastatal:1 enterprise:1 elimination:1 marketing:1 board:1 monopoly:1 certain:1 competition:1 banking:1 sector:2 implementation:1 labor:1 code:1 vastly:1 improve:1 judicial:1 system:1 political:1 liberalization:1 boost:1 investment:4 france:1 main:1 trading:1 partner:1 source:1 private:1 aid:1 guaranty:1 agreement:1 bilateral:1 accord:1 united:1 usa:1 inflation:1 bring:1 back:1 control:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram per_caput:1 caput_gdp:1 fiscal_deficit:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 cfa_franc:2 franc_franc:5 structural_adjustment:2 vastly_improve:1 trading_partner:1 external_link:1 |
7,640 | Peninsula | A small peninsula in Croatia A peninsula is a piece of land that is nearly surrounded by water but connected to mainland via an isthmus. Word origin: Latin paenīnsula : paene, almost + īnsula, island. A peninsula can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, or spit. Peninsula. – Britannica Student Encyclopedia. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica, Retrieved 2007-07-19. Oceania Australia Beecroft Peninsula, New South Wales Bellarine Peninsula, Victoria Cape York Peninsula, Queensland Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory Cronulla sand dunes, Kurnell Peninsula Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia Eyre Peninsula, South Australia Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania Inskip Peninsula, Queensland Jervis Bay Territory Mornington Peninsula, Victoria Redcliffe, Queensland Stockton, New South Wales Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania Tasmania itself was once a peninsula connected to Australia during the great Ice Ages Wilsons Promontory, Victoria Woy Woy, New South Wales Yorke Peninsula, South Australia Younghusband Peninsula, South Australia A beach on the Mornington Peninsula Looking north over the Kurnell Peninsula. New Zealand Aupouri Peninsula, North Island Banks Peninsula, South Island Bluff Peninsula, South Island Bream Head, North Island Cape Brett, North Island Cape Campbell, South Island Cape Foulwind, South Island Cape Kidnappers, North Island Cape Turnagain, North Island Coromandel Peninsula, North Island Farewell Spit, South Island Kaikoura Peninsula, South Island Karikari Peninsula, North Island Mahia Peninsula, North Island Miramar Peninsula, North Island Mount Maunganui, North Island North Auckland Peninsula, North Island Otago Peninsula, South Island Tiwai Point, South Island Papua New Guinea Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain Huon Peninsula Europe Europe is sometimes considered to be a large peninsula extending off of Eurasia. It is composed of many peninsulas, the four main component peninsulas being the Iberian, Scandinavian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. Balkan Peninsula The Balkans is a peninsula including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia (sometimes referred to as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), Greece, Serbia and Montenegro. Chalkidiki, Greece Kassandra, Greece Mani Peninsula, Greece Mount Athos, Greece Peloponnese, Greece Sithonia, Greece Pilio, Greece Istria, Croatia Pelješac, Croatia Prevlaka, Croatia Split, Croatia Zadar, Croatia Karaburun peninsula, Albania Luštica, Montenegro Denmark Jutland Peninsula, which forms the western half of the country. Djursland Grenen Helgenæs Horne Land Hornsherred Hindsholm Mols Odsherred Salling Stevns Peninsula Italy Italian Peninsula Calabria Penisola salentina (Salento) Promontorio del Gargano (Monte Gargano) Penisola sorrentina (Sorrentine Peninsula) Promontorio di Orbetello Iberian Peninsula Encompassing continental Spain and Portugal, Andorra and the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. Cabo Espichel, Portugal Cabo Carvoeiro, Portugal Cabo de São Vicente, Portugal Tróia Peninsula, Portugal Cádiz, Spain Gibraltar Scandinavian Peninsula Encompassing present-day Sweden, Norway, and part of Finland Bygdøy, Norway Fornebulandet, Norway Fossen, Norway Hamarøyhalvøya, Norway Hurumlandet, Norway Lista, Norway Lyngenhalvøya, Norway Nordkinnhalvøya, Norway Nesodden, Norway Ofothalvøya, Norway Porsangerhalvøya, Norway Skåne, Sweden Snarøya, Norway Stad, Norway Sværholthalvøya, Norway Varangerhalvøya, Norway United Kingdom During the great Ice Ages, all of Great Britain was a peninsula, extending north west from the mainland of Europe/France. The English Channel did not exist at this time. England Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Dorset - the South West Peninsula, or the West Country, or Wessex Dengie peninsula, Essex The centre of the city of Durham, County Durham Fylde, Lancashire Hoo, Kent Isle of Dogs, London Greenwich Peninsula, London The Lizard, Cornwall Morte Point, North Devon Penwith, Cornwall Isle of Purbeck, Dorset Rotherhithe, London Spurn, Yorkshire Tendring, Essex Wirral, Cheshire and Merseyside Scotland Ardnamurchan, Lochaber Black Isle, Ross and Cromarty Cowal, Argyll and Bute Doonie Point, Aberdeenshire Dunnet Head, Caithness Faraid Head, Sutherland Fife Kintyre, Argyll and Bute Knoydart, Lochaber Morvern, Lochaber Strathy Point, Sutherland Point of Hellia, Orkney Point, Outer Hebrides Wales Creuddyn Peninsula juts out of the North Wales coast and includes the towns of Llandudno, Rhos-on-Sea and Deganwy. Plus the headlands of Great Orme and Little Orme Gower peninsula, Swansea Llŷn Peninsula Marloes Peninsula, Pembrokeshire Pembrokeshire peninsula, West Wales South Pembrokeshire Peninsula. St Davids Head, Pembrokeshire Vale of Glamorgan - technically a peninsula, as it surrounded on three sides by water - two rivers boundaries and the Bristol Channel South West Wales - Swansea to New Quay - surrounded by the Bristol Channel, St George's Channel and Cardigan Bay Northern Ireland Ards Peninsula, County Down Island Magee Lecale Peninsula Ramore Head, Portrush Republic of Ireland Donegal Munster - like Ulster, Munster is surrounded on three sides by the sea Beara Peninsula Cooley Peninsula Dingle Peninsula Fanad Peninsula Hook Peninsula Horn Head Inishowen Iveragh Peninsula Mizen Head Peninsula Mullet Peninsula Rosguill Sheep's Head Peninsula Russia Chukchi Peninsula Kamchatka Peninsula Kola Peninsula Rybachy Peninsula Samland peninsula, Kaliningrad Oblast Taymyr Peninsula Yamal Peninsula Other countries Apsheron, Azerbaijan Au peninsula, Au, Zurich, Switzerland Brittany, France Butjadingen, Germany Cotentin Peninsula, France Crimea, Ukraine Fischland-Darß-Zingst, Germany Gallipoli, Turkey (formerly the Thracian Chersonese) Hel Peninsula, Poland Karpass Peninsula, Cyprus North Holland, Netherlands Sõrve Säär, Estonia Walcheren, Netherlands Zuid-Beveland, Netherlands Asia Kazakhstan Mangyshlak Peninsula Middle East Sinai Peninsula, Egypt Al-Faw peninsula, Iraq Kapidagi Yarimadasi, Turkey Datça Peninsula, Turkey Side Peninsula, Turkey Musandam peninsula; Oman,United Arab Emirates Miankaleh peninsula, Iran Qatar Beirut, Lebanon El Mina, Lebanon Arabian Peninsula; Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Oman Asia Minor Indian subcontinent and South Asia South India (Peninsular India). The Indian subcontinent is itself a peninsula Colaba peninsula, Mumbai Deccan peninsula Worli peninsula, Mumbai Kathiawar Peninsula, Gujarat Gwadar peninsula, Pakistan Jaffna Peninsula, Northern Sri Lanka China Kowloon Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Leizhou Peninsula Liaodong Peninsula Shandong Peninsula Fan Lau, (Hong Kong) Sai Kung Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Stanley Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Chi Ma Wan Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Chung Hom Kok Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Wan Tsai Peninsula, (Hong Kong) Macau Peninsula, (Macau) Korea The whole land mass encompassing North and South Korea is a peninsula, surrounded by the Sea of Japan (known as the East Sea in South Korea) on the east, the East China Sea to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water. Japan Kyūshū Nishi-sonogi-hanto Kunisaki-hanto Satsuma-hanto Osumi-hanto Honshū Oshika-hanto Noto-hanto Oga-hanto Miura-hato Boso-hanto Hokkaido Shiretoko South East Asia Malay Peninsula Indochina peninsula Philippines Bataan Peninsula, Luzon Bicol Peninsula, Luzon Caramoan Peninsula, Bicol Bondoc Peninsula, Luzon Cavite, Luzon San Ildefonso Peninsula, Luzon Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao Tinaca Point, Davao del Sur Indonesia Poluostrov Yamau Semenanjung Blambangan, Java, Semenanjung Minahassa, Sulawesi East Peninsula, Sulawesi South-east Peninsula, Sulawesi South Peninsula, Sulawesi North America Canada Adelaide Peninsula, Nunavut Aspotogan Peninsula, Nova Scotia Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador Banks Peninsula, Nunavut Barrow Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Becher Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Beekman Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Bell Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Bell Peninsula, Southampton Island, Nunavut Blunt Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut Borden Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Brodeur Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Bruce Peninsula, Ontario, extending into Lake Huron Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador Burrard Peninsula, British Columbia Chebucto Peninsula, Nova Scotia Colin Archer Peninsula, Devon Island, Queen Elizabeth Islands, Nunavut Collinson Peninsula, Victoria Island, Nunavut Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Diamond Jennes Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories Douglas Peninsula, Northwest Territories Dunlas Peninsula, Melville Island, Northwest Territories/Nunavut Foxe Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Gaspé Peninsula, Quebec Hall Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Henry Kater Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Kent Peninsula, Nunavut Labrador Peninsula, encompassing all of Labrador and most of Quebec Leith Peninsula, Northwest Territories (in Great Bear Lake) Long Point, Ontario (in Lake Erie) Melville Peninsula, Nunavut Meta Incognita Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Natkusiak Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories/Nunavut Niagara Peninsula, Ontario North Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Nipigon) Nova Scotia peninsula, Nova Scotia Pangertot Peninsula, Nunavut Parry Peninsula, Northwest Territories Pethel Peninsula, Northwest Territories Point Pelee, Ontario (in Lake Erie) Port au Port Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador Prince Albert Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories Prince Edward Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Ontario) Sibley Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Superior) Simpson peninsula, Nunavut Siorarsuk Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Steensby Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut Storkerson Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories/Nunavut Saanich Peninsula, Vancouver Island, British Columbia Ungava Peninsula, Quebec Wollaston Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories/Nunavut United States Alaska Alaska Peninsula Cleveland Peninsula Kenai Peninsula Seward Peninsula California Marin County, California, is a southwards-pointing peninsula surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, the northern part of San Francisco Bay, and San Pablo Bay Monterey Peninsula Palos Verdes Peninsula Point Loma, San Diego San Francisco Peninsula Florida Florida is a well-known example of a large peninsula, with its land area divided between the larger Florida peninsula and the smaller Florida panhandle on the north and west. It has several smaller peninsulas within it: Fairpoint Peninsula Pinellas peninsula including St. Petersburg and Clearwater Much of Tampa lies on a peninsula jutting out into Tampa Bay Cape Sable Michigan Michigan is very distinguishable for its mitten-shaped Lower Peninsula of Michigan which includes The Thumb, Fountain Point, the Leelanau Peninsula, and Old Mission Peninsula. The northern half of Michigan is called the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and contains the Keweenaw Peninsula, the Garden Peninsula and the Stonington Peninsula. New Jersey Cape May Peninsula, New Jersey New Jersey Peninsula - This state can be viewed as a peninsula surrounded by the Delaware River, Atlantic Ocean and the Delaware Bay Sandy Hook New York The Bronx, New York, and Yonkers, New York Long Island, was once a peninsula connected to North America during the great Ice Ages Cumberland Head Utah Antelope Island, Utah, becomes a peninsula when waters are low, on the south shore of the Great Salt Lake Promentory Peninsula, on the north eastern shore of the Great Salt Lake Stansbury Peninsula, becomes an island when waters are high, on the south shore of the Great Salt Lake Other states Cape Cod, Massachusetts, a cape that can be viewed as a peninsula Delmarva Peninsula, encompassing parts of Maryland and Virginia, and all of Delaware Door Peninsula, Wisconsin, in Lake Michigan Key Peninsula, Washington, in Puget Sound Kitsap Peninsula, Washington, in Puget Sound Middle Peninsula, Virginia, on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay Mokapu, Hawaii Nahant, Massachusetts Northern Neck, Virginia, on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay Olympic Peninsula, Washington Presque Isle, Erie, Pennsylvania Virginia Peninsula, Virginia, on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay Greenland Alfred Wegeners Halvo Hayes Halvo Ingnerit Nuussuaq Peninsula Sigguup Nunaa (Svartenhuk Halvø) Mexico Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, containing the state of Baja California and state of Baja California Sur Yucatán Peninsula, partly separating the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea South America Tierra del Fuego of Chile/Argentina was once a peninsula extending south from South America during the great Ice Ages Chile Arauco Peninsula, Bío-Bío Region Brunswick Peninsula, Magallanes Region Exmouth Peninsula, Magallanes Region Hequi Peninsula, Los Lagos Region Mejillones Peninsula, Antofagasta Region Muñoz Gamero Peninsula, Magallanes Region Brecknock Peninsula, Chile Brunswick Peninsula, Chile Taitao Peninsula, Aysén Region Tres Montes Peninsula, Aisén Region Other countries Península de Azuero, Panama Placencia Peninsula, Belize Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica Araya Peninsula, Venezuela Paraguana, Venezuela Paria Peninsula, Venezuela Guajira Peninsula, Colombia Paracas Peninsula, Peru Verde Peninsula, Argentina Valdes Peninsula, Argentina Caribbean Peninsula de Samaná, Dominican Republic Barrio Obrero, Puerto Rico Zapata Peninsula, Cuba Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Cuba Hicacos Peninsula, Cuba Africa Bakassi, Cameroon but disputed with Nigeria Buri Peninsula, Eritrea Cabo Blanco, Mauritania/Morocco Cape of Good Hope, South Africa Cap Bon, Tunisia Cap-Vert, Senegal Ceuta, Spain Punta Durnford, Morocco Horn of Africa or Somali peninsula, Somalia Raas Xaafuun peninsula/Ras Hafun, Somalia Ponta de São Lourenço, Madeira Islands (Portuguese Territory) Cape Agulhas, South Africa, southern tip of Africa, and the official dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Limits of Oceans and Seas. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953. 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7,641 | Cornish_language | For the Cornish-English dialect see West Country dialects and List of Cornish dialect words. The Cornish language (in Cornish: Kernewek or Kernowek) is one of the Brythonic group of Celtic languages. The language continued to function as a community language in parts of Cornwall until the late 18th century, and a process to revive the language was started in the early 20th century, continuing to this day with some success. The revival of Cornish began in 1904 when Henry Jenner, a Celtic language enthusiast, published his book Handbook of the Cornish Language. His work was based on Cornish as it was spoken in the 18th century, although his pupil Robert Morton Nance later steered the revival more to the style of the 16th century, before the language became influenced by English. This set the tone for the next few decades; as the revival gained pace, learners of the language disagreed on which style of Cornish to use, and a number of competing orthographies were in use by the end of the century. Nevertheless, many Cornish language textbooks and works of literature have been published over the decades, and an increasing number of people are studying the language. Recent developments include Cornish music Cornish Language Partnership: Music , independent films Cornish Language Partnership: Film clips and children's books, a small number of children in Cornwall have been brought up to be bilingual native speakers, Ethnologue - Cornish and the language is taught in many schools. This is the Westcountry - Cornish language - is it dead? Cornish gained official recognition under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2002, BBC News - Cornish gains official recognition and in 2008 a Standard Written Form was agreed in an attempt to unify the orthographies and move forward the revival. BBC News - Breakthrough for Cornish language Current status A revived language "Welcome to Cornwall" sign in English and Cornish Cornish can be seen in many places in Cornwall. In the 20th century a conscious effort was made to revive Cornish as a language for everyday use in speech and writing (see below for further details about the dialects of modern Cornish). This revival can be traced to the work of Jenner, who in 1904 published his work A Handbook of the Cornish Language. This formed the basis for the language revival and learning. In his work he observed There has never been a time when there has been no person in Cornwall without a knowledge of the Cornish language Rebuilding the Celtic languages By Diarmuid O'Néill (Page 222) The number of Cornish speakers is growing. Determining a figure for the number of Cornish speakers depends on how the ability to speak the language is defined. One figure for the mean amount of people who know a few basic words, such as knowing that "Kernow" means "Cornwall", was 300,000; the same survey gave the figure of people able to have simple conversations at 3,000. A study by Kenneth MacKinnon in 2000 suggested that there were then about 300 people who spoke Cornish fluently, i.e., were able to talk at ordinary speed on everyday matters. The Cornish Language Strategy project is in 2007 commissioning research to provide quantitative and qualitative evidence for the number of Cornish speakers: due to the success of the revival project it is estimated that 2,000 people are fluent (surveyed in spring 2008). A few people under the age of 30 have been brought up to be bilingual in Cornish and English. Cornish exists in place names, and a knowledge of the language helps the understanding of old place names. Many Cornish names are adopted for children, pets, houses and boats. There is now an increasing amount of Cornish literature, in which poetry is the most important genre, particularly in oral form or as song or as traditional Cornish chants historically performed in marketplaces during religious holidays and public festivals and gatherings. Cornwall County Council has a policy of supporting the language, and recently passed a motion in favour of it being specified within the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. There are regular periodicals solely in the language such as the monthly An Gannas, An Gowsva, and An Garrick. BBC Radio Cornwall and Pirate FM have regular news broadcasts in Cornish, and sometimes have other programmes and features for learners and enthusiasts. Local newspapers such as the The Western Morning News regularly have articles in Cornish, and newspapers such as The Packet, The West Briton and The Cornishman also support the movement. The language has financial sponsorship from many sources, including the Millennium Commission. A number of language organisations exist in Cornwall including (in alphabetical order) Agan Tavas (Our Language), the Cornish sub-group of the European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages, Gorseth Kernow, Kesva an Taves Kernewek (the Cornish Language Board), Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek (the Cornish Language Fellowship), and Teere ha Tavas (Land and Language). One organisation, Dalleth, promoted the language to pre-school children. There are many popular ceremonies, some ancient, some modern, which use the language or are entirely in the language. The language has been officially recognised as one of the historical regional and minority languages in Europe: (see European recognition below.) A decision to brand Cornish extinct, made by linguists working for UNESCO's Atlas of World Languages, was widely criticised http://www.thisiswesternmorningnews.co.uk/news/Cornish-language-extinct-claim-Unesco-experts/article-713747-detail/article.html . The Atlas's editor, Christopher Moseley, says a new category of "being revived" is being considered for the next edition. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/7900972.stm European recognition Welcome sign at Truro Cathedral in several languages, including Cornish. On 5 November 2002, in answer to a Parliamentary Question, Local Government and Regions Minister Nick Raynsford said: <blockquote>After careful consideration and with the help of the results of an independent academic study on the language commissioned by the government, we have decided to recognise Cornish as falling under Part II of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The government will be registering this decision with the Council of Europe.The purpose of the Charter is to protect and promote the historical regional or minority languages of Europe.It recognises that some of these languages are in danger of extinction and that protection and encouragement of them contributes to Europe's cultural diversity and historical traditions.This is a positive step in acknowledging the symbolic importance the language has for Cornish identity and heritage.Cornish will join Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Scots and Ulster Scots as protected and promoted languages under the Charter, which commits the government to recognise and respect those languages.</blockquote> Officials will be starting discussions with Cornwall County Council and Cornish language organisations to ensure the views of Cornish speakers and people wanting to learn Cornish are taken into account in implementing the Charter. Government funding for the Cornish language In June 2005, after much pressure from language groups and others such as the Gorseth Kernow, the government allocated £80,000 per year for three years of direct central government funding to the Cornish language. There have been complaints however that in the same period Ulster Scots is being allocated £1,000,000 per year of direct government funding. This comes after the British government acknowledged in its 1st European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages compliance report that: "There are no current demands from within the school system for Ulster-Scots to be taught as a language. There have been concerns that while the ECRML Level II Cornish language remains in the slow lane, the Ulster-Scots language is to be made a ECRML Level III language. BBC News - June 2005 - Cash boost for Cornish language Suppression of Cornish identity and language Classification Cornish belongs to Brythonic languages, a branch of Celtic languages. Brythonic also includes Welsh, Breton, the extinct Cumbric and perhaps the hypothetical Ivernic. The languages Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic group. Cornish shares about 80% basic vocabulary with Breton, 75% with Welsh, 35% with Irish, and 35% with Scottish Gaelic. By comparison, Welsh shares about 70% with Breton. History General outlook The proto-Cornish language developed after the Southwest Britons of Somerset, Dorset, Devon and Cornwall became linguistically separated from the West Britons of later Wales after the Battle of Deorham in about 577. The area controlled by the Southwest Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of Wessex over the next few centuries. In 927 Athelstan drove the south west Celts out of Exeter and in 936 he set the east bank of the Tamar as the boundary between Anglo-Saxon Wessex and Celtic Cornwall. "Exeter was cleansed of its defilement by wiping out that filthy race" (William of Malmesbury, writing around 1120) Payton, Philip (1996). Cornwall. Fowey: Alexander Associates . There is no record of him taking his campaigns into Cornwall. It seems probable that Hywel, King of the Cornish, agreed to pay tribute to Athelstan and thus avoided more attacks and maintained a high degree of autonomy. Cornwall Council timeline 927-936 and in 936 Athelstan fixed Cornwall's eastern boundary at the Tamar. However, the Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Ages, reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers (estimated by Ken George) in the 13th century. However the number of Cornish speakers is thought to have declined thereafter. The earliest written record of the Cornish language, dating from the 9th century AD, is a gloss in a Latin manuscript of De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius, which used the words ud rocashaas. The phrase means "it (the mind) hated the gloomy places". Oxford scholars detect earliest record of Cornish <ref>Sims-Williams, P. (2005) 'A New Brittonic Gloss on Boethius: ud rocashaas''', Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 50 (Winter 2005), 77-86.</ref> Early modern period In the reign of Henry VIII we have an account given by Andrew Borde in his Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, written in 1542. He says, "In Cornwall is two speches, the one is naughty Englysshe, and the other is Cornysshe speche. And there be many men and women the which cannot speake one worde of Englysshe, but all Cornyshe." Jenner, Henry (1904)A Handbook of the Cornish Language chiefly in its latest stages with some account of its history and literature At the time of the Prayer Book rebellion of 1549, which was a reaction to Parliament passing the first Act of Uniformity, people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English (the intention of the Act was to replace worship in Latin with worship in English, which was known, by the lawmakers, not to be universally spoken throughout England. Instead of simply banning Latin, however, the Act was framed so as to enforce English). In 1549, this imposition of a new language was sometimes a matter of life and death: over 4,000 people who protested against the imposition of an English Prayer book were massacred by the King's army. Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals. |The shifting of the linguistic boundary in Cornwall 1300-1750 The rebels' document claimed they wanted a return to the old religious services and ended 'We the Cornishmen (whereof certain of us understand no English) utterly refuse this new English' (altered spelling). Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, replied to the Cornishmen, inquiring as to why they should be offended by services in English when they had them in Latin, which they also did not understand. Through many factors, including loss of life and the spread of English, the Prayer Book Rebellion proved a turning-point for the Cornish language. Indeed, some recent research has suggested that estimates of the Cornish speaking population prior to the rebellion may have been low, making the decline even more drastic. By this time the language was already arguably in decline from its earlier heyday, and the situation worsened over the course of the next century. Richard Carew in his 1602 work - The survey of Cornwall, notices the almost total extirpation of the Cornish language in his days. He says; The principal love and knowledge of this language liveth in Dr. Kennall, the civilian, and with him lieth buried; Richard Carew's Survey of Cornwall 1602 Towednack is claimed to be the location of the last church in which services were conducted in the Cornish language (in 1678). Nineteenth and twentieth centuries It is often claimed that the last native speaker of Cornish was the Mousehole resident Dolly Pentreath, who died in 1777. Notwithstanding her supposed last words, "Me ne vidn cewsel Sawznek!" ("I don't want to speak English!"), she spoke at least some English as well as Cornish. The last known monoglot Cornish speaker is believed to have been Chesten Marchant, who died in 1676 at Gwithian. It does, however, appear to be true that Dolly Pentreath spoke Cornish fluently and may have been one of the last to do so before the revival of the language in the 20th century. There is also, however, evidence that Cornish continued, albeit in limited usage by a handful of speakers, throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th century. In 1875 six speakers all in their sixties were discovered Lach-Szyrma, W. S. (1875) The Numerals in Old Cornish. In: Academy, London, 20 Mar 1875 (quoted in Ellis, P. B. (1974) The Cornish Language, p. 127) ; some claim that John Davey from St Just who died in 1891 at Boswednack, Zennor should be considered the last traditional speaker. The Cornish Language and Its Literature: A History By Peter Berresford Ellis Others, however, dispute this, saying that Alison Treganning, who died in 1906 was the last traditional speaker Alison Treganning and by this time the revival was well underway. Fishermen were counting fish using a rhyme derived from Cornish into the 1940s . It has been suggested by Cornish linguist Richard Gendall that some dialects of English spoken in Cornwall (especially the dialect of West Penwith, where traditional Cornish was last spoken) display strong lexical and prosodic influences from the Cornish language that almost certainly go back several centuries. Sources on Traditional Cornish The Southwestern Brythonic, or Southwestern Brittonic, language evolved into Cornish, shrinking from the whole southwest of England into the western tip of Cornwall with time. Kenneth H. Jackson divided this long period into several sub-periods having different linguistic innovations. "Primitive Cornish" existed between about 600 and 800 AD but nothing survives from this time. The "Old Cornish" period was between 800 and 1200 AD, for which there is a Cornish-Latin dictionary (the Vocabularium Cornicum or Cottonian Vocabulary; MS. Cotton Vespasian A.xiv) Graves, Eugene van T. (ed.) (1964) The Old Cornish Vocabulary. Ann Arbor, Mich: Univ. M/films and various 10th century glosses in Latin manuscripts such as the Bodmin manumissions giving the Cornish names of freed slaves. The "Middle Cornish" period between 1200 and 1578 has many sources of information, mostly religious texts. There are about 20,000 lines of text in total. Various plays were written by the canons of Glasney College intended to educate the Cornish people about the Bible and the Celtic saints. The "Late Cornish" period from 1578 to about 1800 has fewer sources of information on the language. In this period there was considerable input from the English language. In 1776 William Bodinar, who had learnt Cornish from fishermen, wrote a letter in Cornish which was probably the last prose in the language. However, the last verse was the Cranken Rhyme written down in the late 19th century. Further information on traditional Cornish can be obtained from the place names of Cornwall. The place names have been analysed into elements for which meanings have been inferred. The rise of Cornish studies William Scawen produced an epic manuscript on the declining Cornish language that continually evolved until he died in 1689, aged 89. He was the first person to realise the language was dying out and wrote detailed manuscripts which he started working on when he was 78. The only version that was ever published was a short first draft, but the final version, which he worked on until his death, is hundreds of pages long. At the same time a group of scholars, led by John Keigwin (nephew of William Scawen), of Mousehole, tried to preserve and further the Cornish language. They left behind a large number of translations of parts of the Bible, proverbs and songs. This group was contacted by the Welsh linguist Edward Lhuyd who came to Cornwall to study the language. Ellis, P. B. (1974); pp. 82-94 Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study published by Lhuyd in 1702, and differs from the medieval language in having a considerably simpler structure and grammar. Such differences included the wide use of certain modal affixes that, although out of use by Lhuyd's time, had a considerable effect on the word-order of medieval Cornish. The medieval language also possessed two additional tenses for expressing past events and an extended set of possessive suffixes. Edward Lhuyd theorises that the language of this time was heavily inflected, possessing not just the genitive, ablative and locative cases so common in Early Modern Cornish, but also dative and accusative cases, and even a vocative case, although historical references to this are rare. John Whitaker the Manchester born rector of Ruan Lanihorne, studied the decline of the Cornish language. In his 1804 work the Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall he concluded that - "The English Liturgy, was not desired by the Cornish, but forced upon them by the tyranny of England, at a time when the English language was yet unknown in Cornwall. This act of tyranny was at once gross barbarity to the Cornish people, and a death blow to the Cornish language" Jago, Fred W. P. (1882) The Ancient Language and the Dialect of Cornwall, AMS Press, NY, 1983, (originally published 1882, Netherton and Worth, Truro), pp. 4 ff. Robert Williams published the first comprehensive Cornish dictionary in 1865, the Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum. As a result of the discovery of additional ancient Cornish manuscripts, 2000 new words were added to the vocabulary by Whitley Stokes in A Cornish Glossary. William Borlase published Proverbs and Rhymes in Cornish in 1866 while A Glossary of Cornish Place Names was produced by John Bannister in the same year. Dr Frederick Jago published his English-Cornish Dictionary in 1882. Varieties of Revived Cornish During the 19th century the Cornish language was the subject of antiquarian interest and a number of lectures were given on the subject and pamphlets on it were published. Unified Cornish (UC) The first successful attempt to revive Cornish was largely the work of Henry Jenner and Robert Morton Nance in the early part of the twentieth century. Jenner published his "Handbook of the Cornish Language" in 1904 while Nance published "Cornish For All" in 1929. A. S. D. Smith produced "Lessons in Spoken Cornish" in 1931. The resulting system was called Unified Cornish or UC (Kernewek Uny[e]s, KU) and was based mainly on Middle Cornish (the language of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries — a high point for Cornish literature), with a standardised spelling and an extended vocabulary based largely on Breton and Welsh. A dictionary of Unified Cornish was published by Nance in the 1930s. For many years, this was the modern Cornish language, and many people still use it today. Shortcomings in Unified Cornish had to do in part with the stiff and archaizing literary style Nance had employed, and in part with a realisation that Nance's phonology lacked some distinctions which must have existed in traditional Cornish. In the 1970s, Tim Saunders raised a number of issues of communicative efficiency, but his initiative had no influence and later developments are entirely independent. Modern Cornish or Revived Late Cornish (RLC) In the early 1980s, Richard Gendall, who had worked with Nance, published a new system based on the rather limited works of writers such as Nicholas Boson and John Boson, William Rowe, Thomas Tonkin and others, few of whom spoke Cornish as their first language. This system, called Modern Cornish (Curnoack Nowedga, Kernowek Noweja in UCR) by its proponents, differs from Unified Cornish in using the English-based orthographies of the 17th and 18th centuries, though there are also differences of vocabulary and grammar. It is sometimes called "Revived Late Cornish" or RLC as well. Writers of Late Cornish often wrote Cornish using the English orthographic equivalent of the nearest equivalent English sound. For instance, the word for 'good' typically spelt dâ 'good' could also be written daa, and the word for 'month' could be spelt mîz or meez. The need for standard spelling when learning a language has led the Cornish Language Council to adopt the Revived Late Cornish spelling standardised by Gendall and Neil Kennedy. This makes sparing use of accents (as did writers of Modern Cornish at the time). Kernewek Kemmyn or Common Cornish (KK) In 1986 Ken George developed a revised orthography (and phonology) for Revived Cornish, which became known as Kernewek Kemmyn or KK (lit. Common Cornish). It was subsequently adopted by the Cornish Language Board as their preferred system. It retained a Middle Cornish base but made the spelling more systematic by applying phonemic orthographic theory, and for the first time set out clear rules relating spelling to pronunciation. The revised system is claimed to have been taken up enthusiastically by the majority of Cornish speakers and learners, and advocates of this orthography claim that it was especially welcomed by teachers. Nevertheless, many Cornish speakers chose to continue using Unified Cornish. Despite later criticism by Nicholas Williams (see below), Kernewek Kemmyn has retained the support of many active Cornish speakers. Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) In 1995 an alternative revision of Unified Cornish known as Unified Cornish Revised or UCR (Kernowek Unys Amendys, KUA) was proposed by Nicholas Williams. UCR built on traditional Unified Cornish, making the spellings regular while keeping as close as possible to the orthographic practices of the medieval scribes. The rationale behind UCR was that only attested Cornish can serve as a guide to its phonology, and that other attempts at regularisation had on the one hand introduced alien elements and on the other hand not known how to interpret the variations in extant material, which it turned to explain in accordance with the assumptions of nineteenth-century Middle European philology. In common with Kernewek Kemmyn, UCR made use of Tudor and Late Cornish prose materials unavailable to Nance. Williams published his English-Cornish Dictionary in this orthography in 2000; the second edition was published in 2006. Like the other orthographies, UCR also has its adherents and its detractors. Towards unification Unification projects In practice these different written forms do not prevent Cornish-speakers from communicating with each other effectively. Cornish has been successfully revived as a viable language for communication. Nevertheless there is still much scope for improving the standard and accuracy of the spoken language. The language is spoken mainly with the older generations, but is currently being taught at some Cornish primary and secondary schools. In response to the orthographic mayhem, the Cornish Language Partnership has initiated a period of review. In 2007 an independent Cornish Language Commission consisting of sociolinguists and linguists from outside of Cornwall was formed to review the four existing forms (UC, RLC, KK, and UCR) and consider whether any of those could be suitable to be a Single Written Form for Cornish, or whether a new fifth form should be adopted. Two groups made proposals of compromise orthographies. The group UdnFormScrefys ('Single Written Form') proposed an orthography called Kernowek Standard (KS) which is based on traditional orthographic forms and also has a clear relation between spelling and pronunciation, taking both Middle Cornish and Late Cornish dialects of Revived Cornish into account. Kernowek Standard website Two members of the CLP's Linguistic Working Group, Albert Bock and Benjamin Bruch, proposed another orthography called Kernowek Dasunys (KD) which endeavours to reconcile UC, KK, RLC, and UCR orthographies. Kernowek Dasunys website Standard Written Form (SWF) In May 2008 the Partnership agreed on a single written form to be known as Standard Written Form (SWF), to be used by Cornwall County Council authorities for the purposes of education and public life. Breakthrough for Cornish language BBC News, 19 May 2008 An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish Maga Kernow The Cornish Language Partnership has specified that Furv Skrifys Savonek (FSS) is the SWF translation for Standard Written Form. Users of UCR and KS prefer the term Form Screfys Standard. On Friday 9 May 2008 the Cornish Language Partnership met with the specification for the Standard Written Form as the main item on the agenda. All four Cornish language groups, Unified Cornish, Unified Cornish Revised, Common Cornish and Modern Cornish were represented at this meeting. Reactions were mixed from the various language groups, Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek, Cussel an Tavaz Kernûak, Kesva an Taves Kernewek and Agan Tavas, but the majority wanted resolution and acceptance. The Cornish Language Partnership said that it would 'create an opportunity to break down barriers and the agreement marked a significant stepping stone in the Cornish language.'. The vote to ratify the SWF was carried and on 19 May 2008 it was announced that the single written form had been agreed. Eric Brooke, chairman of the Cornish Language Partnership, said: "This marks a significant stepping-stone in the development of the Cornish language. In time this step will allow the Cornish language to move forward to become part of the lives of all in Cornwall." BBC News 19 May 2008 - Breakthrough for Cornish language BBC News 19 May 2008 - Standard Cornish spelling agreed Cornish Language Partnership - Standard Written Form Ratified Culture Commemorative plaque in Cornish and English for Michael Joseph the Smith (An Gof) mounted on the north side of Blackheath common, south east London, near the south entrance to Greenwich Park Cornwall has many other cultural events associated with the language, including the international Celtic film festival, hosted in St Ives in 1997, with the programme in Cornish, English and French. There have been many films, some televised, made entirely, or significantly, in the language. Some shops, such as Gwynn ha Du, in the town of Liskeard, sell books written in Cornish. Many companies use Cornish names. The overnight physician's service in Cornwall is now called Kernow Urgent Care. Cornish is taught in some schools; it was previously taught at degree level in the University of Wales, though the only existing courses in the language at University level are as part of a course in Cornish Studies at the University of Exeter, or as part of the distance-learning Welsh degree from the University of Wales, Lampeter. In March 2008, Benjamin Bruch started teaching the language as part of the Celtic Studies curriculum at the University of Vienna, Austria. The Cornish language has been recognised as a minority language by the UK government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. This follows years of pressure by interest groups such as Mebyon Kernow and Kesva an Taves Kernewek. A first complete edition of the New Testament in Cornish, Nicholas Williams' translation of the Testament Noweth agan Arluth ha Savyour Jesu Cryst, was published at Easter 2002 by Spyrys a Gernow (ISBN 0-9535975-4-7); it uses Unified Cornish Revised orthography. The translation was made from the Greek text, and incorporated John Tregear's existing translations with slight revisions. In August 2004, Kesva an Taves Kernewek published another Cornish translation of the New Testament (ISBN 1-902917-33-2), translated by six Bards of Gorseth Kernow under the leadership of Keith Syed; it uses Kernewek Kemmyn orthography. It was launched in a ceremony in Truro Cathedral attended by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Celtic Congress and Celtic League are groups that advocate cooperation amongst the Celtic Nations in order to protect and promote Celtic languages and cultures, thus working in the interests of the Cornish language. The English composer Peter Warlock, an enthusiast for the Celtic languages, wrote a Christmas carol in Cornish. Cornish electronic musician Richard D James has often used Cornish names for track titles, most notably on his DrukQs album. Phonetics and phonology The pronunciation of traditional Cornish is a matter of conjecture, but users of Revived Cornish are more or less agreed about the phonology they use. Consonants This is a table of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). bilabiallabio-dentaldentalalveolarpost-alveolarpalatallabio-velarvelarglottalplosive nasal fricative approximant lateral approximant Vowels These are tables of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). +Short vowels Front Central Back Close Near-close Mid Open-mid Near-open Open +Long vowels Front Central Back Close Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Grammar Cornish is a member of the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages, and shares many of the characteristics of the other Insular Celtic languages. These include:Initial consonant mutation. The first sound of a Cornish word may change according to grammatical context. There are four types of mutation in Cornish (compared to three in Welsh and two in Irish). These are known as soft (b -> v, etc.), hard (b -> p), aspirate (b unchanged, t -> th) and mixed (b -> f). +Consonant Mutation in Cornish (spelled as in Kernwek Kemmyn) Unmutatedconsonant Soft mutation Aspirate mutation Hard mutation Mixed mutation pbf tdth kgh bvpf ddhtt g1disappearskh g²wkhw gwwkwhw mvf chj 1 Before unrounded vowels, l, and r (provided it is followed by an unrounded vowel). ² Before rounded vowels, and r (provided it is followed by a rounded vowel). inflected (or conjugated) prepositions. A preposition combines with a personal pronoun to give a separate word form. For example, gans (with, by) + my (me) -> genef; gans + ef (him) -> ganso.A zero indefinite article. Cath means "a cat" (there is, however a definite article: an gath means "the cat").For other grammatical characteristics of Cornish, see the section on grammar in the Welsh language article, until this section is finished.Pronouns Personal pronouns (Late Cornish) Person Singular Plural First me nye Second che why Third e, eve (masc.), hye (fem.) angye, gye Dialects Traditional Cornish would have probably had regional varieties, but due to the nature of revival, modern varieties have more to do with differences of opinion. There are, essentially, four orthographic 'dialects' of Revived Cornish, but in linguistic terms, Unified Cornish and Common Cornish reflect Middle Cornish grammar and pronunciation while Revived Late Cornish favours Late Cornish grammar and punctuation. UCR stands somewhere between but closer to the Middle Cornish end of the spectrum. The two new proposed compromise orthographies, Kernowak Standard and Kernowek Dasunys attempt to represent both dialects of Revived Cornish. It is also possible that a variety of Cornish was spoken in Devon as late as the 14th century: Then President of the Devonshire Association, Sir Henry Duke, said in 1922 that "various writers have made (assertions) of the continuance of British occupancy and of the British tongue in South and West Devon to a time well within the reigns of the Plantagenets. Risdon, for example, says that the Celtic tongue was spoken throughout the South Hams in Edward the First's time". Some people from Devon have begun to learn a language based on Joseph Biddulph's booklet A handbook of Westcountry Brythonic which attempts to recreate the hypothetical southwestern Brythonic tongue which would have been spoken in the southwestern peninsula in around 700AD. However these self-published booklets have been heavily criticised by other scholars. Examples Comparison table This table compares some Cornish words (written using UCR, Kernewek Kemmyn and the Standard Written Form Cornish Language Partnership - Outline of SWF (pdf) orthographies) with equivalents from its sister Brythonic languages of Welsh and Breton and its cousin languages Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. Cornish (UCR) Cornish (KK) Cornish (SWF) Welsh Breton Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx English Kernowek Kernewek Kernewek, Kernowek Cernyweg Kerneveureg Coirnis Còrnais Cornish Cornish gwenenen gwenenenn gwenenen gwenynen gwenanenn beach seillean, beach shellan bee chayr, cadar kador kador, cador cadair kador cathaoir cathair caair chair cues keus keus caws keuz cáis càise caashey cheese yn mes yn-mes yn-mes tu fas, tu allan er-maez amuigh / amach a-muigh / a-mach y-mooie / (y-)magh outside codha koedha kodha, codha codwm, disgyn, syrthio, cwympo, kouezhañ titim tuiteam tuittym (to) fall gavar gaver gaver gafr gavr/gaor gabhar gobhar/gabhar goayr goat chy chi chi, chei tŷ ti tigh/teach taigh thie house gwues gweus gweus gwefus gweuz béal/beol (plural beola/beolta); liopa/lioba bile/liopa meill lip ryver, aber aber aber aber aber inbhear inbhir inver mouth (river), inlet, fjord nyver niver niver rhif, nifer niver uimhir/ríomh/áireamh àireamh earroo number peren perenn peren gellygen, peren perenn piorra peur / piar peear pear scol skol skol, scol ysgol skol scoil sgoil scoill school megy megi megi, megy ysmygu mogediñ gal / tabac a chaitheamh smocainn smookal (to) smoke steren sterenn steren seren steredenn réalt reult / rionnag reealt star hedhyw hedhyw hedhyw heddiw hizhiv/hizio inniu/inniubh an-diugh jiu today whybana hwibana hwibana, whibana chwibanu c'hwibanat feadaíl feadghal feddanagh (to) whistle whel hwel hwel, whel chwarel arvez cairéal coireall/cuaraidh quarral quarry Common phrases The spelling and pronunciation below use the Standard Written Form: CornishIPAEnglishMyttin da "good morning"Dydh da "good day"Fatla genes? "how are you?"Yn poynt da, meur ras "Well, thank you"Py eur yw? "What time is it?"Ple'ma Rysrudh, mar pleg? "Where is Redruth please?"Yma Rysrudh ogas dhe Gambron, heb mar! "Redruth is near Camborne, of course!" In popular culture Cornish is spoken by some characters in Enid Blyton's Famous Five novel, Five Go Down to the Sea. Cornish immigrant miners are depicted speaking Cornish in the TV series Deadwood. Several track titles form the Aphex Twin album Drukqs are in Cornish. "Aphex Twin - Drukqs" at Discogs Gwenno Saunders is bilingual in Cornish and English See also List of Celtic language media Languages in the United Kingdom List of topics related to Cornwall language revival The Cornish Language Council (Cussel an Tavas Kernuak) European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages Irish language revival References Bibliography Ellis, Peter B. (1974) The Cornish Language and its Literature. London: Routledge Ellis, Peter B. (1971) The Story of the Cornish Language. Truro: Tor Mark Press Jackson, Kenneth (1953) Language and History in Early Britain. Weatherhill, Craig (1995) Cornish Place Names & Language''. Wilmslow: Sigma Press (reissued in 1998, 2000) ISBN 1-85058-462-1 External links A Handbook of the Cornish Language, by Henry Jenner A Project Gutenberg eBook Cornish Language Partnership website A Cornish Internet radio station in nascent state featuring weekly podcasts in Cornish Spellyans - Standard Written Form Cornish discussion list UdnFormScrefys' site for the proposed compromise orthography, Kernowek Standard List of localized software in Cornish Blas Kernewek - A Taste of Cornish - basic Cornish lessons hosted by BBC Cornwall Cornish Language Fellowship Cornish today by Kenneth MacKinnon - from the BBC A short Cornish - English - Japanese phrasebook with pronunciation Bibel Kernewek Cornish Bible Translation Project Cowethas Peran Sans Cornish Christian fellowship promoting use of Cornish in prayer and worship Dictionaries Cornish-English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary Rosetta Edition. Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum: a Dictionary of the Ancient Celtic Language of Cornwall by Robert Williams, Llandovery, 1865. be-x-old:Корнская мова | Cornish_language |@lemmatized cornish:240 english:30 dialect:11 see:7 west:6 country:1 list:5 word:11 language:149 kernewek:18 kernowek:11 one:8 brythonic:7 group:13 celtic:19 continue:5 function:1 community:1 part:11 cornwall:37 late:17 century:23 process:1 revive:13 start:4 early:11 day:3 success:2 revival:12 begin:2 henry:6 jenner:6 enthusiast:3 publish:19 book:6 handbook:6 work:15 base:8 speak:16 although:3 pupil:1 robert:4 morton:2 nance:8 later:1 steer:1 style:3 become:4 influence:3 set:4 tone:1 next:4 decade:2 gain:3 pace:1 learner:3 disagree:1 use:26 number:12 compete:1 orthography:18 end:3 nevertheless:3 many:18 textbook:1 literature:6 increase:2 people:14 study:10 recent:2 development:3 include:9 music:2 partnership:11 independent:4 film:5 clip:1 child:4 small:1 bring:2 bilingual:3 native:2 speaker:17 ethnologue:1 teach:7 school:6 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7,642 | Protection_(poker) | In poker, protection is a bet made with a strong but vulnerable hand, such as top pair when straight or flush draws are possible. The bet forces opponents with draws to either call with insufficient pot odds, or to fold, both of which are profitable for the betting player. By contrast, if he failed to protect his hand, another player could draw out on him at no cost, meaning he gets no value from his made hand. A protection play differs from a bluff in that the bluff can win only when the opponent folds, while protection bet is made with a hand that is likely to win a showdown, but isn't strong enough for slow playing. The importance of protection increases when there are multiple opponents. For example, if a hand is presently the best, but each of four opponents has a 1-in-6 chance of drawing an out, the four opponents combined become the favorite to win, even though each one is individually an underdog. With a protection bet, some or all of them may fold, leaving fewer opponents and a better chance of winning. The term protection is also often heard in the context of an all-in player (see poker table stakes rules). A bet by an opponent serves to protect the all-in player by reducing the number of opponents the all-in player must beat. To deliberately make such a bet solely to protect another player's hand constitutes collusion. A player may also be said to "protect" his or her cards by placing an object like a specialty chip or miniature figure upon them. This prevents the player from having his cards accidentally collected by the dealer or being fouled by other players' discards. See also Poker jargon Poker strategy Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Check-raise plays Defense plays Drawing plays Isolation plays Position plays Slow plays Stealing plays | Protection_(poker) |@lemmatized poker:4 protection:6 bet:6 make:4 strong:2 vulnerable:1 hand:6 top:1 pair:1 straight:1 flush:1 draw:5 possible:1 force:1 opponent:8 either:1 call:1 insufficient:1 pot:1 odds:1 fold:3 profitable:1 betting:1 player:9 contrast:1 fail:1 protect:4 another:2 could:1 cost:1 mean:1 get:1 value:1 play:10 differs:1 bluff:3 win:4 likely:1 showdown:1 enough:1 slow:2 playing:1 importance:1 increase:1 multiple:1 example:1 presently:1 best:1 four:2 chance:2 combine:1 become:1 favorite:1 even:1 though:1 one:1 individually:1 underdog:1 may:2 leave:1 good:1 term:1 also:3 often:1 hear:1 context:1 see:2 table:1 stake:1 rule:1 serve:1 reduce:1 number:1 must:1 beat:1 deliberately:1 solely:1 constitutes:1 collusion:1 say:1 card:2 place:1 object:1 like:1 specialty:1 chip:1 miniature:1 figure:1 upon:1 prevent:1 accidentally:1 collect:1 dealer:1 foul:1 discard:1 jargon:1 strategy:1 aggressive:1 check:1 raise:1 defense:1 isolation:1 position:1 steal:1 |@bigram straight_flush:1 pot_odds:1 poker_jargon:1 jargon_poker:1 |
7,643 | Demographics_of_Burkina_Faso | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Burkina Faso, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Burkina Faso, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Burkina Faso's 15,3 million people belong to two major West African cultural groups--the Gur and the Mande. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the Mossi, who make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso and established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi are still bound by the traditions of the Mogho Naba, who hold court in Ouagadougou. About 12,000 Europeans reside in Burkina Faso, the majority are French. Most of Burkina's people are concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.). This population density, high for Africa, causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe to Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana for seasonal agricultural work. About a third of Burkinabe adhere to traditional African religions. The introduction of Islam to Burkina Faso was initially resisted by the Mossi rulers. Christians, predominantly Roman Catholics, are largely concentrated among the urban elite. Few Burkinabe have had formal education. Schooling is free but not compulsory, and only about 29% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. The University of Ouagadougou, founded in 1974, was the country's first institution of higher education. The Polytechnical University in Bobo-Dioulasso was opened in 1995. Bobo men in Bobo-Dioulasso CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 15,264,735 Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age structure Population pyramid 0-14 years: 46.8% (male 3,267,202/female 3,235,190) 15-64 years: 50.7% (male 3,513,559/female 3,538,623) 65 years and over: 2.5% (male 140,083/female 208,315) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 16.5 years Male: 16.3 years Female: 16.7 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 3% (2006 est.) Birth rate 45.62 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 15.6 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 91.35 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 99.17 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 83.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 48.85 years Male: 47.33 years Female: 50.42 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 6.47 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 300,000 (2003 est.) Deaths: 29,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne disease: malaria is a high risk in some locations Water contact disease: schistosomiasis Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2005) Nationality Noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural) Adjective: Burkinabe Ethnic groups Mossi - over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Fulani, Mandé, European Religions Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 30%, Indigenous beliefs 20% Languages French (official), native African languages (spoken by 90% of the population) including: More, Dioula, Gurma, Senufo Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 26.6% Male: 36.9% Female: 16.6% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:17 burkina:8 faso:6 include:3 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:4 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:14 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:2 million:1 people:3 belong:1 two:1 major:2 west:1 african:3 cultural:1 group:2 gur:1 mande:1 voltaic:1 far:1 numerous:1 mossi:5 make:1 one:1 half:1 claim:1 descent:1 warrior:1 migrate:1 present:1 day:1 establish:1 empire:1 last:1 predominantly:2 farmer:1 still:1 bind:1 tradition:1 mogho:1 naba:1 hold:1 court:1 ouagadougou:2 european:2 reside:1 majority:1 french:2 concentrate:1 south:1 center:1 country:3 sometimes:1 exceed:1 per:1 square:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mi:1 high:5 africa:1 cause:1 annual:1 migration:2 hundred:1 burkinabe:5 côte:1 ivoire:1 ghana:1 seasonal:1 agricultural:1 work:1 third:1 adhere:1 traditional:1 religion:2 introduction:1 islam:1 initially:1 resist:1 ruler:1 christian:2 roman:2 catholic:2 largely:1 concentrated:1 among:1 urban:1 elite:1 formal:1 schooling:1 free:1 compulsory:1 primary:1 school:1 age:5 child:2 receive:1 basic:1 university:2 found:1 first:1 institution:1 polytechnical:1 bobo:4 dioulasso:2 open:1 men:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 note:1 estimate:1 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:3 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 infant:2 death:7 rate:9 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:15 structure:1 pyramid:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 total:6 birth:7 net:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 live:4 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 infectious:1 disease:5 degree:1 risk:2 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 protozoal:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 location:1 water:1 contact:1 schistosomiasis:1 respiratory:1 meningococcal:1 meningitis:1 nationality:1 noun:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 gurunsi:1 senufo:2 lobi:1 fulani:1 mandé:1 muslim:1 mainly:1 indigenous:1 belief:1 language:2 official:1 native:1 speak:1 dioula:1 gurma:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:6 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 square_kilometer:1 kilometer_sq:1 sq_mi:1 hundred_thousand:1 côte_ivoire:1 bobo_dioulasso:2 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_protozoal:1 protozoal_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 meningococcal_meningitis:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 literacy_definition:1 |
7,644 | Nichiren_Buddhism | Nichiren Buddhism (日蓮系諸宗派: Nichiren-kei sho shūha) is a branch of Buddhism based on the teachings of the 13th century Japanese monk Nichiren (1222–1282). Nichiren Buddhism is a comprehensive term covering several major schools and many sub-schools, as well as several of Japan's new religions. Various forms of Nichiren Buddhism have had great influence among certain sections of Japanese society at different times in the country's history, such as among the merchants of Kyoto in Japan's Middle Ages and among some ultranationalists during the pre-World War II era. Nichiren Buddhism is generally noted for its focus on the Lotus Sutra and an attendant belief that all people have an innate Buddha nature and are therefore inherently capable of attaining enlightenment in their current form and present lifetime. It is also noted for positioning itself in opposition to other forms of Japanese Buddhism—in particular the Zen, Pure Land, esoteric, Shingon, and Ritsu schools, which Nichiren saw as deviating from the orthodoxy of Mahayana Buddhism. An evangelical streak is evinced by some schools' practice of shakubuku, efforts to convert others by refuting their current beliefs and convincing them of the validity of Nichiren's teachings. Nichiren Buddhists believe that the spread of Nichiren's teachings and their effect on practitioners' lives will eventually bring about a peaceful, just, and prosperous society. The founder, Nichiren From the age of 16 until 32, Nichiren studied in numerous temples in Japan, especially Mt. Hiei (Enryakuji) and Mt. Kōya, in his day the Japanese centers of Buddhist study, in the Kyoto–Nara area. He eventually concluded that the highest teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha (563?-483?BC) were to be found in the Lotus Sutra. The mantra he expounded on 28 April 1253, Nam-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, expresses his devotion to that body of teachings. During his lifetime Nichiren stridently maintained that the contemporary teachings of Buddhism taught by other sects (particularly Nembutsu, Zen, Shingon, and Ritsu cf. "four dictums" (四箇の格言 shika no kakugen) entries in The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 215, and Kyōgaku Yōgo Kaisetsu Shū, p. 54 ) were mistaken in their interpretations of the correct path to enlightenment and therefore refuted them publicly and vociferously. In doing so, he provoked the ire of the country's rulers and of the priests of the sects he criticized; he was subjected to persecution which included an attempted beheading and at least two exiles. Some Nichiren schools see the incident of the attempted beheading as marking a turning point in Nichiren's teaching, since Nichiren began inscribing the Gohonzon and wrote a number of major doctrinal treatises during his subsequent three-year exile on Sado Island in the Japan Sea. After a pardon and his return from exile, Nichiren moved to Mt. Minobu in today's Yamanashi Prefecture, where he and his disciples built a temple, Kuonji. Nichiren spent most of the rest of his life here training disciples and looking after lay believers. Schools Today, Nichiren Buddhism is not a single denomination (see following lists). It began to branch into different schools within several years of Nichiren's passing, before which Nichiren had named six senior priests (rokurōsō) whom he wanted to transmit his teachings to future generations: Nisshō (日昭), Nichirō (日朗), Nikō (日向), Nitchō (日頂), Nichiji (日持), and Nikkō (日興). Each started a lineage of schools, but Nichiji eventually travelled to the Asian continent (ca. 1295) and was never heard from again, and Nitchō later in life (1302) rejoined and became a follower of Nikkō. Shimpan Bukkyō Tetsugaku Daijiten, p. 1368 The reasons for the splits are numerous, entangled, and subject to different interpretations depending on which school is telling the story; suffice it to say that the senior priests had different understandings of what Nichiren's lifetime of teaching was about. Although the former five remained loosely affiliated to varying degrees, the last—Nikkō—made a clean break by leaving Kuon-ji in 1289. He had come to the conclusion that Nikō and the others were embarking on paths to heresy that he could not stem. Kuon-ji eventually became the central temple of today's Nichiren Shu, one of the two largest branches and the one encompassing the numerous minor schools of the Minobu branch into which most of the schools started by Nisshō, Nichirō, and Nichiji have been subsumed. The other dominant branch is centered at Taiseki-ji, the head temple of today's Nichiren Shoshu school. Taiseki-ji, which Nikkō founded in 1290 after leaving Kuon-ji, was the starting point for the other schools of the Kōmon-ha (興門派, kō from Nikkō) or Fuji-ha (富士派, from the locality) branch. Other traditional Nichiren schools include several sub-schools that call themselves just Hokke Shū, the Honmon Butsuryū Shū, and the Kempon Hokke Shū. Several of Japan's new religions are also sub-sects of or otherwise based on one or another of the traditional Nichiren schools. The Reiyūkai, Risshō Kōsei Kai, and Nipponzan Myōhōji Sangha stem from one or another of the Kuon-ji/Minobu branch schools, whereas Soka Gakkai, Shōshinkai, and Kenshōkai trace their origins to the Nichiren Shoshu school. Soka Gakkai International, defined as a lay buddhist organization (independent of clergy), and the largest group, is credited as the leading school revitalizing and sharing Nichiren Buddhism to over 10 million practitioners throughout the world since WWII. Major Nichiren Buddhist schools The following lists are from the Japanese Wikipedia article on Nichiren Buddhism. Traditional schools and their head temples Head temple names are given in Roman letters only when the reading could be confirmed. Japanese characters preceded by "ja:" link to articles in the Japanese Wikipedia. Nichiren Shū: Sozan Minobuzan Kuon-ji :ja:日蓮宗 祖山身延山:ja:久遠寺 Nichiren Shōshū: Sōhonzan Taiseki-ji :ja:日蓮正宗 総本山:ja:大石寺 Honmon Butsuryū Shū :ja:本門佛立宗 大本山宥清寺 Kempon Hokke Shu: Sōhonzan Myōman-ji :ja:顕本法華宗 総本山妙満寺 Hokkeshū, Honmon Ryū 法華宗（本門流）大本山光長寺・鷲山寺・本興寺･本能寺 Hokkeshū, Jinmon Ryū 法華宗（陣門流）総本山本成寺 Hokkeshū, Shinmon Ryū 法華宗（真門流）総本山本隆寺 Honmon Hokke Shū: Daihonzan Myōren-ji 本門法華宗 大本山妙蓮寺 Nichiren Honshū: Honzan Yōbō-ji :ja:日蓮本宗 本山:ja:要法寺 Nichiren Shū Fuju-Fuse-ha: Sozan Myōkaku-ji :ja:日蓮宗不受不施派 祖山妙覚寺 Nichiren Hokke Shū 日蓮法華宗 大本山正福寺 Hokke Nichiren Shū 法華日蓮宗 総本山宝龍寺 Hompa Nichiren Shū 本派日蓮宗 総本山宗祖寺 Honke Nichiren Shū (Hyōgo) 本化日蓮宗（兵庫） 総本山妙見寺 Fuju-Fuse Nichiren Kōmon Shū 不受不施日蓮講門宗 本山本覚寺 Honke Nichiren Shū (Kyōto) 本化日蓮宗（京都）本山石塔寺 Shōbō Hokke Shū 正法法華宗 本山大教寺 Honmon Kyōō Shū 本門経王宗 本山日宏寺 Nichiren Kōmon Shū 日蓮講門宗 Non-traditional schools Reiyūkai :ja:霊友会 (Spiritual-Friendship-Association) Founded in 1920 by Kakutaro Kubo and Kimi Kotani, Reiyūkai considers itself the grandfather of lay-based new religions devoted to the Lotus Sutra and ancestor veneration. Risshō Kōsei Kai :ja:立正佼成会 Nipponzan Myōhōji :ja:日本山妙法寺 Kokuchukai|Kokuchūkai :ja:国柱会 (also 國柱会) Shōshinkai :ja:正信会 Fuji Taisekiji Kenshōkai (also, just Kenshōkai) :ja:富士大石寺顕正会 Honmon Shōshū 本門正宗 Lay organizations Sōka Gakkai :ja:創価学会 (also, Soka Gakkai International (SGI))Note: Though many sources (e.g., Britannica online; Illustrated, p. 1443; Cambridge, p. 175; Iwanami, p. 679) characterize Sōka Gakkai as one of Japan’s new religions or as a lay-followers organization of Nichiren Shoshu (to which it has not been affiliated since the early 1990s). Sōka Gakkai and its constituent organizations position themselves as lay organizations whose purpose is to support practitioners of Nichiren Buddhism. Doctrine and practices Much of Nichiren Buddhist doctrine is, at least on the surface, a further development or adaptation of Tendai (Chinese: Tiantai) thought, especially as passed down from Saichō (also known as Dengyō; 767–822). For example, as in Tendai but in contrast to many other Buddhist schools, most Nichiren Buddhists believe that personal enlightenment can be achieved in this world within the practitioner's current lifetime (即身成仏: sokushin jōbutsu). Markedly different from Tendai and any other Buddhist lineage is the Nichiren Buddhists' practice of chanting odaimoku, the repeated recitation of the mantra (phrase) Nam-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, in some denominations also pronounced Namu-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō. Most Nichiren schools also recite the Lotus Sutra (in Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese text) to varying degrees in their respective versions of the often daily or twice-daily gongyō service. Other details of Nichiren Buddhist practice can differ widely depending on the school. Some recite the whole Lotus Sutra, while others recite only certain chapters, parts of chapters, or verses. Some worship Buddhist statues or images and the Gohonzon, a mandala Nichiren provided for his followers during his lifetime; others worship only statues or images of various types; whereas yet others venerate only a particular Gohonzon and transcriptions of it. Some schools (chiefly those stemming from Kuon-ji) keep Shinto shrines in their temple compounds and permit or encourage worship of indigenous Japanese deities, while those stemming from Taiseki-ji tend to be very strict about their prohibition against worship of anything other than the Gohonzon or even the mixing of doctrines from other schools. Some schools are virulently nationalistic; others are not and are further strictly pacifist. Further, Nichiren Shoshu and other schools stemming from the priest Nikkō consider Nichiren to be the True (or Original) Buddha, whereas Nichiren Shu and the others descendant from the other six senior priests see him as a saint, great teacher, or prophet. Schools provide more information on their particular differences. Nichiren's writings Nichiren was a prolific writer. His personal communications and writings to his followers as well as numerous treatises detail his view of the correct form of practice for the Latter Day of the Law (Mappō); lay out his views on other Buddhist schools, particularly those of influence during his lifetime; and elucidate his interpretations of Buddhist teachings that preceded his. These writings are collectively known as Gosho (go is an honorific prefix designating respect; sho means writings) in some schools and go-ibun ("left-behind writings") in others. Over 700 of them, some complete and some only in fragments, have been passed down through the centuries in compilations, as copies, and even many in the original. Some are also available in English translation, most notably in Letters of Nichiren and Selected Writings of Nichiren in the Translations from the Asian Classics series from Columbia University Press; more-sectarian translations of some of his writings are also available. See also: Tendai and Tiantai Sources and references English A Dictionary of Buddhist Terms and Concepts. Nichiren Shoshu International Center, 1983 (Out of print) Selected Writings of Nichiren. Burton Watson et al., trans.; Philip B. Yampolsky, ed. Columbia University Press, 1990 Letters of Nichiren. Burton Watson et al., trans.; Philip B. Yampolsky, ed. Columbia University Press, 1996Full disclosure statement: Although Soka Gakkai retains the copyrights on the foregoing three works and financed their publication, they show some deviation from similar works published under Soka Gakkai's own name. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan. Paul Bowring and Peter Kornicki, eds. Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-40352-9 (Referred to in text as Cambridge.) Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kondansha, 1993, ISBN 4-06-205938-X; CD-ROM version, 1999. (Referred to in text as Illustrated.) The Doctrines and Practice of Nichiren Shoshu. Nichiren Shoshu Overseas Bureau, 2002 The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism. Soka Gakkai, 2002, ISBN 4-412-01205-0 Japanese Nichiren Shōshū yōgi (日蓮正宗要義; "The essential tenets of Nichiren Shoshu"). Taiseki-ji, 1978, rev. ed. 1999 Shimpan Bukkyō Tetsugaku Daijiten (新版 仏教哲学大辞典: "Grand dictionary of Buddhist philosophy, rev. ed."). Seikyo Shimbunsha, 1985. No ISBN. Nichiren Shōshū-shi no kisoteki kenkyū (日蓮正宗史の基礎的研究; "A study of fundaments of Nichiren Shoshu history"). (Rev.) Yamaguchi Handō. Sankibo Bussho-rin, 1993. ISBN 4-7963-0763-X Iwanami Nihonshi Jiten (岩波 日本史辞典: "Iwanami dictionary of Japanese history"). Iwanami Shoten, 1999. ISBN 4-00-080093-0 (Referred to in text as Iwanami.) Nichiren Shōshū Nyūmon (日蓮正宗入門; "Introduction to Nichiren Shoshu"). Taiseki-ji, 2002 Kyōgaku Yōgo Kaisetsu Shū (教学解説用語集; "Glossary of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhist terms"). Rev. Kyōdō Enoki, comp. Watō Henshūshitsu, 2006. Famous Nichiren Buddhists Nestor Torres Orlando Bloom Vinessa Shaw Miranda Kerr Herbie Hancock Footnotes External links Kempon Hokke Shu U.S. site Nichiren Shoshu's English website Nichiren Shu official website Nichiren's Coffeehouse interfaith directory Soka Gakkai International Nichiren Buddhist Association of America Digitized copy of a Gohonzon inscribed by Nichiren ReligionFacts.com on Nichiren Buddhism Contains some inaccuracies; e.g., the photo of an altar is not of a Nichiren Shoshu one. 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7,645 | Denormalization | Denormalization is the process of attempting to optimize the performance of a database by adding redundant data or by grouping data. In some cases, denormalization helps cover up the inefficiencies inherent in relational database software. A relational normalized database imposes a heavy access load over physical storage of data even if it is well tuned for high performance. A normalized design will often store different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations). If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a join operation) can be slow. If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this. The preferred method is to keep the logical design normalized, but allow the database management system (DBMS) to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent. This method is often implemented in SQL as indexed views (Microsoft SQL Server) or materialized views (Oracle). A view represents information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized. The more usual approach is to denormalize the logical data design. With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost—it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent. This is done by creating rules in the database called constraints, that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized. It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, constraints introduce a trade-off, speeding up reads (SELECT in SQL) while slowing down writes (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE). This means a denormalized database under heavy write load may actually offer worse performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart. A denormalized data model is not the same as a data model that has not been normalized, and denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in third normal form and any relations with join and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately. Examples of a denormalization techniques include: materialized views, which may implement the following: storing the count of the "many" objects in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the "one" relation adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined star schemas which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas prebuilt summarization or OLAP cubes See also Cache | Denormalization |@lemmatized denormalization:4 process:1 attempt:1 optimize:3 performance:3 database:10 add:2 redundant:4 data:6 group:1 case:2 help:1 cover:1 inefficiency:1 inherent:2 relational:2 software:2 normalized:2 impose:1 heavy:2 access:1 load:2 physical:1 storage:1 even:1 well:1 tune:1 high:1 design:5 often:2 store:4 different:1 related:1 piece:1 information:5 separate:2 logical:4 table:1 call:2 relation:9 physically:1 disk:2 file:1 complete:1 query:5 draw:1 several:1 join:4 operation:1 slow:3 many:3 may:3 prohibitively:1 two:1 strategy:1 deal:2 preferred:1 method:2 keep:2 normalize:3 allow:1 management:1 system:1 dbms:2 additional:2 response:2 responsibility:2 ensure:3 copy:2 kept:1 consistent:1 implement:2 sql:3 indexed:1 view:5 microsoft:1 server:1 materialize:1 oracle:1 represent:1 format:1 convenient:1 index:1 usual:1 approach:2 denormalize:1 care:1 achieve:1 similar:1 improvement:1 cost:1 designer:1 denormalized:3 become:1 inconsistent:1 create:2 rule:2 constraint:4 specify:1 must:1 synchronized:1 increase:1 complexity:2 added:1 make:1 hazardous:1 moreover:1 introduce:1 trade:1 speed:1 read:1 select:1 writes:1 insert:1 update:1 delete:1 mean:1 write:1 actually:1 offer:1 bad:1 functionally:1 equivalent:1 counterpart:1 model:3 take:2 place:2 satisfactory:1 level:1 normalization:1 required:1 anomaly:1 example:2 third:1 normal:1 form:1 multi:1 value:1 dependency:1 handle:1 appropriately:1 technique:1 include:1 materialized:1 following:1 count:1 object:1 one:2 relationship:1 attribute:2 another:1 star:1 schema:1 also:2 know:1 fact:1 dimension:1 extend:1 snowflake:1 schemas:1 prebuilt:1 summarization:1 olap:1 cube:1 see:1 cache:1 |@bigram relational_database:1 microsoft_sql:1 sql_server:1 functionally_equivalent:1 |
7,646 | Coen_brothers | Joel Coen and Ethan Coen, known together professionally as the Coen brothers, are American filmmakers. For more than twenty years, the pair have written and directed numerous successful films, ranging from screwball comedies (O Brother, Where Art Thou?, Raising Arizona, The Hudsucker Proxy) to hardboiled thrillers (Miller's Crossing, Blood Simple, The Man Who Wasn't There, No Country for Old Men ), to movies where genres blur together (Fargo, The Big Lebowski, Barton Fink and Burn After Reading). The brothers write, direct and produce their films jointly, although until recently Joel received sole credit for directing and Ethan for producing. They often alternate top billing for their screenplays while sharing film credits for editor under the alias Roderick Jaynes. They are known in the film business as "the two-headed director", as they share a similar vision of their films. Actors can approach either brother with a question and get the same answer. Biography Joel Coen (born November 29, 1954) and Ethan Coen (born September 21, 1957) grew up in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis. Their parents, Edward and Rena Coen, both Jewish, were professors, their father an economist at the University of Minnesota and their mother an art historian at St. Cloud State University. When they were children, Joel saved money from mowing lawns to buy a Vivitar Super 8 camera. Together, the brothers remade movies they saw on television with a neighborhood kid, Mark Zimering ("Zeimers"), as the star. Their first attempt was a romp titled, Henry Kissinger, Man on the Go. Cornel Wilde's The Naked Prey (1966) became their Zeimers in Zambia, which also featured Ethan as a native with a spear. The brothers graduated from Saint Louis Park High School in 1973 and 1976. They both also graduated from Simon's Rock College of Bard in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Joel then spent four years in the undergraduate film program at New York University where he made a 30-minute thesis film called Soundings. The film depicted a woman engaged in sex with her deaf boyfriend while verbally fantasizing about having sex with her boyfriend's best friend, who is listening in the next room. Ethan went on to Princeton University and earned an undergraduate degree in philosophy in 1979. His senior thesis was a 41-page essay, "Two Views of Wittgenstein's Later Philosophy." In the late 1970s, both brothers lived in the Weinstein dormitory at 5-11 University Place, an NYU dorm noted for housing such creatives as Ralph Bakshi, Rick Rubin, and film makers Chris Columbus and Dan Goldman. Personal life Joel has been married to actress Frances McDormand since 1984. They adopted a son from Paraguay, named Pedro McDormand Coen (Frances and all her siblings are adopted themselves). McDormand has starred in six of the Coen Brothers' films, including a minor appearance in Miller's Crossing, a supporting role in Raising Arizona, lead roles in Blood Simple and The Man Who Wasn't There, her Academy Award winning role in Fargo, and her latest starring role in Burn After Reading. Ethan is married to film editor Tricia Cooke. Both couples live in New York City. Career The 1980s After graduating from NYU Joel worked as a production assistant on a variety of industrial films and music videos. He developed a talent for film editing and met Sam Raimi who was looking for an assistant editor on his first feature film The Evil Dead (1981). In 1984, the brothers wrote and directed Blood Simple, their first film together. Set in Texas, the film tells the tale of a shifty, sleazy bar owner who hires a private detective to kill his wife and her lover. Within this film are considerable elements that point toward their future direction: their own subverted homages to genre movies (in this case noir and horror) and clever plot twists layered over a simplistic story; their darkly inventive and twisted sense of humor; and their mastery of atmosphere. The film starred Frances McDormand who would go on to feature in many of the Coen brothers' films (and marry Joel Coen). Upon release the film received much praise and won awards for Joel's direction at both the Sundance and Independent Spirit awards. The next Coen brothers project to hit the big screen was 1985's Crimewave directed by Sam Raimi. The film was written by the brothers and Sam Raimi with whom Joel had worked on The Evil Dead. The next film written and directed by the brothers was the 1987 hit, Raising Arizona. The film is the story of the unlikely married couple ex-convict H.I. (played by Nicolas Cage) and ex-cop Ed (played by Holly Hunter) who long for a baby but are unable to conceive. Fortune smiles on them when a local furniture tycoon appears on television with his five newly born quintuplets that he jokes 'are more than we can handle'. Seeing this as a sign and an opportunity to redress the natural balance, H.I. and Ed steal one of the quintuplets and start to bring up the child as their own. Raising Arizona was much more accessible to the mass market with wacky slapstick comedy easing the action along amongst a somewhat darker humor. The 1990s Miller's Crossing was released in 1990, a straight-ahead homage to the gangster movie genre. Starring Albert Finney, Gabriel Byrne and future Coen brothers' staple John Turturro, the film is set during the prohibition era of the 1930s and tells the tale of feuding mobs and gangster capers. The film was praised for its dialogue and characterization. Typical of the brothers' oeuvre are the touches of dark humor and plot twists that were already becoming recurring features of their work. The Coen brothers' reputation was seemingly enhanced with every subsequent release, but it took a massive leap forward with their next movie, 1991s Barton Fink. Barton Fink is set in 1941 and is the story of a New York playwright (the eponymous Barton Fink played by John Turturro) who moves to Los Angeles to write a B-movie. He settles down in his hotel apartment to commence the writing but all too soon gets writer's block and allows himself to receive some inspiration from the amiable man in the room next door (played by John Goodman), together with some industry associates. Inspiration comes from the strangest places, and the hotel is definitely unusual and a magnet for the bizarre. Barton Fink was a critical success, garnering Oscar nominations plus winning three major awards at Cannes Film Festival, including the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm). Barton Fink was the first of the brothers' films to use Director of Photography Roger Deakins, a key figure in the brothers' circle over the following 15 years. In 1994, with their stock at an all-time high, the brothers were able to attempt their first big-budget feature film The Hudsucker Proxy (co-written with Sam Raimi). The story revolves around a man who is made the head of a massive corporation with the expectation that he will ruin the company (so that the board can buy it for next to nothing); instead, he ends up inventing the hula hoop and becomes both a success and a "personality" overnight. The critics were, for once, lukewarm about the Coens' work, while Roger Deakins was universally praised for his skill as Director of Photography. The film was generally criticized for being "a pastiche too far." Most critics viewed the film as having nothing new to say due to its constant references and homages to classic movies of the 1930s and 40s. Many were disappointed by the Coens' first attempt at the big league. Perhaps more significantly, the film proved to be a massive commercial failure, making back only $3 million of its $25 million budget. Following the commercial failure of The Hudsucker Proxy, the brothers returned to more familiar ground in 1996 with the noir thriller Fargo. Set in the Coen brothers' home state of Minnesota, the movie tells the tale of Jerry Lundegaard (William H. Macy), a man with a money problem, who works in his father-in-law's car showroom. Jerry is anxious to get hold of some money to move up in the world and hatches a plan to have his wife kidnapped so that his wealthy father-in-law will pay the ransom that he can split with the kidnappers. Inevitably, his best laid plans go wrong when the bungling kidnappers deviate from the agreed non-violent plan and local cop Marge Gunderson (Frances McDormand) starts to investigate the whole affair. A critical and commercial success, with particular praise for its dialogue and McDormand's performance, the film received several awards including a BAFTA award and Cannes award for direction and two Oscars, one for Best Original Screenplay and a Best Actress Oscar for McDormand. The Coens' next film would build upon this success and in 1998 The Big Lebowski was released. With its story about "The Dude," an LA slacker (played by Jeff Bridges), used as an unwitting pawn in a fake kidnapping plot with his bowling buddies (Steve Buscemi and John Goodman), the Coens had hit on a film that would provide a mainstream accessibility that they had not enjoyed since Raising Arizona. Despite a lukewarm reception from the critics at the time, the film is now regarded as a cult classic. The 2000s Buoyed by the success of both Fargo and Lebowski, the Coen brothers' next film O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) was another critical success. The title was borrowed from the 1941 Preston Sturges film "Sullivan's Travels," whose lead character, movie director John Sullivan, had planned to make a film with that title. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0034240/trivia Based loosely on Homer's "Odyssey" (complete with a cyclops, sirens, et al.) the story is set in Mississippi in the 1930s and follows a trio of escaped convicts who have absconded from a chain gang and who journey home in an attempt to recover the loot from a bank heist that the leader has buried. But they have no idea what the journey is that they are undertaking. The film also highlighted the comic abilities of George Clooney who starred as the oddball lead character of Ulysses Everett McGill (assisted by his sidekicks, played by Tim Blake Nelson and John Turturro). The film's bluegrass and old time soundtrack, offbeat humor and, yet again, stunning cinematography, made it a critical and commercial hit. The soundtrack CD became even more successful than the film, spawning a concert, a concert DVD of its own (Down from the Mountain) that coincided with a resurgence in interest in American folk music. The Coen brothers produced another noirish thriller in 2001, The Man Who Wasn't There. Set in late 1940s California, the film tells the tale of a laconic chain smoking barber (played by Billy Bob Thornton), who in an effort to get some money together to invest in a dry cleaning business, decides to blackmail his wife's boss, who is also her lover. Unusual for a contemporary film, it was presented, though not shot, entirely in black and white. The film's twists and turns and dark humor were typical of Coen films, but here the slow build of the thriller, its dead-end roads look meant that the film was more for the purists rather than for casual audiences. Intolerable Cruelty, was released in 2003 and starred George Clooney and Catherine Zeta-Jones. The film was a throwback to the romantic comedies of the 1940s with a story based around Miles Massey, a hot shot divorce lawyer, and a beautiful divorcee whom Massey had managed to stop getting any money from her divorce. She sets out on a course to get even with him while he becomes smitten with her. Intolerable Cruelty divided the critics, some applauding the romantic screwball comedy elements of the movie, others enquiring as to why the Coens would wish to supply us with their take on this genre. In 2004, the Coen brothers made The Ladykillers, a remake of the Ealing Studios classic. The story revolves around a professor (played by Tom Hanks) who puts together a team to rob a casino. They rent a room in an elderly woman's house to execute the heist. When the woman discovers the plot, however, the gang decides to murder her to ensure her silence. This is easier said than done. The Coens received some of the most lukewarm reviews of their career with this movie; much criticism surmised that while the Coens have managed to make films in which a genre can be homaged or pastiched successfully, a relatively faithful reworking of an individual classic did not give them enough creative leeway to place a complete trademark touch on their work. No Country for Old Men, released in November 2007, was based on the 2005 novel by the author Cormac McCarthy, the film tells the tale of a man named Llewelyn (Josh Brolin) living on the Texas/Mexico border who stumbles upon two million dollars in drug money that he decides to pocket. He then has to go on the run to avoid those looking to recover the money, including a sinister killer (Javier Bardem) who confounds both Llewelyn and the local sheriff (Tommy Lee Jones). This plot line is a return to the dark, noir themes and also marks a notable departure, including a lack of regular Coen actors (with the exception of Stephen Root). The film has received nearly universal critical praise, garnering a 94% "Fresh" rating at Rotten Tomatoes. The film won four Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay, all of which were received by the Coens, as well as Best Supporting Actor received by Bardem. (The Coens, as "Roderick Jaynes", were also nominated for Best Editor, but lost.) It was the first time since 1961 (Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise for "West Side Story") that two directors had received the honor of Best Director at the same time. In January 2008, Ethan Coen's play Almost An Evening premiered Off-Broadway at the Atlantic Theater Company Stage 2 and opened to mostly enthusiastic reviews. The initial run closed on February 10, 2008 but was moved to a new theatre for a commercial Off-Broadway run. The commercial run began in March, 2008, and ran until June 1, 2008 at the Bleecker Street Theatre in New York City, produced by The Atlantic Theater Company Atlantic Theater Company and Art Meets Commerce. art meets commerce - web design, internet marketing, videos, theatricals, events Burn After Reading, a dark comedy starring Brad Pitt and George Clooney was released September 12, 2008. In its box office debut, it hit number one in North America. In 2009, they directed a television commercial for the Reality Coalition entitled "Air Freshener". Upcoming, planned films and uncompleted projects The Coens are currently filming A Serious Man, which has been described as a "gentle" but "dark" period (circa 1967) comedy with a low budget. The film is based loosely on their own childhoods in a Jewish academic family in the largely Jewish suburb of St Louis Park, Minnesota. Other filming took place in late summer 2008 in some neighborhoods of Bloomington, Minnesota, at Normandale Community College, and at St. Olaf College. In an interview with The Guardian in December 2007, the Coens said that they had written a Western, "with a lot of violence in it. There's scalping and hanging ... it's good. Indians torturing people with ants, cutting their eyelids off". In addition they hope to film James Dickey's novel To the White Sea. A project which has been mooted for several years is Hail Caesar, the third of the so called 'Numskull trilogy', a comedy starring George Clooney as a matinee idol making a biblical epic. However in an interview for the Los Angeles Times in February 2008, the Coens said that it did not exist as a script but only as an idea. It has been announced that the Coen brothers will write and direct an adaptation of Michael Chabon's novel, The Yiddish Policemen's Union. They will produce the film with Scott Rudin for Columbia Pictures. According to The Daily Mail, the Coens are planning to remake the 1969 film True Grit, though Joel Coen has said that the story will be closer to the Charles Portis's novel than the 1969 film. It will be 2010-11 before it is made. In a 1998 interview with Alex Simon for Venice magazine, the Coens discussed a project called The Contemplations which would be an anthology of short films based on stories in a leatherbound book from a 'dusty old library'. As well as their own projects, they have involvement in two other productions. One is Suburbicon, a comedy starring and directed by George Clooney. It will be written and produced by the Coens. In addition they have provided the screenplay for a remake of the 1966 film Gambit, due to star Colin Firth and Ben Kingsley. Both films are slated for a 2009 release. Joel stated that "a Cold War comedy called 62 Skidoo is one I'd like to do someday." Stylistic devices The Coens prefer not to put the opening credits at the very beginning of the film. The Coens are also amongst the few contemporary filmmakers who have shown a great affection for the screwball comedies of the 30s and 40s, and have incorporated their influences with varying degrees of subtlety, ranging from entire movies in the screwball mode like The Hudsucker Proxy and Intolerable Cruelty to occasional fast-talking wacky characters like Steve Buscemi's cameo in Miller's Crossing. Their style of characterisation creates a world in which even characters with small speaking parts seem to have exaggerated traits or characteristics. This can be attributed to the settings of many of the films (for example the characters in The Big Lebowski do not seem out of place in the many niche communities of LA). Influences Aside from their movie influences, many of the Coen Brothers films are written with the flavorings of specific works of crime fiction; they feel like stories that could have been written by their respective authors. Their first film Blood Simple, for example, with its themes of grisly violence and degenerate characters who are all screwing each other over, feels much like that of a Jim Thompson novel... "After dark, My Sweet" immediately comes to mind. It's even set in Texas, a place that pops up as the scenery in many of Thompson's gothic, hard-boiled yarns. Their 1990 film, Miller's Crossing has all the earmarks of a Dashiell Hammet novel, specifically "Red Harvest". While The Big Lebowski is an obvious modern-day farce of Raymond Chandler's debut crime novel published in 1939, "The Big Sleep"--wherein you can find 1930's counterparts for almost every character in the Coens' 1990's parody. "The Man Who Wasn't There", another original screenplay, contains all of the set-ups found in a James M. Cain novel--most notably, "Double Indemnity" and "The Postman Always Rings Twice". These classic novels contribute greatly to their character studies, areas of interest (Los Angeles, Texas, the Midwest), and vernacular, beyond the world of film. Dialogue Oscar winners for best original screenplay (Fargo) and best adapted screenplay (No Country For Old Men), the Coen brothers are known for the dialogue in their films. Sometimes laconic (The Man Who Wasn't There; Fargo; No Country for Old Men), sometimes unusually loquacious (The Big Lebowski, The Hudsucker Proxy), their scripts typically feature a combination of dry wit, exaggerated language, and glaring irony. Another effect they employ is having a character repeat lines multiple times (The Big Lebowski, O Brother Where Art Thou, Ladykillers, Burn After Reading). In addition to Fargo, several of their scripts have been nominated for awards (The Man Who Wasn't There, O Brother Where Art Thou, No Country for Old Men). Depictions of America The various aspects that make the character of a city, state or region of America are an integral component in several Coen brothers films. Raising Arizona strongly features the distinctive Arizona landscape, and some of the movie's characters are highly exaggerated stereotypes of some people's notions of Arizonans. Similarly, in Fargo the landscape and exaggerated accents of North Dakota and Minnesota are an essential component of the film. The Big Lebowski is the Coens' Los Angeles film, with the Dude and other characters emblematic of the city's eclectic population. O Brother, Where Art Thou? is distinctly Southern, as it was filmed in rural Mississippi, most of the characters speak with pronounced Southern accents, and the soundtrack is made up of bluegrass songs. Barton Fink is in some respects a satire on another famous area of Los Angeles, Hollywood, as The Hudsucker Proxy does for New York. No Country for Old Men is also a depiction of the remote desert landscape of life and characters on the West Texas/Mexico border in Terrell County mostly with the focus on the town of Sanderson and the city of Del Rio circa 1980. Burn After Reading depicts the culture in and around DC involving government employees. In addition, the Coens often set their movies in times of American crises: Miller's Crossing during prohibition, Barton Fink in the time around the attack on Pearl Harbor, The Big Lebowski during the 1991 Gulf War, and O Brother Where Art Thou? during the Great Depression. World War II also is mentioned as an important plot point in The Man Who Wasn't There, and Hi blames his recidivism on Reagan's presidency in Raising Arizona. The Hudsucker Proxy is set at the turn of 1958/59, the period that included Sputnik and the consequent escalation of the Cold War. Use of dogs The Coens often use dogs that seem to have an understanding of what is happening: for example, the bloodhound who looks surprised in the cabin scene of O, Brother, Where Art Thou?, the scruffy terrier accompanying the tyke in the Rug Daniels scene of Miller's Crossing and the lame pit bull who is seen through binoculars by Moss in No Country for Old Men. Money Money is involved in most of Coens' films. In Fargo, money (or more correctly, the lack thereof) starts the events of the film, and is the motivation for many of the characters. Violence The majority of the Coens' films are quite violent. In The Hudsucker Proxy, the plot is unleashed by the suicide of Waring Hudsucker, and in The Ladykillers several characters die in an attempt to dispose of an old woman. In some of their more graphic films, e.g., Fargo, most of the main characters die or are assaulted, all of which is portrayed onscreen; in one particularly graphic scene in Fargo, a character's body is fed into a wood chipper. In their newest film, Burn After Reading, one character gets shot in the face and another is hacked to death with a hatchet. The majority of the violence in their films falls under the category of dark humor. A notable departure is in No Country for Old Men, in which most of the violence is portrayed with stark, grim overtones and minimal dark comedic effect in order to effectively and faithfully depict Cormac McCarthy's bleakly told original story. Retro settings and nostalgia Most of the Coens' movies have either been set in the past or taken on conventions of nostalgic genres (particularly the screwball comedies and film noir of the 1930s and 40s). They often take great care to recreate a time period, even when it is relatively recent (as with The Big Lebowski, set only 8 years before its release, but with care paid to dated fashion and references to current events of the day). The Coens frequently make use of classic American music styles like folk, country, and roots gospel as well. While the Coens tend to experiment with recapturing different time periods and settings, these have, as of present, not gone earlier than the Great Depression or later than the present day, and have never been set outside of the United States, except for a brief departure to Mexico in No Country for Old Men. Techniques Visually, the Coens favor moving camera shots, especially tracking shots and crane shots. Their films are also distinguished by cinematic visual flourishes that mark turning points. Scenes that emphasize perspective or the interplay of shadow and light adorn many of the films: the rack of bowling shoes in the "Gutterballs" scene from The Big Lebowski, the boardroom table and the Hudsucker building in The Hudsucker Proxy, the night scene with "Wheezy Joe" in Intolerable Cruelty and the midnight chase scene in Fargo are a few examples. The "Raimi cam" rush or speed-ramp Occasionally in their tracking shots they "rush" the camera forward, as in the scene in Raising Arizona where Nathan Jr. is discovered missing by his mother; the Coen brothers dubbed the rush forward the "Raimi cam" in tribute to their longtime friend and director Sam Raimi, who used rushes extensively in Evil Dead (which Joel Coen helped edit). The Hudsucker Proxy features two rushes when Norville shows Mussburger's secretary the Blue Letter: first on the mouth of the lady screaming on the ladder, and then on Norville reacting to the scream. This method was also used in their segment of the collective film Paris, je t'aime. Lenses The Coen brothers' earlier films (with the exception of Miller's Crossing) made extensive use of wide-angle lenses, which are the preferred lenses of their first cinematographer, Barry Sonnenfeld. When Sonnenfeld left to pursue a directing career he was replaced by Roger Deakins, who has been trying to wean the Coens off these lenses since. Although wide angle lenses allow great field of vision, they cause considerable distortion in the apparent size of objects based on how far they are from the camera. Deakins has been working toward longer lenses, which appear to shorten the distance between objects but have narrower field of vision. Camera angles The Coen brothers use camera angles that sometimes hide rather than reveal information. Examples include in Fargo when Jean Lundegaard hides in the shower, in Miller's Crossing when Tom goes into his room after Leo leaves (Verna is on the bed behind him), and in Blood Simple when Abby is sitting up in bed with Ray and the Volkswagen pulls up outside her window. Disguised cuts They also frequently "hide" their cuts in close-ups on an object, in the style of Alfred Hitchcock's Rope: one obvious occurrence in Fargo is when Carl bangs on the television to get it to work, and when the picture comes in it is a cut to Marge's television as seen from her bed; a similar cut in Miller's Crossing happens when the close up of the window at Bernie's house pans away to show a man dead on the floor at another; in The Hudsucker Proxy when Amy Archer is cheering "Go Eagles!" after Norville hires her, the film cuts to her showing the same cheer to her coworker at the newspaper; and in Blood Simple when the "close-up" of the ceiling fan over Marty's head at the bar turns out to be from Abby's point of view on the couch at Ray's house. A similar technique is used to integrate the background music into the action. Some examples of this can be seen in The Big Lebowski where the song "Tumbling Tumbleweeds", which accompanies the introductory monologue, is then continued in muzak form in the supermarket scene where the monologue ends. In the same film, the background music playing as the main character confronts the private detective following him (played by Jon Polito), is playing on the detective's car radio. The same technique is featured in the wild chase scene in Raising Arizona, where a yodelling soundtrack is featured as the main character flees multiple pursuers; the yodelling swaps to a muzak version of itself as the character takes refuge in a supermarket. It happens again when HI is dreaming, the music turns into the lullaby that ED is singing to the baby when he wakes up. Storyboarding The Coen brothers storyboard their films completely before filming (many directors only storyboard complex shots such as action sequences). They state that it helps them to get the size of budget they want, because they can show how most of the money will be used. The Coen brothers have also stated that they use the storyboard as a reference tool but are open to collaboration from the actors as well. Several actors that have worked with the Coens have remarked that they were very open to suggestions from actors. If the actor suggests something different and it works, they use it without any complaint. Color correction O Brother, Where Art Thou? was the first film to be fully color-corrected from start to finish using digital techniques. The brothers wanted the scenery to reflect the "dust-bowl" atmosphere of the Depression and, since the actual landscape for many of the scenes was much lusher and greener than the desired effect, this required extensive color correction throughout the film, achieved with the use of computers. Collaborators The Coens used cinematographer Barry Sonnenfeld through Miller's Crossing until Sonnenfeld left to pursue his own directing career, including such films as The Addams Family, Get Shorty, and Men in Black. Roger A. Deakins has been the Coen brothers' cinematographer since Sonnenfeld's departure (see List of noted film director and cinematographer collaborations). However for their film Burn After Reading they used Emmanuel Lubezki as their cinematographer. Sam Raimi also helped write The Hudsucker Proxy, which the Coen brothers directed; and the Coen brothers helped write Crimewave, which Raimi directed. Raimi took tips about filming A Simple Plan from the Coen brothers, who had recently finished Fargo (both films are set in blindingly white snow, which reflects a lot of light and can make metering for a correct exposure tricky). Raimi has cameos in Miller's Crossing and The Hudsucker Proxy. They met when Joel Coen was hired as one of the editors of The Evil Dead (mentioned on the movies' commentary). William Preston Robertson is an old friend of the Coens who helped them with re-shoots on Blood Simple and provided the voice of the radio evangelist. He is listed in the credits as the "Rev. William Preston Robertson." He has provided vocal talents on most of the Coens' films up to and including The Big Lebowski. He also wrote The Making of The Big Lebowski with Tricia Cooke. The Coen brothers have a number of actors whom they frequently cast, including George Clooney, John Turturro, Michael Badalucco, Holly Hunter, Steve Buscemi, Frances McDormand, John Goodman, Jon Polito, Stephen Root, and Richard Jenkins each of whom has appeared in at least three Coen productions. All of their films have been scored by Carter Burwell, although T-Bone Burnett produced much of the traditional music in O Brother, Where Art Thou? and The Ladykillers and was also in charge of archive music for The Big Lebowski. Skip Lievsay handles the post-production sound work for all of their films. Awards Academy Awards Both Ethan and Joel have been nominated for eight Academy Awards, twice under their alias Roderick Jaynes, and have won two Oscars for screenwriting (original screenplay for Fargo and adapted screenplay for No Country for Old Men). They received their first awards for Best Achievement in Directing and Best Picture for No Country for Old Men. 1996: Fargo Best Picture (Ethan Coen, nominated) Best Director (Joel Coen, nominated) Best Screenplay – Original (won) Best Editing (as Roderick Jaynes, nominated) Academy Award for Best Actress (Frances McDormand, won)2000: O Brother, Where Art Thou? Best Screenplay – Adapted (nominated) '2007: No Country for Old MenBest Picture (with Scott Rudin, won) Best Director (won) Best Screenplay – Adapted (won) Best Editing (as Roderick Jaynes, nominated) Directing distinctions In the past, Joel and Ethan Coen have had to split the producer and director credits due to guild rules that disallowed co-sharing of the director credit to prevent rights and ownership issues. The only exception to this rule is if the co-directors are an "established duo". Now that they are able to share the director credit (as an established duo), the Coen brothers have become only the third duo to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director. The first two pairs to achieve this were Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins (who won for West Side Story in 1961) and Warren Beatty and Buck Henry (who were nominated for Heaven Can Wait in 1978). With four Academy Award nominations for No Country for Old Men (Best Picture, Director, Adapted Screenplay, and Film Editing (Roderick Jaynes)), the Coen Brothers have tied the record for the most nominations by a single nominee (counting an "established duo" as one nominee) for the same film. Orson Welles set the record in 1941 with Citizen Kane being nominated for Best Picture, Director, Actor, and Screenplay (with Herman J. Mankiewicz). Warren Beatty tied Welles' record when Beatty was nominated for Best Picture, Director, Actor, and Screenplay for Reds in 1981. Alan Menken also then achieved the same feat when he was nominated for Best Score and triple-nominated for Best Song for Beauty and the Beast in 1991. Filmography Year Film Director credit Number ofAcademy Award nominations Number ofAcademy Awards Number ofGolden Globe nominations Number ofGolden Globe awards 1984 Blood Simple Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 1987 Raising Arizona Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 1990 Miller's Crossing Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 1991 Barton Fink Joel 3 0 1 0 1994 The Hudsucker Proxy Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 1996 Fargo Joel 7 2 4 0 1998 The Big Lebowski Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 2000 O Brother, Where Art Thou? Joel 2 0 2 1 2001 The Man Who Wasn't There Joel 1 0 3 0 2003 Intolerable Cruelty Joel 0 n/a 0 n/a 2004 The Ladykillers Joel & Ethan 0 n/a 0 n/a 2007 No Country for Old Men Joel & Ethan 8 4 4 2 2008 Burn After Reading Joel & Ethan 0 n/a 2 0 2009 A Serious Man Joel & Ethan This film has not yet been released Total 21 6 16 3 Other works Crimewave (1985) – Film written by the Coen Brothers and Sam Raimi, directed by Raimi. Gates of Eden (1998) – A collection of short stories written by Ethan Coen.Bad Santa (2003) – Comedy film starring Billy Bob Thornton, produced by the Coen Brothers.Paris, je t'aime (2006) – Film segment: "Tuileries". Romance & Cigarettes (2006) – Film produced by the Coen Brothers and written and directed by John Turturro.Suburbicon (2009) – George Clooney will be directing a script written by the Coen Brothers. The Coens will also be producing. References Bibliography Joel and Ethan Coen. Ellen Cheshire and John Ashbrook. London: Pocket Essentials. 2005. 3rd edition published in 2005 includes all films and some subsidiary works (Crimewave, Down from the Mountain, Bad Santa) up to The Ladykillers. See also List of fictitious Academy Award nominees External links Joel and Ethan Coen Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) Coenesque: The Films of the Coen Brothers Extensive Coen Brothers Biography and Filmography The Coen Brothers: A Life in Pictures, BAFTA webcast, December 13, 2007 "It's a movie-making trend: Brothers share directing duties", by James Hebert (San Diego Union-Tribune'') Senses of Cinema, essay on the brothers (with film stills) The Big Lebowski: The Making of a Coen Brothers movie, An informative humor book by the Coens' friend William Preston Robertson. You Know, For Kids! The movies of the Coen brothers. Thorough look at the complete Coen's oeuvre The Coen Brothers Wiki Almost An Evening website What's So Great About The Coen Brothers? 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7,647 | Ananda | Ānanda was one of many principal disciples and a devout attendant of the Buddha. Amongst the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda had the most retentive memory and most of the suttas in the Sutta Pitaka are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist Council. For that, he was known as the Guardian of the Dharma. According to the Buddha every Buddha in the past and to come will have two chief disciples and one attendant during his ministry. In the case of Gautama Buddha the pair of disciples were Sariputta and Mahamoggallana and the attendant Ānanda. The word 'Ānanda' means 'bliss' in Pali, Sanskrit as well as other Indian languages. It is a popular Buddhist and Hindu name. In the Kannakatthala Sutta (MN 90), Ananda is identified with the meaning of his name: Then King Pasenadi Kosala said to the Blessed One, "Lord, what is the name of this monk?" "His name is Ananda, great king." "What a joy he is! What a true joy!..." Ānanda was the first cousin of the Buddha by their fathers, and was devoted to him. In the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry, he became the Buddha's personal attendant, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just before the Buddha's Parinibbana (the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16)); it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others. In the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara Nikaya (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some quality, Ānanda is mentioned five times (more often than any other). He was named chief in conduct, in service to others, and in power of memory. The Buddha sometimes asked him to substitute for him as teacher and then later stated that he himself would not have presented the teachings in any other way. The First Council Because he attended the Buddha personally and often traveled with him, Ānanda overheard and memorized many of the discourses the Buddha delivered to various audiences. Therefore, he is often called the disciple of the Buddha who "heard much". At the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after the Buddha died, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon. Despite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda was only a stream-winner prior to the Buddha’s death. However, Buddha said that the purity of his heart was so great that, "Should Ananda die without being fully liberated; he would be king of the gods seven times because of the purity of his heart, or be king of the Indian subcontinent seven times. But ... Ananda will experience final liberation in this very life." (AN 3.80) Prior to the First Buddhist Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an arahant. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of nibbana and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave. In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the Pāli Canon, Ananda is presented as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both Sariputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the Buddha. A verse of the Theragatha reveals his loneliness and isolation following the parinirvana of the Buddha. In the Zen tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside Mahakashyapa, the first Indian patriarch. External links Entry on Ananda in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names Biographical account of Ananda Ananda with the Buddha and Subhuti Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest") Ananda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker References Ananda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker | Ananda |@lemmatized ānanda:7 one:3 many:5 principal:1 disciple:6 devout:1 attendant:4 buddha:23 amongst:1 retentive:1 memory:2 suttas:1 sutta:4 pitaka:2 attribute:1 recollection:1 teaching:2 first:6 buddhist:5 council:4 know:1 guardian:3 dharma:1 accord:2 every:1 past:1 come:1 two:1 chief:3 ministry:2 case:1 gautama:1 pair:1 sariputta:2 mahamoggallana:1 word:1 mean:1 bliss:1 pali:2 sanskrit:1 well:1 indian:4 language:1 popular:2 hindu:1 name:6 kannakatthala:1 mn:1 ananda:15 identify:1 meaning:1 king:4 pasenadi:1 kosala:1 say:2 bless:1 lord:1 monk:1 great:2 joy:2 true:1 cousin:1 father:1 devote:1 twentieth:1 year:1 become:2 personal:1 accompany:1 wandering:1 take:1 part:1 interlocutor:1 recorded:1 dialogue:1 subject:1 special:1 panegyric:2 deliver:2 parinibbana:1 mahaparinibbana:1 dn:1 man:1 kindly:1 unselfish:1 thoughtful:1 toward:1 others:2 long:2 list:1 give:1 anguttara:1 nikaya:1 xiv:1 declare:1 quality:1 mention:1 five:1 time:3 often:4 conduct:1 service:1 power:1 sometimes:1 ask:1 substitute:1 teacher:1 later:2 state:1 would:2 present:2 way:1 attend:2 personally:1 travel:1 overheard:1 memorize:1 discourse:2 various:1 audience:1 therefore:1 call:3 heard:1 much:1 convene:1 shortly:1 die:2 upon:1 recite:1 pāli:2 canon:2 despite:1 association:1 close:2 proximity:1 stream:1 winner:1 prior:2 death:2 however:1 purity:2 heart:2 without:1 fully:1 liberate:1 god:1 seven:2 subcontinent:1 experience:1 final:1 liberation:1 life:1 propose:1 permit:1 ground:1 yet:1 arahant:1 legend:1 prompt:1 focus:1 effort:1 attainment:2 nibbana:1 able:1 reach:1 specified:1 level:1 conclave:1 contrast:1 figure:2 depict:2 imperfect:1 sympathetic:1 mourn:1 enjoy:1 friendship:1 verse:1 theragatha:1 reveal:1 loneliness:1 isolation:1 follow:1 parinirvana:1 zen:1 tradition:1 consider:1 second:1 patriarch:2 alongside:1 mahakashyapa:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 dictionary:2 proper:1 biographical:1 account:1 subhuti:1 digital:1 buddhism:1 log:1 userid:1 guest:1 dhamma:2 hellmuth:2 hecker:2 reference:1 |@bigram gautama_buddha:1 pali_sanskrit:1 discourse_buddha:1 pāli_canon:2 indian_subcontinent:1 external_link:1 |
7,648 | Economy_of_Greenland | The Economy of Greenland suffered negative growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late 1980s which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine in 1990. The economy remains critically dependent on exports of fish, whaling and textiles and substantial support from the Danish Government, which supplies about half of government revenues. The public sector, including publicly-owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in the economy. Companies are exploring hydrocarbon and mineral deposits. There have been several offshore licensing rounds since 2002 with a number of successful bids by multinational oil companies in partnership with NUNAOIL the state oil company for blocks. Press reports in early 2007 indicated that two international aluminum companies were considering building smelters in Greenland to take advantage of local hydropower potential. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential, and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. Air Greenland and Continental Airlines used to have direct flights to the U.S. east coast from May 2007 to April 2008 but these are now discontinued. GDP: official exchange rate - $1 700 million (2005) Agriculture - products: forage crops, garden vegetables; sheep, reindeer; fish Electricity - production: 295 million kWh (2004) Electricity - consumption: 274.4 million kWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2004) Oil - production: 0 bbl/day (2004 est.) Oil - consumption: 3,860 bbl/day (2004 est.) Exchange rates: Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 4.707 (2008) ,5.9468 (2006), 5.669 (2005), 5.9911 (2004), 6.5877 (2003), 7.8947 (2002), 8.3228 (2001), 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995) See also Greenland krone | Economy_of_Greenland |@lemmatized economy:4 greenland:6 suffer:1 negative:1 growth:1 early:2 since:4 improve:1 home:1 rule:1 government:3 ghrg:1 pursue:1 tight:1 fiscal:1 policy:1 late:1 help:1 create:1 surplus:1 public:2 budget:1 low:1 inflation:1 register:1 foreign:1 trade:1 deficit:1 follow:1 closure:1 last:1 remaining:1 lead:1 zinc:1 mine:1 remain:1 critically:1 dependent:1 export:2 fish:2 whale:1 textile:1 substantial:1 support:1 danish:2 supply:1 half:1 revenue:1 sector:2 include:1 publicly:1 enterprise:1 municipality:1 play:1 dominant:1 role:1 company:4 explore:1 hydrocarbon:1 mineral:1 deposit:1 several:1 offshore:1 license:1 round:1 number:1 successful:1 bid:1 multinational:1 oil:4 partnership:1 nunaoil:1 state:1 block:1 press:1 report:1 indicate:1 two:1 international:1 aluminum:1 consider:1 build:1 smelter:1 take:1 advantage:1 local:1 hydropower:1 potential:2 tourism:1 offer:1 near:1 term:1 even:1 limited:1 due:1 short:1 season:1 high:1 cost:1 air:1 continental:1 airline:1 use:1 direct:1 flight:1 u:2 east:1 coast:1 may:1 april:1 discontinue:1 gdp:1 official:1 exchange:2 rate:2 million:3 agriculture:1 product:1 forage:1 crop:1 garden:1 vegetable:1 sheep:1 reindeer:1 electricity:5 production:3 kwh:4 consumption:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 import:1 bbl:2 day:2 est:2 krone:2 dkr:1 per:1 january:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram tight_fiscal:1 last_remaining:1 kwh_electricity:3 electricity_consumption:1 fossil_fuel:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 bbl_day:2 consumption_bbl:1 danish_krone:1 |
7,649 | Hydrogen_atom | Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about twice the Bohr model radius. (Image not to scale) A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen, and an example of a Boson. The electrically neutral atom contains a single positively-charged proton and a single negatively-charged electron bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force. The most abundant isotope, hydrogen-1, protium, or light hydrogen, contains no neutrons; other isotopes contain one or more neutrons. This article primarily concerns hydrogen-1. The hydrogen atom has special significance in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory as a simple two-body problem physical system which has yielded many simple analytical solutions in closed-form. In 1914, Niels Bohr obtained the spectral frequencies of the hydrogen atom after making a number of simplifying assumptions. These assumptions, the cornerstones of the Bohr model, were not fully correct but did yield the correct energy answers. Bohr's results for the frequencies and underlying energy values were confirmed by the full quantum-mechanical analysis which uses the Schrödinger equation, as was shown in 1925/26. The solution to the Schrödinger equation for hydrogen is analytical. From this, the hydrogen energy levels and thus the frequencies of the hydrogen spectral lines can be calculated. The solution of the Schrödinger equation goes much further than the Bohr model however, because it also yields the shape of the electron's wave function ("orbital") for the various possible quantum-mechanical states, thus explaining the anisotropic character of atomic bonds. The Schrödinger equation also applies to more complicated atoms and molecules. However, in most such cases the solution is not analytical and either computer calculations are necessary or simplifying assumptions must be made. Solution of Schrödinger equation: Overview of results The solution of the Schrödinger equation (wave equations) for the hydrogen atom uses the fact that the Coulomb potential produced by the nucleus is isotropic (it is radially symmetric in space and only depends on the distance to the nucleus). Although the resulting energy eigenfunctions (the "orbitals") are not necessarily isotropic themselves, their dependence on the angular coordinates follows completely generally from this isotropy of the underlying potential: The eigenstates of the Hamiltonian (= energy eigenstates) can be chosen as simultaneous eigenstates of the angular momentum operator. This corresponds to the fact that angular momentum is conserved in the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus. Therefore, the energy eigenstates may be classified by two angular momentum quantum numbers, l and m (integer numbers). The "angular momentum" quantum number l = 0, 1, 2, ... determines the magnitude of the angular momentum. The "magnetic" quantum number m = −l, .., +l determines the projection of the angular momentum on the (arbitrarily chosen) z-axis. In addition to mathematical expressions for total angular momentum and angular momentum projection of wavefunctions, an expression for the radial dependence of the wave functions must be found. It is only here that the details of the 1/r Coulomb potential enter (leading to Laguerre polynomials in r). This leads to a third quantum number, the principal quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, ... The principal quantum number in hydrogen is related to atom's total energy. Note that the maximum value of the angular momentum quantum number is limited by the principal quantum number: it can run only up to n − 1, i.e. l = 0, 1, ..., n − 1. Due to angular momentum conservation, states of the same l but different m have the same energy (this holds for all problems with rotational symmetry). In addition, for the hydrogen atom, states of the same n but different l are also degenerate (i.e. they have the same energy). However, this is a specific property of hydrogen and is no longer true for more complicated atoms which have a (effective) potential differing from the form 1/r (due to the presence of the inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential). Taking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the z axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: An orbital of given l and m' obtained for another preferred axis z' can always be represented as a suitable superposition of the various states of different m (but same l) that have been obtained for z. Alternatives to the Schrödinger Theory In the language of Heisenberg Matrix Mechanics, the hydrogen atom was first solved by Wolfgang Pauli using an rotational symmetry in four dimension [O(4)-symmetry] generated by the angular momentum and the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector. By extending the symmetry group O(4) to the dynamical group O(4,2), the entire spectrum and all transition were embedded in a single irreducible group representation In 1979 the (non relativistic) hydrogen atom was solved for the first time within Feynman's path integral formulation of quantum mechanics . This work greatly extended the range of applicability of Feynman's method. Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom Energy levels The energy levels of hydrogen, including fine structure are given by where is the fine-structure constant j is a number which is the total angular momentum eigenvalue, i.e. l ± 1/2 depending on the direction of the electron spin. The value of -13.6 eV can be found from the simple Bohr model, and is related to the mass, m, and charge of the electron, q: It is even more elegantly connected to fine-structure constant: Wavefunction The normalized position wavefunctions, given in spherical coordinates are: where: is the Bohr radius. are the generalized Laguerre polynomials of degree n-ℓ-1. is a spherical harmonic. Angular momentum The eigenvalues for Angular momentum operator: Visualizing the hydrogen electron orbitals Probability densities for the electron at different quantum numbers (l, across top, and n, down side) The image to the right shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the probability density that are color-coded (black=zero density, white=highest density). The angular momentum (orbital) quantum number l is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code ("s" means l = 0; "p": l = 1; "d": l = 2). The main (principal) quantum number n (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is marked to the right of each row. For all pictures the magnetic quantum number m has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the xz-plane (z is the vertical axis). The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one shown here around the z-axis. The "ground state", i.e. the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually found, is the first one, the "1s" state (principal quantum level n = 1, l = 0). An image with more orbitals is also available (up to higher numbers n and l). Note the number of black lines that occur in each but the first orbital. These are "nodal lines" (which are actually nodal surfaces in three dimensions). Their total number is always equal to n − 1, which is the sum of the number of radial nodes (equal to n - l - 1) and the number of angular nodes (equal to l). Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution There are several important effects that are neglected by the Schrödinger equation and which are responsible for certain small but measurable deviations of the real spectral lines from the predicted ones: Although the mean speed of the electron in hydrogen is only 1/137th of the speed of light, many modern experiments are sufficiently precise that a complete theoretical explanation requires a fully relativistic treatment of the problem. A relativistic treatment results in a momentum increase of about one part in 37,000 for the electron. Since the electron's wavelength is determined by its momentum, orbitals containing higher speed electrons show contraction due to smaller wavelengths. Even when there is no external magnetic field, in the inertial frame of the moving electron, the electromagnetic field of the nucleus has a magnetic component. The spin of the electron has an associated magnetic moment which interacts with this magnetic field. This effect is also explained by special relativity, and it leads to the so-called spin-orbit coupling, i.e., an interaction between the electron's orbital motion around the nucleus, and its spin. Both of these features (and more) are incorporated in the relativistic Dirac equation, with predictions that come still closer to experiment. Again the Dirac equation may be solved analytically in the special case of a two-body system, such as the hydrogen atom. The resulting solution quantum states now must be classified by the total angular momentum number j (arising through the coupling between electron spin and orbital angular momentum). States of the same j and the same n are still degenerate. There are always vacuum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field, according to quantum mechanics. Due to such fluctuations degeneracy between states of the same j but different l is lifted, giving them slightly different energies. This has been demonstrated in the famous Lamb-Retherford experiment and was the starting point for the development of the theory of Quantum electrodynamics (which is able to deal with these vacuum fluctuations and employs the famous Feynman diagrams for approximations using perturbation theory). This effect is now called Lamb shift. For these developments, it was essential that the solution of the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom could be worked out exactly, such that any experimentally observed deviation had to be taken seriously as a signal of failure of the theory. Due to the high precision of the theory also very high precision for the experiments is needed, which utilize a frequency comb. Hydrogen ion Hydrogen is not found without its electron in ordinary chemistry (room temperatures and pressures), as ionized hydrogen is highly chemically reactive. When ionized hydrogen is written as "H+" as in the solvation of classical acids such hydrochloric acid, the hydronium ion, H3O+, is meant, not a literal ionized single hydrogen atom. In that case, the acid transfers the proton to H2O to form H3O+. Ionized hydrogen without its electron, or free protons, are common in the interstellar medium, and solar wind. References Books Section 4.2 deals with the hydrogen atom specifically, but all of Chapter 4 is relevant. Kleinert, H. (2009). Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets, 4th edition, World Scientific, Singapore (also available online) See also Deuterium Tritium Quantum mechanics Quantum chemistry Quantum field theory Quantum state Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation Proton decay The Helium Atom External links Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld Interactive graphical representation of orbitals Applet which allows viewing of all sorts of hydrogenic orbitals The Hydrogen Atom: Wave Functions, and Probability Density "pictures" Basic Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom | Hydrogen_atom |@lemmatized depiction:1 hydrogen:35 atom:24 show:5 diameter:1 twice:1 bohr:7 model:4 radius:2 image:3 scale:1 chemical:1 element:1 example:1 boson:1 electrically:1 neutral:1 contain:4 single:4 positively:1 charge:3 proton:4 negatively:1 electron:23 bound:1 nucleus:7 coulomb:3 force:1 abundant:1 isotope:2 protium:1 light:2 neutron:2 one:5 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relevant:1 kleinert:1 statistic:1 polymer:1 physic:2 financial:1 market:1 edition:1 world:1 scientific:1 singapore:1 online:1 see:1 deuterium:1 tritium:1 experimental:1 justification:1 decay:1 helium:1 link:1 scienceworld:1 interactive:1 graphical:1 applet:1 allow:1 viewing:1 sort:1 hydrogenic:1 basic:1 |@bigram hydrogen_atom:18 electrically_neutral:1 positively_charge:1 negatively_charge:1 hydrogen_protium:1 quantum_mechanic:7 niels_bohr:1 quantum_mechanical:2 schrödinger_equation:8 angular_momentum:19 momentum_conserve:1 rotational_symmetry:2 heisenberg_matrix:1 wolfgang_pauli:1 formulation_quantum:1 bohr_radius:1 spherical_harmonic:1 cross_sectional:1 magnetic_field:2 inertial_frame:1 special_relativity:1 orbital_angular:1 quantum_electrodynamics:1 feynman_diagram:1 chemically_reactive:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 hydronium_ion:1 deuterium_tritium:1 external_link:1 |
7,650 | Hammond_organ | Hammond L-100 The Hammond organ is an electric organ which was invented by Laurens Hammond in 1934 and manufactured by the Hammond Organ Company. While the Hammond organ was originally sold to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the wind-driven pipe organ, in the 1960s and 1970s, it became a standard keyboard instrument for jazz, blues, rock music and gospel music. The original Hammond organ used additive synthesis of waveforms from harmonic series made by mechanical tonewheels which rotate in front of electromagnetic pickups. The component waveform ratios are mixed by sliding drawbars mounted above the two keyboards. Although many different models of Hammond organs were produced, the Hammond B-3 organ is the most well-known type. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, the overdriven sound of B-3 (and in Europe, the C-3) organs were widely used in progressive rock bands and blues-rock groups. Although the last electromechanical Hammond organ came off the assembly line in the mid-1970s, thousands are still in daily use. In the 1980s and 1990s, musicians began using electronic and digital devices to imitate the sound of the Hammond, because the vintage Hammond organ is heavy and hard to transport. By the 1990s and 2000s digital signal processing and sampling technologies allowed for better imitation of the original Hammond sound. History Hammond B3 organ, and Leslie speaker cabinet. American engineer and inventor Laurens Hammond filed U.S. Patent 1,956,350 Laurens Hammond. Electrical Musical Instrument. U.S. Pat. No. 1956350. http://www.google.com/patents?id=NUlkAAAAEBAJ Accessed 2 June 2008 for a new type of "electrical musical instrument" that could recreate a pipe organ–type sound. The invention was unveiled to the public in April 1935 and the first model, the Model A, was made available in June of that year. The organ was first used for popular music by Milt Herth, who played it live on WIND (AM) soon after it was invented. Hammond Organ History http://thehammondorganstory.com/chapterxv.asp Milt Herth http://www.answers.com/topic/milt-herth-jazz-artist?cat=entertainment The Hammond organ was widely used in United States military chapels and post theatres during the Second World War, and returning soldiers' familiarity with the instrument may have helped contribute to its popularity in the post-war period. Department of the Army technical manual TM 10-751, Manual for Electronic Organ AN/TNP-1 (1949) Hammond had intended his invention to be an affordable substitute for pipe organs, as a replacement for the piano in middle-class homes, and as an instrument for radio broadcasting. However, by the 1950s, jazz musicians such as Jimmy Smith began to use the organ's distinctive sound. By the 1960s, the Hammond became popular with pop groups and was used on the British pirate station Radio 390. In Britain the organ became associated with elevator music and ice rinks music. However, the overdriven sound of the Hammond gained a new image when it became part of 1960s and 1970s rock with artists like Steve Winwood, Keith Emerson, Jon Lord, and Rick Wakeman. Hammond tonewheel organs are preferred among many vintage organ enthusiasts, the most popular models also having tube amplifiers. Some of the later Hammond models combine tonewheel generation with solid-state amplifiers, with the latest models of that era being fully solid state. Hammond is now owned by Suzuki Company. Hammond-Suzuki makes digital organs that replicate the tonewheel organ sound (see "Clones" below). Tone generation Tonewheel rotates beneath electromagnetic pickup. Additive synthesis The original Hammond organ imitated the function of a pipe organ's ranks of pipes in multiple registers by using additive synthesis of waveforms from harmonic series to generate its sounds. The Hammond organ's individual waveforms are made by mechanical tonewheels which rotate in front of electromagnetic pickups. Although they are generally included in the category of electronic organs, original Hammond organs are, strictly speaking, electric or electromechanical rather than electronic organs because the waveforms are produced by mechanical tonewheels rather than electronic oscillators. Hammond organs use 96 tonewheels. Five of these are blanks, only present in order to balance out the rotating mechanical sub-assemblies. Thus the tonewheel assembly generates 91 frequencies, which are all that are required for the entire organ. The appropriate frequency outputs, nine per key, are routed to the key contacts for each note on the keyboards. Drawbars Drawbars The component waveform ratios are mixed by sliding drawbars mounted above the two keyboards, which operate like the faders on an audio mixing board. When a drawbar is incrementally pulled out, it increases the volume of its component waveform. When pushed all the way in, the specified component wave form becomes absent from the mix. The labelling of the drawbar is derived from the stop system in pipe organs where the physical length of the pipe corresponds to the pitch produced. Hammond drawbars are set up in groups of nine arranged as follows: 16' 1 octave below fundamental 5 1/3' a fifth above fundamental 8' fundamental 4' 1 octave above fundamental 2 2/3' 1 octave and a fifth above fundamental 2' 2 octaves above fundamental 1 3/5' 2 octaves and a major third above fundamental 1 1/3' 2 octaves and a fifth above fundamental 1' 3 octaves above fundamental Each of the drawbars has a range of 0 (off) to 8 (full on) and can be modified in real-time, allowing changes to be made while a song is being played. A given combination of drawbar settings creates a unique timbre, and is referred to as a registration. Registrations are notated using a 9-digit sequence where each digit corresponds to the level of its respective drawbar. Presets In addition to drawbars, many Hammond tonewheel organ models also include presets, which allow defined drawbar combinations to be made available at the press of a button. Full Console organs such as the B-3 and C-3 models have a number of reverse coloured keys (naturals are black, sharps/flats are white) to the left of each manual, with each key activating a preset. The two right-most preset keys (B and Bb) activate the corresponding left or right set of drawbars for that manual, while the other preset keys produce pre selected drawbar settings that are internally wired. The far left key (C), also known as the cancel key, de-activates all presets, and results in no sound coming from that manual. Other Hammond models such as the M-100 and L-100 series have flip tabs for presets, situated across the top of the organ. The left hand flip tab reverts to the tone set by the drawbars. Some models such as the M, M-2 and M-3 spinet organs have only drawbars, and no presets, but after market products such as the Duet Sixteen, manufactured by the now defunct Electro Tone Corporation can be added to give preset functions. Percussion Another facet of the distinctive sound of the Hammond is the harmonic percussion effect. The term "percussion" does not refer to a drum-type sound effect. Instead, it refers to the addition of the second and third harmonic overtones, which can be added independently to the attack envelope of a note. The selected percussion harmonic(s) then quickly fade out—a distinctive "plink" sound—leaving the tones which the player has selected using the drawbars. The percussion retriggers only after all notes have been released, so legato passages only have a percussion on the first note. Older Hammond models produced before the 3 series organs (such as the B-2 and C-2) do not have the harmonic percussion feature. Aftermarket percussion effects can be added using devices from Trek II and from the Electro Tone Corporation. Key click Hammond organs have a distinctive percussive key click, which is the attack transient that occurs when all nine key contacts close, causing an audible pop or click. Originally, key click was considered to be a design defect and Hammond worked to eliminate or at least reduce it by using equalization filters. However, many performers liked the percussive effect, and it has become part of the classic sound that modern imitators of the Hammond organ have tried to reproduce. Speakers Although Hammond designed its own set of speakers, many players prefer to play the Hammond through a rotating speaker cabinet which, after several name changes, became known as the Leslie speaker, after its inventor Donald J. Leslie (1913–2004). The Leslie system is an integrated speaker/amplifier combination in which sound is emitted by a rotating horn over a stationary treble driver and a rotating baffle beneath a stationary bass woofer. This creates a characteristic sound due to the constantly changing pitch shifts that result from the Doppler effect created by the moving sound sources. It was originally designed to mimic the complex tones and constantly shifting sources of sound emanating from a large group of ranks in a pipe organ. The effect varies depending on the speed of the rotors, which can be toggled between fast (tremolo) and slow (chorale) using a console or pedal switch, with the most distinctive effect occurring as the speaker starts or stops rotating. During the 1970s, the Chicago, Illinois audio team of David J. Walat, P.E., and Paul Di Matteo, a musician by trade, were well known within the music industry for the modifications they made to Leslie cabinets. Their replacing the original transducers with an 18 inch woofer and dual high frequency drivers proved popular for high power stage applications. Examples of their work toured the world with bands such as Uriah Heep, Kansas and Procol Harum. Keyboards and pedalboard The manuals of the Hammond organ have a lightweight action, which allows for very rapid passages to be executed with more ease than on a weighted keyboard, such as a piano or pipe organ. Additionally, the "waterfall" style keys of early Hammond models make effects such as palm glissandi possible. Later models, starting with the M-100 and L-100 series, were produced with keys colloquially known as "springboard" keys. Hammond organs come with a wooden bass pedalboard for the feet, so that the organist can play basslines. Hammond organ bass pedalboards do not usually have a full, 32-note American Guild of Organists (AGO) pedalboard going up to a G (3rd leger line above the bass clef) as the top note (see AGO pedalboard). Instead, a 25-note pedalboard, its top note a middle C, or a 30-note pedalboard, its top note the F above middle C, is often used. Several Hammond "concert" models, the RT-2, RT-3 and D-100 had 32-note AGO pedalboards. As well, they also contained a "Solo Pedal Unit" which provided several 32', 16', 8', and 4' voices for the pedal. The solo pedal unit used oscillators, similar to those used in Hammond's "Solovox." Hammond spinet models (L, M, T, etc.) had 12 or 13-note miniature pedalboards. Hammond did offer a model with a 32-note radial arc Pedal Clavier. It was the Grand 100 (G-100) and was manufactured from 1963 to 1965. It was the biggest organ Hammond ever made. Tonewheel organ models Hammond tonewheel organs can be divided into two main groups: the Console models, such as the A, B, C, D, and R series, which have two 61-note manuals and the smaller Spinet models, such as the M, L, and T series, which have two 44-note manuals. Production of tonewheel organs stopped in the mid-1970s. Hammond organs made after this time use electronic tone generation. Examples of these organs are the J/K/N series, the Hammond Aurora, and the Hammond Concorde. Console organs The A / AB organs were produced from June 1935 – October 1938. Service Manual: A, A-100, AB,..., Organ Service Company, 196? The B-2 / C-2 organs were produced from December 1949 – December 1954. The B-3/C-3 were produced from January 1955 – 1974. The A-100 series was produced from April 1959 – December 1965 (continued after 1965 in the UK under licence from Hammond). In the decades after their introduction, the B-3, C-3 and A-100 series were used heavily in the Gospel, jazz, and blues genres and as theatre organs, providing live music between feature films or at public stadiums and ice rinks. The difference between the B-3 and the C-3 is purely cosmetic. The B-3 sits on four turned wooden legs, so the organist's feet are visible from all sides of the organ. The C-3 is covered on the front and sides which prevents the audience from seeing the organist's feet. This allows playing in a skirt while facing the audience. B-2 / C-2 Production years: December 1949 – December 1954 B-3 / C-3 / A-100 series B-3/C-3 Production years: December 1954 – 1974 A-100 series Production years: April 1959 – December 1965 (continued after 1965 in the UK under licence from Hammond) In the decades after their introduction, the B-3, C-3 and A-100 series were used heavily in the Gospel, jazz, and blues genres and as theatre organs, providing live music for feature films or at public stadiums and ice rinks. The difference between the B-3 and the C-3 is purely cosmetic. The B-3 sits on four turned wooden legs, so the organist's feet are visible from all sides of the organ. The C-3 is covered on the front and sides by "modesty" panels, which prevent the audience from seeing the organist's feet. This allows playing in a skirt while facing the audience. The A-100 series includes all the internal components and features of the B-3/C-3 plus built-in speakers and reverb (basically all the components of a PR40 tone cabinet inside). The A-100 was marketed as a "home" console, since it had built-in speakers The B-3 was marketed for musicians who wanted to use a separate tone cabinet (Hammond tone cabinet or Leslie speaker). The C-3 was marketed for church use, because of its "modesty" or "privacy" panels, which hid the organist's—often a woman's—legs when the organ was positioned in front of the congregation. In the 1950s and 1960s, the B-3 was used in jazz bands (Walter Wanderley) and in organ trios, such as Jimmy Smith's organ trio. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, the B-3 and C-3 were widely used in rock bands ranging from Latin rock groups such as Santana (B-3) to progressive rock groups such as Procol Harum, Yes (C-3), Styx, Kansas, Keith Emerson, (of the band Emerson, Lake & Palmer (C-3, L-100), Boston, Pink Floyd (C-3), and Eloy to blues-rock groups such as The Allman Brothers Band (B-3), Deep Purple, Clutch, (C-3), the transcendent B-3 sound of "Gimme Some Lovin'" by Spencer Davis Group, and Elbernita Twinkie Clark of The Clark Sisters is dubbed as the "Queen of the Hammond B3". In the 1980s and 1990s, the B-3 continued to be used by many churches and also bands from a range of styles, including gospel, rock, hard rock, jazz, blues, and "jam" bands. This organ was also a favorite of renowned Grateful Dead keyboard player Brent Mydland as well as Page McConnell of Phish, Danny Federici of The E Street Band, and Tom Scholz of Boston. In the 1980s and 1990s, lightweight "clone" organs that imitated the sound were increasingly used to digitally recreate the B3's sound as a more portable (and less back-breaking) substitute, especially in live touring settings. Nevertheless, in the 2000s, some organ trios such as the Ken Clark organ trio still perform with vintage B-3 organs. New B-3 In 2002, the Hammond company (now known as Hammond-Suzuki) relaunched the B-3 as the 'New B-3', a re-creation of the original electromechanical instrument using modern-day electronics and a modern sound generator system. The New B-3 is constructed to appear like the original B-3, and the designers attempted to retain the subtle nuances of the familiar B-3 sound. Hammond-Suzuki promotional material claims that it would be difficult for even an experienced B-3 player to distinguish between the old and new B-3 organs. A review of the New B-3 by Hugh Robjohns called it "a true replica of an original B-3 ... in terms of the look and layout, and the actual sound." Hugh Robjohns. Hammond B3: Modelled Electromechanical Tonewheel Organ Sound On Sound, July 2003 The New B-3 was used by well-known B-3 players such as Jimmy Smith and Joey DeFrancesco, who both played a New B-3 on the collaborative album 'Legacy' released in 2005 shortly before Smith's death. Neal Evans of Soulive also plays a Hammond B-3, using it to produce both the organ and bass lines for the group's soul based music. Additionally, Evanescence used the new B-3 organ in almost every song of their album The Open Door, released in October 2006. http://www.independent.com/news/2007/nov/08/evanescence-frontwoman-amy-lee-steps-delivers-albu/ - See the source. Hammond-Suzuki went on to release a portable version of the New B-3, the XK3 as well as a new version of the C-3 model. D / DV The D series Hammonds were produced from June 1939 to November 1942. The DV models, in which "V" stood for Vibrato, had Hammond Vibrato. DV models were not actually produced; instead, the vibrato kit was added in the field. The D series was aimed at the church market. It came with factory-preset manuals, but some users you adjusted the presets. The vibrato affects all keys including the bass register. RT-3 Production years: January 1955 – 1973 Spinet organs Spinet organs from the M, L, T and V series use two 44-note offset manuals, a built-in bass pedal keyboard, and internal speakers and amplification. The spinet organs' tonewheels do not go down as far in pitch as on a full console organs such as the B-3, which means there are no low tones on the keyboard. This means that organ players who want to play a bass line have to use the pedals. However, the pedal keyboard usually had one octave (13 notes, instead of the 25 notes on a B-3 console organ) and the pedals were much shorter than those found on a full-size Hammond pedal keyboard. Another difference is the way the spinets use drawbar foldback to make tones repeat for the higher notes. On spinets, the foldback does not go all the way up to the higher register, which gives a "thinner overall sound". http://reviews.ebay.ca/ARE-HAMMOND-SPINET-ORGANS-BUDGET-B3-apos-s-M3-M100-amp-L100_W0QQugidZ10000000004406760 If the 8th or 9th drawbar on Hammond spinets are pulled out, the final octave on the upper manual do not sound; on the A-100, B-3 and C-3, though, these harmonics would sound. To replace the missing harmonics, some 2000s-era users of spinet organs purchase foldback "mod" kits which add new bus bars and key contacts so that the missing foldback can be filled in. M series The M-series " . . . took the tonewheel technology of the bulkier previous models, refined it and scaled it down . . . to make smaller 'spinet' models that were more appropriate for the growing 'home market.' " Several different types of M series instruments were produced between 1948 and 1964. The M model was produced from 1948–1951, the M-2 from 1951–1955 and the M-3 from 1955–1964. Organ repairman Tom Petro argues that the "closest organ in the spinet bunch" to approach the B-3 sound "is the M3"; he notes that it "even has waterfall keys", which facilitate glissando. Petro points out that while the M-100 series "added reverb to the organ...they have diving board keys, not waterfall" keys. http://reviews.ebay.ca/ARE-HAMMOND-SPINET-ORGANS-BUDGET-B3-apos-s-M3-M100-amp-L100_W0QQugidZ10000000004406760 Booker T. Jones of Booker T. and the MGs used an M-3 on the 1962 recording "Green Onions". M-100 series Some M-100 series instruments were suited for home or church settings, such as the M100, which had "ornate, carved legs"; the M102 "had a more spartan cabinet that was better suited to gigging." All of the M-100 series instruments "had the same basic specifications,... 2 x 44-note "springboard" manuals, 13-note pedalboard, two sets of drawbars (one for each manual), six presets and 'touch percussion' effects (available on tabs above the upper keyboard manual), split vibrato, vibrato chorus, built-in spring reverb and speakers and a swell (volume) pedal." http://www.hollowsun.com/donations/m100/index.html Matthew Fisher of Procol Harum used an M-102 on the 1967 recording "A Whiter Shade of Pale", John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin used an M-100 on the 1969 recordings "You Shook Me" and "Your Time Is Gonna Come". The M-100 series was produced from 1961–1968. L-100 series The L-100 series was produced from 1961–1972. The L-100 sounds different from the B-3 because of several changes made by Hammond engineers. At the Hammond factory, engineers found a way of removing the electrical key click sound from the L-100. Although jazz organists liked the key click sound of the B-3, Hammond engineers viewed it as a fault, and church organists tended to dislike it, because wind-driven pipe organs do not have a "click" sound at the start of every note. Hammond engineers removed the key click by raising the "output of the higher notes in the tone generator" and then cutting the "treble response in several of the amp stages". http://www1.tripnet.se/~flm/hammond/diff.htm As well, the L-100 had a different percussion effect, because while the B-3 uses a "push-pull tube amp with an output transformer", the L-100 has a percussion sound of longer duration. As well, the vibrato effects on the L-100 tend to be "either too much or too little and the chorus effect" lacks the "richness of the B". http://www1.tripnet.se/~flm/hammond/diff.htm Keith Emerson of the progressive rock band Emerson Lake & Palmer played an L-100 during concerts. T series The T series, which was produced from 1968–1975, was the first all-solid-state, transistor-powered Hammond. Tony Banks of Genesis used a modified T-102 from 1974 to 1980. He played the organ through an MXR Phase 100 phaser pedal and a Boss CE-1 analogue chorus pedal to replace the effect of a Leslie speaker. Other transistorized series produced in the mid to late 70's include the "Romance" series- 123000, 124000, 125000, 126000. Within those series, models were offered in numerical increments of 100. For example- 124000, 124100, 124200, etc. These models also came with a built-in, hinged horizontal 2 speed "Leslie Tremolo Unit". Organ rear panel has additional 9-pin Leslie speaker jack for use with a Leslie 700 series speaker cabinet. V Series The V series organs, such as the Hammond Cadette, were designed for beginners, and as such, they had no drawbars. Hammond intended that beginning organists could learn on the instrument and buy a better organ once they had learned the basic techniques. Like the Spinet organ, the Cadette had two offset manuals with a one-octave bass pedalboard and an expression pedal (for controlling the volume). The sound produced by these organs was different from the sound produced by most other Hammond models. The upper manual had three instruments (flute, reed, and strings) and the lower manual had two instruments (tibia and cello). The pedal also had an instrument tab (for bass and accent). There was no Leslie, only a reverberation knob. The V series organs came with Auto Rhythm, which had seven different rhythms, a Cancel button at the far left, Synchro Start, and volume and tempo knobs. There were two tabs for vibrato (Light and Full). This series was built by Yamaha for Hammond. Chop organ A Hammond Chop is a slang term used to refer to any Hammond organ which has been modified to fit into one or more roadcases for easier transportation. Moving an unmodified Hammond organ generally requires special lifting equipment, a van and several people. The different components of a "chopped" Hammond may still have the same total weight as a regular instrument; however, by "chopping" the organ into separate sections, it becomes easier to lift the components and fit them into a regular-sized vehicle. There are generally two methods of "chopping" a Hammond organ. The first is for players who do not use the bass pedals: The internal speakers and bass pedals are removed and any components in the base of the organ (reverb chamber, power amp, power supply, etc) are moved to the upper half of the organ, above the tone generator. The swell pedal can either be replaced by a volume knob on the front of the console, or placed in its own box with an appropriate plug connecting it to the rest of the organ. The entire lower half of the cabinet is cut off below the tone generator and a piece of wood is bolted to the underside. A folding stand or folding legs is then added. The second type is for players who use the bass pedals: Again, internal Leslie unit and internal speakers are removed. Anything in the "middle" section is moved to the bottom or top. Components in the bottom that stick up rather far can be mounted in a different position or above the tonewheel, i.e. reverb chambers or heatsinks. Then, using appropriate bracing, the middle part of the chamber is cut off above the base and below the tone generator. Boards are bolted to the bottom of the upper part and the top of the lower part. The wires must be cut and soldered/connected to multi-pin plugs for easy removal and assembly. Aluminium or steel tubes are usually used to hold the console section up from the base. Performance techniques Manuals, drawbars, and effects Pianists and synthesizer players who begin playing the Hammond soon realize that authentic performance practice involves a lot more than playing the notes on the keyboard. Hammond players vary the timbre of both manuals in real time through a combination of changing drawbar settings, engaging or disengaging the vibrato and chorus effects or percussion settings, and changing the rotating Leslie speaker system's speed setting. As well, performers obtain other effects by setting the Leslie's amplifier to maximum output (and controlling the effective volume using only the organ's volume pedal) to add overdriven distortion or growl for certain passages, or by briefly switching off the organ's synchronous run motor, which produces a wobbly pitch-bend effect. There are playing styles that are idiomatic to the Hammond organ, such as palm glissandos, rapid repetition of a single note, tremolo between two notes a third apart (typically the 5th and 7th scale degree of the current chord), percussive drumming of the keyboard, and playing a chord on the upper manual, then sliding the hand down to duplicate the chord on the lower manual. Artistic use of the foot-controlled volume pedal is an important facet of performing on the Hammond. Bass pedalboard Tom Vickers notes that after Jimmy Smith popularized the Hammond organ in jazz, many jazz pianists “. . .who thought that getting organ-ized would be a snap . . . realized that the . . . B-3 required not only a strong left hand, but killer coordination on those bass pedals to really get the bass groove percolating." Tom Vickers. Organ Grinder Swing. Available at: http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:D7tSoqTpASYJ:www.catalog-of-cool.com/organ.html+%22organ+trio%22&hl=en&gl=ca&ct=clnk&cd=761&lr=lang_en|lang_fr In the 1950s, the organist Wild Bill Davis told the then-aspiring organist Smith that it could take over a decade just to learn the bass pedals. Jazz organists such as Jimmy Smith developed the ability to perform fluent walking-bass lines on the bass pedals, mostly on ballad tempo tunes. He played up-tempo bass lines with his left hand, augmented by occasional taps on the bass pedalboard. Some organists like Barbara Dennerlein or Leon Kuijpers perform basslines on the bass pedalboard. Many jazz organists from the 1950s/1960s era and from more recent decades perform the bassline for uptempo songs with their left hand on the lower manual. Organists who play the bassline on the lower manual may do short taps on the bass pedals-often on the tonic of a tune's key-to simulate the low, resonant sound of a plucked upright bass string. Playing basslines on the manuals may make the bass lines more light and fluid than if they are played on the bass pedals, especially for uptempo tunes. As well, playing basslines on the lower manual makes it easier to perform grace notes. Clones and emulation devices Due to the difficulties of transporting the heavy Hammond organ, bass pedalboard (a B-3 organ, bench and pedalboard weighs 425 pounds/193 kg) and Leslie speaker cabinets to performance venues, and due to the risk of technical problems that are associated with any vintage electromechanical instrument, musicians sought out a more portable, reliable way of obtaining the Hammond sound. Electronic and digital keyboards that imitate the sound of the Hammond are often referred to as "clonewheel organs". Some early emulation devices were criticized for their unrealistic imitation of the Hammond sound, particularly in the way they voice the upper harmonics and in their simulation of the rotary speaker effect. Refinements to Hammond emulations eventually led to the development of relatively lightweight electronic keyboard instruments such as the Roland VK-7 and the Korg BX-3 (dual manuals) and CX-3 (single manual), (and even Hammond-Suzuki's own XB-2/XB-5 models), which produce a fairly realistic recreation of the original Hammond tone. By the 1990s and 2000s digital signal processing and sampling technologies allowed for better imitation of the original Hammond sound, and a variety of electronic organs, emulator devices, and synthesizers provided a reproduction of the Hammond tone, such as the Clavia Nord Electro keyboard. Hammond Suzuki USA currently markets numerous home, church, and professional models that digitally reproduce the sound of vintage Hammond tonewheel organs. Some sophisticated emulation devices have algorithms that recreate some characteristics of vintage Hammonds, such as "crosstalk" or "leakage" between the tonewheels and the sound of the Leslie speaker cabinet. Currently, there are numerous B-3 clones on the market, from full-size, dual keyboard behemoths with real Leslie cabinets from Hammond/Suzuki, to inexpensive Casio WK series home keyboards that actually have a "tonewheel organ" function built in, to allow the user to simulate changing drawbars on the fly. Between these two extremes are numerous models from Hammond, Korg, Roland, Clavia (Nord Series), and virtual synths – notably the B4 by Native Instruments – computer simulations of every B-3 nuance down to key click, tonewheel leakage, dirty contacts, type of tubes – virtually any variable can be accommodated, though many aficionados consider them inferior to a real Hammond. The vintage synthesizer emulation software Bristol includes, among other organs, an emulation of a B3 which is called the Bristol B3. An article from Keyboard Magazine that reviewed electronic simulations of the Hammond sound claims that some aspects of the vintage electromechanical Hammond are not accurately reproduced by clones and emulation devices. Clonewheel Heaven: 18 cool organ products take aim at the mighty Hammond B-3 and Leslie duo. Keyboard Magazine Notable uses of instrument The sound of the Hammond organ can be heard in rhythm and blues pieces such as "Hello Stranger" (March 1963) written by Barbara Lewis with backup by The Dells. The Hammond B-3 organ can be heard in 1960s surf music, where the spinning Leslie speaker created distinctive special effects. The Hammond sound was a key part of the mystical soundscape of the 1967 Procol Harum song, "A Whiter Shade of Pale" , in the Bach-like introductory measures played by organist Matthew Fisher (who actually played an M-102 Hammond registration, accessed January 1, 2008 ). Except for a few months in late 1976 and early 1977, Procol Harum has always (and still does after 40 years) appeared in concert with a Hammond. It was also popularized in Steve Winwood's soaring, animal-like "Gimme Some Lovin'" with Spencer Davis Group, in The Small Faces' mod anthems All or Nothing and Itchycoo Park by Ian McLagan, and in the instrumental song "Green Onions" by Booker T. Jones of Booker T. and the MGs. Billy Preston also played the Hammond organ in songs including "Outa-Space", which was one of the first songs that launched him into his solo career. Hammond organs are also widely used in 1970s progressive rock music bands such as Pink Floyd's Rick Wright (First on a Hammond L-101, and later on a B-3); Emerson, Lake and Palmer's Keith Emerson (L-100 and C-3); Genesis's Tony Banks (a Hammond L-122 and later a Hammond T-102); and Yes' Rick Wakeman (C-3). It also sparked the interest of the keyboard players in early heavy metal music bands such as Deep Purple's Jon Lord (C-3), Uriah Heep's Ken Hensley, and Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones. In the 1990s, Rob Collins of The Charlatans integrated the Hammond organ back into British rock 'n' roll. The song Weirdo (1992, #19 UK charts) opened with a solo Hammond riff that returned at each chorus. American progressive rock band Kansas used them extensively, notably on their song Carry on Wayward Son. Pop culture references In several sketches by Monty Python's Flying Circus Terry Gilliam plays a nude organist who provides a fanfare on a Hammond L-100 in "Blackmail" and "Crackpot Religions Ltd" as well as Terry Jones, for the opening scenes on the third season. The British adult comic Viz had (or has) an occasional strip featuring 'Captain Morgan and his Hammond Organ'. The strip's plot usually revolves around the crew sighting a treasure ship or similar lucrative opportunity, which they then miss due to the eponymous captain insisting on first spending some time serenading them with a selection of tunes played on said organ. The fictional character Arnold Rimmer (from the BBC TV science fiction-comedy series Red Dwarf) is a big fan of Hammond organ music. He is particularly fond of an artist by the name of Reggie Wilson (a satirical reference to Reginald Dixon), whose Hammond organ albums include "Lift Music Classics" and "Funking up Wagner". Rimmer has also taught the Skutters to play the Hammond organ and declared every Wednesday night to be "Amateur Hammond Organ Recital Night". None of the other crew of the Red Dwarf spaceship particularly enjoy Rimmer's taste in music. Tori Amos used the Hammond B3 organ extensively in her 2005 album The Beekeeper. See also List of jazz organists List of Hammond organ players Clonewheel organ Organ trio - a group of three musicians, typically consisting of a Hammond organ player, a drummer, and either a guitarist or a saxophone player. Hammond piano Captain Morgan and his Hammond Organ References External links Hammond Suzuku Europe Hammond Suzuki USA - Makers of Modern-day Hammond-branded clone organs Hammond Sweden Hammond/Leslie resource and home of the hammondzone user group Matthew Fisher's unusual 1968 Leslie setup for Procol Harum History of the Hammond B-3 organ Hammond Chops and a list of Chops at dairiki.org When is a B3 NOT a B3 - learning the signs of transplanted fakes be-x-old:Арган Хаманда | Hammond_organ |@lemmatized hammond:134 l:19 organ:130 electric:2 invent:2 laurens:3 manufacture:3 company:4 originally:3 sell:1 church:7 low:10 cost:1 alternative:1 wind:3 drive:2 pipe:10 become:7 standard:1 keyboard:22 instrument:18 jazz:13 blue:7 rock:14 music:15 gospel:4 original:10 use:50 additive:3 synthesis:3 waveform:7 harmonic:9 series:40 make:15 mechanical:4 tonewheels:6 rotate:7 front:6 electromagnetic:3 pickup:3 component:10 ratio:2 mixed:2 slide:3 drawbar:23 mount:3 two:14 although:5 many:9 different:8 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7,651 | Bay_leaf | Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers to the aromatic leaf of the Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae). Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance. The leaves are often used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean Cuisine. The fresh leaves are very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying. Taxonomy Several other plants use the term "bay leaf," but do not refer to the leaves of the Bay Laurel. They include: California bay leaf The leaf of the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica), also known as 'California laurel', 'Oregon myrtle', and 'pepperwood', is similar to the Mediterranean bay but has a stronger flavor. "Indian bay leaf" (also tej pat, tejpat, tejpata तेजपत्ता or Tamalpatra तमालपत्र) The leaf of the Cinnamomum tejpata (malabathrum) tree is similar in fragrance and taste to cinnamon bark, but milder. In appearance, it is similar to the other bay leaves but is culinarily quite different, having an aroma and flavor more similar to that of Cassia. It is inaccurately called a bay leaf as it is of a different genus (though the same family) as the bay laurel. "Indonesian bay leaf" or "Indonesian laurel" (salam leaf) The leaf of Syzygium polyanthum''. Not commonly found outside of Indonesia, this exotic spice is applied to meat and, less often vegetables. Like Indian bay leaf, it is also inaccurately named because the plant is actually a member of the Myrtaceae family. History/Region of Origin The bay leaf originated in Asia Minor, and spread to the Mediterranean and other countries with suitable climates. Bay leaf is not grown in Northern regions, as the plants do not thrive in cold climates. Turkey is one of the main exporters of bay leaves, although they are also grown in areas of France, Belgium, Central and North America, Italy, Russia, Israel and India. The laurel tree that the bay leaf comes from was very important both symbolically and literally in both Greece and Rome. The laurel can be found as a central component found in many ancient mythologies that glorify the tree as a symbol of honor. This association continues today. Bay leaves are one of the most widely used culinary herbs in Europe and North America. The bay laurel tree has been cultivated since the beginning of recorded history. Taste and aroma If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. As with many spices and flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable in cooked foods than the taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be extracted from the bay leaf. Bay leaves also contain the essential oil eugenol. Uses Bay leaves are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the Mediterranean), as well as in North America. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood and vegetable dishes. The leaves also flavor classic French dishes such as bouillabaisse and bouillon. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni), and removed before serving. In Indian and Pakistani cuisine bay leaves are often used in biryani and many salads. In Japan, too, it has a long history as a herbal ingredient. Bay leaves can also be crushed (or ground) before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of their desired fragrance than whole leaves, and there is less chance of biting into a leaf directly. Bay leaves can also be used scattered in pantries to repel meal moths and roaches. Misconceptions A number of members of the Laurel family (including mountain laurel and cherry laurel) have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true - bay leaves are safe to eat. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and because of this, are not considered culinarily acceptable. Eating whole bay leaves may also pose a risk of general injury to the throat. This is the reason why all recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished. Cultivation Gardeners in frost-free or light frost areas will find that Bay Laurel seedlings planted in the ground willingly grow into large trees, 38 feet and taller; but when kept pruned the Bay Laurel tree can thrive as a small bush. Bay Laurel can also be grown in containers, the size of which limits the ultimate size of the trees. New plants are often started via layering, or from cuttings, since growing from seed can be difficult. Bay trees are difficult to start from seed, due in part to the seed's low germination rate, and long germination period. Fresh seeds with the pericarp removed typically have a 40% germination rate, while dried seeds and/or seeds with an intact pericarp have yet lower germination rates. In addition, the Bay Laurel seed germination period can be 50 days or more, which increases the risk of the seeds rotting before they germinate. Treating the seeds with gibberellic acid can be useful in increasing seed yield, as is careful monitoring of moisture levels in the rooting media. 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7,652 | Alan_Garner | Alan Garner OBE (born in Congleton, Cheshire, 17 October 1934) is an English writer whose work is firmly rooted in Cheshire. Biography Alan Garner spent his early childhood in Alderley Edge, Cheshire, England, and he remains associated with the area. Many of his works, including The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath, are drawn from local legends and locations. He had long periods of ill health in childhood and was twice declared dead. "He spent most of the first eight years of his life in a small, white sickbed....'By day, it amounted to sensory deprivation. I lay in a bedroom that was whitewashed and had cheesecloth stretched across the windows...I was so bored, I would create my own out-of-body experiences....At night, it was worse. When you're lying in the semi-darkness, and the moon is coming up, and half of you is paralysed, there is no end to the terrible things a heap of clothes can change into.'" Alan Garner, Radio Times interview, 14 January 1995) He attended Manchester Grammar School (where a library is named after him) and studied Classics at Oxford. His early books were fantasy, marketed for children, though he was not ever comfortable with being labelled simply as a "children's writer", saying he had no intention one way or the other about writing specifically for children. Garner Interview His most recent works, Strandloper and Thursbitch, are more suited for adult readers. The Stone Book (which received the Phoenix Award in 1996) is poetic in style and inspiration. Garner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight": the footnotes would not have been needed by his father. This and other aspects of his writing are the subject of Neil Philip's A Fine Anger, (Collins, 1981), which offers a detailed analysis of his work. His works have won the Guardian Award, the Carnegie Medal, and the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award, as well as the Chicago International Film Festival 1st Prize for his educational film Images. His collection of essays and public talks, The Voice That Thunders, contains much autobiographical material (including an account of his life with bipolar disorder), as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. Garner is an accomplished public speaker. The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Owl Service are acknowledged classics of children's literature. He was awarded the OBE for services to literature in the 2001 New Year's Honours list. Bibliography Novels The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1960) The Moon of Gomrath (1963) - Sequel to The Weirdstone of Brisingamen Elidor (1965) The Old Man of Mow (1966) The Owl Service (1967) Smith (1969) Red Shift (1973) The Breadhorse (1975) Strandloper (1996) The Well of the Wind (1998) Thursbitch (2003) Collections The Stone Book Quartet (1979) - Collection of the four The Stone Book short stories. The Alan Garner Collection (Collins, 2005) - Slipcased collection of paperbacks: The Owl Service, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, The Moon of Gomrath, Elidor and A Bag of Moonshine. Short Stories Feel Free (1967) A Book of Goblins (ed) (1969) The Stone Book (1976) - First story in The Stone Book. Tom Fobble's Day (1977) - Second story in The Stone Book. Granny Reardun (1977) - Third story in The Stone Book. The Aimer Gate (1978) - Fourth story in The Stone Book. Alan Garner's Fairy Tales of Gold (1979) Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales (1984) A Bag of Moonshine (1986) - A collection of 22 stories chosen from the folklore of England and Wales. Fairytales of Gold (1989) The Lad of the Gad (1980) Once Upon a Time (1993) Essays and Lectures The Voice That Thunders (1997) - A collection of essays and lectures Edited The Guizer: A Book of Fools (1975) - A collection of stories about fools. TV Drama The Owl Service (1969) - A British TV series by Granada Television based on Garner's novel of the same name. Red Shift (BBC, transmitted 17 January 1978) - Directed by John Mackenzie; part of the BBC's Play for Today series. To Kill a King (1980) - Part of the BBC series of plays on supernatural themes, Leap in the Dark: an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writer's block. The hero's home appears to be Garner's own house. Garner and Don Webb adapted Elidor into a children's television series for the BBC. The series consisted of six half-hour episodes starring Damian Zuk as Roland and Suzanne Shaw as Helen Awards 'The Owl Service' won the Guardian Award and the Carnegie Medal in 1968 Artist Patrick James Lynch won the 1987 Mother Goose Award for his illustrative work on 'A Bag of Moonshine'. 'The Stone Book' received the Phoenix Award from the Children's Literature Association (USA) in 1996 The Lewis Carroll Shelf Award The 1981 film 'Images' won First Prize at the Chicago International Film Festival Karl Edward Wagner Award (Special Award) won in 2003 External links Unoffical web site for Alan Garner Article by the Guardian Unlimited along with assorted links and author recommendations Alan Garner at the IMDb Interview with Alan Garner on 'The Stone Book Quartet' A review of The Stone Book Quartet and Red Shift An excerpt from Thursbitch A review of Thursbitch An interview with Alan Garner Interview wih Alan Garner by Raymond H.Thompson References | Alan_Garner |@lemmatized alan:11 garner:17 obe:2 bear:1 congleton:1 cheshire:4 october:1 english:2 writer:4 whose:1 work:6 firmly:1 root:1 biography:1 spend:2 early:2 childhood:2 alderley:1 edge:1 england:2 remain:1 associate:1 area:1 many:1 include:2 weirdstone:5 brisingamen:5 moon:4 gomrath:3 draw:1 local:1 legend:1 location:1 long:1 period:1 ill:1 health:1 twice:1 declare:1 dead:1 first:3 eight:1 year:2 life:2 small:1 white:1 sickbed:1 day:2 amount:1 sensory:1 deprivation:1 lay:1 bedroom:1 whitewash:1 cheesecloth:1 stretch:1 across:1 window:1 bored:1 would:2 create:1 body:1 experience:1 night:1 worse:1 lying:1 semi:1 darkness:1 come:1 half:2 paralyse:1 end:1 terrible:1 thing:1 heap:1 clothes:1 change:1 radio:1 time:3 interview:5 january:2 attend:1 manchester:1 grammar:1 school:1 library:1 name:2 study:1 classic:2 oxford:1 book:15 fantasy:1 market:1 child:6 though:1 ever:1 comfortable:1 label:1 simply:1 say:1 intention:1 one:1 way:1 write:1 specifically:1 recent:1 strandloper:2 thursbitch:4 suited:1 adult:1 reader:1 stone:11 receive:2 phoenix:2 award:11 poetic:1 style:1 inspiration:1 pay:1 particular:1 attention:1 language:2 strives:1 render:1 cadence:1 tongue:1 modern:1 explain:1 sense:1 anger:2 felt:1 read:1 sir:1 gawain:1 green:1 knight:1 footnote:1 need:1 father:1 aspect:1 writing:1 subject:1 neil:1 philip:1 fine:1 collins:2 offer:1 detailed:1 analysis:1 win:5 guardian:3 carnegie:2 medal:2 lewis:2 carroll:2 shelf:2 well:3 chicago:2 international:2 film:4 festival:2 prize:2 educational:1 image:2 collection:7 essay:3 public:2 talk:1 voice:2 thunder:2 contains:1 much:1 autobiographical:1 material:1 account:1 bipolar:1 disorder:1 critical:1 reflection:1 upon:2 folklore:2 literature:4 education:1 nature:1 myth:1 accomplished:1 speaker:1 owl:5 service:6 acknowledge:1 new:1 honour:1 list:1 bibliography:1 novel:2 sequel:1 elidor:3 old:1 man:1 mow:1 smith:1 red:3 shift:3 breadhorse:1 wind:1 collections:1 quartet:3 four:1 short:2 story:9 slipcased:1 paperback:1 bag:3 moonshine:3 feel:1 free:1 goblin:1 ed:1 tom:1 fobble:1 second:1 granny:1 reardun:1 third:1 aimer:1 gate:1 fourth:1 fairy:2 tale:2 gold:2 british:2 choose:1 wale:1 fairytale:1 lad:1 gad:1 lecture:2 edit:1 guizer:1 fool:2 tv:2 drama:1 series:5 granada:1 television:2 base:1 bbc:4 transmit:1 direct:1 john:1 mackenzie:1 part:2 play:2 today:1 kill:1 king:1 supernatural:1 theme:1 leap:1 dark:1 atmospheric:1 overcome:1 depression:1 block:1 hero:1 home:1 appear:1 house:1 webb:1 adapt:1 consist:1 six:1 hour:1 episode:1 star:1 damian:1 zuk:1 roland:1 suzanne:1 shaw:1 helen:1 artist:1 patrick:1 james:1 lynch:1 mother:1 goose:1 illustrative:1 association:1 usa:1 karl:1 edward:1 wagner:1 special:1 external:1 link:2 unoffical:1 web:1 site:1 article:1 unlimited:1 along:1 assorted:1 author:1 recommendation:1 imdb:1 review:2 excerpt:1 wih:1 raymond:1 h:1 thompson:1 reference:1 |@bigram alan_garner:11 weirdstone_brisingamen:5 sir_gawain:1 gawain_green:1 lewis_carroll:2 bipolar_disorder:1 fairy_tale:2 external_link:1 guardian_unlimited:1 |
7,653 | Maxis | Maxis Software is an American company founded as an independent video game developer in 1987. It is currently a subsidary of Electronic Arts (EA). Maxis is the creator of the best-selling computer game of all time, The Sims and its sequel The Sims 2 and have recently finished the development and release of Spore. These titles and their related products are the brand's most popular and successful lines. Most Maxis titles are simulation-based, though none are considered traditional simulations. Maxis founder Will Wright likens them as "digital dollhouses." Maxis has also released games developed by other production houses, such as A-Train and SimTower. History Origin and early acclaim Will Wright, Maxis co-founder Maxis was founded in 1987 by Will Wright and "idea guy" Jeff Braun to help publish SimCity on home computers. Before then, the game was only available on a limited basis on the Commodore 64 due to few publishers showing any interest in porting it. The reason for this is because SimCity wasn't a traditional game that had definite "win" and "lose" conditions. The title went on to become, statistically, one of the most popular and successful video games of all time. The SimCity series has since been updated to include SimCity 2000 (1993), SimCity 3000 (1999), SimCity 3000: Unlimited (2000), SimCity 4 (2003). It also released some non-sim titles, such as 1991's RoboSport and the well-known 1995 3D Pinball for Windows, which has been included as one of the standard system games in many Windows releases. After such success with the SimCity series, Maxis tried various other Sim- titles. Some of these attempts include SimAnt, SimFarm, SimEarth, SimLife, SimTower, SimIsle and SimHealth. Maxis was also approached by companies to design business aids; SimRefinery is one example. The success of these franchises varies, but none matched that of the original SimCity. Maxis' hit The Sims is the only notable exception. Origin of the name The company's name was not based on the words "six AM" spelled backwards. This rumor seems to have stemmed from an easter egg in SimCity 3000, in which the game's ticker bar displays the message "Do you know that Maxis spelled backwards is Six AM?" upon execution of a cheat code in the cheat entry box. Additionally, in later Sims expansion packs, the name was explained by Will Wright as Six AM spelt backwards in the bonus "The Sims 2 Preview". Rather, it was derived from a formula suggested by Jeff Braun's father: computer game companies should have two-syllable names and should include an 'x'. This is confirmed in an interview with a Maxis employee on a bonus disc released with The Sims: Makin' Magic. It was only later realized that the name is "six AM" backwards, the time of morning a sim's alarm clock wakes them up. Decline After the immense success of SimCity, Maxis experimented with different genres. However, their new games, including The Crystal Skull and SimCopter, were commercial failures. They also acquired Cinematronics to create a game called Crucible. Heavy losses and lack of direction led Maxis to begin considering acquisition offers. Acquisition by EA Electronic Arts (EA) completed its acquisition of Maxis on July 28, 1997. Compared to other companies acquired by EA, such as Origin Systems and Westwood Studios, the absorption of Maxis has taken a slower pace, and the company has retained some of its original staff, including Will Wright. Products were shipped under the Maxis logo for several years, but in 2004, The Sims 2 bore only the Electronic Arts logo on the box cover (although Sims 2 displays the Maxis logo at game start, and on the reverse side of the box). As of October 18, 2006, and the release of The Sims 2: Pets expansion pack, the Maxis title has been omitted from the game's start. Also, up until The Sims 2: FreeTime, the logo of Maxis was used for a button in the Options panel of the game to display the credits. In FreeTime, the Maxis logo has been replaced by a symbol of the Sims plumbob. For many years, Maxis was a traditional studio located in Walnut Creek, California (and before that, Orinda, California), but in February 2004 the division was folded into EA's Redwood Shores headquarters. The present Maxis is based at Will Wright's studio in Emeryville, California. Notable creations Maxis is widely regarded for its innovating simulation games, in which there is no specific goal to the player, making its games almost endless. The company's latest creation is Spore, a game that allows the player to create cells and evolve them until they are able to colonize space as sentient life forms. SimCity series A screen-shot from SimCity 4, showing a densely populated city SimCity was Maxis' first release and innovated the conception of gaming as there was no specific goal to be reached, meaning that it could neither be won nor lost. In this franchise, the player is a mayor that must raise a city from a single village to a sucessful metropolis, laying down zones, taking care of the public services and stimulating the city's economy. The series includes five main games (SimCity, SimCity 2000, SimCity 3000, SimCity 4 and SimCity Societies) and three spin-offs (SimCity: The Card Game, SimCopter and Streets of SimCity). SimCity Societies, the fifth main release for the franchise, was not produced by Maxis, but by Tilted Mill Entertainment, being described as a 'social engineering simulator' and criticized for the lack of SimCity's traditional gaming formula. The Sims Current "The Sims" Division logo, used from 2004. It was inspired by The Sims 2 logo. Maxis' most successful series to date and the best-selling PC game of all time is The Sims (2000) . Maxis has developed seven expansion packs for the game as well as an online version (The Sims Online). Maxis released The Sims 2 in 2004, a sequel title that features a full 3D environment as opposed to the original's dimetric engine. Eight expansion packs and nine stuff packs have been released for the sequel thus far. The Sims 3 was announced in November 2006 and will be released on June 2nd, 2009, however, the game is being developed by EA Black Box and co-developed by Visceral Games. Spore A screenshot of a near-final prototype Cell Phase, the first phase of the game. The player must evolve through the Cell, Animal, Tribal and Civilization phases to reach the last and most advanced knowledge in the game: the Space Phase. Maxis' latest project, Spore, was released on September 7, 2008 (September 5 in Europe). Players create species starting at the single cell level, and develop them into sentient life. The goal is for them to eventually gain the intelligence to create spaceships. The Spore Creature Creator allows users to create species for later use in the game. This is one of few Maxis' games to feature goals on its plot as the player must complete five different phases and reach the space-traveling technology. There is also an ultimate goal, which is entering the galactic core, a massive black hole sorrounded by a powerful and hostile cyborg species called The Grox. However, the player can stay in a single phase as long as he wishes, even after completing it. "Spore" was largely lauded by media and by Maxis and EA Games themselves as one of the most revolutionary games of all time. Professional criticisms were highly positive, but the general public received the game with strong distrust mainly because of the DRM technology. Negative reviews also focused on the game's frequent bugs. EA Games confirmed the production of expansion packs due Spore's financial success. Note See also Computer software List of Sim games Electronic Arts External links Maxis at MobyGames "SIMply Divine: The story of Maxis Software", circa 2000, on GameSpot by Geoff Keighley | Maxis |@lemmatized maxi:32 software:3 american:1 company:7 found:2 independent:1 video:2 game:34 developer:1 currently:1 subsidary:1 electronic:4 art:4 ea:8 creator:2 best:2 selling:1 computer:4 time:5 sims:18 sequel:3 recently:1 finish:1 development:1 release:12 spore:7 title:7 related:1 product:2 brand:1 popular:2 successful:3 line:1 maxis:2 simulation:3 base:3 though:1 none:2 consider:2 traditional:4 founder:2 wright:6 likens:1 digital:1 dollhouse:1 also:8 develop:5 production:2 house:1 train:1 simtower:2 history:1 origin:3 early:1 acclaim:1 co:2 idea:1 guy:1 jeff:2 braun:2 help:1 publish:1 simcity:23 home:1 available:1 limited:1 basis:1 commodore:1 due:2 publisher:1 show:2 interest:1 port:1 reason:1 definite:1 win:2 lose:2 condition:1 go:1 become:1 statistically:1 one:5 series:5 since:1 update:1 include:7 unlimited:1 non:1 sim:4 robosport:1 well:2 know:2 pinball:1 window:2 standard:1 system:2 many:2 success:4 try:1 various:1 attempt:1 simant:1 simfarm:1 simearth:1 simlife:1 simisle:1 simhealth:1 approach:1 design:1 business:1 aid:1 simrefinery:1 example:1 franchise:3 varies:1 match:1 original:3 hit:1 notable:2 exception:1 name:5 word:1 six:4 spelled:1 backwards:4 rumor:1 seem:1 stem:1 easter:1 egg:1 ticker:1 bar:1 display:3 message:1 spell:1 upon:1 execution:1 cheat:2 code:1 entry:1 box:4 additionally:1 later:3 expansion:5 pack:6 explain:1 spelt:1 bonus:2 preview:1 rather:1 derive:1 formula:2 suggest:1 father:1 two:1 syllable:1 x:1 confirm:2 interview:1 employee:1 disc:1 makin:1 magic:1 realize:1 morning:1 alarm:1 clock:1 wake:1 decline:1 immense:1 experiment:1 different:2 genre:1 however:3 new:1 crystal:1 skull:1 simcopter:2 commercial:1 failure:1 acquire:2 cinematronics:1 create:5 call:2 crucible:1 heavy:1 loss:1 lack:2 direction:1 lead:1 begin:1 acquisition:3 offer:1 complete:3 july:1 compare:1 westwood:1 studio:3 absorption:1 take:2 slow:1 pace:1 retain:1 staff:1 ship:1 logo:7 several:1 year:2 bore:1 cover:1 although:1 start:3 reverse:1 side:1 october:1 pet:1 omit:1 freetime:2 use:3 button:1 option:1 panel:1 credit:1 replace:1 symbol:1 plumbob:1 locate:1 walnut:1 creek:1 california:3 orinda:1 february:1 division:2 fold:1 redwood:1 shore:1 headquarters:1 present:1 emeryville:1 creation:2 widely:1 regard:1 innovating:1 specific:2 goal:5 player:7 make:1 almost:1 endless:1 late:2 allow:2 cell:4 evolve:2 able:1 colonize:1 space:3 sentient:2 life:2 form:1 screen:1 shot:1 densely:1 populated:1 city:3 first:2 innovate:1 conception:1 reach:3 mean:1 could:1 neither:1 mayor:1 must:3 raise:1 single:3 village:1 sucessful:1 metropolis:1 lay:1 zone:1 care:1 public:2 service:1 stimulate:1 economy:1 five:2 main:2 society:2 three:1 spin:1 offs:1 card:1 street:1 fifth:1 produce:1 tilted:1 mill:1 entertainment:1 describe:1 social:1 engineering:1 simulator:1 criticize:1 gaming:1 current:1 inspire:1 date:1 sell:1 pc:1 seven:1 online:2 version:1 feature:2 full:1 environment:1 oppose:1 dimetric:1 engine:1 eight:1 nine:1 stuff:1 thus:1 far:1 announce:1 november:1 june:1 black:2 visceral:1 screenshot:1 near:1 final:1 prototype:1 phase:6 animal:1 tribal:1 civilization:1 last:1 advanced:1 knowledge:1 project:1 september:2 europe:1 specie:3 level:1 eventually:1 gain:1 intelligence:1 spaceship:1 creature:1 user:1 plot:1 travel:1 technology:2 ultimate:1 enter:1 galactic:1 core:1 massive:1 hole:1 sorrounded:1 powerful:1 hostile:1 cyborg:1 grox:1 stay:1 long:1 wish:1 even:1 largely:1 laud:1 medium:1 revolutionary:1 professional:1 criticism:1 highly:1 positive:1 general:1 receive:1 strong:1 distrust:1 mainly:1 drm:1 negative:1 review:1 focus:1 frequent:1 bug:1 financial:1 note:1 see:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 mobygames:1 simply:1 divine:1 story:1 circa:1 gamespot:1 geoff:1 keighley:1 |@bigram best_selling:1 simcity_simcity:7 easter_egg:1 spell_backwards:1 alarm_clock:1 crystal_skull:1 westwood_studio:1 walnut_creek:1 redwood_shore:1 emeryville_california:1 densely_populated:1 spin_offs:1 galactic_core:1 black_hole:1 external_link:1 |
7,654 | Hunt_the_Wumpus | Hunt the Wumpus is an early computer game, based on a simple hide and seek format featuring a mysterious monster (the Wumpus) that lurks deep inside a network of rooms. It was originally a text-based game written in BASIC. It has since been ported to various programming languages and platforms including graphical versions. About the game The shape of the labyrinth of the Hunt the Wumpus game. The original text-based version of Hunt the Wumpus uses a command line text interface. A player of the game enters commands to move through the rooms or shoot arrows along crooked paths through several adjoining rooms. There are twenty rooms, each connecting to three others, arranged like the vertices of a dodecahedron (or the faces of an icosahedron). Hazards include bottomless pits, super bats (which drop the player in a random location, a feature duplicated in later, commercially published adventure games, such as Zork I, Valley of the Minotaur, and Adventure), and the Wumpus itself. When the player has deduced from hints which chamber the Wumpus is in without entering the chamber, he fires an arrow into the Wumpus's chamber to slay it. The player wins if he slays the Wumpus. However, firing the arrow into the wrong chamber startles the Wumpus, which may cause it to move to an adjacent room. The player loses if he is in the same room as the Wumpus or a bottomless pit. Originally written by Gregory Yob in BASIC while attending University of Massachusetts Dartmouth and noticed on mainframes at least by 1972, Hunt the Wumpus was first published in the People's Computer Company Peoples Computer Company, founded in October 1971, was a small non-profit group of independent educators who met in a small storefront on Menalto Rd. in Menlo Park, California during the 1970s. The first issue of their journal, Peoples Computer Company, was published in October 1972. journal in 1973, again in 1975 in Creative Computing, and finally in 1979 in the book MORE BASIC Computer Games. Out of frustration with all the grid-based hunting games he had seen (Snark, Mugwump, and Hurkle included), Yob decided to create a map-based game. Yob injected adversarial humor into the computer's hints, prefiguring the "voice" of the Infocom narrator. Hunt the Wumpus (1972?) Later versions of the game offered more hazards and other cave layouts. An implementation of Hunt the Wumpus was typically included with MBASIC, Microsoft's BASIC interpreter for CP/M and one of the company's first products. Hunt the Wumpus was adapted as an early game for the Commodore PET entitled Twonky, which was distributed in the late 1970s with Cursor Magazine. A version of the game can still be found as part of the bsdgames package on modern BSD operating systems, (where it's known as "wump"). The 1980 port of the game for the TI-99/4A differs quite a bit from the original while retaining the same concept. It is a graphical rather than text-based game, and uses a regular grid equivalent to a torus rather than an icosahedron. In this version, the Wumpus is depicted as a large red head with a pair of legs growing out of its sides. Hunt the Wumpus - TI-99/4A Screenshots - MobyGames Hunt the Wumpus in other games The card game Magic: The Gathering has featured several "Wumpus" cards. The Wumpus seen on Magic cards is a beast with a characteristically-shaped head, jaw and mane. Mercadian Masques featured Hunted Wumpus (reprinted in several core sets, including 10th Edition) as well as Thrashing Wumpus. Planar Chaos, a set concentrating on new takes on popular cards, contained Shivan Wumpus. The Wumpus is also found in the open source game NetHack and the game M.U.L.E, with capture of the wumpus in the latter game leading to an in-game cash prize for the player. NetHack Gazetteer: Ranger Quest NetHack Experience Values Spoiler M.U.L.E. for Commodore 64 - MobyGames The Wumpus is mentioned in the "Thy Dungeon Man" games in Homestarrunner.com. It is also mentioned in the Oct 18, 2000 cartoon at userfriendly.org. The Wumpus gets his revenge on Wumpus hunters in the audio only game Be the Wumpus. Notes References Ahl, David H. (Ed.) (1979), MORE BASIC Computer Games. New York: Workman Publishing. ISBN 0-89480-137-6 External links Gregory Yob's 1975 description in Creative Computing. Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus 2 Review ov TI-99/4a version at stageselect.com Hunt the Wumpus from TatsuSoft Fully playable PC version Hunt the Wumpus by Bill Collins Graphical port to the Atari 2600. Python implementation of Hunt The Wumpus A PHP implementation of Hunt the Wumpus Online Java Hunt The Wumpus, based on TI-99/4A version Wumpus! a diversionary tale by Joseph J. Strout. A graphical adaptation for Mac OS 7.5 and newer. Jungerl contains an erlang implementation of Hunt the Wumpus Linux "wump" page | Hunt_the_Wumpus |@lemmatized hunt:19 wumpus:37 early:2 computer:7 game:23 base:7 simple:1 hide:1 seek:1 format:1 feature:4 mysterious:1 monster:1 lurk:1 deep:1 inside:1 network:1 room:6 originally:2 text:4 write:2 basic:7 since:1 port:3 various:1 programming:1 language:1 platform:1 include:5 graphical:4 version:8 shape:2 labyrinth:1 original:2 use:2 command:2 line:1 interface:1 player:6 enter:2 move:2 shoot:1 arrow:3 along:1 crooked:1 path:1 several:3 adjoin:1 twenty:1 connect:1 three:1 others:1 arrange:1 like:1 vertex:1 dodecahedron:1 face:1 icosahedron:2 hazard:2 bottomless:2 pit:2 super:1 bat:1 drop:1 random:1 location:1 duplicate:1 later:2 commercially:1 publish:3 adventure:2 zork:1 valley:1 minotaur:1 deduce:1 hint:2 chamber:4 without:1 fire:2 slay:2 win:1 however:1 wrong:1 startle:1 may:1 cause:1 adjacent:1 lose:1 gregory:2 yob:4 attend:1 university:1 massachusetts:1 dartmouth:1 notice:1 mainframe:1 least:1 first:3 people:3 company:4 found:1 october:2 small:2 non:1 profit:1 group:1 independent:1 educator:1 meet:1 storefront:1 menalto:1 rd:1 menlo:1 park:1 california:1 issue:1 journal:2 creative:2 computing:2 finally:1 book:1 frustration:1 grid:2 see:2 snark:1 mugwump:1 hurkle:1 decide:1 create:1 map:1 injected:1 adversarial:1 humor:1 prefigure:1 voice:1 infocom:1 narrator:1 offer:1 cave:1 layout:1 implementation:4 typically:1 mbasic:1 microsoft:1 interpreter:1 cp:1 one:1 product:1 adapt:1 commodore:2 pet:1 entitle:1 twonky:1 distribute:1 late:1 cursor:1 magazine:1 still:1 find:2 part:1 bsdgames:1 package:1 modern:1 bsd:1 operate:1 system:1 know:1 wump:2 ti:4 differs:1 quite:1 bit:1 retain:1 concept:1 rather:2 regular:1 equivalent:1 torus:1 depict:1 large:1 red:1 head:2 pair:1 leg:1 grow:1 side:1 screenshots:1 mobygames:2 card:4 magic:2 gathering:1 beast:1 characteristically:1 jaw:1 mane:1 mercadian:1 masque:1 reprint:1 core:1 set:2 edition:1 well:1 thrash:1 planar:1 chaos:1 concentrate:1 new:3 take:1 popular:1 contain:2 shivan:1 also:2 open:1 source:3 nethack:3 u:2 l:2 e:2 capture:1 latter:1 lead:1 cash:1 prize:1 gazetteer:1 ranger:1 quest:1 experience:1 value:1 spoiler:1 mention:2 thy:1 dungeon:1 man:1 homestarrunner:1 com:2 oct:1 cartoon:1 userfriendly:1 org:1 get:1 revenge:1 hunter:1 audio:1 note:1 reference:1 ahl:1 david:1 h:1 ed:1 york:1 workman:1 publishing:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 description:3 scan:2 code:2 review:1 ov:1 stageselect:1 tatsusoft:1 fully:1 playable:1 pc:1 bill:1 collins:1 atari:1 python:1 php:1 online:1 java:1 diversionary:1 tale:1 joseph:1 j:1 strout:1 adaptation:1 mac:1 jungerl:1 erlang:1 linux:1 page:1 |@bigram hunt_wumpus:18 bottomless_pit:2 menlo_park:1 commodore_pet:1 magic_gathering:1 workman_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
7,655 | Mary_Robinson | Mary Therese Winifred Robinson (; born 21 May 1944) served as the seventh, and first female, President of Ireland, serving from 1990 to 1997, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, from 1997 to 2002. She first rose to prominence as an academic, barrister, campaigner and member of the Irish senate (1969–1989). She defeated Fianna Fáil's Brian Lenihan, Snr and Fine Gael's Austin Currie in the 1990 presidential election becoming, as an Independent candidate nominated by the Labour Party, the Workers Party of Ireland and independent senators, the first elected president in the office's history not to have the support of Fianna Fáil. She is credited by many as having revitalised and liberalised a previously conservative political office. She resigned the presidency four months ahead of the end of her term of office to take up her post in the United Nations. Robinson has been Honorary President of Oxfam International since 2002, she is Chair of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and is also a founding member and Chair of the Council of Women World Leaders. Robinson is also one of the European members of the Trilateral Commission. She serves on many boards including as chair of the GAVI Alliance. Robinson’s newest project is Realizing Rights: the Ethical Globalization Initiative, which fosters equitable trade and decent work, promotes the right to health and more humane migration policies, works to strengthen women's leadership and encourage corporate responsibility. The organisation also supports capacity building and good governance in developing countries. She is Chancellor of the University of Dublin. Since 2004, she has also been Professor of Practice in International Affairs at Columbia University, where she teaches international human rights. Robinson also visits other colleges and universities where she lectures on human rights. In 2004, she received Amnesty International's Ambassador of Conscience Award for her work in promoting human rights. Background Born Mary Therese Winifred Bourke in Ballina, County Mayo in 1944, Mary Robinson was the daughter of two medical doctors. The Hiberno-Norman Bourkes have been in Mayo since the thirteenth century. Like many who came to Ireland with the Norman invasion, it was said of the Bourkes that they ended up "more Irish than the Irish themselves". Her family had links with many diverse political strands in Ireland. One ancestor was a leading activist in the Irish National Land League of Mayo and the Irish Republican Brotherhood; an uncle, Sir Paget John Bourke, was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II after a career as a judge in the Colonial Service; while another relative was a Roman Catholic nun. Some branches of the family were members of the Anglican Church of Ireland while others were Roman Catholics. Robinson was therefore born into a family that was a historical mix of rebels against and servants of the Crown. Mary Bourke attended Mount Anville Secondary School in Dublin and studied law at Trinity College, Dublin and Harvard Law School. In her twenties, she was appointed Reid Professor of Law in the college, considered to be a prestigious appointment made to accomplished lawyers. Subsequent holders of the title have included her successor as Irish president Mary McAleese, Professor John F. Larkin Q.C., Irish Human Rights Commissioner and prominent pro-choice activist Senator Ivana Bacik. In 1970 she married Nicholas Robinson. Despite the fact that her family had close links to the Church of Ireland, her marriage to a Protestant student caused a rift with her parents, who did not attend her wedding, although the rift was eventually overcome in subsequent months. Together they have three children. Career in Seanad Éireann Robinson's early political career included election to Dublin City Council in 1979, where she served until 1983. However she first hit national headlines as one of Dublin University's three members of Seanad Éireann to which she was first elected, as an independent candidate, in 1969. From this body she campaigned on a wide range of liberal issues, including the right of women to sit on juries, the then requirement that all women upon marriage resign from the civil service, and the right to the legal availability of contraception. This latter campaign won her many enemies. Condoms and other items were regularly sent in the post to the senator by conservative critics and a false rumour was spread that the chain of pharmacies Hayes, Conyngham Robinson was owned by her family (and so therefore that her promotion of contraception was an attempt to benefit members of her family). So unpopular was her campaign among fellow politicians that when she introduced the first bill proposing to liberalise the law on contraception into the senate, no other member would agree to 'second' the initiative and so it could not be further discussed. As a senator she served on the following parliamentary committees: Joint Committee on EC Secondary Legislation (1973–89) Chairman of its Social Affairs Sub-Committee (1977–87) Chairman of its Legal Affairs Committee (1987–89) Joint Committee on Marital Breakdown (1983–1985) One of the Civic Offices (nicknamed the 'Bunkers'). Dublin Corporation controversially built them on what had been one of the world's best preserved Viking sites, at Wood Quay. Robinson gave legal support to the leaders of the unsuccessful campaign to save the site. For many years Robinson also worked as legal advisor for the Campaign for Homosexual Law Reform with future Trinity College senator David Norris. Coincidentally, just as Mary McAleese replaced Mary Robinson as Reid Professor of Law in Trinity, and would succeed her to the Irish presidency, so Robinson replaced McAleese in the Campaign for Homosexual Law Reform. Robinson initially served in the Irish upper house as an independent senator, but in the mid 1970s she joined the Labour Party. Subsequently she attempted to be elected to Dáil Éireann (the lower house) but her efforts were unsuccessful, as were her efforts to be elected to Dublin Corporation. Robinson, along with hundreds of thousands of other Irish people, clashed with Dublin Corporation when it planned to built its new administrative headquarters on Wood Quay, one of Europe's best preserved Viking sites. Though Robinson and people who in the past might not have espoused her causes, fought a determined battle, Wood Quay was ultimately bulldozed and concreted over, to build the controversial Civic Offices. In 1982, the Labour Party entered into a coalition government with Fine Gael. When Peter Sutherland was appointed the Republic of Ireland's European Commissioner, Labour demanded the choice of the next Attorney General. Many expected Robinson to be the choice, but the party leader instead picked an unknown, new senior counsel called John Rogers. Shortly afterwards, Robinson resigned from the party in protest at the Anglo-Irish Agreement that the coalition under Garret FitzGerald had signed with the British Government of Margaret Thatcher. Robinson argued that unionist politicians in Northern Ireland should have been consulted as part of the deal, despite their reluctance to share power. Robinson remained in the Seanad for four more years, although at this point many of the issues she had campaigned for had been tackled. Contraception had been legalised although heavily restricted, women were on juries, and the marriage bar on women in the civil service had been revoked. To the surprise of many, she decided not to seek re-election to the senate in 1989. One year later, however, Labour approached her about the Irish presidency, for which an election was to be held. She thought she was being asked her legal advice about the type of policy programme party leader Dick Spring was proposing. However, as she read the briefing notes, she began to realise that the programme was aimed at her. After some consideration, she agreed to become the first Labour nominee for the presidency and the first woman candidate in what was only the second presidential election to be contested by three candidates since 1945. Presidential candidacy Beating Noel Browne for the nomination Trinity College DublinRobinson served as Reid Professor of Law in the University, as well as being one of its three elected senators in Seanad Éireann for twenty years. Few, even in the Labour Party, gave Robinson much chance of winning the presidency, not least because of an internal party row over her nomination. With the Labour Party the first name for a possible candidate was an elderly former minister for Health, and hero to the left, Dr. Noel Browne. Browne was a household name for having done more than anybody else in Ireland for tackling Tuberculosis in the 1950s. However Browne had little or no contact with Dick Spring and therefore had to live in hope of being nominated without the endorsement of the party leadership. The possibility that Browne might be nominated raised the possibility of an internal argument within the party. The fact that Browne was enthusiastic for candidacy, in a contest where Labour never before contested, now acted as pressure for Labour to find a candidate. The Labour Party leadership now had to act. Spring did not feel that he could control Browne for the duration of the election, given Browne's history towards eccentricity, and defying party policy to such a degree that Browne had to leave several political parties. In these circumstances the decision to propose Robinson proved to be politically inspired. Robinson had an advantage in being the first candidate nominated for the election, in that she could cover more meetings, public addresses and interviews. However she refused to be drawn on specifics in case she would alienate possible support. Robinson also received the backing of the Irish Times newspaper, and this proved hugely advantageous. Candidates from other parties Robinson's campaign was boosted by a lack of organisation in the main opposition party: Fine Gael. Fine Gael, having gambled that former Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald would run as its candidate (even though he had insisted for two years that he would not run for office) then approached another senior figure, Peter Barry, who had previously been willing to run but had run out of patience and was no longer interested. The party ultimately nominated the former civil rights campaigner Austin Currie, a respected new TD and former minister in Brian Faulkner's power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland from 1973-1974. Currie had little experience in the politics of the Republic and was widely seen as the party's last choice, nominated only when no-one else was available. Fianna Fáil chose Tánaiste and Minister for Defence, Brian Lenihan, Snr. Lenihan was popular and widely seen as humorous and intelligent. Like Robinson he had himself delivered liberal policy reform (abolished censorship in the 1960s, for example), and he was seen as a near certainty to win the presidency. The only question asked was whether Robinson would beat Currie and come second. However, as the campaign proceeded, it became apparent that Lenihan's victory was by no means a foregone conclusion, and that Robinson was a serious contender. Crucial to her appeal was the deep unpopularity of the then Taoiseach Charles Haughey and the rising popularity of the Labour Party leader Dick Spring. Notwithstanding, Fianna Fáil knew they could count on Lenihan to mount a barnstorming campaign in the last few weeks. Election campaign The head start that Robinson attained in the nomination process, and the fact that the Fine Gael candidate was from Northern Ireland, resulted in Robinson attaining second place in the polls. Given that Fine Gael normally received 25% of the election result, and were reduced to third place this was an achievement in itself. Robinson had proved superior media skills to both alternative candidates, and only now had to compete with the Fianna Fáil party election machine. At this point a transfer pact was decided upon between Fine Gael and Labour, as both parties were normally preferred partners for each other in general elections. However the Fine Gael candidate felt shortchanged by this deal as the media was more interested in the Robinson campaign, and privately he did not like Robinson. Currie later remarked that Lenihan was his personal friend, and that he felt personally sick at being asked to endorse somebody he did not like, for the sake of beating Lenihan. The possibility of transfers increased Robinson's chances if only Lenihan could be further weakened. It emerged during the campaign that what Lenihan had told friends and insiders in private flatly contradicted his public statements on a controversial effort in 1982 by the then opposition Fianna Fáil to pressure President Hillery into refusing a parliamentary dissolution to then Taoiseach, Garret FitzGerald; Hillery had resolutely rejected the pressure. Lenihan denied he had pressured the President but then a tape was produced of an 'on the record' interview he had given to a postgraduate student the previous May in which he frankly discussed attempting to apply pressure. Lenihan claimed that "on mature recollection" he hadn't pressured the President and had been confused in his interview with the student. But the government threatened to fall over the issue. Within days, the "unbeatable candidate" was dismissed as Tánaiste and Minister for Defence. Lenihan's integrity for the highest office in the land was seriously questioned. Lenihan's role in the event in 1982, seemed to imply that he could be instructed by Haughey in his duties, and that in effect electing Lenihan was in effect empowering the controversial Haughey. In a pointless effort to weaken Robinson a government minister and Haughey ally, Pádraig Flynn launched a controversial personal attack on Mary Robinson "as a wife and mother" and "having a new-found interest in her family". Flynn, even more controversially, also joked privately that Robinson would "turn the Áras into the Red Cow Inn". Flynn's tirade was itself attacked in response as "disgraceful" on live radio by Michael McDowell, a senior member of the Progressive Democrats, then in coalition with Fianna Fáil and up to that point supporting Lenihan's campaign. McDowell, a former TD, had been a controversial figure in the government. Though with no seat in parliament, he was nevertheless projected as the party's "conscience", launching attacks on Fianna Fáil that caused considerable anger in Fianna Fáil. The PDs threatened to quit the government after the revelations about Lenihan. They gave Haughey an ultimatum: either hold an inquiry into the pressure placed on President Hillery, or dismiss Lenihan. Through professing loyalty to his "friend of thirty years" Haughey chose the latter option and dismissed Lenihan. When Robinson met McDowell later in a restaurant, she quipped, "with enemies like McDowell, who needs friends?" Flynn's attack was a fatal blow to Lenihan's campaign, causing many female supporters of Lenihan to vote for Robinson in a gesture of support. Lenihan's supported evaporated, and Haughey concluded that the election was as good as lost. Haughey distanced himself from Lenihan, as he did not want any share in the blame. This had unintended consequences, as disquiet with the Fianna Fáil organisation concerning Haughey's leadership increased dramatically. An episode of an RTÉ current affairs television program featured Fianna Fáil members in Roscommon openly attacking Haughey's leadership and character. Many canvassers now restarted the campaign to get Lenihan elected. However, Lenihan's personal confidence was shattered and although he recovered somewhat in the polls towards the end of the campaign, it was insufficient. Lenihan won the first count with 44% of the first-preference votes - Robinson attaining 39%. ElectionsIreland.org: 1990 Presidential - Ireland First Preference Votes However, transfers from Austin Currie proved critical and the majority of these went as expected against Fianna Fáil. Lenihan became the first Fianna Fáil presidential candidate in the history of the office to lose a presidential election. Robinson now became President, the first woman to hold the office, and the first candidate to be second on first preference votes to win the presidency. Robinson became the first Labour Party candidate, the first woman and the first non-Fianna Fáil candidate in the history of contested presidential elections to win the presidency. Famously, RTÉ broadcast her victory speech live rather than the Angelus. Presidency Robinson was inaugurated as the seventh President of Ireland on 3 December 1990. She proved a remarkably popular president, earning the praise of Lenihan himself, who before his death five years later, said that she was a better president than he ever could have been. She took an office that had a reputation as being little more than a retirement position for prominent politicians and bred new life into the role. Robinson brought to the presidency legal knowledge, deep intellect and political experience. She reached out to the Irish 'diaspora' (the vast number of Irish emigrants and people of Irish descent). She also changed the face of Anglo-Irish relations, visiting Britain and became the first Irish president to meet Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace. She welcomed visits by senior British royals, most notably the Prince of Wales to her official residence, Áras an Uachtaráin. Her political profile changed also. Charles Haughey, Taoiseach when she was elected (and who had had to dismiss her rival, Brian Lenihan, Snr when the Progressive Democrats, the smaller party in government, threatened to leave the government unless he was sacked) had a diffident relationship with her, at one stage preventing her from delivering the prestigious BBC Dimbleby Lecture. Haughey's successors, Albert Reynolds (Fianna Fáil: 1992–94), John Bruton (Fine Gael: 1994–97) and Bertie Ahern (Fianna Fáil:1997–2008 ) never hid their admiration of her work, with Bruton's and Ahern's governments actively campaigning to get her the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights post when she sought it. In the previous fifty-two years, only one address to the Oireachtas (parliament) had taken place, by Éamon de Valera in 1966, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Easter Rising. Robinson delivered two such Addresses, though they were thought too long and intellectually obscure and not judged a success. She was also invited to chair a committee to review the workings of the United Nations, but declined when asked to by the Irish government, who feared that her involvement might make it difficult for it to oppose the proposals that would result if their Head of State had been chair of the review group. Controversially, on one trip to Belfast she met with the local MP, Gerry Adams, the President of Sinn Féin. Foreign Minister Dick Spring, who was leader of the Labour Party, advised her not to meet Adams, whose party was linked with the Provisional IRA. However the Government refused to formally advise her not to meet with him. She felt it would be wrong, in the absence of such formal advice, for her as head of state not to meet the local member of parliament during her visit, and was photographed publicly shaking his hand. During her various visits to Northern Ireland, she in fact regularly met politicians of all hues, including David Trimble of the Ulster Unionist Party and John Hume of the Social Democratic and Labour Party. To the surprise of her critics, who had seen her as embodying liberalism that the Catholic Church disapproved of, she had a close working relationship with the Church. She visited Irish nuns and priests abroad regularly, and became the first president to host an Áras reception for the Christian Brothers. When on a working trip to Rome, she requested, and was granted, an audience with Pope John Paul II. Ironically the outfit was condemned by a controversial young priest, Fr. David O'Hanlon, in The Irish Times for supposedly breaking Vatican dress codes on her visit; the Vatican denied that she had — the Vatican dress codes had been changed early in John Paul's pontificate — an analysis echoed by Ireland's Roman Catholic Bishops who distanced themselves from Fr. O' Hanlon's comments. O'Hanlon also criticised Robinson for not making a state visit to the Vatican. That was revealed to be unjustified. She could only make a state visit if invited. No invitation had been issued. As the last state visit had been carried out by President Hillery in 1989, another state visit was not due for at least a decade. Popularity She invited groups not normally invited to presidential residences to visit her in Áras an Uachtaráin; from the Christian Brothers, a large religious order who ran schools throughout Ireland but had never had its leaders invited to the Áras, to G.L.E.N., the Gay and Lesbian Equality Network. She visited Irish nuns and priests abroad, Irish famine relief charities, attended international sports events, met the Pope and, to the fury of the People's Republic of China, met Tenzin Gyatso (the 14th Dalai Lama). She famously put a special symbolic light in her kitchen window in Áras an Uachtaráin which was visible to the public as it overlooked the principal public view of the building, as a sign of remembering Irish emigrants around the world. (Placing a light in a darkened window to guide the way of strangers was an old Irish folk custom.) Robinson's symbolic light became an acclaimed symbol of an Ireland thinking about its sons and daughters around the world. Famously, she visited Rwanda where she brought world attention to the suffering in that state in the aftermath of its civil war. After her visit, she spoke at a press conference, where she became visibly emotional. As a lawyer trained to be rational, she was furious at her emotion, but it moved everyone who saw it. One media critic who had slated her presidential ideas in 1990, journalist and Sunday Tribune editor Vincent Browne passed her a note at the end of the press conference saying simply "you were magnificent." Browne's comments matched the attitudes of Irish people on Robinson's achievements as president between 1990 and 1997. By half way through her term of office her popularity rating reached an unheard of 93%. In one of her roles as president, the signing into laws of Bills passed by the Oireachtas she was called upon to sign two very significant Bills that she had fought for throughout her political career. A Bill to fully liberalise the law on the availability of contraceptives, and a law fully decriminalising homosexuality and unlike Britain and much of the world at the time, providing for a fully equal age of consent, treating heterosexuals and LGBT people alike. Resignation as President Robinson resigned the presidency early to take up a new role with the United Nations. Upon her resignation as president the role of president (acting head of state) was transferred to the Presidential Commission (which comprised the Chief Justice, the Ceann Comhairle of the Dail and the Cathaoirleach of the Seanad) from 12 September to 10 November 1997, when the new president Mary McAleese was elected. High Commissioner for Human Rights Robinson became the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on 12 September 1997, resigning the Presidency a few weeks early with the approval of Irish political parties in order to take up the post. Media reports suggested that she had been head-hunted for the post by Secretary General of the United Nations Kofi Annan to assume an advocacy as opposed to administrative role, in other words to become a public campaigner outlining principles rather than the previous implementational and consensus-building model. The belief was that the post had ceased to be seen as the voice of general principles and had become largely bureaucratic. Robinson's role was to set the human rights agenda within the organisation and internationally, refocusing its appeal. In November 1997, still new to her post, Robinson delivered the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on the topic of "Realizing Human Rights"; she spoke of the "daunting challenge" ahead of her, and how she intended to set about her task. She concluded the lecture with words from The Golden Bough: "If fate has called you, the bough will come easily, and of its own accord. Otherwise, no matter how much strength you muster, you never will manage to quell it or cut it down with the toughest of blades." Robinson was the first High Commissioner for Human Rights to visit Tibet, making her trip in 1998. During her tenure she criticised the Irish system of permits for non-EU immigrants as similar to "bonded labour" and criticised the United States' use of capital punishment. Though she had initially announced her intention to serve a single four-year period, she extended the term by a year following an appeal from Annan, allowing her to preside over the 2001 World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance in Durban, South Africa, as Secretary-General. Robinson's posting as High Commissioner ended in 2002, after sustained pressure from the United States led her to declare she was no longer able to continue her work. Robinson had criticised the US for violating human rights in its "War on Terror". The Elders On 18 July 2007 in Johannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela, Graça Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders to contribute their wisdom, independent leadership and integrity to tackle some of the world's toughest problems. Nelson Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday. Archbishop Tutu will serve as the Chair of The Elders. The founding members of this group also include Graça Machel, Kofi Annan, Ela Bhatt, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Jimmy Carter, Li Zhaoxing and Muhammad Yunus. “This group can speak freely and boldly, working both publicly and behind the scenes on whatever actions need to be taken,” Mandela commented. “Together we will work to support courage where there is fear, foster agreement where there is conflict, and inspire hope where there is despair.” The Elders will be independently funded by a group of Founders, including Richard Branson, Peter Gabriel, Ray Chambers; Michael Chambers; Bridgeway Foundation; Pam Omidyar, Humanity United; Amy Robbins; Shashi Ruia, Dick Tarlow; and the United Nations Foundation. She is a member of the Club of Madrid. University of Dublin Robinson is the twenty fourth, and first female, Chancellor of University of Dublin (i.e. Trinity College). She represented the University in the Senate for over twenty years and held the Reid Chair in Law. Post president period In 1991, Mary Robinson was awarded an Honorary Degree by the University of Cambridge. In 1997 she was one of the two winners of the North-South Prize. In 2002 she was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize for her outstanding work as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, and in 2003 the prestigious Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin. In March 2005, Robinson gave a lecture entitled "Human Rights and Ethical Globalization" at the University of San Diego's Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice Distinguished Lecture Series. In May 2005 she was awarded the first "Outspoken" award from the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC). In October 2006 she was awarded the Social Science Principes de Asturias Prize. The jury commended her for "offering her non-conformist, brave and far-reaching voice to those who cannot speak for themselves or can barely be heard." In the same month she was the keynote speaker at The Future of International Criminal Justice Symposium hosted by the Penn State Dickinson School of Law, where she spoke on "The Rule of Law and International Human Rights in Challenging Times". In January 2009, Robinson was appointed as head of the International Commission of Jurists. Additional reading Stephen Collins, Spring and the Labour Party (O'Brien Press, 1993) ISBN 0-86278-349-6 Eamon Delaney, An Accidental Diplomat: My Years in the Irish Foreign Service (1987-1995) (New Island Books, 2001) ISBN 1-902602-39-0 Garret FitzGerald, All in a Life (Gill and Macmillan, 1991) ISBN 0-7171-1600-X Fergus Finlay, Mary Robinson: A President with a Purpose (O'Brien Press, 1991) ISBN 0-86278-257-0 Fergus Finlay. Snakes & Ladders (New Island Books, 1998) ISBN 1-874597-76-6 Jack Jones, In Your Opinion: Political and Social Trends in Ireland through the Eyes of the Electorate (Townhouse, 2001) ISBN 1-86059-149-3 Ray Kavanagh, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Party:1986-1999 (Blackwater Press 2001) ISBN 1-84131-528-1 Gabriel Kiely, Anne o'Donnell, Patricia Kennedy, Suzanne Quin (eds) Irish Social Policy in Context (University College Dublin Press, 1999) ISBN 1-900621-25-8) Brian Lenihan, For the Record (Blackwater Press, 1991) ISBN 0-86121-362-9 Mary McQuillan, Mary Robinson: A President in Progress (Gill and Macmillan, 1994) ISBN 0-7171-2251-4 Olivia O'Leary & Helen Burke, Mary Robinson: The Authorised Biography (Lir/Hodder & Stoughton, 1998) ISBN 0-340-71738-6 Michael O'Sullivan, Mary Robinson: The Life and Times of an Irish Liberal (Blackwater Press, 1993) ISBN 0-86121-448-X Lorna Siggins, The Woman Who Took Power in the Park: Mary Robinson, President of Ireland, 1990-1997 (Mainstream Publishing, 1997) ISBN 1-85158-805-1 Other source material Media coverage in The Irish Times, The Irish Independent, The Examiner (now renamed the Irish Examiner), The Star, The Irish Mirror, The Irish Sun, Sunday Tribune, The Sunday Independent, The Sunday Times, The Times, The Daily Telegraph and The Guardian. Also briefing notes issued on various occasions (notably state, official or personal visits by Robinson abroad) supplied by the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs, The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Buckingham Palace, Áras an Uachtaráin, the Holy See and the press offices of the United Nations (including the text of her Romanes Lecture in November 1997). Some background came via an interview with Mrs. Robinson. Footnotes External links Realizing Rights was founded in October 2002 by Mary Robinson President Mary Robinson with Council of Women World Leaders | Mary_Robinson |@lemmatized mary:18 therese:2 winifred:2 robinson:69 bear:2 may:3 serve:9 seventh:2 first:25 female:3 president:27 ireland:19 united:13 nation:11 high:8 commissioner:9 human:16 right:22 rise:4 prominence:1 academic:1 barrister:1 campaigner:3 member:12 irish:37 senate:4 defeat:1 fianna:16 fáil:16 brian:5 lenihan:29 snr:3 fine:9 gael:9 austin:3 currie:6 presidential:10 election:14 become:13 independent:7 candidate:17 nominate:6 labour:19 party:32 worker:1 senator:7 elect:9 office:13 history:4 support:8 credit:1 many:11 revitalise:1 liberalise:3 previously:2 conservative:2 political:9 resign:5 presidency:12 four:3 month:3 ahead:2 end:5 term:3 take:7 post:8 honorary:2 oxfam:1 international:10 since:4 chair:7 institute:2 environment:1 development:1 iied:1 also:14 founding:1 council:3 woman:11 world:10 leader:9 one:15 european:2 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7,656 | Adrastea_(moon) | Adrastea ( , or as in Greek Αδράστεια), also known as , is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in Voyager 2 probe photographs taken in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through telescopic photography. It was officially named after the mythological Adrastea, daughter of Greek god Zeus—the equivalent of Roman god Jupiter. Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter's Main Ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the Rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the Galileo spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics outside its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter. Discovery and observations Discovery image of Adrastea, taken on July 8, 1979 by Voyager 2. Adrastea is the dot in the very middle, straddling the line of the Jovian rings. Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in Voyager 2 probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation . (discovery) Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few weeks earlier by Voyager 1. The Galileo spacecraft was able to determine the moon's shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke. (naming the moon) Physical characteristics Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. This makes Adrastea the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea,(around 0.86 g/cm³ ) its mass can be estimated at about 2 kg. Amalthea's density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10–15%, and Adrastea may be similar. No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images. Orbit Adrastea is the smallest and second closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet's Main Ring. Adrastea is only one of the three moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day—the other two being Jupiter's innermost moon Metis, and Mars' moon Phobos. The orbit has very small eccentricity and inclination—around 0.0015 and 0.03°, respectively. Inclination is relative to the equator of Jupiter. Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration. The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis’s), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea's then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit. Relationship with Jupiter's rings Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter's rings. This material appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is because, due to the satellites' low density, their surfaces lie rather close to the edge of their Roche spheres. It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the Main Ring) being located at and within Adrastea's orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter's Main Ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the Main Ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea's orbit. References External links Adrastea Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration | Adrastea_(moon) |@lemmatized adrastea:24 greek:3 αδράστεια:1 also:2 know:6 second:2 distance:1 small:5 four:3 inner:5 moon:12 jupiter:17 discover:4 voyager:4 probe:2 photograph:2 take:5 make:3 first:2 natural:1 satellite:5 image:6 interplanetary:2 spacecraft:4 rather:2 telescopic:1 photography:1 officially:2 name:3 mythological:1 daughter:2 god:2 zeus:2 equivalent:1 roman:1 one:4 solar:3 system:3 orbit:13 planet:6 less:2 length:2 day:3 edge:4 main:6 ring:12 think:1 contributor:2 material:6 despite:1 observation:2 galileo:2 little:1 physical:2 characteristic:2 outside:4 size:1 fact:1 tidally:1 lock:1 discovery:4 july:2 dot:2 middle:1 straddle:1 line:1 jovian:2 david:1 c:1 jewitt:1 g:2 edward:1 danielson:1 receive:1 designation:1 although:1 appear:3 soon:1 two:2 thebe:1 metis:3 observe:1 week:1 earlier:1 able:1 determine:1 shape:2 remain:1 poor:1 nymph:1 lover:1 ananke:1 irregular:1 measure:1 km:2 across:1 bulk:1 composition:1 mass:2 assume:1 mean:1 density:4 like:1 amalthea:3 around:2 estimate:1 kg:1 implies:1 compose:1 water:1 ice:1 porosity:1 may:1 similar:2 surface:3 detail:1 due:3 low:3 resolution:1 available:1 close:2 member:1 family:1 radius:3 exterior:1 three:1 innermost:1 mar:1 phobos:1 eccentricity:1 inclination:2 respectively:1 relative:1 equator:1 tidal:2 locking:1 rotates:1 synchronously:1 orbital:1 period:1 keep:1 face:1 always:1 look:1 toward:1 long:1 axis:1 align:1 towards:1 energy:1 configuration:1 lie:5 inside:1 synchronous:1 result:1 force:1 slowly:1 cause:1 decay:1 impact:3 would:1 actually:1 within:2 fluid:1 roche:3 limit:2 however:1 since:1 break:1 must:1 still:1 rigid:1 relationship:1 large:1 consist:1 primarily:1 eject:1 meteorite:1 easy:1 ejecta:1 lose:1 space:1 sphere:1 seem:1 copious:1 source:1 evidence:1 dense:1 locate:1 precisely:1 near:1 outer:1 exact:1 extent:1 visible:1 depend:1 phase:1 angle:1 forward:1 scattered:1 light:2 firmly:1 back:1 scatter:1 reveal:1 much:1 big:1 particle:1 narrow:1 ringlet:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 nasa:1 exploration:1 |@bigram voyager_probe:2 tidally_lock:1 moon_phobos:1 external_link:1 |
7,657 | Marvel_Universe | Various characters of the Marvel Universe. Promotional Art for the Civil War event by Steve McNiven. The Marvel Universe is the shared fictional universe where most comic book titles published by Marvel Comics take place, including those featuring Marvel's most familiar characters, such as Spider-Man, the Hulk, the X-Men, and Captain America. The Marvel Universe is further depicted as existing within a "multiverse" consisting of thousands of separate universes, all of which are the creations of Marvel Comics and all of which are, in a sense, "Marvel universes". In this context, "Marvel Universe" is taken to refer to the mainstream Marvel continuity, which is known as Earth-616. History Origins Though the concept of a shared universe was not new or unique to comics in 1961, writer/editor Stan Lee, together with several artists including Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko, created a series of titles where events in one book would have repercussions in another title and serialized stories would show characters' growth and change. Headline characters in one title would make cameo or guest appearances in other books. Eventually many of the leading heroes assembled into a team known as the Avengers. This was not the first time that Marvel's characters had interacted with one another—Namor the Sub-Mariner and the Original Human Torch had been rivals in Marvel's "Golden Age"—but it was the first time that the comic book publisher's characters seemed to share a world. The Marvel Universe was also notable for setting its central titles in New York City (by contrast DC heroes each live in a different fictional city). Care was taken to portray the city and the world as realistically as possible with the presence of superhumans affecting the common citizens in various ways. Over time, a few Marvel Comics writers lobbied Marvel editors to incorporate the idea of a Multiverse; this plot device allows one to create several fictional universes which normally do not overlap (see below or Multiverse for more information). What happens on Earth in the main Marvel Universe would normally have no effect on what happens on a parallel Earth in another Marvel-created universe. However, storywriters would have the creative ability to write stories in which people from one such universe would visit this alternate universe. In 1982, Marvel published the mini-series Contest of Champions, in which all of the major heroes in existence at the time were gathered together to deal with one threat. This was Marvel's first miniseries. Each issue contained biographical information on many major costumed characters; these biographies were a precursor to Marvel's series of reference material, The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe, which followed shortly on the heels of Contest of Champions. New Universe In 1986, in honor of Marvel Comics' 25th anniversary, then editor-in-chief Jim Shooter launched the New Universe line of comics. The New Universe was intended to be a more realistic, with less reliance on standard comic book clichés, but due to a combination of a lack of editorial support and fewer sales than the mainstream titles the line was eventually canceled. Heroes Reborn and Ultimate Marvel Over the years, as the number of titles published increased and the volume of past stories accumulated, it became increasingly difficult to maintain internal consistency and continuity. But, unlike its main rival DC Comics, Marvel has never engaged in a drastic reboot of their continuity. Minor attempts have been made in recent years to produce stories more accessible for neophyte readers such as the Heroes Reborn titles, which occurred in a pocket universe where many of the major Marvel heroes were exiled for a year. The most successful attempt to date has been the Ultimate titles, a series of titles in a universe separate from the main Marvel continuity and essentially starting the entire Marvel Universe over from scratch. Ongoing "Ultimate" comics now exist for the X-Men, the Avengers (in the form of the Ultimates), Spider-Man, and the Fantastic Four, as well as miniseries featuring other characters such as Daredevil and Elektra. Sales of these titles are strong, and indications are that Marvel will continue to expand the line, effectively creating two Marvel Universes existing concurrently. In fact The Ultimate titles have done so well they have been the basis for several video games (Ultimate Spider-Man, and two animated movies: Ultimate Avengers and Ultimate Avengers 2. The Marvel Universe as a social network In 2002, a study was done of the interactions among characters in the Marvel Universe which revealed that the Marvel Universe shares some non-random features with the social networks of collaborating scientists or co-starring movie actors. Concepts The Marvel Universe is strongly based on the real world. Earth in the Marvel Universe has all the features of the real one: same countries, same personalities (politicians, movie stars, etc.), same historical events (such as the 9/11 incident), and so on. However, it also contains many other fictional elements: countries such as Wakanda, and Latveria (very small nations), and organizations like the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D. and its enemy, HYDRA. Marvel has recently begun to officially describe its world's geography in a two-part miniseries, the Marvel Atlas. Travel The World With The Marvel Atlas - Marvel.com News Most importantly, the Marvel Universe also incorporates examples of almost all major science fiction and fantasy concepts, with writers adding more continuously. Aliens, gods, magic, cosmic powers and extremely advanced human-developed technology all exist prominently in the Marvel Universe. (A universe incorporating all these types of fantastic elements is fairly rare; another example is the DC Universe.) Thanks to these extra elements, Earth in the Marvel Universe is home to a large number of superheroes and supervillains, who have gained their powers by any of these means. Comparatively little time passes in the Marvel Universe compared to the real world, owing to the serial nature of storytelling, with the stories of certain issues picking up mere seconds after the conclusion of the previous one, while a whole month has passed by in "real time". Marvel's major heroes were created in the 1960s, but the amount of time that has passed between then and now within the universe itself has (after a prolonged period of being identified as about ten years in the mid-to-late 1990s) most recently been identified as thirteen years. The Thing #13, July 2006; Civil War Battle Damage Report, March 2007 Consequently, the settings of some events which were contemporary when written have to be updated every few years in order to "make sense" in this floating timeline. Thus, the events of previous stories are considered to have happened within a certain number of years prior to the publishing date of the current issue. For example, Spider-Man's high school graduation was published in Amazing Spider-Man #28 (September 1965), his college graduation in Amazing Spider-Man #185 (October 1978), and his high school reunion in Marvel Knights: Spider-Man #7 (December 2004). Despite the sliding timescale policy, where stories reference real-life historic events, these references are later ignored or rewritten to suit current sensibilities. For instance, the origin of Iron Man was recently changed to refer to armed conflict in Afghanistan, whereas the original Iron Man stories had referred to the Vietnam War. Iron Man Vol. 4, #1 (November 2004) Interestingly, the Marvel Comics company itself exists within the Marvel Universe, and versions of people such as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby have appeared in some of the stories. The Marvel of this reality publishes comics that adapt the actual adventures of the superheroes (except for details not known to the public, like their secret identities); many of these are licensed with the permission of the heroes themselves, who customarily donate their share of profits to charity. Pop Culture characters such as Dracula and Frankenstein actually exist in the Marvel Universe. This is usually justified as a second hand account of events as told to credited authors Bram Stoker and Mary Shelly although the general public continues to believe them as fictional. Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian, Red Sonja, Kull the Conqueror, and Solomon Kane also have real life existences in the Marvel Universe. The Hyborian Era of Conan and Kull is considered part of Earth 616 pre-recorded history. However, they rarely encounter modern Marvel superhero characters. This is most likely possible due to the uncertain legal status of Howard's works prior to 2006 when they became public domain. Other licensed works that have been incorporated into the Marvel Universe include Godzilla, 2001: A Space Odyssey, ROM: Spaceknight, The Micronauts, and the Shogun Warriors. In most cases, such material is either restricted from use after the license expires or the characters redesigned or renamed to avoid infringement. Costumed superheroes and supervillains Within the fictional history of the Marvel Universe, the tradition of using costumed secret identities to fight (or commit) evil had long existed (for example, with the medieval Black Knight) but it came into prominence during the days of the American "Wild West" with heroes such as the Phantom Rider. During the 20th century the tradition was reinvigorated by Captain America in the 1940s (not the first costumed hero of the time, but arguably the most influential). Marvel's major heroes (the ones who get involved in most of the important events) are those created between 1961 and 1963, during Marvel's "Silver Age": Spider-Man, Iron Man, Doctor Strange, Daredevil, Thor, the Hulk, Ant-Man and the Wasp, the X-Men, the Fantastic Four, and S.H.I.E.L.D.’s director, Nick Fury. Unlike the DC Universe, few of Marvel's 1940s characters have become major characters in modern publications; Captain America is one exception, and to a lesser extent his contemporary, the Sub-Mariner, is as well, primarily because both of these characters were reintroduced to readers and to the Marvel Universe during the 1960s. Prominent groups of superheroes include the Avengers, the X-Men, the Fantastic Four, and the Defenders. All these groups have varying lineups; the Avengers in particular have included most of Marvel's major heroes as members at one time or another. The X-Men are a team of mutants formed by Professor X and include some of Marvel's most popular characters, such as Wolverine. The Defenders are an ad-hoc team usually brought together by Dr. Strange, which has included the Hulk, the Sub-Mariner and the Silver Surfer. During the last five years, many previously-costumed supervillains have been portrayed in street clothes (without costumes). Recently published comics show that this trend may have been temporary. Origin of superhuman powers Most of the superhumans in Marvel's Earth owe their powers to the Celestials, cosmic entities who visited Earth millions of years ago and experimented on our prehistoric ancestors (a process they also carried out on several other planets). This resulted in the creation of two hidden races, the godlike Eternals and the genetically unstable Deviants, in addition to giving some humans an "x-factor" in their genes, which sometimes activates naturally, resulting in sometimes superpowered, sometimes disfigured individuals called mutants. Others require other factors (such as radiation) for their powers to come forth. Depending on the genetic profile, individuals who are exposed to different chemicals or radiation will often suffer death or injury, while in others it will cause superhuman abilities to manifest. With the exception of psionic abilities, these powers are usually random; rarely do two people have the exact same set of powers. It is not clear why the Celestials did this, although it is known that they continue to observe humanity's evolution. A Marvel series titled Earth X explored one possible reason for this: that superhumans are meant to protect a Celestial embryo that grows inside the Earth and has for eons, against any planetary threats. An X-Men villain known as Vargas claims to be a new direction in human evolution, as he is born with superpowers even though genetic profile said he was an ordinary human being. The majority of the public is unaware of what may cause superhuman powers. Other possible origins for superhuman powers include magic, genetic manipulation or bionic implants. Some heroes and villains have no powers at all but depend instead on hand-to-hand combat training or advanced technological equipment. In the Marvel Universe, technology is considerably more advanced than in the real world; this is due to unique individuals of genius intelligence, such as Reed Richards (Mister Fantastic) of the Fantastic Four. However, most of the really advanced devices (such as powered armor and death rays) are too expensive for the common citizen, and are usually in the hands of government organizations like S.H.I.E.L.D., or powerful criminal organizations like A.I.M. One major company producing these devices is Stark International, owned by Anthony Stark (Iron Man) but there are others. Advanced technology has also been given to humans by hidden races, aliens, or time travelers like Kang the Conqueror, who is known to have influenced the robotics industry in the past. In superhumans the energy required for their superpowers either comes from within using their own body as a source, or if the demand of energy exceeds what their body is capable to deliver, comes from another source. In most cases, this other source seems to be what is called the universal psionic field (UPF), which they are able to tap into. Sometimes they are connected to another source, and more rarely they are even a host for it. Marvel tries to explain most superpowers and their sources "scientifically", usually through the use of fictional science-like concepts, such as: The battery effect; the cells in the body have the same function as batteries, being charged with energy that comes from an outer source. This is most often seen in gamma exposed individuals such as the Hulk, who get their powers from this stored energy. The powers will remain as long as the energy is present, and can even be increased by filling the "batteries" even more. If the energy is emptied, the powers will fade away. The X-Man Cyclops has been described as absorbing sunlight to power his optic blasts. The Power Primordial is a leftover force from Big Bang and is controlled by the Elders of the Universe. Psionic energy, which is assumed to be an invisible, unknown form of energy generated by all living brains that has the ability to manipulate other forms of matter and energy. Universal psionic field is a force present everywhere in the universe, but only those with abilities to connect to it can make use of its energy. Enigma Force is suspected to be connected to the Microverse, and is also the source to the Uni-Power, which transforms an individual into Captain Universe. Extradimensional space: dimensions that can be tapped in order to pull mass from them (to add to objects on Earth) or taken away from those objects and be stored in those "pocket dimensions" to be retrieved later. This is how characters like the Hulk can grow and shrink with no visible absorption of mass. A type of subatomic particles called Pym Particles can be used for these effects. (Note that many giant-sized characters have a limited ability to manipulate gravity to handle their increased weight.) The change in mass can be in the form of a density change instead, allowing a character to become harder or incorporeal. Some characters can seem to "transform" themselves (or others) into unliving substances, or even pure energy, by storing their bodies in extradimensional space and replacing them with bodies made from matter or energy from that dimension, while their souls remain on Earth, controlling their new body. Travel into other dimensions can also be used as a way to "teleport" by re-entering the Earth dimension at a different point from the exiting one. The Darkforce is an unknown, dark substance from another dimension (known simply as the Darkforce Dimension) that can be summoned and manipulated in many ways: to create impenetrable darkness, to solidify it in various forms, and (most notably) to absorb the "life energy" from living beings (not all users can use all these effects). The Darkforce can also be used to travel to and from its home dimension, but this is dangerous to all except those with Darkforce powers. Some believe that the Darkforce is sentient and sometimes has an evil influence on those who use it. Various heroes and villains have versions of Darkforce powers, including Darkstar, the first Blackout, the Shroud, Cloak, Doorman and Quagmire (of the Squadron Supreme Universe). Cloak seems to be the prime 'portal' to the Darkforce, however. The Living Light is the opposite of the Darkforce: a form of energy that resembles light and also comes from its own dimension, but has healing effects on living beings (except ones made of darkness or Darkforce.) It is unknown if it might be sentient. Cloak's partner, Dagger seems to be the Living Light's main avatar. The Power Cosmic is a force that can alter reality, allowing the user to do whatever he or she wants (including bending the laws of physics), only being limited by how much cosmic energy the character can tap at a time. It seems to be part of the universe itself and it can be linked directly to Galactus as its primary wielder or even source. The Heralds of Galactus, including Silver Surfer and Nova are imbued with a fraction of the Power Cosmic. Magic also appears to be like a form of energy, except that it can defy the laws of physics naturally, and usually overrules ordinary science. However, it does have rules of its own to follow, which vary with the method of invocation, usually in the form of spoken spells. It appears to be present in everything, even living beings. All humans in the Marvel Universe have the ability to use magic, but only if properly trained. Most people are unaware that magic actually works. In addition, powerful magical beings from other dimensions have created specific, extremely powerful magical spells that they allow to be used (often indiscriminately) by those sorcerers who invoke their names; one example is the trinity of beings called The Vishanti, who serve as patrons to heroic sorcerers. At any given time, there is a sorcerer on Earth whose task is to protect the universe against extradimensional mystical invaders; this sorcerer is known as the Sorcerer Supreme, an office most recently held by Doctor Strange. Stars in the Marvel Universe are actually sentient beings, and the source of all mystic energy. Nonhuman races A degree of paranoid fear against mutants exists due to stories of mutants being a race or even a species (Homo superior or Homo sapiens superior) that is evolving and is meant to replace normal humans. This has caused organizations to form to deal with the problem, who can be divided into three camps: those who seek peaceful coexistence between mutants and normal humans (the X-Men and their affiliated groups), those who seek to control or eliminate humans to give mutants safety or dominance (Magneto and his followers, as well as other mutants such as Apocalypse), and those who seek to regulate or eliminate mutants in favor of humans. The latter often use the robots known as Sentinels as weapons. Certain species are regarded as subhuman, like the Morlocks who lurk beneath New York City and have been discriminated against by the outside world because of their mutant deformities. The Morlocks have recently joined the terrorist organization Gene Nation. In addition to mutants, Eternals and Deviants, several other intelligent races have existed secretly on Earth. These include: The Inhumans, another genetically unstable race (like the Deviants, but in their case its due to their use of a substance called the 'Terrigen Mists') that was created by a Kree experiment long ago; The Subterraneans, a race of humanoids adapted to living below the surface, created by the Deviants (some subterraneans were transformed into 'Lava Men' by a demon); and Homo mermanus, a humanoid race of water-breathers that lives in Earth's oceans. Most of these races have advanced technology but existed hidden from humanity until recent times. More variants of humanity can be found in the Savage Land (see places, below.) Most of the Savage Land races have their origin from a group of primitive ape men who seems to have escaped the Celestial experiments whose influence is present in all modern Homo sapiens. Other leftovers from the era where primitive humanoids walked the earth still exist, such as the altered Neanderthal known as Missing Link, an old enemy of the Hulk. Alien races The Marvel Universe also contains hundreds of intelligent alien races. Earth has interacted with many of them because a major "hyperspace warp" happens to exist in our solar system. The three major space empires are: the Kree, who rule the Kree Galaxy (actually the Greater Magellanic Cloud) the Skrulls, who rule the Skrull Galaxy (the Andromeda Galaxy) the Shi'ar, who rule the Shi'ar Galaxy (no known real-world counterpart, but might possibly be the Triangulum Galaxy) The three are often in direct or indirect conflict, which occasionally involve Earth people; in particular, the Kree and Skrulls are ancient enemies, and the Kree-Skrull War has involved humans on several occasions. The Skrulls have also been known to be in a long and consistent war against the Majesdanians, who live in a milky planet named Majesdane. Runaways: Volume 2, #8 The war between the two had started after two Majesdanians, Frank and Leslie Dean of The Pride had been kicked out for criminal activities; the two travelled to Earth, where Frank and Leslie stopped the war against Earth in exchange for giving the Skrulls the location of Majesdane, which was hidden behind the corona of a white dwarf. The war had gone on for sixteen years minimum; it ended abruptly after the Skrulls shot a barrage of missiles at Majesdane, who retaliated. Another prominent alien race is The Watchers, immortal and wise beings who watch over the Marvel Universe and have taken a sacred vow not to intervene in events, though the Watcher assigned to Earth, Uatu, has violated this oath on several occasions. The Elders of the Universe are ancient aliens who have often had great impact on many worlds, for billions of years, acting alone or as a group. A power called Power Primordial is channeled through them. Many other races exist, and have formed an “Intergalactic Council” to have their say on matters that affect them all, such as interference from Earth humans in their affairs. In Secret Wars, Spider-Man's symbiotic black costume made its first appearance. Later with Eddie Brock, it became the being known as Venom, who is now one of Spider-Man's greatest foes and has spawned Carnage. Supernatural creatures Also abundant in the Marvel Universe are legendary creatures such as gods, demons and vampires. The 'gods' of most polytheistic pantheons are actually powerful, immortal human-like races from other dimensions who visited Earth in ancient times, and became the basis of many legends. Besides mythological gods, many deities made up by Marvel writers exist as well, such as the Dark Gods, enemies of the Asgardians. Note that many persons and beings have falsely pretended to be gods or demons during history; in particular, none of the ones claiming to be major figures from Judeo-Christian beliefs (such as Satan or God) have turned out to be the real article, although a number of angels have appeared in recent years, proving that some form of Heaven and Hell do exist in this Universe, seemingly like those in keeping with common real world religious belief. Similarly, demons are evil magical beings who take affairs in the matters of the universe, one of the most notorious being Mephisto. Others include Nightmare, D'Spayre, N'Astirh, Dormammu and Shuma-Gorath. Most of the current generation of gods have been revealed to be the descendants of the Elder Goddess Gaea. The two most prominent pantheons are the Asgardians (of whom Thor is a member) and the Olympians (of whom Hercules is a member). The lords of the various pantheons sometimes gather in groups known as the Council of Godheads and Council of Skyfathers. The gods were forced to stop meddling with humanity (at least openly) a thousand years ago by the Celestials, and most people today believe them to be fictional. Cosmic entities Above all other beings in the Marvel Universe are the cosmic entities, beings of unbelievably great levels of power (the weakest can destroy planets) who exist to perform duties that maintain the existence of the universe. Most do not care at all about "lesser beings" such as humans, and as a consequence their acts can occasionally be dangerous to mortals. When dire threats threaten the universe it is not uncommon for these beings to gather together to discuss the threat, and even act. The first greatest of these is the One-Above-All, or known as the God of the Marvel Universe. Ranking second only to him is the Living Tribunal, the cosmic mediator and overseer of the entire Marvel Universe. Above all pantheons of gods, cosmic entities and even the Tribunal there exists one, ultimate supreme being known as the One-Above-All (not to be confused with the Celestial of the same name). Indicated to be the creator of all life, this being presides over a realm referred to as "Heaven" populated by angels, to which the souls of the virtuous deceased are committed (such as Ben Grimm) - as such, the One-Above-All is effectively synonymous with the Judeo-Christian God. When the One-Above-All finally appeared on-panel in a 2004 Fantastic Four storyline, he appeared in the form of Jack Kirby, who 'sketched out' reality on a comic book storyboard. He professed to communicate with a partner (implied to be Stan Lee), though exactly where this Lee-based being would fall in the cosmic hierarchy is unrevealed. However, the fact that the souls of the innocent and pure seem to be capable of being stolen, eaten and even destroyed instead of being sent to Heaven, the fact that angels can seemingly be killed, the high number of resurrections, the fact that the zombie Sentry could easily eat all the souls in the Marvel afterlife (proving immune to Ash William's gunshots) trying desperately to pass through the Gates of Heaven, to be observed by an angel and Williams in a blood bath, along with the gods and the concept of Death itself is, as of yet, unrevealed to how they precisely fit in with Heaven and Hell concepts of Marvel. While the above is true, the Living Tribunal, and most of the other cosmic characters, are morally neutral. They often say that such concepts are relative (implicit in Galactus' anthill analogy), or simply relevant only to "lesser" beings. Cosmology The Marvel Universe is part of a multiverse, with various universes coexisting simultaneously without affecting each other directly. Universes/Earths/continuities The action of most Marvel Comics titles takes place in a continuity known as Earth-616. This continuity exists in a multiverse alongside trillions of alternate continuities. Exiles Annual #1 (November 2006) Alternate continuities in the Marvel multiverse are generally defined in terms of their differences from Earth-616. Continuities besides Earth-616 include the following (for a complete listing see Marvel Comics Multiverse): Age of Apocalypse Alterniverse Amalgam House of M Marvel Age Marvel Zombies New Universe Ultimate Marvel X-Men Adventures - Originally based on the X-Men animated series, this universe went on to feature more original stories, and in its final issue, revealed itself to be the universe which existed prior to the current 616 reality, when it was destroyed by the fracturing of the M'Kraan crystal. The current edition of the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe corroborates this. X-Men: Evolution (based on the X-Men Evolution animated series) In addition, multiple continuities are visited in the comic book series What If, What The--?! (formerly Not Brand Echh) and Exiles. Note that in Marvel Comics, the concept of a continuity is not the same as "dimension" or "universe"; for example, characters like Mephisto and Dormammu hail from alternate dimensions and Galactus from another universe, but they all nevertheless belong to the Earth-616 continuity (where all the dimensions and universes seems to be connected to the same main timeline). A continuity should also not be confused with an imprint; for example, while the titles of some imprints, such as Ultimate Marvel, take place in a different continuity, some or all publications in other imprints, such as Epic Comics, Marvel MAX, and Marvel UK, take place within the Earth-616 continuity. Dimensions Within and sometimes between continuities, there exist a variety of dimensions, sometimes called pocket dimensions which typically are not depicted as separate continuties, but rather part of one, typically Earth-616. There are a score of such dimensions, ranging from the Earthlike to the totally alien. Some are magical in nature and others are scientific; some are inhabited and others are not. These include realities like the Microverse, the Darkforce Dimension, Limbo, the Mojoverse, and many more. Despite various contradictions, the term, dimension is sometimes interchangeable with universe or reality. Every reality of the Marvel Universe has numerous interconnected dimensions, with each dimension differing from those of other realities; for example, the Ultimate Asgard has clearly been shown to be distinct from the Asgard known to Earth-616 characters. Such dimensions, such as Asgard or the Dark Dimension are technically not "pocket dimensions" as they clearly reside completely outside the boundaries of the Marvel Universe, instead of within, as the former does. Time A noteworthy feature of the Marvel Universe is that one cannot normally alter history - if a time-traveller should cause an alteration to the established flow of events at some point in the past, a divergent universe will simply "branch out" from the existing timeline, and the time-traveller will still return to his or her unaltered original universe. Those realities can also spawn realities of their own. There exists hundreds, probably thousands of such realities. It is unknown why this happens, though a warp known as the Nexus of All Realities exists in a swamp in the Florida of the main Marvel Universe (known as Earth-616). For the most part this does not matter, as most beings are unaware that this occurs, or even that their universes were recently "born" from another. However, individuals and organizations exist that try to monitor or manipulate the various realities. These include Immortus, the Captain Britain Corps, the Time Variance Authority, the Timebreakers/Exiles, and Kang the Conqueror's forces. It has been shown to be possible to travel through time without creating a new alternate universe, instead altering events in the future, but this seems to have devastating and very, very far-reaching repercussions (as depicted in the Marvel 1602 mini-series). Also, time itself passes much differently within the confines of the Marvel Universe than it does in the real world. Despite various characters having appeared within company publications for decades, few if any have aged to any appreciable degree. For example, the patriotic hero Captain America was created in 1941 but stopped appearing in titles soon after the end of World War II. The character was revived more than twenty years later, explained as having been frozen in a block of ice though believed to be dead, to lead Marvel's latest team of superheroes the Avengers. This first Avengers team featured several characters that would go on to be some of the company's most famous and most popular. Although the characters would be portrayed in hundreds and even thousands of adventures over the decades, they have been portrayed as having aged little or none at all. Space While the Marvel Universe is presumably as large as the non-fictional universe comic book readers inhabit, for all intents and purposes the Local group is the universe; practically all action takes place in it. The Skrull Empire is located in the Andromeda galaxy, the Kree Empire in the Magellan clouds which are satellites of the Milky Way galaxy in which Earth of course is found, while the Shi´ar Empire is located somewhere between them in one of the smaller galaxies (perhaps Triangulum); frequently, these three empires are quoted as the main political powers "in the universe". Similarly, the Local Group seemed to be the only affected area when the Annihilation Wave cut its bloody swath "across the universe". One notable exception to the "Local group" rule is Planet Hulk, which not only took place in another galactic cluster but indeed another galactic supercluster, namely Fornax. Another matter altogether is the Astral Plane, given heavy influence in the Marvel Universe, it is a dimensional plane which is the source of telekinesis and various other psychic powers. Sources Concepts segment: The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe (various entries in various volumes) See also For more complete lists of inhabitants of the Marvel Universe, see List of Marvel Comics characters, List of Marvel Comics teams and organizations, and List of Marvel Comics alien races. Features of the Marvel Universe Timeline of the Marvel Universe Major events of the Marvel Universe Marvel Comics The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Marvel Comics Multiverse Marvel Super Heroes (role-playing game) Footnotes References Marvel Entertainment (official site) Marvel Chronology Project (Forums named after Marvel Universe) | Marvel_Universe |@lemmatized various:12 character:29 marvel:108 universe:94 promotional:1 art:1 civil:2 war:10 event:12 steve:2 mcniven:1 shared:2 fictional:9 comic:26 book:8 title:16 publish:6 take:11 place:7 include:16 feature:8 familiar:1 spider:10 man:17 hulk:7 x:15 men:13 captain:6 america:4 far:2 depict:3 exist:23 within:11 multiverse:8 consisting:1 thousand:4 separate:3 creation:2 sense:2 context:1 refer:4 mainstream:2 continuity:17 know:20 earth:34 history:5 origins:1 though:6 concept:7 new:10 unique:2 writer:4 editor:3 stan:3 lee:4 together:4 several:8 artist:1 jack:3 kirby:3 ditko:1 create:12 series:9 one:28 would:9 repercussion:2 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7,658 | Kiritimati | Kiritimati photographed from the International Space Station. Kiritimati or Christmas Island is a Pacific Ocean atoll in the northern Line Islands and part of the Republic of Kiribati. The island has the greatest land area of any coral atoll in the world: about Teeb'aki in Scott (1993) ; its lagoon is about the same size. The atoll is about in perimeter, while the lagoon shoreline extends for over . Streets (1877) Kiritimati comprises over 70% of the total land area of Kiribati, a nation encompassing 33 Pacific atolls and islands. It lies north of the Equator, from Sydney, and from San Francisco. Kiritimati is the first inhabited place on Earth to experience the New Year each year (see also Caroline Atoll, Kiribati). Despite being east of the 180 meridian, a 1995 realignment of the International Dateline by the Republic of Kiribati 'moved' Kiritimati to west of the dateline. Nuclear tests were conducted in the region around Kiritimati by the United Kingdom in the late 1950s. During these tests islanders were not evacuated. Subsequently British, New Zealand and Fijian servicemen as well as local islanders have claimed to have suffered from exposure to the radiation from these blasts. The entire island is a Wildlife Sanctuary; access to five particularly sensitive areas (see below) is restricted. The name "Kiritimati" is a rather straightforward transliteration of the English word "Christmas" into Gilbertese – where the 'ti' combination is pronounced 's' – and thus . Similarly Kiribati is a transliteration of Gilberts with the K replacing the G and the R replacing the L. Moreover, Gilbertese is a Micronesian language. This part of the Republic of Kiribati is in the world's furthest forward time zone, UTC+14. History Location of Kiritimati At Western discovery, Kiritimati was uninhabited. Like on other Line Islands, there may have been a small and/or temporary native population, most probably Polynesian traders and settlers. These would have found the island a useful replenishing station on the long voyages from the Society Islands to Hawaiʻi, perhaps as early as 400 CE. This trade route was apparently used with some regularity by about 1000 CE. From 1200 CE onwards, Polynesian long-distance voyaging became less frequent, and if there ever was human settlement on Kiritimati, it would have been abandoned in the early-mid second millennium CE. Two possible village sites and some stone structures of these early visitors have been located. Today, most inhabitants are Micronesians, and Gilbertese is the only language of any significance. English is generally understood, but little used outside the tourism sector. Kiritimati was discovered by Captain James Cook on Christmas Eve (December 24), 1777. It was claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, though little actual mining of guano took place. This claim was formally ceded by the Treaty of Tarawa between US and Kiribati, signed in 1979 and ratified in 1983. Permanent settlement started by 1882, mainly by workers in coconut plantations and fishermen, but due to an extreme drought which killed off tens of thousands of Coconut Palms – about 75% of Kiritimati's population of this plant – the island was once again abandoned between 1905 and 1912. View from Handley Page Hastings flying over London in 1956, during the nuclear testing period.Bridges Point is at the central upper margin. Many of the toponyms in the island go back to Father Emmanuel Rougier, a French priest who leased the island from 1917 to 1939 and planted some 800,000 coconut trees there. He lived in his Paris house (now only small ruins) located at Benson Point, across the Burgle Channel from Londres (today London) at Bridges Point where he established the port. Joe's Hill was named by Joe English, who served as plantation manager for Rougier from 1915-1919. English was left alone on the island for a year and a half (1917-1919), with two teens, when cholera broke out in Papeete and transport stopped due to the World War I. English was later rescued by Lord John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, Admiral of the British Fleet. Upon his rescue, English's adventures were later chronicled in the Boston Globe. In World War II, Kiritimati was occupied by the Allies, and the first airstrip was constructed then, for servicing the US Army Air Force weather station and communications center. The airstrip also provided rest and refueling facilities for planes traveling between Hawaii and the South Pacific. There was also a small civilian radio-meteorological research station. Nuclear bomb tests During the Cold War there was some nuclear weapons testing in the Kiritimati area. Britain supposedly conducted its first successful hydrogen bomb test at Malden Island on May 15 1957; Kiritimati was the operation's main base. In fact, this test did not work as planned, and the first British H-bomb was successfully detonated over the southeastern tip of Kiritimati on November 8, 1957. Subsequent test series in 1958 (Grapple Y and Z) took place above or near Kiritimati itself. The United States conducted 22 successful nuclear detonations as part of Operation Dominic here in 1962. Some toponyms (like Banana and Main Camp) come from the nuclear testing period, during which at times over 4,000 servicemen were present. By 1969, military interest in Kiritimati had ceased and the facilities were abandoned and for the most part dismantled. Some communications, transport and logistics facilities, however, were converted for civilian use and it is due to these installations that Kiritimati came to serve as the administrative center for the Line Islands. The United Kingdom detonated some 5 megatons of nuclear payload near and 1.8 megatons directly above Kiritimati in 1957/58, while the United States between 25 April and 11 July, 1962 successfully tested nuclear devices of about 24 megatons payload altogether in the vicinity of the island. During the British Grapple X test of November 8, 1957, which took place directly above the southeastern tip of Kiritimati, yield was stronger than expected and there was some blast damage in the settlements. Islanders were usually not evacuated during the nuclear weapons testing, and data on the environmental and public health impact of these tests remains contested. Present status The island's population has strongly increased in recent years, from about 2,000 in 1989 to about 5,000 in the early 2000s. Kiritimati has two representatives in the Maneaba ni Maungatabu. Today there are four populated and one abandoned villages on the island: No. Village Population(Census 2005) 1 London 1829 2 Tabwakea 1881 3 Banana (Banana Wells) 1170 4 Poland 235 5 Paris (ruins) – Kiritimati 5115 London is the main village and port facility. Banana is near Cassidy International Airport but may be relocated closer to London to prevent contamination of its groundwater. The abandoned village of Paris is not listed in census reports anymore. The ministry of the Line and Phoenix islands is located in London. There are also two new high schools on the road between Tabwakea and Banana: one Catholic and one Protestant. The University of Hawaii has a climatological research facility on Kiritimati. Transport and commerce Cassidy International Airport (IATA code CXI) is located just north of Banana and North East Point. It has a paved runway with a length of and was for some time the only airport in Kiribati to serve the Americas, via an Air Pacific flight to Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. This service was suspended September 2, 2008, because of the cracked runway surface, and there is currently no regular service to or from CXI. Previously (ended on April 26 2004) a Boeing 737 charter flight by Air Kiribati, operated by Aloha Airlines, connected Kiritimati to Honolulu every week. Provisional jet flights replaced it for some time. From October 2005 to September 2008, Air Pacific made a weekly stop between Honolulu and Nadi in Fiji. The abandoned Aeon Field, constructed before the British nuclear tests, is located on the southeastern peninsula, NW of South East Point. In the early 1950s, Wernher von Braun proposed using this island as a launch site for manned spacecraft. There is a Japanese JAXA satellite tracking station; the abandoned Aeon Field had at one time been proposed for reuse by the Japanese for their now-canceled HOPE-X space shuttle project. Kiritimati is also located fairly close to the Sea Launch satellite launching spot at 0° N 154° W, about 370 km (200 nautical miles) to the east in international waters. Most of the atoll's food supplies have to be imported. Potable water can be in short supply, especially around November in La Niña years. A large and modern jetty, handling some cargo, was built by the Japanese at London. Marine fish provide a healthy portion of the island's nutrition, although overfishing has caused a drastic decrease in the populations of large, predatory fish over the last several years. Exports of the atoll are mainly copra (dried coconut pulp); the state-owned coconut plantation covers about . In addition, goods like aquarium fish and seaweed are exported; a 1970s project to commercially breed Artemia salina brine shrimp in the salt ponds was abandoned in 1978. In recent years there are attempts to explore the viability of live crayfish and chilled fish exports and salt production. Furthermore, there is a small amount of tourism, mainly associated with anglers interested in lagoon fishing (for bonefish in particular) or offshore fishing. Week-long ecotourism packages during which some of the normally closed areas can be visited are also available. There is some tourism-related infrastructure, such as a small hotel, rental facilities, and takeaways. Geography and climate 1977 nautical chart Kiritimati's roughly lagoon opens to the sea in the northwest; Burgle Channel (the entrance to the lagoon) is divided into the northern Cook Island Passage and the southern South Passage. The southeastern part of the lagoon is partially dried out today; essentially, progressing SE from Burgle Channel, the main lagoon gradually turns into a network of subsidiary lagoons, tidal flats, partially hypersaline brine ponds and salt pans, which as a whole has about the same area again as the main lagoon. Thus, the land and lagoon areas can only be given approximately, as no firm boundary exists between the main island body and the salt flats. In addition to the main island, there are several smaller ones. Cook Island is part of the atoll proper but unconnected to the Kiritimati mainland. It is a sand/coral island of , divides Burgle Channel into the northern and the southern entrance, and has a large seabird colony. Islets (motus) in the lagoon include Motu Tabu () with its Pisonia forest and the shrub-covered Motu Upua (also called Motu Upou or Motu Upoa, ) at the northern side, and Ngaontetaake () at the eastern side. Joe's Hill (originally La colline de Joe) near Artemia Corners on the southeastern peninsula is the highest point on the atoll, at about ASL. On the northwestern peninsula for example, the land raises only to some 7 m (20 ft), which is still considerable for an atoll. Despite its proximity to the ITCZ, Kiritimati is located in an equatorial dry zone and rainfall is rather low except during El Niño years; on average per year, in some years it can be as little as and much of the flats and ponds can dry up such as in late 1978. On the other hand, in some exceptionally wet years abundant downpours in March-April may result in a total annual precipitation of over . Kiritimati is thus affected by regular, severe droughts. They are exacerbated by its geological structure; climatically "dry" Pacific islands are more typically located in the "desert belt" at about 30°N or S latitude. Kiritimati is a raised atoll, and although it does occasionally receive plenty of precipitation, little is retained given the porous carbonatic rock, the thin soil, and the absence of dense vegetation cover on much of the island, while evaporation is constantly high. Consequently, Kiritimati is one of the rather few places close to the Equator which have an effectively arid climate. The temperature is constantly between 24°C and 30°C, with more diurnal than seasonal variation. Easterly trade winds predominate. Ecology The flora and the fauna consist of taxa adapted to drought. Terrestrial fauna is scant; there are no truly native land mammals and only one native land bird In the strict sense, i.e. excluding the amphibious Eastern Reef Egret – Kiribati's endemic reed-warbler, the Bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis). The 1957 attempt to introduce the Endangered Rimitara Lorikeet (Vini kuhlii) has by and large failed; a few birds seem to linger on, but the lack of abundant Coconut Palm forest, on which this tiny parrot depends, makes Kiritimati a suboptimal habitat for this species. Flowers of Beach Naupaka (Scaevola taccada), Kiritimati's most typical woody plant. Flora The natural vegetation on Kiritimati consists mostly of low shrubland and grassland. What little woodland exists is mainly open Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera) plantation. There are three small woods of Pisonia grandis catchbird trees, at Southeast Point, Northwest Point, and on Motu Tabu. The latter was planted there in recent times. About 50 introduced plant species are found on Kiritimati; as most are plentiful around settlements, former military sites and roads, it seems that these only became established in the 20th century. Velvet Soldierbush (Tournefortia argentea) in typical habitat on a Hawaiian island. Scaevola taccada (Beach Naupaka) is the most common shrub on Kiritimati; Beach Naupaka scrub dominates the vegetation on much of the island, either as pure stands or interspersed with Velvet Soldierbush (Tournefortia argentea) and Bay Cedar (Suriana maritima). The latter species is dominant on the drier parts of the lagoon flats where it grows up to 2 meters (7 ft) tall. Velvet Soldierbush is most commonly found a short distance from the sea- or lagoon-shore. In some places near the seashore, a low vegetation dominated by Polynesian Heliotrope (Heliotropium anomalum), Yellow Purslane (Portulaca lutea) and Common Purslane (P. oleracea) is found. In the south and on the sandier parts, Sida fallax, also growing up to 2 meters tall, is abundant. On the southeastern peninsula, S. fallax grows more stunted, and Polynesian Heliotrope, Yellow and Common Purslane as well as the spiderling Boerhavia repens, the parasitic vine Cassytha filiformis, and Pacific Island Thintail (Lepturus repens) supplement it. The last species dominates in the coastal grasslands. The wetter parts of the lagoon shore are often covered by abundant growth of Shoreline Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum). Perhaps the most destructive of the recently-introduced plants is the camphorweed Pluchea odorata (Sweetscent), which is considered an invasive weed as it overgrows and displaces herbs and grasses. The introduced creeper Tribulus cistoides, despite having also spread conspicuously, is considered to be more beneficial than harmful to the ecosystem, as it provides good nesting sites for some seabirds. Birds Despite massive declines in recent decades, more Sooty Terns continue to nest on Kiritimati than anywhere else in the world. The Christmas Shearwater was named after Christmas Island. Brown-morph Red-footed Booby. Those on Kiritimati will reuse nests for several years, unlike in most other colonies. More than 35 bird species have been recorded from Kitirimati. As noted above, only the Bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis), perhaps a few Rimitara Lorikeets (Vini kuhlii) – if any remain at all – and the occasional Eastern Reef Egret (Egretta sacra) make up the entire landbird fauna. About 1,000 adult Bokikokikos are to be found at any date, but mainly in mixed grass/shrubland away from the settlements. On the other hand, seabirds are plentiful on Kiritimati, and make op the bulk of the breeding bird population. There are 18 species of seabirds breeding on the island, and Kitirimati is one of the most important breeding grounds anywhere in the world for several of these: Phaethontiformes Eastern Red-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchus Validity of subspecies disputed ) – important breeding colony; 8,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline, less than 3,000 in 1984 Charadriiformes Micronesian Black Noddy (Anous minutus marcusi) – 20,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Little White Tern (Gygis microrhyncha Sometimes included in Gygis alba ) – 8,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Central Pacific Sooty Tern (Onychoprion fuscatus oahuensis) – largest breeding colony in the world; around 7,000,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Grey-backed Tern (Onychoprion lunatus) – important breeding colony; 6,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Central Blue-grey Noddy (Procelsterna cerulea cerulea) – important breeding colony, possibly the largest worldwide of this subspecies; 4,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Procellariiformes Polynesian Storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa) – important breeding colony; 1,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Phoenix Petrel (Pterodroma alba) – largest breeding colony in the world; 24,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Christmas Shearwater (Puffinus nativitatis) – largest subpopulation worldwide on Motu Upua; 12,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus Probably soon to be changed to Ardenna pacifica: see Penhallurick & Wink (2004) ) – among the very largest breeding colonies in the world; about 1,000,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Pelecaniformes Indopacific Lesser Frigatebird (Fregata ariel ariel) – important breeding colony; 9,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Central Pacific Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor palmerstoni) – important breeding colony; 12,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline, 6,500 afterwards Austropacific Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra personata) – important breeding colony; 3,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Indopacific Red-footed Booby (Sula sula rubripes) – 12,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline Kiritimati's lagoon and the saltflats are a prime location for migratory birds to stop over or even stay all winter. The most commonly migrants are Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Bristle-thighed Curlew (Numenius tahitiensis) and Wandering Tattler (Tringa incana); other seabirds, waders and even dabbling ducks can be encountered every now and then. See also "Extinction" below. Other fauna The only mammal native to the region is the common Polynesian Rat (Rattus exulans), but even this would seem to have been introduced by native seafarers numerous centuries before Cook found Kiritimati in 1777. Black Rats (Rattus rattus) were present at some time, perhaps introduced by 19th century sailors or during the nuclear tests. They have not been able to gain a foothold between predation by cats and competitive exclusion by Polynesian Rats, and no Black Rat population is found on Kiritimati today anymore. Up to 2,000 feral cats can in some years be found on the island; the population became established in the 19th century. Their depredations seriously harm the birdlife. Since the late 19th century, they have driven about 60% of the seabird species from the mainland completely, and during particular dry spells they will cross the mudflats and feast upon the birds on the motus. Grey-backed Tern chicks seem to be a favorite food of the local cat population. There are some measures being taken to ensure the cat population does not grow. That lowering the cat population by some amount would much benefit Kiritimati and its inhabitants is generally accepted, but the situation is too complex to simply go and eradicate them outright (which is theoretically possible; see Marion Island) - see below for details. A limited population of feral pigs exists. They were once plentiful and wreaked havoc especially on the Onychoprion and noddies. Pig hunting by locals has been encouraged, and was highly successful at limiting the pig population to a sustainable level, while providing a source of cheap protein for the islanders. Mourning Gecko, a common sight all over the tropical Pacific. A Strawberry Land Hermit Crab in its shell. There are some "supertramp" lizards which have reached the island by their own means. Commonly seen are the Mourning Gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris) and the skink Cryptoblepharus boutonii; the Four-clawed Gecko (Gehyra mutilata) is less often encountered. Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) regularly nest in small numbers on Kiritimati. The lagoon is famous among sea anglers worldwide for its Bonefish (Albula vulpes), and has been stocked with Oreochromis tilapia to decrease overfishing of marine species. Though the tilapias thrive in brackish water of the flats, they will not last long should they escape in the surrounding ocean. There are some crustaceans of note to be found on Kiritimati and in the waters immediately adjacent. The amphibious Coconut Crab (Birgus latro) is not as common as for example on Teraina. Ghost crabs (genus Ocypode), Cardisoma carnifex and Geograpsus grayi land crabs, the Strawberry Land Hermit Crab (Coenobita perlatus), and the introduced brine shrimp Artemis salina which populates the saline ponds are also notable. Conservation and extinction Sweetscent (Pluchea odorata) has become a serious weed in parts of Kiritimati. In December 1960, the British colonial authority gazetted Kiritimati as a bird sanctuary under the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Island Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance of 1938. Access to Cook Island, Motu Tabu and Motu Upua was restricted. Kititimati was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in May 1975, in accordance with the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance of the then self-governing colony. Ngaontetaake and the Sooty Tern breeding grounds at North West Point also became restricted-access zones. Two years later, active conservation measures got underway. To a limited extent, permits to enter the restricted areas for purposes like research or small-scale ecotourism are given. Kiribati's Wildlife Conservation Unit participates in the Kiritimati Development Committee and the Local Land Planning Board, and there exists an integrated program of wildlife conservation and education. New Zealand is a major sponsor of conservation efforts on Kiritimati. Egg collecting for food on a massive scale was frequent in the past but is now outlawed. It is to be noted that the Sooty Terns for example could sustain occasional collection of effectively all of a season's eggs (over 10 million), if given sufficient time to recover and if cats are absent. Even egg collecting on a scale that significantly decreases costly food imports thus in theory could be possible, but not until the cat and rat populations have been brought under control. Poaching remains a concern; with the population rising and spreading out on Kiritimati, formerly remote bird colonies became more accessible and especially the Red-tailed Tropicbirds and the Sula are strongly affected by hunting and disturbance. Tropicbirds are mainly poached for their feathers which are used in local arts and handicraft; it would certainly be possible to obtain them from living birds as it was routinely done at the height of the Polynesian civilization. It may seem that the erstwhile numbers of seabirds may only ever be approached again by the wholesale eradication of the feral cats. While this has been since shown to be feasible, E.g. on remote and rugged subantarctic Marion Island with land area it is not clear whether even a severe curtailing of the cat population would be desirable. Though it previously was assumed that the small Polynesian Rat is of little if any harm for seabirds, even house mice have been shown to eat seabird nestlings. Most nesting birds, in particularly Procellariiformes, are now accepted to be jeopardized by Rattus exulans. The Kiritimati cats are meanwhile very fond of young seabirds; it even seems that their behavior has shifted accordingly, with cats being less territorial generally and congregating in numbers at active bird colonies, and generally eschewing rats when seabird chicks are in plenty. Possession of an unneutered female cat on Kiritimati is illegal, and owners need to prevent their domestic cats from running wild (such animals are usually quickly killed in traps set for this purpose). Nighttime cat hunting has made little effect on the cat population. As noted above, vigorous protecting of active nesting grounds from cats by traps, poison and supplemented by shooting while otherwise leaving them alone to hunt rats may well be the optimal solution. November 8, 1957:Grapple X Round C1, the first successful British hydrogen bomb test, detonates over Kiritimati's South East Point. There is no reliable data on the environmental and public health impact of the nuclear tests conducted on the island in the late 1950s. A 1975 study claimed that there was negligible radiation hazard; certainly, fallout was successfully minimized. More recently however, a Massey University study of New Zealand found chromosomal translocations to be increased about threefold on average in veterans who participated in the tests; MU (2008) most of the relevant data remains classified to date however. The 1982/83 "mega-El Niño" devastated seabird populations on Kiritimati. In some species, mortality rose to 90% and breeding success dropped to zero during that time. In general, El Niño conditions will cause seabird populations to drop, taking several years to recover at the present density of predators. Global warming impact on Kiritimati is thus unpredictable. El Niño events seem to become shorter but more frequent in a warmer climate. Much of the island's infrastructure and habitation, with the notable exception of the airport area, is located to the leeward and thus somewhat protected from storms. A raising sea level does not appear to be particularly problematic; the increasing flooding of the subsidiary lagoons would provide easily-observed forewarning, and might even benefit seabird populations by making the motus less accessible to predators. In fact, geological data suggests that Kiritimati has withstood prehistoric sea level changes well. Streets (1877), Steadman (2006): p.282 The biggest hazard caused by a changing climate would seem to be more prolonged and/or severe droughts, which could even enforce the island's abandonment as they did in 1905. However, it is not clear how weather patterns would change, and it may be that precipitation increases. Extinction The type specimen of the Tuamotu Sandpiper (Prosobonia cancellata) was collected on Kiritimati in 1778, probably on January 1 or 2, during Captain Cook's visit. Cook (1784) The expedition's naturalist William Anderson observed the bird, and it was painted by William Ellis (linked below). The single specimen was in Joseph Banks's collection at the end of the 18th century, but later was lost or destroyed. There is some taxonomic dispute regarding the Kiritimati population. E.g. Townsend & Wetmore (1919), Zusi & Jehl (1970) As all Prosobonia seem(ed) to be resident birds unwilling to undertake long-distance migrations, an appropriate treatment would be to consider the extinct population the nominate subspecies, as Prosobonia cancellata cancellata or Kiritimati Sandpiper, distinct from the surviving Tuamotu Islands population more than 2,000 km (1,200 miles) to the southeast. It may have been, but probably was not, limited to Kiritimati; while no remains have been found, little fieldwork has been conducted and judging from the Tuamotu Sandpiper's habits, almost all Line Islands would have offered suitable habitat. The Kiritimati population of P. cancellata disappeared in the earlier part of the 19th century or so, almost certainly due to predation by introduced mammals. While Prosobonia generally manage to hold their own against Polynesian Rats, they are highly vulnerable to the Black Rat and feral cats. BLI (2007) Given the uncertainties surrounding the introduction date and maximum population of the former, the cats seem to be the main culprits in the Kiritimati Sandpiper's extinction. The Buff-banded Rail (Gallirallus philippensis) might once have had a relative on Kiritimati. Given that the island was apparently settled to some extent in prehistoric times, it may already have lost bird species then. The geological data indicates that Kiritimati is quite old, was never completely underwater in the Holocene at least, and thus it might have once harbored highly distinct wetland birds. The limited overall habitat diversity on Kiritimati nonetheless limits the range of such hypothetical taxa, as does biogeography due to its remote location. At least one, possibly several Gallirallus and/or Porzana rails make the most likely candidates, given their former presence in the region and that conditions on Kiritimati would seem well suited. Perhaps a Todiramphus kingfisher was also present; such a bird would probably have belonged to the Sacred Kingfisher (T. sanctus) group as that species today occurs as a vagrant in Micronesia, and related forms are resident in southeastern Polynesia. These birds would have fallen victim to the Polynesian Rats and, in the case of the rails which would have almost certainly been flightless, hunting by natives. Steadman (2006) Footnotes References (2007): Tuamotu Sandpiper Species Factsheet. Retrieved 2008-FEB-24. Boston Globe, (Feb. 1920). Paul Boulagnon (2003), Emmanuel Rougier: Des Isles d'Auvergne a l'Océanie (Fidji, Tahiti, Christmas Island) (1784): [Birds of Kiritimati]. In: A voyage to the Pacific Ocean, ... performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and the Discovery, etc. 2: 188-189. London. JPEG fulltext of 2nd (1785) edition (2008): DNA damage to nuclear test vets prompts call for study of children. Version of 2008-JAN-15. Retrieved 2008-MAR-25. (2004): Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Emu 104(2): 125-147. (HTML abstract) (1993): Republic of Kiribati. In: A Directory of Wetlands in Oceania: 199-228. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, U.K. and Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sheers, Owen 2008. "Bomb gone". Granta 101 (2006): Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226771423 (1877): Some Account of the Natural History of the Fanning Group of Islands. Am. Nat. 11(2): 65-72. First page image (1919): Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the tropical Pacific in charge of Alexander Agassiz, on the U.S. Fish Commission steamer "Albatross," from August, 1899, to March, 1900, Commander Jefferson F. Moser, U.S.N., commanding. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 63: 151-225. (1970): The systematic relationships of Aechmorhynchus, Prosobonia and Phegornis (Charadriiformes; Charadrii). Auk 87: 760-780. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext External links Natural History Museum: William Ellis' plate 64 - the only Kiritimati Sandpiper specimen ever studied by scientists. Retrieved 11-SEP-2006. 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7,659 | Evolutionary_linguistics | Evolutionary linguistics is the scientific study of the origins and development of language. The main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: spoken language leaves no traces. This led to an abandonment of the field for more than a century for about 12 decades, from the 1860s to the 1980s. . Since the late 1980s, the field has been revived in the wake of progress made in the related fields of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, evolutionary anthropology and cognitive science. History August Schleicher (1821–1868) and his ‘Stammbaumtheorie’ are often quoted as the starting point of evolutionary linguistics. Inspired by the natural sciences, especially biology, Schleicher was the first to compare languages to evolving species. He introduced the representation of language families as an evolutionary tree in articles published in 1853. Joseph Jastrow published a gestural theory of the evolution of language in the seventh volume of Science The Stammbaumtheorie proved to be very productive for comparative linguistics, but didn't solve the major problem of evolutionary linguistics: the lack of fossil records. The question of the origin of language was abandoned as unsolvable. Famously, the Société Linguistique de Paris in 1866 refused to admit any further papers on the subject. The field has re-appeared in 1988 in the Linguistic Bibliography, as a subfield of psycholinguistics. A dedicated research conference was first held in 1996. The Studies in the Evolution of Language series has been appearing with Oxford University Press since 2001. Study methods One of these researchers is Professor Dr. Luc Steels, head of the research units of Sony CSL in Paris and the AI Lab at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. He and his team are investigating ways in which artificial agents self-organize languages with natural-like properties and how meaning can co-evolve with language. Their research is based on the hypothesis that language is a complex adaptive system that emerges through adaptive interactions between agents and continues to evolve in order to remain adapted to the needs and capabilities of the agents. This research has been implemented in fluid construction grammar (FCG), a formalism for construction grammars that has been specially designed for the origins and evolution of language. The approach of computational modeling and the use of robotic agents grounded in real life is theory independent. It enables the researcher to find out exactly what cognitive capacities are needed for certain language phenomena to emerge. It also focuses the researcher in formulating hypotheses in a precise and exact manner, whereas theoretical models often stay very vague. Some linguists, such as John McWhorter, have analyzed the evolution and construction of basic communication methods such as Pidginization and Creolization. (2002) McWhorter, John. The Power of Babel: The Natural History of Language, Random House Group. "Nativist" models of "Universal Grammar" are informed by linguistic universals such as the existence of pronouns and demonstratives, and the similarities in each languages process of nominalization (the process of verbs becoming nouns) as well as the reverse, the process of turning nouns into verbs. (2005) Deutscher, Guy. The Unfolding of Language, Owl Books. This is a purely descriptive approach to what we mean by "natural language" without attempting to address its emergence. EVOLANG Conference The Evolution of Language International Conferences have been held biennially since 1996. 1996 Edinburgh: Hurford, J. R., Studdert-Kennedy, M. & Knight C. (eds), Approaches to the Evolution of Language - Social and Cognitive Bases, Cambridge University Press, 1998. 1998 London: Chris Knight, James R. Hurford and Michael Studdert-Kennedy (eds), The Evolutionary Emergence of Language: Social function and the origins of linguistic form, Cambridge University Press, 2000 Paris: J. L. Desalles & L. Ghadakpour (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on the Evolution of Language 2002 Boston: J. Hurford & T. Fitch (eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on the Evolution of Language 2004 Leipzig 2006 Rome: Kenny. Smith, Andrew, D. M. Smith, Angelo Cangelosi, The Evolution of Language: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Evolution of Language, World Scientific, ISBN 9812566562. 2008 Barcelona Notes References Cangelosi, A. and Harnad, S. (2001) The adaptive advantage of symbolic theft over sensorimotor toil: Grounding language in perceptual categories Evolution of Communication 4(1):pp. 117–142. M. Christiansen and S. Kirby (eds.), Language Evolution, Oxford University Press, New York (2003), ISBN 978-0199244843. Bickerton, D., Symbol and Structure: A Comprehensive Framework for Language Evolution, pp. 77–93. Hurford, J. R., The Language Mosaic and Its Evolution, pp. 38–57. Lieberman, P.,Motor Control, Speech, and the Evolution of Language, pp. 252–271. Deacon, T. (1997) The symbolic species: the coevolution of language and the brain, Norton, New York. Hauser, M.D. (1996) The evolution of communication, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Daniel Dor and Jablonka Eva (2001). How language changed the genes. In Tabant J. Ward. S. (editors). Mouton de Gruyer: Berlin, pp 149–175. Dor D. and Jablonka E. (2001) From cultural selection to genetic selection: a framework for the evolution of language. Selection, 1–3, pp. 33–57. Jackendoff, R. (2002) Foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution Oxford University Press, New York Komarova, N.L. (2007). Language and Mathematics: An evolutionary model of grammatical communication. In: History & Mathematics. Ed. by Leonid Grinin, Victor C. de Munck, and Andrey Korotayev. Moscow, KomKniga/URSS. pp. 164–179. ISBN 9785484010011. Nowak, M.A. and N.L. Komarova (2001) Towards an evolutionary theory of language, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5 (7), pp. 288–295. Pinker, S. (1994) The language instinct, HarperCollins, New York. Pinker, S. and P. Bloom (1990) Natural language and natural selection Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13: pp. 707–784 Sampson, Geoffrey: Evolutionary Language Understanding, published 1996 by Cassel (London), ISBN 0304336505 Steels, L. (2001) Grounding Symbols through Evolutionary Language Games. In: Cangelosi A. and Parisi D. (Eds.) Simulating the Evolution of Language Springer. Steklis, H.D. and Harnad, S (1976) From hand to mouth: Some critical stages in the evolution of language In: Harnad, S., Steklis, H. D. and Lancaster, J., (1976) (Eds) Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280: 1–914. See also the UIUC Language Evolution and Computation Bibliography/Repository (1200+ related references, citations, and fulltext pointers) Encyclopedia Americana,Americana Corporation of Canada{1959}-Iceland-Language Zuidema, W. H., The Major Transitions in the Evolution of Language, PhD thesis, Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, University of Edinburgh (2005) Johansson, Sverker, Origins of language : constraints on hypotheses, Converging evidence in language and communication research vol. 5, Amsterdam : Benjamins (2005). Mithen, Steven J., The singing neanderthals : the origins of music, language, mind and body London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson (2005), ISBN 978-0-297-64317-3 Partha Niyogi, The computational nature of language learning and evolution MIT Press, Current studies in linguistics 43 (2006). A. Carstairs-McCarthy, The evolution of language, Lingua vol. 117, issue 3 (2007, March). Bernd Heine, Tania Kuteva, The genesis of grammar : a reconstruction, Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-922776-1, ISBN 978-0-19-922777-8. James R. Hurford, Language in the light of evolution, Oxford University Press, Studies in the evolution of language vol. 1 (2007). Further reading See also Origin of language Biolinguistics External links Fluid Construction Grammar Language Evolution and Computation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh Sony CSL Research Vrije Universiteit Brussel Research ARTI Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel ECAgents: The Project on Embodied and Communicating Agents | Evolutionary_linguistics |@lemmatized evolutionary:10 linguistics:6 scientific:2 study:5 origin:8 development:1 language:53 main:1 challenge:1 research:9 lack:2 empirical:1 data:1 spoken:1 leave:1 trace:1 lead:1 abandonment:1 field:4 century:1 decade:1 since:3 late:1 revive:1 wake:1 progress:1 make:1 related:2 psycholinguistics:2 neurolinguistics:1 anthropology:1 cognitive:4 science:6 history:3 august:1 schleicher:2 stammbaumtheorie:2 often:2 quote:1 start:1 point:1 inspire:1 natural:6 especially:1 biology:1 first:2 compare:1 evolve:3 specie:2 introduce:1 representation:1 family:1 tree:1 article:1 publish:3 joseph:1 jastrow:1 gestural:1 theory:3 evolution:28 seventh:1 volume:1 prove:1 productive:1 comparative:1 solve:1 major:2 problem:1 fossil:1 record:1 question:1 abandon:1 unsolvable:1 famously:1 société:1 linguistique:1 de:3 paris:3 refuse:1 admit:1 paper:1 subject:1 appear:2 linguistic:3 bibliography:2 subfield:1 dedicated:1 conference:6 hold:2 series:1 oxford:5 university:9 press:9 method:2 one:1 researcher:3 professor:1 dr:1 luc:1 steel:2 head:1 unit:2 sony:2 csl:2 ai:1 lab:1 vrije:3 universiteit:3 brussel:3 team:1 investigate:1 way:1 artificial:2 agent:5 self:1 organize:1 like:1 property:1 meaning:2 co:1 base:2 hypothesis:3 complex:1 adaptive:3 system:1 emerge:2 interaction:1 continue:1 order:1 remain:1 adapted:1 need:2 capability:1 implement:1 fluid:2 construction:4 grammar:6 fcg:1 formalism:1 specially:1 design:1 approach:3 computational:2 modeling:1 use:1 robotic:1 ground:1 real:1 life:1 independent:1 enable:1 find:1 exactly:1 capacity:1 certain:1 phenomenon:1 also:3 focus:1 formulate:1 precise:1 exact:1 manner:1 whereas:1 theoretical:2 model:3 stay:1 vague:1 linguist:1 john:2 mcwhorter:2 analyze:1 basic:1 communication:5 pidginization:1 creolization:1 power:1 babel:1 random:1 house:1 group:1 nativist:1 universal:2 inform:1 existence:1 pronoun:1 demonstrative:1 similarity:1 process:3 nominalization:1 verb:2 become:1 noun:2 well:1 reverse:1 turn:1 deutscher:1 guy:1 unfolding:1 owl:1 book:1 purely:1 descriptive:1 mean:1 without:1 attempt:1 address:1 emergence:2 evolang:1 international:4 biennially:1 edinburgh:3 hurford:5 j:7 r:5 studdert:2 kennedy:2 knight:2 c:2 eds:5 social:2 cambridge:3 london:3 chris:1 james:2 michael:1 function:1 form:1 l:5 desalles:1 ghadakpour:1 proceeding:3 boston:1 fitch:1 leipzig:1 rome:1 kenny:1 smith:2 andrew:1 angelo:1 cangelosi:3 world:1 isbn:7 barcelona:1 note:1 reference:2 harnad:3 advantage:1 symbolic:2 theft:1 sensorimotor:1 toil:1 grounding:2 perceptual:1 category:1 pp:9 christiansen:1 kirby:1 ed:3 new:5 york:5 bickerton:1 symbol:2 structure:1 comprehensive:1 framework:2 mosaic:1 lieberman:1 p:2 motor:1 control:1 speech:2 deacon:1 coevolution:1 brain:3 norton:1 hauser:1 mit:2 daniel:1 dor:2 jablonka:2 eva:1 change:1 gene:1 tabant:1 ward:1 editor:1 mouton:1 gruyer:1 berlin:1 e:1 cultural:1 selection:4 genetic:1 jackendoff:1 foundation:1 komarova:2 n:2 mathematics:2 grammatical:1 leonid:1 grinin:1 victor:1 munck:1 andrey:1 korotayev:1 moscow:1 komkniga:1 ur:1 nowak:1 towards:1 trend:1 pinker:2 instinct:1 harpercollins:1 bloom:1 behavioral:1 sampson:1 geoffrey:1 understanding:1 cassel:1 game:1 parisi:1 simulate:1 springer:1 steklis:2 h:3 hand:1 mouth:1 critical:1 stage:1 lancaster:1 annals:1 academy:1 see:2 uiuc:1 computation:2 repository:1 citation:1 fulltext:1 pointer:1 encyclopedia:1 americana:2 corporation:1 canada:1 iceland:1 zuidema:1 w:1 transition:1 phd:1 thesis:1 applied:1 johansson:1 sverker:1 constraint:1 converge:1 evidence:1 vol:3 amsterdam:1 benjamin:1 mithen:1 steven:1 singing:1 neanderthal:1 music:1 mind:1 body:1 weidenfeld:1 nicolson:1 partha:1 niyogi:1 nature:1 learning:1 current:1 carstairs:1 mccarthy:1 lingua:1 issue:1 march:1 bernd:1 heine:1 tania:1 kuteva:1 genesis:1 reconstruction:1 light:1 far:1 reading:1 biolinguistics:1 external:1 link:1 arti:1 intelligence:1 laboratory:1 ecagents:1 project:1 embodied:1 communicate:1 |@bigram august_schleicher:1 comparative_linguistics:1 ai_lab:1 vrije_universiteit:3 universiteit_brussel:3 computational_modeling:1 purely_descriptive:1 encyclopedia_americana:1 phd_thesis:1 applied_linguistics:1 london_weidenfeld:1 weidenfeld_nicolson:1 bernd_heine:1 external_link:1 artificial_intelligence:1 |
7,660 | Politics_of_Angola | Politics of Angola takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Angola is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a formal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections. President dos Santos won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. A runoff never has taken place. The subsequent renewal of civil war and collapse of the Lusaka Protocol have left much of this process stillborn, but democratic forms exist, notably the National Assembly. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos) and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. The 26-year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. Executive branch |} Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional) has 223 members, elected for a four year term, 130 members by proportional representation, 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The next general elections, due for 1997, have been rescheduled for 5 September 2008. Political parties and elections Parliamentary elections were held in . These elections were the first since 1992. Presidential elections are planned for 2009. Judicial branch Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president Administrative divisions Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire Political pressure groups and leaders Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO; Antonio Bento BEMBE] note: FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province International organization participation ACP, AfDB, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, , IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, Non-Aligned dfrfgbfghgCouncil (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Angola |@lemmatized politics:1 angola:4 take:2 place:2 framework:1 presidential:2 republic:1 whereby:1 president:5 head:2 state:1 government:7 multi:1 party:3 system:3 executive:3 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:1 change:1 one:1 marxist:1 leninist:1 rule:1 mpla:1 formal:1 multiparty:1 democracy:1 follow:1 election:7 dos:2 santos:2 win:1 first:2 round:1 vote:1 jonas:1 savimbi:1 runoff:1 never:2 subsequent:1 renewal:1 civil:2 war:3 collapse:2 lusaka:1 protocol:1 leave:1 much:1 process:1 stillborn:1 democratic:1 form:1 exist:1 notably:1 national:2 assembly:2 currently:2 political:4 concentrate:1 presidency:1 branch:4 compose:2 prime:1 minister:5 fernando:1 da:2 piedade:1 dias:1 council:2 vice:1 meet:1 regularly:1 discuss:1 policy:1 issue:1 governor:1 province:3 appoint:2 serve:2 pleasure:1 constitutional:2 law:2 establish:1 broad:1 outline:1 structure:1 delineate:1 right:1 duty:1 citizen:1 legal:1 base:1 portuguese:1 customary:1 weak:1 fragmented:1 court:5 operate:1 municipality:1 supreme:3 appellate:1 tribunal:2 judicial:2 review:1 constitute:1 despite:1 statutory:1 authorization:1 year:2 long:1 ravage:1 country:2 social:3 institution:3 un:1 estimate:1 million:3 internally:1 displaced:1 person:1 idps:1 generally:1 accepted:1 figure:1 affected:1 people:1 daily:1 condition:1 life:1 throughout:1 specifically:1 luanda:2 population:1 approximately:1 mirror:1 administrative:2 infrastructure:1 well:1 many:1 ongoing:1 grave:1 economic:1 situation:1 largely:1 prevent:1 support:1 hospital:1 without:2 medicine:1 basic:2 equipment:1 school:1 book:1 public:1 employee:1 often:1 lack:1 supply:1 day:2 work:1 assembleia:1 nacional:1 member:4 elect:1 four:1 term:1 proportional:1 representation:1 provincial:1 district:1 represent:1 angolan:1 abroad:1 next:1 general:1 due:1 reschedule:1 september:1 parliamentary:1 hold:1 since:1 plan:1 relacao:1 judge:1 division:1 eighteen:1 provincias:1 singular:1 provincia:1 bengo:1 benguela:1 bie:1 cabinda:3 cuando:1 cubango:1 cuanza:2 norte:2 sul:2 cunene:1 huambo:1 huila:1 lunda:2 malanje:1 moxico:1 namibe:1 uige:1 zaire:1 pressure:1 group:1 leader:1 front:1 liberation:1 enclave:1 flec:2 n:1 zita:1 henriques:1 tiago:1 antonio:1 bento:1 bembe:1 note:1 wag:1 small:1 scale:1 highly:1 factionalized:1 arm:1 struggle:1 independence:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 ceeac:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 signatory:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 non:1 align:1 dfrfgbfghgcouncil:1 temporary:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 |@bigram marxist_leninist:1 multiparty_democracy:1 jonas_savimbi:1 prime_minister:1 supreme_court:3 internally_displaced:1 displaced_person:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 presidential_election:1 judicial_branch:1 province_provincias:1 participation_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_fao:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_signatory:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
7,661 | Kabaddi | Kabbadi match in progress Kabaddi (sometimes written Kabbadi or Kabadi) is a team sport originally from the Indian subcontinent. Two teams occupy opposite halves of a field and take turns sending a "raider" into the other half, in order to win points by tagging or wrestling members of the opposing team; the raider then tries to return to his own half, holding his breath during the whole raid. Kabaddi is popular throughout South Asia, and has also spread to Southeast Asia, Japan and Iran. It is the national game of Bangladesh where it is known as হাডুডু Haḍuḍu. It is the state game of Punjab, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra in India. It is played by the British Army for fun, to keep fit and as an enticement to recruit soldiers from the British Asian community. The name, sometimes chanted during a game, derives from a Hindi word meaning "holding of breath", which is a part of the game. Gameplay Kabaddi at the Asian Games 2006 In the team, or transnational, style of kabaddi, two teams of seven members each occupy opposite halves of a field of 12.5m × 10m (roughly half the size of a basketball court). Each has five supplementary players held in reserve. The game is in 20-minute halves, with a five-minute half-time break during which the teams switch sides. Teams take turns sending a "raider" to the opposite team's half, where the goal is to tag or wrestle ("confine") members of the opposite team before returning to the home half. Tagged members are "out" and sent off the field. Meanwhile, defenders must form a chain, for example, by linking hands; if the chain is broken, a member of the defending team is sent off. The goal of the defenders is to stop the raider returning to the home side before taking a breath. If the raider takes a breath before returning, the raider is sent off the field. A player can also get out by going over a boundary line or part of the body touches the ground outside the boundary, except during a struggle with an opposing team member. Each time a player is out the opposing team earns a point. A team scores a bonus of two points, called a lona, if the entire opposing team is declared out. At the end of the game, the team with the most points wins. Matches are staged on age and weight. Six officials supervise a match: one referee, two umpires, a scorer and two assistant scorers. Forms of Kabaddi Amar In the 'Amar' form of Kabaddi, whenever any player is touched (out), he does not go out of the court, but stays inside, and one point is awarded to the team that touched him. This game is also played on a time basis, i .e the time is fixed. This form of kabaddi is played in Punjab, Canada, England, New Zealand, USA, Pakistan and Australia. In the Amar form of Kabaddi, each team consists of 5-6 stoppers and 4-5 raiders. At one time, only 4 stoppers are allowed to play on the field. Every time a stopper stops the raider from going back to his starting point, that stoppers team gets 1 point. on the other hand, every time the raider tags one of the stoppers and returns to his starting point, his team gets one point. At one time, only one of the stoppers can try to stop the raider. If more than one touch the raider, an automatic point is awarded to the raider's team. If the stopper is pushed out by the raider or vice versa, then the team whose member is still in the field gets a point. If both the raider and the stopper go out, the result is a common point, where nobody gets a point. Surjeevani 'Surjeevani' Kabaddi is played under the Kabaddi Federation of India, governed by its rules. In Surjeevani Kabaddi, one player is revived against one player of the opposite team who is out, one out, one in. The duration, the number of players, dimensions of the court, etc. have been fixed by the Kabaddi Federation of India. This form of Kabaddi is the closest to the present game. In this form of Kabaddi, players are put out and revived and the game lasts 40 minutes with a 5-minute break in between. There are nine players on each side. The team that puts out all the players on the opponent's side scores four extra points for a 'Iona'. The winning team is the one that scores most points after 40 minutes. The field is bigger in this form of Kabaddi and the 'cant' different in various regions. Modem Kabaddi resembles this form of Kabaddi especially with regard to 'out & revival system' and 'Iona'. The present form of Kabaddi is a synthesis of all these forms with changes in the rules. Gaminee This is played with nine players on either side, in a field of no specific measurements. The characteristic is that a player put out has to remain out until all his team members are out. The team that is successful in putting out all the players of the opponent's side secures a point. This is akin to the present system of 'Iona'. After all the players are put out, the team is revived and the game continues. The game continues until five or seven 'Iona' are secured. The game has no fixed time. The main disadvantage of this form of Kabaddi is that the player Is not in position to give his best performance since he is likely to remain out for the better part of the match until a Iona is scored. History and development The sport has a history dating to pre-historic times. It was probably invented to ward off group attacks. The game was popular in southern Asia in different forms under different names. A dramatized version of the Mahabharata has made an analogy of the game to a tight situation faced by a character called "Abhimaneu", heir of the Pandava kings, when surrounded by the enemy. Buddhist literature speaks of the Gautam Buddha playing Kabaddi. History reveals that princes played to display their strength. The game, known as Hu-Tu-Tu in Western India, Ha-Do-Do in Eastern India and Bangladesh, Chedugudu in Southern India and Kaunbada in Northern India, has changed through the ages. Modem Kabaddi is a synthesis of the game played in various forms under different names. Kabaddi received international exposure during the 1936 Berlin Olympics, demonstrated by Hanuman Vyayam Prasarak Mandal, Amaravati, Maharashtra. The game was introduced in the Indian Olympic Games at Calcutta in 1938. In 1950 the All India Kabaddi Federation came into existence and compiled standard rules. The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India (AKFI) was founded in 1973. After formation of the Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India, the first men's nationals were held in Madras (re-named Chennai), while the women's were in Calcutta in 1955.The AKFI has given new shape to the rules and has the right to modify them. The Asian Kabaddi Federation was founded under the chairmanship of Sharad Pawar. Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation is now Headed By Mr. Janardan Singh Gehlot as President and Mr. Muhammad Sarwar as Secretary General. Kabaddi was introduced and popularized in Japan in 1979. The Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation sent Prof. Sundar Ram of India to tour Japan for two months to introduce the game. In 1979, a return test between Bangladesh and India was held at different places of India including Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Punjab. The Asian Kabaddi Championship was arranged in 1980 and India emerged as champion and Bangladesh runner-up. Bangladesh became runner-up again in 1985 in the Asian Kabaddi Championship held in Jaipur, India. The other teams in the tournament were Nepal, Malaysia and Japan. The game was included for the first time in the Asian Games in Beijing in 1990. India, China, Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh took part. India won the gold medal and has won gold at the following three Asian Games in Hiroshima in 1994, Bangkok in 1998 and Busan in 2002. India won the gold medal in the 2006 Asian Games at Doha. Attempts to popularize kabaddi in Great Britain saw British TV network Channel 4 commission a programme dedicated to the sport. The show, Kabaddi, on Channel 4 in the early 1990s, failed to capture viewers despite fixtures such as West Bengal Police versus the Punjab. Kabaddi was axed in 1992, but not before its presenter Krishnan Guru-Murthy suffered a collapsed lung while participating in the sport. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13255740/Siddhi-TimesMarch-2009-DrCommander-Selvam In the 1998 Asian games the Indian Kabaddi team defeated Pakistan in a thrilling final match at Bangkok (Thailand). The chief coach of the team was former kabaddi player and coach Flt. Lt. S P Singh. The first World Kabaddi Championship, was in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, when 14,000 at the Copps Coliseum watched top players from India, Pakistan, Canada, England and the United States. The next edition was in Surrey, British Columbia, which hosts the first all-kabaddi stadium. www.kabaddi.org - Home of Kabaddi India has remained world champion since it was included in Asian Games and South Asian Federation games. In 2008 Sukhbir Singh Badal mooted a professional world kabbadi league with sponsorship to attract the best players; this league will be based in India with tournaments in Canada as well. The current Kabaddi Championship team consists of several local Indian players, Himanshu Batta, Ravi Venkataya, Harman Dhaliwal, Kapil Singh and Mayank Gauri. Kabaddi is now a very popular game and is a regular sport in Asian Games, Asian Indoor Games and Asian Beach Games apart from SAF Games. Kabaddi will be a demonstration sport during Commonwealth Games 2010 at New Delhi. Skills Holding breath Raid Dodging Movement of hand and foot Formation Safe Raid Holding Kick Side Kick Front Kick Round Kick Sitting Kick Offensive Skills Starting a Raid Body Position during Raid Movements during Raid Penetration Touching with the hand Vertical swing of arms Horizontal swing of arms Defensive Skills Wrist catch or Lock Crocodile Hold Over the shoulder catch Ankle catch and lock References See also Harjit Brar Bajakhana - Considered the greatest player of his era. Kho kho Kusti Tag Okkadu, Kabaddi Kabaddi - Tollywood films focusing mainly on Kabaddi. Ghilli - a Kollywood film focusing mainly on Kabaddi. Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu film focusing on Kabbadi in Kollywood External links Kabaddi Blog Official web site of International Kabaddi Federation Official web site of Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation Kabaddi page on cash81 A site featuring the circle kabaddi style Harjit Brar Bajakhana video Harjit Brar Bajakhana tribute video by Aman Hayer, Nirmal Sidhu & G-Money Harjit Brar Bajakhana India vs. Pakistan in Kabbadi (Part 1) featuring Harjit Brar Bajakhana India vs. Pakistan in Kabbadi (Part 2) featuring Harjit Brar Bajakhana India vs. Pakistan in Kabbadi (Part 3) featuring Harjit Brar Bajakhana Women's Kabbadi Southampton Kabaddi Association Kabaddi at the Olympic Games Kabaddi Malaysia | Kabaddi |@lemmatized kabbadi:8 match:5 progress:1 kabaddi:55 sometimes:2 write:1 kabadi:2 team:31 sport:6 originally:1 indian:4 subcontinent:1 two:6 occupy:2 opposite:5 half:9 field:8 take:5 turn:2 send:6 raider:14 order:1 win:5 point:16 tag:5 wrestle:2 member:8 oppose:3 try:2 return:6 hold:8 breath:5 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7,662 | Opel | Adam Opel GmbH (commonly known as Opel) is a German automaker. The company was founded on 21 January, 1863, and began making automobiles in 1899. Opel was acquired by General Motors Corporation in 1929 and continues as a subsidiary. "1929, Adam Opel Corporation Joins the GM Family" in GM Media Online Opel International. As part of GM Europe, Opel is GM's largest European brand and, along with Vauxhall Motors in the , it forms GM's core European business. "About GM Europe" in General Motors - GM Europe - Company Overview. On May 30, 2009, it was announced that a deal had been reached to transfer GM's Opel and Vauxhall assets to a separate company majority-owned by a consortium led by Magna International (20%) and Sberbank of Russia (35%). GM is expected to keep a 35 % minority stake in the new company. http://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/opelkonzept102.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8074924.stm History The company was founded on 21 January, 1863 by Adam Opel, and at first made household goods and became a major producer of sewing machines. The founder died in 1895, with his company the leader in European sewing machines sales and producing over 2,000 bicycles yearly. The first cars were produced in 1898 having bought the rights to the Lutzmann and sold then as Opel-Lutzmann. However, two years later, following the dissolution of the partnership, Opel's son signed a licensing agreement with the French Automobiles Darracq S.A. to manufacture vehicles under the brand name "Opel-Darracq". The vehicles were Opel bodies mounted on a Darracq chassis, powered by a 2-cylinder engine. In 1906 they started to make cars to their own design which they had first shown in 1902 at the Hamburg Motor Show and from 1907 stopped making the Opel-Darracqs. In 1911 the factory was virtually destroyed by fire and a new one was built with more up to date machinery and the manufacture of sewing machines dropped. Production now consisted of bicycles, cars and motorcycles. By 1913 they were the largest car maker in Germany. In March 1929 General Motors bought 80% of the company; increasing this to 100% in 1931. The Opel family gained $33.3 million from the transaction. Timeline 1862 – Adam Opel begins building and selling sewing-machines. 1863 – Opel established as a full-fledged business; hires its first employees. 1886 – Bicycle production started; Opel eventually becomes Europe's largest bicycle maker. 1899 – Opel introduces its first automobile (the "Patent Motor Car") and its first utility vehicle. 1902 – Designs first shown at the Hamburg Motor Show. 1907 – Opel-Darracq shuts down. 1911 – Fire destroys much of the Rüsselsheim factory. Sewing-machine production ends with the one-millionth unit. 1913 – Opel is the largest automobile company in Germany. 1924 – Installation by Opel in Rüsselsheim of Germany's first car production line. 1929 – General Motors, impressed by Opel's modern production facilities, buys 80% of the company in March. 1929 – Fritz von Opel flies the first manned rocket (a rocketplane). 1931 – General Motors increases ownership to 100%. 1937 – Bicycle production ends. 1938 – GM Vice President James D. Mooney is decorated with the Order of the German Eagle by Adolf Hitler, rewarding his merits for the Wehrmacht. 1940 – Nazi regime seizes control of Opel factories, ends all civilian production. 1942 – General Motors writes off Opel as a complete loss. 1944 – Rüsselsheim and Brandenburg plants badly damaged by Allied bombing. 1945 – Soviets seize Kadett production assets as war reparations. 1946 – First post-war 'Blitz' truck built. 1947 – Passenger car production resumes with the Olympia model. 1948 – General Motors reasserts control over surviving Opel assets. 1968 – Opel GT introduced. 1971 – Opel launched in Asia. 1989 – Opel Calibra introduced. 1994 – Opel Tigra introduced. 2005 – Started cooperation with Saturn Corporation. 2006 – Opel Japan shuts down in December. 2009 – A deal is announced which will lead to the spin-off of the Opel and Vauxhall brands into a new company majority-owned by Magna International http://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/opelkonzept102.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8074924.stm Opel worldwide Many cars sold by General Motors worldwide are Opel designs, including such models as the Corsa, Astra, Vectra and Omega. Opel models are also sold under other GM brand names, such as Vauxhall in the UK, Holden in Australia and New Zealand, Saturn or Pontiac in North America, and Chevrolet in Latin America. Its Zafira people carrier was sold in Japan badged as a Subaru Traviq, while the Omega was sold in the US as the Cadillac Catera for model years 1997 to 2001. Other models sold in the US, but slightly modified, include the Saturn L-Series, Chevrolet Malibu and Cobalt. The majority of future Saturn models are expected to be either identical to (like the Saturn Astra and Sky) or closely based on (like the Aura and 2008 Saturn Vue) European Opels. The Pontiac LeMans (1989-1994) – the first car produced by Daewoo in South Korea for export to North America – was based on the Opel Kadett E (now Astra). Opels appeared under their own name in the USA from 1958 to 1975, when they were sold through Buick dealers as captive imports. The best-selling Opel models in the US were the 1964-1972 Opel Kadett, the 1971-1975 Opel Manta, and the now-classic 1968-1973 Opel GT. Opel Club Opel GT (The name "Opel" was also applied from 1976 to 1980 on vehicles manufactured by Isuzu (similar to the "Isuzu I-mark"), but mechanically those were entirely different cars). Opel was long General Motors' strongest marque in Japan, with sales peaking at 38,000 in 1996. However, the brand has diminished in the decade since, and was withdrawn at the end of 2006 with just 1,800 sales there in 2005. In some markets outside Europe, the Opel brand name has been used on other GM products, for example, the Chevrolet Blazer was sold in Indonesia as the Opel Blazer, while in the mid-1990s, a version of the Holden Commodore was sold as the Opel Calais in Malaysia and Singapore. Opel in Europe Opel is the main GM brand name Europe except in the UK, where GM's other European subsidiary, Vauxhall Motors, still uses its own "Vauxhall" brand name. Vauxhall's models were its models, with the exception of 'Kadett' which was replaced by Astra, already used by Vauxhall, in 1991. In other right hand drive markets in Europe like Ireland, Cyprus and Malta, the main GM brand name is now Opel, and for many years, Opel's Ireland brand sponsored the Republic's football team, using the slogan Ireland's Number One Supporter. However, many Vauxhall cars, imported second hand from the UK, are still sold in Ireland as a parallel import. Opel was also the main sponsor of FC Bayern München for some times, not only a club with a high profile but also an important marketing ploy for the company in the heartland of BMW - indeed, the Olympiastadion is directly overlooked by the BMW headquarters. Some have suggested that the Vauxhall name should be dropped in the UK in favour of Opel, thereby harmonising GM's marketing strategy across Europe. However, Vauxhall has rejected this, on the grounds that its brand is well known, and in the eighties, there was a preference among fleet buyers (the main customer base at the time) for the Vauxhall brand. Opel also provides design and engineering to the American Saturn marque, similar to the Vauxhall situation in the UK. An Opel Factory in Bochum The company headquarters are located in Rüsselsheim, and it has plants in Bochum, Eisenach, and Kaiserslautern, as well as in Belgium, Spain, Poland, and Hungary. Opel cars are also made in Vauxhall's Ellesmere Port plant in the United Kingdom. In October 2004 employees went on strike for six days due to the threat of 12,000 job losses. The threat was due to the unprofitable European markets because of low customer demand. The strike had a major impact on production. In 2005, the new Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid appeared. In 2006, the Azambuja, Portugal factory shut down and the production of the Opel Combo transferred to Zaragoza, Spain. The move prompted a national boycott and caused the Portuguese Government to sue General Motors. General Motors announced in April 2008 that they would invest €9 billion by 2012 in a bid to stop the market share erosion of the Opel brand in Europe. Approximately €6.5 billion is to be dedicated for the development of new models and engines, with the plants in Rüsselsheim, Bochum, and Kaiserslautern slated to be modernized. "GM Europe Plans EUR9 Billion Invest Into Opel By 2012" in CNNMoney.com, April 30, 2008. On November 17, 2008 Opel announced that they were seeking a €1 billion credit guarantee from the German government to help the Opel subsidiary if the parent GM doesn't make it through the credit crisis. The news comes as GM faces possible bankruptcy. "GM asks Germany for €1 billion credit guarantee" in "International Herald Tribune", November 17, 2008. The German government will most probably decline any guarantees due to the fact that the money could be transferred into the US, instead of being used for the Opel subsidiary. On May 30, 2009 a memmorandum of understanding was signed outlining a plan for the future ownership of the Opel & Vauxhall assets of GM. These are to be transferred to a new company which will be jointly owned by Magna International (20 %), Sberbank (35 %) and GM (35 %). The remaining 10 % are to be held by Opel staff. http://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/opelmagnatreuhand100.html Opel logo The lightning bolt on the Opel badging is a reference to the famous Opel Blitz truck (the German word 'Blitz' means lightning or flash). The logo was originally a Zeppelin, which became more stylized, and as the Zeppelin became less popular as a form of transport, the logo was changed. There is also a noticeable similarity between the winged Zeppelin and the lightning logo. "Opel Logo" in Cartype Starting with the Opel Insignia, the Blitz logo will be updated. The border that is circling the lightning bolt will be wider to incorporate the Opel name, and the surfaces will be more spherical to give the logo a three-dimensional look. Gallery Current model range Opel Agila Opel Corsa Opel Meriva Opel Astra Opel Tigra Opel Antara Opel Zafira Opel GT Opel Insignia Opel Combo Opel Vivaro Opel Movano Gallery See also Vauxhall Motors Easytronic List of German cars OnStar Notes External links Opel.com Opel corporate website Vauxhall UK - Vauxhall.co.uk Opel.de Opel Germany Opel Team Bosnia & Herzegovina Opel Opel Cars Opel part number database Opel in Thailand ClubeOpel Portugal be-x-old:Opel | Opel |@lemmatized adam:4 opel:95 gmbh:1 commonly:1 know:2 german:6 automaker:1 company:13 found:2 january:2 begin:2 make:6 automobile:4 acquire:1 general:11 motor:17 corporation:3 continue:1 subsidiary:4 join:1 gm:22 family:2 medium:1 online:1 international:5 part:2 europe:11 large:4 european:6 brand:13 along:1 vauxhall:18 form:2 core:1 business:4 overview:1 may:2 announce:4 deal:2 reach:1 transfer:4 asset:4 separate:1 majority:3 consortium:1 lead:2 magna:3 sberbank:2 russia:1 expect:2 keep:1 minority:1 stake:1 new:7 http:5 www:3 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7,663 | Geyser | Strokkur geyser, Iceland Steam phase eruption of Castle Geyser demonstrates primary and secondary rainbows and Alexander's band in Yellowstone National Park A geyser is a hot spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam). The name geyser comes from Geysir, the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, in turn, comes from the Icelandic verb gjósa, "to gush". The formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions, which exist in only a few places on Earth, and so they are a fairly rare phenomenon. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around where it meets up with hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent. About a thousand known geysers exist worldwide, roughly half of which are in Yellowstone National Park, United States. A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention. Bryan, T.S. 1995 Erupting fountains of liquefied nitrogen have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton, as have possible signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from Mars' south polar ice cap. These phenomena are also often referred to as geysers. Instead of being driven by geothermal energy, they seem to rely on solar heating aided by a kind of solid-state greenhouse effect. On Triton, the nitrogen may erupt to heights of . Form and function Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park Geysers are temporary geological features. The life span of a geyser is, at the most, only a few thousand years. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas. How geysers form Gregory L. As the water boils, the resultant pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain. Intense heat The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that is near the surface of the earth. The fact that they need heat much higher than normally found near the earth's surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where the water is heated makes the boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures. Water The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the earth's crust. A plumbing system In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults. The plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes cavities. Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption. Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser hole. Eruptions Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. The geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water. Lee Krystek Weird Geology: Geysers unmuseum.org Retrieved on 2008-03-28 1. Steam rises from heated water2. Pulses of water swell upward3. Surface is broken4. Ejected water spouts upward and falls back As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point. The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite. Geyserite is mostly silicon dioxide (SiO2), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields. Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours. General categorization There are two types of geysers: fountain geysers which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. Grand Geyser, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geys 1. Fountain geyser (erupting from the pool) 2. Old Faithful geyser (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in Yellowstone National Park erupts approximately every 91 minutes The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few with geysers. This is because in most places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers. Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems. Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist; as mentioned in the previous section. Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can "die". Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactants to the water. Biology of geysers Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot habitats) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes. No known eukaryote can survive over . Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171-185 In the 1960s, when the research of biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around —the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around . However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria prefer even temperatures higher than boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are known nowadays. Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; Extremophiles atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01 Thermophiles prefer temperatures from to whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as to . As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology, Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, 65(1), 1-34. for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies, both inside and outside of solar system. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus. Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase University of Delaware, Retrieved on 2008-03-29 Major geyser fields and their distribution Distribution of major geysers in the world. Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. The combination exists in few places on Earth. Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995 Glennon, J Allan"World Geyser Fields" Retrieved on 2008-04-04 Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in Wyoming, USA, with small portions in Montana and Idaho, USA. "Yellowstone geysers" nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20 Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin), as well as the renowned Old Faithful Geyser, Beehive Geyser, Giantess Geyser, Lion Geyser, Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, Castle Geyser, Sawmill Geyser, Grand Geyser, Oblong Geyser, Giant Geyser, Daisy Geyser, Grotto Geyser, Fan & Mortar Geysers, & Riverside Geyser, all in the Upper Geyser Basin which alone contains nearly 180 geysers. Dolina Geiserov Dolina Geiserov is one of the geysers in the Valley of Geysers in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia. The area was discovered and explored by T.I. Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to vigorous volcanic activity. The peculiar way of eruptions are an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields. On June 3 2007 a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley. It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley. Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active. El Tatio A geyser bubbling at El Tatio geyser field The name "El Tatio" roughly translates as "the grandfather". El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active Volcanoes in Chile, South America at around above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, tallest being only high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003) Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island. It is long by wide and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ( beyond White Island) is considered its northeastern limit. Gamble, J. A., I. C. Wright and J. A. Baker (1993). "Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand" New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 36, 417-435. Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach and some superbursts are known to have reached . Recent scientific work indicates that the earth's crust below the zone may be as little as thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma wide and long. Central North Island sitting on magma film Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16 Iceland Eruption of White Dome Geyser in Yellowstone Iceland is an island country off the western coast of Europe in the Atlantic Ocean. Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island. Many of the geysers are located in Haukadalur. Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. The "Great Geysir", which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word "geyser". It used to erupt every 60 minutes until the early 1900s when it became dormant. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant and it now erupts approximately every 8 to 10 hours and may reach up to . Gardner Servian, Solveig"Geysers of Iceland" Retrieved on 2008-04-16 Extinct/Dormant geyser fields There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained. Many of New Zealand’s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua. "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village" Retrieved 2008-04-04 Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupo Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886. Misnamed geysers thumb| thumbtime=76 | Cold-water geyser Brubbel (Germany) There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers not only differ in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt. Such geysers are not true geysers but are yet referred as one as they all emit water under pressure. Artificial geysers In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. Even though the vents of such geysers are artificial, it is tapped into a natural hydrothermal system. Though these are so-called artificial geysers, technically known as erupting geothermal wells, are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is probably an example of it. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 1800s. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book A Guide to Geyser Gazing (1976 p.49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had actually "simply opened up a dead geyser". Jones, Wyoming "Old Faithful Geyser of California" WyoJones' Geyser Pages Retrieved on 2008-03-31 Cold-water geysers Cold-water geysers' eruption is similar to their hot water counterparts, except that CO2 bubbles drive the eruption instead of steam. In cold-water geysers, CO2-laden water lies in a confined aquifer, in which water and CO2 are trapped by less permeable overlying strata. This water and CO2 can escape this strata only in weak regions like faults, joints, or drilled wells. A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO2 to reach the surface. The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on various factors such as plumbing depth, CO2 concentrations, aquifer yield etc. The column of water exerts enough pressure on the gaseous CO2 so that it remains in the water in small bubbles. When the pressure decreases due to formation of a fissure, the CO2 bubbles expand. This expansion displaces the water and causes the eruption.The appearance of cold-water geysers may be quite similar to their steam-driven counterparts; however, often CO2-laden water is more white and frothy. Glennon, J. Alan"Carbon-Dioxide-Driven, Cold-Water Geysers" Retrieved on 2008-04-01 The best known of these is probably Crystal Geyser, near Green River, Utah.. Glennon, J.A. 2005; Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff, R.M. 2005 There are also two cold-water geysers in Germany, Brubbel and Geysir Andernach, and one in Slovakia, Herlany. Perpetual spouter This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers. WyoJones"Thermal Feature Definitions" WyoJones Retrieved on 2008-04-03 Commercial uses of geysers The geyser Strokkur in Iceland; as a tourist spot. Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating and tourism. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Geysers and Energy american.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-12 Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area (KGRA) through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program. The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development. Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12 Nitrogen geysers on Triton One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 was the discovery of geysers on its moon, Triton. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface,and depositing material up to 150 km downstream., Dark streaks deposited by geysers on Triton All the geysers observed were located between 50° and 57°S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, probably plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-transparent layer of frozen nitrogen white in colour, which creates a kind of greenhouse effect, heating the frozen material beneath it until it breaks the surface in an eruption. A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed. But more likely these eruptions are caused by tidal forces. Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology"Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton" Harvard Retrieved 2008-04-08 Geothermal energy may also be important. Unusually for a major satellite, Triton orbits Neptune in a retrograde orbit—that is, in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation. This generates tidal forces which are causing Triton's orbit to decay, so that in several billion years' time it will reach its Roche limit "Roche Limit"Harvard Retrieved 2008-04-08 with Neptune. The tidal forces may also generate heat inside Triton, in the same way as Jupiter's gravity generates tidal forces on Io which drive its extreme volcanic activity. Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, and during this time about of material may be deposited downwind. Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity. See also Mud pot Notes References Bryan, T. Scott (1995). The geysers of Yellowstone. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 0-87081-365-X Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2003). The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile, Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78. Glennon, J.A. (2005). Carbon Dioxide-Driven, Cold Water Geysers, University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted February 12, 2004, last update 6 May 2005. Accessed 8 June 2007. Glennon, J.A. (2007). About Geysers, University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007. Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2005). The operation and geography of carbon-dioxide-driven, cold-water geysers, GOSA Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 184–192. Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system, in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790. Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p. Schreier, Carl (2003). Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide) (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. ISBN 0-943972-09-4 Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes — Discovery and basic characterization. Science 250: 410-415. Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park, Publ. 466. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 525 p. Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland, Publ. 587. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 174 p. Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses. Jour. Geophys. Res. 77, 342-350. Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) 18.6-year tide regulates geyser activity. Science 177, 346-347. Rhinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p. Silver, Paul G. and Valette-Silver, Nathalie J. (1992) Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes. Science 257, 1363-1368. White, D.E. (1967) Some principles of geyser activity mainly from Steamboat, Nevada. Amer. Jour. Sci. 265, 641-684. M.K. Bhat. Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology. Biotechnology Advances. 2000, 18, 355-383. Haki, G.D.; Rakshit, S.K. Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: a review. Bioresource Review. 2003, 89, 17-34. Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, 65(1), 1-34. Schiraldi, C.; De Rosa,M. The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles. Trends in Biotechnology. 2002, 20(12), 515-521. Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1996, 62(8), 3047-3049. Crennell, S.J.; Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Karisson, E.N. The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase, at 1.8Å Resolution. J. Mol. Biol. 2002, 320, 883-897. Hirvonen, M.; Papageorgiou, A.C. Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanases from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanist Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms. J. Mol. Biol. 2003, 329, 403-410. Iogen doubles EcoEthanol Capacity. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, 2003). Pelach, M.A.; Pastor, F.J.; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutje, P. Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase. Process Biochemistry. 2003, 38, 1063-1067. Dienes, D.; Egyhazi, A.; Reczey, K. Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases. Industrial Crops and Products. 2004, article in press. Csiszar, E.; Losonczi, A. Szakacs, G. Rusznak, I.; Bezur, L.; Reicher, J. Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment. Journal of Biotechnology. 2001, 89, 271-279. Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981), 26. Harsh K. Gupta, Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1980), 186. The Earth Explored: Geothermal Energy, 19857 videocassette. Brimner, Larry Dane. Geysers. New York: Children's Press, 2000. Downs, Sandra. Earth's Fiery Fury. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2000. Gallant, Roy A. Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, 1997. External links Geysers and How They Work by Yellowstone National Park Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions About Geysers by Alan Glennon Cold Water Geysers by Alan Glennon Geysers, The UnMuseum Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources The Geology of the Icelandic geysers by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems by Meg Streepey | Geyser |@lemmatized strokkur:3 geyser:190 iceland:12 steam:12 phase:2 eruption:24 castle:2 demonstrate:1 primary:1 secondary:1 rainbow:1 alexander:1 band:1 yellowstone:17 national:10 park:10 hot:20 spring:15 characterize:1 intermittent:1 discharge:1 water:61 eject:2 turbulently:1 accompany:1 vapour:1 name:4 come:3 geysir:4 erupt:18 haukadalur:2 turn:1 icelandic:2 verb:1 gjósa:1 gush:1 formation:4 due:7 particular:1 hydrogeological:1 condition:5 exist:11 place:6 earth:13 fairly:1 rare:2 phenomenon:4 generally:5 field:18 site:1 locate:6 near:5 active:4 volcanic:12 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7,664 | European_Union | The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states, located primarily in Europe. It was established by the Treaty of Maastricht on 1 November 1993, upon the foundations of the pre-existing European Economic Community. With a population of almost 500 million, the EU generates an estimated 30% share (US$18.4 trillion in 2008) of the nominal gross world product. The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states, ensuring the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital. It maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development. A common currency, the euro, has been adopted by sixteen member states constituting the Eurozone. The EU has developed a limited role in foreign policy, having representation at the WTO, G8 summits, and at the UN. It enacts legislation in justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passport controls between many member states which form part of the Schengen Area. Twenty-one EU countries are members of NATO. The EU operates through a hybrid system of intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. In certain areas it depends upon agreement between the member states, in others, supranational bodies are able to make decisions without unanimity. Important institutions and bodies of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected every five years by member states' citizens, to whom the citizenship of the European Union is guaranteed. The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community formed among six countries in 1951 and the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since then the union has grown in size through the accession of new countries, and new policy areas have been added to the remit of the EU's institutions. History After the end of the Second World War, moves towards European integration were seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent. One such attempt to unite Europeans was the European Coal and Steel Community which, while having the modest aim of centralised control of the previously national coal and steel industries of its member states, was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe". The founding members of the Community were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany, led by Konrad Adenauer, Sir Winston Churchill, Alcide de Gasperi, Walter Hallstein, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, Paul Henri Spaak, and Altiero Spinelli. Two additional communities were created in 1957: the European Economic Community (EEC) establishing a customs union and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear energy. In 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities, although more commonly just as the European Community (EC). In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Norway had negotiated to join at the same time but a referendum rejected membership and so it remained outside. In 1979 the first direct, democratic elections to the European Parliament were held. Greece joined in 1981, and Spain and Portugal in 1986. In 1985 the Schengen Agreement created largely open borders without passport controls between most member states. In 1986 the European flag began to be used by the Community and the Single European Act was signed. The Iron Curtain's fall enabled eastward enlargement. (Berlin Wall) In 1990, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a newly united Germany. With enlargement toward East-Central Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the European Union were agreed. The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993, ; and in 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the newly established EU. In 2002, euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass sixteen countries, with Slovakia joining the eurozone on 1 January 2009. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Malta, Cyprus, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary joined the Union. On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria became the EU's newest members and Slovenia adopted the euro. In December of that year European leaders signed the Lisbon Treaty which was intended to replace the earlier, failed European Constitution, which never came into force after being rejected by French and Dutch voters. However, uncertainty clouds the prospects of the Lisbon Treaty's coming into force as result of its rejection by Irish voters in June 2008. Treaties timeline Member states The European Union is composed of 27 independent sovereign states which are known as member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. There are three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey. The western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates. Kosovo is also listed by the European Commission as a potential candidate but the Commission does not list it as an independent country because not all member states recognise it as an independent country, separate from Serbia. To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy which respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council. The current framework does not specify how a country could exit the Union (although Greenland, a Territory of Denmark, withdrew in 1985), but the proposed Treaty of Lisbon contains a formal procedure for withdrawing. Four Western European countries that have chosen not to join the EU have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland has similar ties through bilateral treaties. The relationships of the European microstates: Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation. Geography Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU. The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with some exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as parts of the continent are outside the EU, such as Iceland, Switzerland, Norway, and European Russia. Some parts of member states are not part of the EU, despite forming part of the European continent (for example the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands). The island country of Cyprus, a member of the EU, is approximate to Turkey – specifically, Anatolia (Asia Minor) – and often considered part of Asia. UN National Geographic Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom). Some overseas territories are part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Western part of the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, Lampedusa and Lampione, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy, Martinique and Réunion (these last six regions have the status of Outermost Regions of the EU), Ceuta, Melilla and Saint Pierre and Miquelon. As well, although being technically part of the EU , EU law is suspended in Northern Cyprus as it is under the de facto control of the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, a self-proclaimed state that is only recognised by Turkey. The EU's climate is influenced by its 65,993 km coastline. (Crete) The EU's member states cover a combined area of . Figure including the four French overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion) which are an integral part of the EU, but excluding the French overseas collectivities and territories, which are not part of the EU. The total territory of the EU is larger than all but six countries and its highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, above sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is long. The EU has the world's second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states share land borders with 21 non-member states for a total of , the fifth longest border in the world. Including the overseas territories of member states, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. In practice, the majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Eastern Europe). Governance The EU is often described as being divided into three areas of responsibility, called pillars. The original European Community policies form the first pillar, while the second consists of Common Foreign and Security Policy. The third pillar originally consisted of Justice and Home Affairs, however owing to changes introduced by the Amsterdam and Nice treaties, it currently consists of Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters. Broadly speaking, the second and third pillars can be described as the intergovernmental pillars because the supranational institutions of the Commission, Parliament and the Court of Justice play less of a role or none at all, while the lead is taken by the intergovernmental Council of Ministers and the European Council. Most activities of the EU come under the first, Community pillar. This is mostly an economically oriented pillar and is where the supranational institutions have the most influence. Commission President José Manuel Barroso The activities of the EU are regulated by a number of institutions and bodies. They carry out the tasks and policies set out for them in the treaties. The EU receives its political leadership from the European Council, which is composed of one representative per member state — either its head of state or head of government — plus the President of the Commission. Each member state's representative is assisted by its Foreign Minister. The Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes which have arisen between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. The Council is headed by a rotating presidency, with every member state taking the helm of the EU for a period of six months during which that country's representatives chair meetings of the European Council and the Council of Ministers. The member state holding the presidency typically uses it to drive a particular policy agenda such as economic reform, reform of the EU itself, enlargement or furthering European integration. The Council usually meet four times a year at European Summits. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent from the EU. Institutions The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. It is intended to act solely in the interest of the EU as a whole, as opposed to the Council which consists of leaders of member states who reflect national interests. The commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state. The President of the Commission and all the other commissioners are nominated by the Council. Appointment of the Commission President, and also the Commission in its entirety, have to be confirmed by Parliament. The European Parliament forms one half of the EU's legislature. The 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats. The Parliament and the Council form and pass legislation jointly, using co-decision, in certain areas of policy. This procedure will extend to many new areas under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon, and hence increase the power and relevance of the Parliament. The Parliament also has the power to reject or censure the Commission and the EU budget. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament and represents it externally. The president and vice presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years. The Council of the European Union (sometimes referred to as the Council of Ministers) forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member states and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different compositions, it is considered to be one single body. In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy. The judicial branch of the EU consists of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the Court of First Instance. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU. The Court of First Instance mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts, and the ECJ primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions and cases referred to it by the courts of member states. ; Decisions from the Court of First Instance can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law. Legal system The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties. These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants. According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in . See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5. Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions. According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 Oct. 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173. The ECJ in Luxembourg can judge member states over EU law. The main legislative acts of the EU come in three forms: Regulations, Directives and Decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures, See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981. and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions. Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states. To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 27 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115 When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against Member States. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular Member State. They are most often used in Competition Law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy. One of the complicating features of the EU's legal system is the multiplicity of legislative procedures used to enact legislation. The treaties micro-manage the EU's powers, indicating different ways of adopting legislation for different policy areas and for different areas within the same policy areas. For a good example of this see Title IV of Part Three of the Treaty of Rome, Council Decision (2004/927/EC) of 22 December 2004 providing for certain areas covered by Title IV of Part Three of the Treaty establishing the European Community to be governed by the procedure laid down in Article 251 of that Treaty and the Protocol on Article 67 of the Treaty establishing the European Community attached to the Nice Treaty. A common feature of the EU's legislative procedures, however, is that almost all legislation must be initiated by the Commission, rather than member states or European parliamentarians. See: European Union legislative procedure. The two most common procedures are co-decision, under which the European Parliament can veto proposed legislation, and consultation, under which Parliament is only permitted to give an opinion which can be ignored by European leaders. In most cases legislation must be agreed by the council. National courts within the Member States play a key role in the EU as enforcers of EU law, and a "spirit of cooperation" between EU and national courts is laid down in the Treaties. National courts can apply EU law in domestic cases, and if they require clarification on the interpretation or validity of any EU legislation related to the case it may make a reference for a preliminary ruling to the ECJ. The right to declare EU legislation invalid however is reserved to the EU courts. Justice and home affairs |The Schengen Area comprises most member states ensuring open borders. Over the years, the EU has developed a wide competence in the area of justice and home affairs. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces, Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors, and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities. The EU also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition, family law, asylum law, and criminal justice. Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination. Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2.12.2000, p. 16–22). Fundamental rights At present the EU does not have a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which its legal acts might be judged. However the European Court of Justice does give judgements on fundamental rights derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the Member States," Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel; Article 6(2) of the Maastrict Treaty (as amended). and may even invalidate EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to these fundamental rights. While the EU may be said to have an unwritten fundamental rights code, there have, nonetheless, been efforts to establish a written catalogue. In 2000 the EU drew up the Charter of Fundamental Rights. The Charter is not legally binding at present but would become so if the Lisbon Treaty comes into force. By virtue of Article 1(8) of the Lisbon Treaty Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership, It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria . It should be noted that this is a political and not a legal requirement for membership. the EU itself is not covered by the convention as it is neither a state The European Convention on Human Rights is currently only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention) , and only states may become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe) . nor has the competence to accede. Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR. Nonetheless the Court of Justice and European Court of Human Rights co-operate to ensure their case-law does not conflict. If the Lisbon Treaty comes into force the EU would be required to accede to the ECHR. By virtue of Article 1(8) of the Lisbon Treaty, however this will only become possible when Protocol 14 of the ECHR, which allows for EU accession to the ECHR, comes into force. Foreign relations Javier Solana is the EU's High Representative in foreign policy. Foreign policy cooperation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial Policy. Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty. The Maastricht Treaty gives the CFSP the aims of promoting both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole. This includes promoting international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The EU participates in all G8 summits. (Heiligendamm, Germany) The Amsterdam Treaty created the office of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (currently held by Javier Solana) to co-ordinate the EU's foreign policy. The High Representative, in conjunction with the current Presidency, speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy matters and can have the task of articulating ambiguous policy positions created by disagreements among member states. The Common Foreign and Security Policy requires unanimity among the now 27 member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP makes disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq, not uncommon. Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of former Communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe. This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power". Besides the CFSP, the Commission also has its own representation in international organisations. This is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works alongside the High Representative. In the UN, as an observer and working together, the EU has gained influence in areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field (see below). In the G8, the EU has rights of membership besides chairing/hosting summit meetings and is represented at meetings by the presidents of the Commission and the Council. In the World Trade Organisation (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Catherine Ashton. Military and Defence Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence. Many EU members are also members of NATO although some member states follow policies of neutrality. The Western European Union (WEU) is a European security organisation related to the EU. In 1992, the WEU's relationship with the EU was defined, when the EU assigned it the "Petersberg tasks" (humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management). These tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty and now form part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU are currently being merged into the Common Foreign and Security Policy, and the President of the WEU is currently the EU's foreign policy chief. CFSP forces are peacekeeping in parts of the Balkans and Africa. Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 men. EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East. EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff. Humanitarian aid Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world. The European Community Humanitarian Aid Office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2006 its budget amounted to €671 million, 48% of which went to the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. Counting the EU's own contributions and those of its member states together, the EU is the largest aid donor in the world. The EU's aid has previously been criticised by the Eurosceptic think-tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives. Furthermore, some charities have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students, and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the EU as a whole did not reach its internal aid target in 2006 and is expected not to reach the international target of 0.7% of GNI until 2015. However, four countries have reached that target, most notably Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Denmark. In 2005 EU aid was 0.34% of the GNP which was higher than that of either the United States or Japan. The current commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles. Economy Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently, a single currency is in use between the 16 members of the eurozone. Considered as a single economy, the EU generated an estimated nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of US$18.39 trillion (15.247 trillion international dollars based on purchasing power parity) in 2008, amounting to over 22% of the world's total economic output in terms of purchasing power parity, which makes it the largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the second largest trade bloc economy in the world by PPP valuation of GDP. It is also the largest exporter of goods, the second largest importer, and the biggest trading partner to several large countries such as India and China. 170 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500) have their headquarters in the EU. In May 2007 unemployment in the EU stood at 7% while investment was at 21.4% of GDP, inflation at 2.2% and public deficit at -0.9% of GDP. There is a great deal of variance for annual per capita income within individual EU states, these range from US$7,000 to US$69,000. Single market EU member states have a standardised passport design with the words "European Union" given in the national language(s) at the top. Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently renamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU, and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they can not be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union. Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU. Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries. Until the drive towards Economic and Monetary Union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as that it is granted equally to non-member states. The free movement of persons means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states. The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for between sixty and seventy percent of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services. According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised. Monetary union The European Central Bank in Frankfurt governs the eurozone's monetary policy. The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the EU in 1969. However, it was only with the advent of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states were legally bound to start the monetary union no later than 1 January 1999. On this date the euro was duly launched by eleven of the then fifteen member states of the EU. It remained an accounting currency until 1 January 2002, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of twelve member states. The eurozone has since grown to sixteen countries, the most recent being Slovakia which joined on 1 January 2009. All other EU member states, except Denmark and the United Kingdom, are legally bound to join the euro when the economic conditions are met, however only a few countries have set target dates for accession. Sweden has circumvented the requirement to join the euro area by not meeting the membership criteria. The euro is designed to help build a single market by, for example: easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rate problems, providing price transparency, creating a single financial market, price stability and low interest rates, and providing a currency used internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the eurozone. It is also intended as a political symbol of integration and stimulus for more. The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB). There are eleven other currencies used in the EU. A number of other countries outside the EU, such as Montenegro, use the euro without formal agreement with the ECB. Competition The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market. Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid. The Competition Commissioner, currently Neelie Kroes, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations. For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority. Another high profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action. In negotiations on the Treaty of Lisbon, French President Nicolas Sarkozy succeeded in removing the words "free and undistorted competition" from the treaties. However, the requirement is maintained in an annex and it is unclear whether this will have any practical effect on EU policy. Budget |2006 EU total expenditure. The twenty-seven member state EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007-2013, representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the United Kingdom's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent €801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP. In the 2006 budget, the largest single expenditure item was agriculture with around 46.7% of the total budget. Next came structural and cohesion funds with approximately 30.4% of the total. Internal policies took up around 8.5%. Administration accounted for around 6.3%. External actions, the pre-accession strategy, compensations and reserves brought up the rear with approximately 4.9%, 2.1%, 1% and 0.1% respectively. Development Agriculture The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the oldest policies of the European Community, and was one of its core aims. The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers (article 33 of the Treaty of Rome). It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and still accounts for around 35%. EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure. (Vineyard in Spain) The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction, resulting in so-called butter mountains and wine lakes. These were intervention stores of produce bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. In order to dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their produce outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers in the developing world. The overproduction has also been criticised for encouraging environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods. Supporters of CAP say that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living, in what would otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. However, the EU's small farmers receive only 8% of CAP's available subsidies. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas (by the McSharry reforms in 1992) and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels, while maintaining agricultural income levels. One of these reforms entailed the abolition of the EU's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU. Energy EU energy production 46% of total EU primary energy useNuclear energy Note that although almost all Uranium is imported, Nuclear Power is considered primary energy produced in the EU 29.3%Coal & lignite21.9%Gas19.4%Renewable energy14.6%Oil13.4%Other1.4%Net imports of energy54% of total primary EU energy useOil & petroleum products60.2%Gas26.4%Other13.4% In 2006, the 27 member states of the EU had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe). Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported. In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3 percent is produced in the EU. Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas , and coal in this respect. The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007. The Commission has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing use of renewable energy; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies. The EU currently imports 82% of its oil, 57% of its gas and 97.48% of its uranium demands. There are concerns that the EU is largely dependent on other countries, primarily Russia, for its energy. This concern has grown following a series of clashes between Russia and its neighbours, threatening the flow of gas. As a result the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply. Infrastructure The Oresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of the Trans-European Networks. The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund Bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: of roads; of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours. The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda. The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition: at Poland's accession to the EU, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards, demanding approximately €17 billion. Another infrastructure project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), and is to be operational by 2010. The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for far greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system. It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and their perception of redundancy given the existence of the GPS system. Regional development EU funds finance infrastructure such as the motorway Prague-Berlin (D8/A17) pictured near Lovosice, Czech Republic There are substantial economical disparities across the EU. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUTS-2 and NUTS-3 of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) is about a factor of ten. On the high end Frankfurt has €71,476 PPP per capita, Paris €68,989, and Inner London €67,798, while the three poorest NUTS, all in Romania, are Vaslui County with €3,690 PPP per capita, Botoşani County with €4,115, and Giurgiu County with €4,277. Compared to the EU average, the United States GDP per capita is 35% higher and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher. There are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds to support development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the new member states of East-Central Europe. Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the former USSR Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. The EU Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) sponsors research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area. Environment The first environmental policy of the European Community was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water Framework Directive is an example of a water policy, aiming for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe. In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme. The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda valley in Poland. The REACH regulation was a piece of EU legislation designed to ensure that 30,000 chemicals in daily use are tested for their safety. In 2006, toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation regarding toxic waste. With members such as Spain now having criminal laws against shipping toxic waste, the Commission proposed to create criminal sentences for "ecological crimes". Although the Commission's right to propose criminal law was contested, it was confirmed in this case by the Court of Justice. In 2007, member states agreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in the future and that is has to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels. This includes measures that in 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 should be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves of an important industrialised region to fight global warming. At the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference, dealing with the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU has proposed at 50% cut in greenhouse gases by 2050. The EU's attempts to cut its carbon footprint appear to have also been aided by an expansion of Europe's forests which, between 1990 and 2005, grew 10% in western Europe and 15% in Eastern Europe. During this period they soaked up 126 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, equivalent to 11% of EU emissions from human activities. Education and research Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the FP7. Education and science are areas where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In education, the policy was mainly developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life. ; There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU. ; Through its support of the Bologna process the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe. 16 EU countries are a member of the European Space Agency. (Launch of an Ariane rocket in Guiana) Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects. The Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) deals in a number of areas, for example energy where it aims to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy for the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels. Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a more ambitious objective, known as the European Research Area, and has extensively funded research in a few key areas. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. It aims to focus on co-ordination, sharing knowledge, ensuring mobility of researchers around Europe, improving conditions for researchers and encouraging links with business and industry as well as removing any legal and administrative barriers. The EU is involved with six other countries to develop ITER, a fusion reactor which will be built in the EU at Cadarache. ITER builds on the previous project, Joint European Torus, which is currently the largest nuclear fusion reactor in the world. The Commission foresees this technology to be generating energy in the EU by 2050. It has observer status within CERN, there are various agreements with ESA and there is collaboration with ESO. These organisations are not under the framework of the EU, but membership heavily overlaps between them. Demographics + CityCity limits(2006)Density /km² (city limits)Density /sq mi (city limits) Urban area (2005)LUZ(2004) Berlin 3,410,000 3,8159,880 3,761,000 4,971,331 London 7,512,400 4,76112,330 9,332,000 11,917,000 Madrid 3,228,359 5,19813,460 4,990,000 5,804,829 Paris 2,153,60024,67263,900 9,928,000 11,089,124 Rome 2,708,395 2,1055,450 2,867,000 3,457,690 The combined population of all 27 member states has been estimated at 499,628,529 in January 2009, " The EU's population is 7.3% of the world total, yet the EU covers just 3% of the Earth's land, amounting to a population density of making the EU one of the most densely populated regions of the world. One third of EU citizens live in cities of over a million people, rising to 80% living in urban areas generally. The EU is home to more global cities than any other region in the world. It contains 16 cities with populations of over one million. Besides many large cities, the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas. The largest are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish diamond approx. 5.5 million (urban area in between Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven and Ghent), the Upper Silesian Industrial Region approx. 3.5 million (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.), and the Oresund Region approx. 2.5 million (Copenhagen, Denmark and Malmö, Sweden). Languages + European official languages report (in EU-25) Language Native Speakers TotalEnglish13%51%German18%32%French12%26%Italian13%16%Spanish9%15%Polish9%10%Dutch5%6%Greek3%3%Czech2%3%Swedish2%3%Hungarian2%2%Portuguese2%2%Catalan1%2%Slovak1%2%Danish1%1%Finnish1%1%Lithuanian1%1%Slovene1%1%Native: Native language Total: EU citizens able to conductconversation in this language Among the many languages and dialects used in the EU, it has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language. The European Parliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions. . Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working languages. Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages. German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 88.7 million people as of 2006), followed by English, Italian and French. English is by far the most spoken foreign language at over half (51%) of the population, with German and French following. 56% of European citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue. Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet. Besides the 23 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people. Of these, only the Spanish regional languages (Catalan/Valencian, Basque and Galician), Scottish Gaelic and Welsh can be used by citizens in communication with the main European institutions. Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages, the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. Besides the many regional languages, a broad variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in the member states: Turkish, Maghrebi Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, Punjabi and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual, being fluent in both the local (EU) language and in that of their ancestral community. Migrant languages have no formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although from 2007 they are eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. Religion The EU is a secular body with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty. Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped. Percentage of Europeans in each Member State who believe in "a God" Emphasis on Christianity stems from this being the dominant religion in Europe, and thus of the EU. It divides between Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodox (in south eastern Europe). Other religions such as Islam and Judaism are also represented in the EU population. The EU had an estimated Muslim population of 16 million in 2006, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million. Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls show that the majority of EU citizens have some form of belief system, with only 21% seeing it as important. Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years. The 2005 Eurobarometer showed that of the European citizens (of the 25 members at that time), 52% believed in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%), The most religious countries are Malta (95%; predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 with a basic education, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale (57%)." Other significant religions present in the EU territories are Buddhism, Sikhism and Hinduism with the latter two having a strong presence in the United Kingdom. UK 2001 census Culture Vilnius is one of the two European Capitals of Culture in 2009. Policies affecting cultural matters are mainly set by individual member states. Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty. Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-year programme, the European Cultural Month event, the Media Plus programme, orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra and the European Capital of Culture programme where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of that city. In addition, the EU gives grants to cultural projects (totalling 233 in 2004) and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means". Within the EU, politicians, such as the President of the European Parliament, appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, including Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Judeo-Christian heritage, and a tradition of modern freedom and democracy, but also negative elements such as the World wars. For example: Sport Spectator sports are popular in much of the EU. (Camp Nou, Barcelona) Sport is mainly the responsibility of individual member states or other international organisations rather than that of the EU. However, some EU policies have had an impact on sport, such as the free movement of workers which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship. Under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon sports would be given a special status which would exempt this sector from much of the EU's economic rules. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the applications of free market principles to sport which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs. Several European sports associations are consulted in the formulation of the EU's sports policy, including FIBA, UEFA, EHF, IIHF, FIRA and CEV. All EU member states and their respective national sport associations participate in European sport organisations such as UEFA. See also References Further reading External links Official EUROPA – official web portal EU Institutions Commission Council Court of Justice Parliament Agencies EUR-Lex – EU Laws EUtube Overviews and data European Community – OECD data European Union – CIA World Factbook entry European Navigator – Website on EU history The University of Pittsburgh Archive of European Integration Europe's Energy Portal European energy prices and statistics be-x-old:Эўрапейскі Зьвяз | European_Union |@lemmatized european:123 union:26 eu:214 economic:16 political:10 member:97 state:95 locate:2 primarily:5 europe:27 establish:14 treaty:45 maastricht:7 november:3 upon:2 foundation:1 pre:3 exist:3 community:38 population:11 almost:3 million:18 generate:3 estimated:3 share:5 u:5 trillion:3 nominal:3 gross:3 world:20 product:2 develop:11 single:21 market:24 standardised:2 system:16 law:22 apply:6 ensure:8 freedom:6 movement:7 people:6 good:10 service:8 capital:7 maintain:4 common:18 policy:55 trade:7 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7,665 | Digital_micromirror_device | DLP chip A digital micromirror device, or DMD, is an optical semiconductor that is the core of DLP projection technology, and was invented by Dr. Larry Hornbeck and Dr. William E. "Ed" Nelson of Texas Instruments (TI) in 1987. The DMD project began as the Deformable Mirror Device in 1977, using micromechanical, analog light modulators. The first analog DMD product was the TI DMD2000 airline ticket printer that used a DMD instead of a laser scanner. A DMD chip has on its surface several hundred thousand microscopic mirrors arranged in a rectangular array which correspond to the pixels in the image to be displayed. The mirrors can be individually rotated ±10-12°, to an on or off state. In the on state, light from the projector bulb is reflected into the lens making the pixel appear bright on the screen. In the off state, the light is directed elsewhere (usually onto a heatsink), making the pixel appear dark. To produce greyscales, the mirror is toggled on and off very quickly, and the ratio of on time to off time determines the shade produced (binary pulse-width modulation). Contemporary DMD chips can produce up to 1024 shades of gray. See DLP for discussion of how color images are produced in DMD-based systems. The mirrors themselves are made out of aluminium and are around 16 micrometres across. Each one is mounted on a yoke which in turn is connected to two support posts by compliant torsion hinges. In this type of hinge, the axle is fixed at both ends and literally twists in the middle. Because of the small scale, hinge fatigue is not a problem and tests have shown that even 1 trillion (1012) operations do not cause noticeable damage. Tests have also shown that the hinges cannot be damaged by normal shock and vibration, since it is absorbed by the DMD superstructure. Two pairs of electrodes control the position of the mirror by electrostatic attraction. Each pair has one electrode on each side of the hinge, with one of the pairs positioned to act on the yoke and the other acting directly on the mirror. The majority of the time, equal bias charges are applied to both sides simultaneously. Instead of flipping to a central position as one might expect, this actually holds the mirror in its current position. This is because attraction force on the side the mirror is already tilted towards is greater, since that side is closer to the electrodes. To move the mirrors, the required state is first loaded into an SRAM cell located beneath each pixel, which is also connected to the electrodes. Once all the SRAM cells have been loaded, the bias voltage is removed, allowing the charges from the SRAM cell to prevail, moving the mirror. When the bias is restored, the mirror is once again held in position, and the next required movement can be loaded into the memory cell. The bias system is used because it reduces the voltage levels required to address the pixels such that they can be driven directly from the SRAM cell, and also because the bias voltage can be removed at the same time for the whole chip, so every mirror moves at the same instant. The advantages of the latter are more accurate timing and a more filmic moving image. Applications Televisions and HDTVs Holographic Versatile Discs Head-mounted displays DLP projector, Digital Light Processing (DLP) External links DLP Demo DLP White Paper Library DMD Resource Emerging Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) Applications Schematic drawing of a DMD Reverse Engineering of a DMD | Digital_micromirror_device |@lemmatized dlp:7 chip:4 digital:3 micromirror:2 device:3 dmd:12 optical:1 semiconductor:1 core:1 projection:1 technology:1 invent:1 dr:2 larry:1 hornbeck:1 william:1 e:1 ed:1 nelson:1 texas:1 instrument:1 ti:2 project:1 begin:1 deformable:1 mirror:13 use:3 micromechanical:1 analog:2 light:4 modulators:1 first:2 product:1 airline:1 ticket:1 printer:1 instead:2 laser:1 scanner:1 surface:1 several:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 microscopic:1 arrange:1 rectangular:1 array:1 correspond:1 pixel:5 image:3 display:2 individually:1 rotate:1 state:4 projector:2 bulb:1 reflect:1 lens:1 make:3 appear:2 bright:1 screen:1 direct:1 elsewhere:1 usually:1 onto:1 heatsink:1 dark:1 produce:4 greyscales:1 toggle:1 quickly:1 ratio:1 time:4 determine:1 shade:2 binary:1 pulse:1 width:1 modulation:1 contemporary:1 gray:1 see:1 discussion:1 color:1 base:1 system:2 aluminium:1 around:1 micrometres:1 across:1 one:4 mount:2 yoke:2 turn:1 connect:2 two:2 support:1 post:1 compliant:1 torsion:1 hinge:5 type:1 axle:1 fix:1 end:1 literally:1 twist:1 middle:1 small:1 scale:1 fatigue:1 problem:1 test:2 show:2 even:1 trillion:1 operation:1 cause:1 noticeable:1 damage:2 also:3 cannot:1 normal:1 shock:1 vibration:1 since:2 absorb:1 superstructure:1 pair:3 electrode:4 control:1 position:5 electrostatic:1 attraction:2 side:4 act:2 directly:2 majority:1 equal:1 bias:5 charge:2 apply:1 simultaneously:1 flip:1 central:1 might:1 expect:1 actually:1 hold:2 current:1 force:1 already:1 tilted:1 towards:1 great:1 closer:1 move:3 required:2 load:3 sram:4 cell:5 locate:1 beneath:1 voltage:3 remove:2 allow:1 prevail:1 restore:1 next:1 movement:1 memory:1 reduce:1 level:1 require:1 address:1 drive:1 whole:1 every:1 instant:1 advantage:1 latter:1 accurate:1 timing:1 filmic:1 moving:1 application:2 television:1 hdtv:1 holographic:1 versatile:1 disc:1 head:1 processing:1 external:1 link:1 demo:1 white:1 paper:1 library:1 resource:1 emerge:1 schematic:1 drawing:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 |@bigram hundred_thousand:1 pulse_width:1 electrostatic_attraction:1 versatile_disc:1 dlp_projector:1 external_link:1 |
7,666 | Dundee | Dundee () () is the fourth-largest city in Scotland and, fully named as Dundee City, one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. It lies on the north bank of the Firth of Tay, which feeds into the North Sea. Dundee and the surrounding area has been continuously occupied since the Mesolithic. The port developed initially on the back of the wool trade exporting wool from the Angus hinterland. Once it was cheaper to produce linen, which had supplanted the wool trade and was itself under pressure from cotton abroad, the weavers turned their skills to weaving imported jute. The weaving industry caused the city to grow rapidly with many migrant workers though the town contained very few stone buildings prior to 1860. In this period, Dundee also gained a reputation for its marmalade industry and its journalism, giving Dundee its epithet as the city of "jam, jute and journalism". In 2006, the population of Dundee City was estimated to be 141,930. Dundee's recorded population reached a peak of 182,204 in the 1971 census, but has since declined due to outward migration. Today, Dundee is promoted as the City of Discovery, in honour of Dundee's history of scientific activities and of the RRS Discovery, Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic exploration vessel, which was built in Dundee and is now berthed in the city harbour. Biomedical and technological industries have arrived since the 1980s, and the city now accounts for 10% of the United Kingdom's digital-entertainment industry. Dundee has two universities—the University of Abertay Dundee and the University of Dundee. History Toponymy The name "Dundee" is of uncertain etymology. It incorporates the place-name element dùn, fort, present in both Gaelic and in Brythonic languages such as Pictish. The remainder of the name is less obvious. One possibility is that it comes from the gaelic 'Dèagh', meaning 'fire'. Another is that it derives from 'Tay', and it is in this form, 'Duntay' that the town is seen in Pont's map (c1583-1596). Another suggestion is that it is a personal name, referring to a local ruler named 'Daigh'. Folk etymology, repeated by Boece, claims that the name derives from the Latin Dei Donum 'Gift from God'. However, this is unlikely. Early history Dundee and its surrounding area have been continuously occupied since the Mesolithic. A kitchen midden of that date was unearthed during work on the harbour in 1879, and yielded flints, charcoal and a stone axe. A Neolithic cursus, with associated barrows has been identified at the north-western end of the city and nearby lies the Balgarthno stone circle. A lack of stratigraphy around the stone circle has left it difficult to determine a precise age, but it is thought to date from around the late Neolithic/early Bronze age. The circle has been subject to vandalism in the past and has recently been fenced off to protect it. Bronze Age finds are fairly abundant in Dundee and the surrounding area, particularly in the form of short cist burials. See for example: From the Iron age, perhaps the most prominent remains are of the Law Hill Fort, although domestic remains are also well represented. Near to Dundee can be found the well-characterised souterrains at Carlungie and Ardestie, which date from around the second century AD. Several brochs are also found in the area, including the ruins at Laws Hill near Monifieth, at Craighill and at Hurley Hawkin, near Liff. Early Middle Ages The early medieval history of the town relies heavily on tradition. In Pictish times, the part of Dundee that was later expanded into the Burghal town in the twelfth/thirteenth centuries was a minor settlement in the kingdom of Circinn, later known as Angus. An area roughly equivalent to the current urban area of Dundee is likely to have formed a demesne, centred on the Law Hillfort. Boece records the ancient name of the settlement as as Alectum. While there is evidence this name was being used to refer to the town in the 18th century, its early attribution should be treated with caution as Boece's reliability as a source is questionable. The Chronicle of Huntingdon (c1290) records a battle on the 20th July 834 AD between the Scots, led by Alpin (father of Kenneth MacAlpin), and the Picts, which supposedly took place at the former village of Pitalpin (NO 370 329). The battle was allegedly a decisive victory for the Picts, and Alpin is said to have been executed by beheading. This account, while perhaps appealing, should be treated with caution as the battle's historical authenticity is in doubt. High Middle Ages Tradition names Dundee as the location of a court palace of the House of Dunkeld. However, no physical trace of such a residence remains, and such notions are likely to have been due to a misinterpretation of the ancient name of Edinburgh, Dunedin. Dundee history as a major town dates to the charter in which King William granted the earldom of Dundee to his younger brother, David (later Earl of Huntingdon) in 1179-1182. Earl David is thought to have built Dundee Castle, which formerly occupied the site now occupied by St Pauls Cathedral. Dundee's position on the Tay, with its natural harbour between St Nicholas Craig and Stannergate (now obscured by development) made it an ideal location for a trading port, which led to a period of major growth in the town as Earl David promoted the town as a burgh. On David's death in 1219, the burgh passed first to his son, John. John died without issue in 1237 and the burgh was divided evenly between his three sisters, with the castle becoming the property of the eldest, Margaret and, subsequently, to her youngest daughter, Dervorguilla. Dervorguilla's portion of the burgh later passed to her eldest surviving son, John Balliol, and the town became a Royal Burgh on the coronation of John as king in 1292. At the outbreak of the First War of Independence in 1296, Edward I installed an English garrison at Dundee Castle. The castle retaken by seige by the forces of William Wallace in 1297, immediately prior to the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Dundee's burghal status renewed with a charter from Robert the Bruce in 1327. Early Modern Era The Wishart Arch is the only surviving part of the city walls Dundee became a walled city in 1545, owing to a period of hostilities known as the rough wooing. In July 1547, much of the city was destroyed by an English naval bombardment. In 1645, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Dundee was again besieged, this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose. In 1651 during the Third English Civil War, the city was attacked by Oliver Cromwell's Parliamentarian forces, led by George Monk. Much of the city was destroyed and many of its inhabitants killed. Dundee was later the site of an early Jacobite uprising when John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on Dundee Law in support of James VII (James II of England) following his overthrow, earning him the nickname Bonnie Dundee. Modern Era Dundee greatly expanded in size during the Industrial Revolution mainly because of the burgeoning British Empire trade,flax and then latterly the jute industry. By the end of the 19th century, a majority of the city's workers were employed in its many jute mills and in related industries. Dundee's location on a major estuary allowed for the easy importation of jute from the Indian subcontinent as well as whale oil—needed for the processing of the jute—from the city's large whaling industry. A substantial coastal marine trade also developed, with inshore shipping working between the city of Dundee and the port of London. The industry began to decline in the 20th century as it became cheaper to process the cloth on the Indian subcontinent. The city's last jute mill closed in the 1970s. The original Tay Bridge (from the south) the day after the disaster. The collapsed section can be seen near the northern end In addition to jute the city is also known for and journalism. The "jam" association refers to marmalade, which was purportedly invented in the city by Janet Keiller in 1797 (although in reality, recipes for marmalade have been found dating back to the 1500s). Keiller's marmalade became a famous brand because of its mass production and its worldwide export. The industry was never a major employer compared with the jute trade. Marmalade has since become the "preserve" of larger businesses, but jars of Keiller's marmalade are still widely available. "Journalism" refers to the publishing firm DC Thomson & Co., which was founded in the city in 1905 and remains the largest employer after the health and leisure industries. The firm publishes a variety of newspapers, children's comics and magazines, including The Sunday Post, The Courier, Shout and children's publications, The Beano and The Dandy. Dundee also developed a major maritime and shipbuilding industry in the 19th century. 2,000 ships were built in Dundee between 1871 and 1881, including the Antarctic research ship used by Robert Falcon Scott, the RRS Discovery. This ship is now on display at Discovery Point in the city, and the Victorian steel-framed works in which Discovery's engine was built is now home to the city's largest book shop. The need of the local jute industry for whale oil also supported a large whaling industry. Dundee Island in the Antarctic takes its name from the Dundee whaling expedition, which discovered it in 1892. Whaling ceased in 1912 and shipbuilding ceased in 1981. The estuary was the location of the first Tay rail bridge, built by Thomas Bouch and opened in 1879. At the time it was the longest railway bridge in the world. The bridge fell down in a storm less than a year later under the weight of a train full of passengers in what is known as the Tay Bridge disaster. None of the passengers survived. Governance City of Dundee Arms since 1996 Dundee became a unitary council area in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, which gave it a single tier of local government control under the Dundee City Council. The city has two mottos— () and Prudentia et Candore (With Thought And Purity), although usually only the latter is used for civic purposes. Dundee is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Scottish Parliament. For elections to the European Parliament, Dundee is within the Scotland constituency. Local government Dundee City Square. The building at the back of the square is Caird Hall. The building on the right is Dundee City Chambers, where the city council meets Dundee is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, represented by the Dundee City Council, a local authority composed of 29 elected councillors. Previously the city was a county of a city and later a district of the Tayside region. Council meetings take place in the City Chambers, which opened in 1933 and are located in City Square. The civic head and chair of the council is known as the Lord Provost, a position similar to that of mayor in other cities. The council executive is based in Tayside House, but the council recently announced plans to demolish it in favour of new premises (Dundee House) on North Lindsay Street. Prior to 1996, Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council. This was formed in 1975, implementing boundaries imposed in the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. Under these boundaries, the Angus burgh and district of Monifieth, and the Perth electoral division of Longforgan (which included Invergowrie) were annexed to the county of the city of Dundee. In 1996, the Dundee City unitary authority was created following impementation of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. This placed Monifieth and Invergowrie in the unitary authorities of Angus and Perth and Kinross, largely reinstating the pre-1975 county boundaries. Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes, with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie in order to subsidise Dundee City Council Tax revenues. The council was controlled by a minority coalition of Labour and Liberal Democrats of 12 councillors, with the support of the Conservatives who had five. Although the Scottish National Party (SNP) was the largest party on the council, with 11 councillors. Dundee City Council Political Make-up, Dundee City Council website Dundee Tory leader hits out at critic, Evening Telegraph (publisher DC Thomson), 28 February 2005 Elections to the council are on a four year cycle, the most recent as of 2007 being on 3 May 2007. Previously, Councillors were elected from single-member wards by the first past the post system of election, although this changed in the 2007 election, due to the Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004. Eight new multi-member wards were introduced, each electing three or four councillors by single transferable vote, to produce a form of proportional representation. The 2007 election resulting in no single party having overall control, with 13 Scottish National Party, 10 Labour, 3 Conservatives, 2 Liberal Democrats, and 1 Independent Councillors. A March 2009 by election in the Maryfield ward changed the balance to 14 Scottish National Party, 9 Labour, 3 Conservatives, 2 Liberal Democrats, and 1 Independent Councillors. http://www.eveningtelegraph.co.uk/output/2009/03/13/story12769982t0.shtm Westminster and Holyrood For elections to the British House of Commons at Westminster, the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided in two constituencies. Fifth Periodical Review of Constituencies, Boundary Commission for Scotland The constituencies of Dundee East and Dundee West are as of 2007 represented by Stewart Hosie (Scottish National Party (SNP)) and James McGovern (Labour), respectively. For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, the city area is divided between three constituencies. The Dundee East (Holyrood) constituency and the Dundee West (Holyrood) constituency are entirely within the city area. The Angus (Holyrood) constituency includes north-eastern and north-western portions of the city area. All three constituencies are within the North East Scotland electoral region. as of 2007 Shona Robison (SNP) is the Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Dundee East constituency; Joe Fitzpatrick (SNP) is the current MSP for the Dundee West constituency and Andrew Welsh (SNP) is the current MSP for the Angus constituency. Geography Dundee is located on the north bank of the Firth of Tay and near the North Sea. The city surrounds the basalt plug of an extinct volcano, called Dundee Law or simply The Law Hill (174 metres (571 ft)). Ordnance Survey, Explorer 380 map Dundee and Sidlaw Hills Dundee is Scotland's only south-facing city, giving it a claim to being Scotland's sunniest and warmest city. Temperatures tend to be a couple of degrees higher than Aberdeen to the north or the coastal areas of Angus. Dundee suffers less severe winters than other parts of Scotland due to the close proximity to the North sea and the salt air and a range of protective hills at the back of the city, which are often snow covered while the city itself remains clear. The city, being on a relatively small landspace, is the most densely populated area in Scotland after Glasgow and around fifth in the UK overall. It is characterised by tall tenements, mainly four storeys high, Victorian, and built from a honey or brown sandstone. The inner districts of the city, as well as some of the outer estates, are home to a number of multi storey tower blocks from the 1960s, although these have been gradually being demolished in recent years. The outer estates are among some of the poorest urban districts in the United Kingdom. To the east of the city area is the distinct but incorporated suburb of Broughty Ferry. Dundee lies close to Perth (20 miles) and the southern Highlands to the west. St Andrews (14 miles) and north-east Fife are situated to the south, while the Sidlaw Hills, Angus Glens and the Glamis Castle are located to the north. Two of Scotland's most prestigious links golf courses, St Andrews and Carnoustie are located nearby. Demography Natives of Dundee are called Dundonians and are often recognisable by their distinctive dialect of Scots as well as their accent, which most noticeably substitutes the monophthong /e/ in place of the diphthong /ai/. A significant proportion of the population are on a lower than average income or receive social security benefits. More than half of the city's council wards are among Scotland's most deprived and fewer than half of the homes in Dundee are owner-occupied, a slight majority being owned by housing associations and the council, although it does rank higher than Glasgow. For all its social problems, neither do Dundonians die as early as Glaswegians. Dundee's population increased substantially with the urbanisation of the Industrial Revolution as did other British cities. The most significant influx occurred in the mid-1800s with the arrival of Irish workers fleeing from the Potato Famine and attracted by industrialisation. Today Dundee has 5,000 Northern Irish born residents in its boundary mostly due to universities and there is a large Northern Irish club which is based at Dundee Union The city also attracted immigrants from Italy, fleeing poverty and famine, and Poland, seeking refuge from the anti-Jewish pogroms in the 19th century, and later, World War II in the 20th. Today, Dundee has a sizeable ethnic minority population, and has the third highest Asian population (~3,500) in Scotland after Glasgow and Edinburgh. Dundee has attracted large numbers of Eastern Europeans and is predicted to expand further due to Bulgarian immigrants. Abertay University and Dundee University draw a large number of students from abroad (mostly Irish and but with an increasing number from countries in the Far East), and students account for 14.2% of the population, the highest proportion of the four largest Scottish cities. Dundee is also one of only four local authorities in Scotland to recycle more than 20% of its waste. Economy Cox's Stack, a chimney from the former Camperdown works jute mill. The chimney takes its name from jute baron James Cox who later became Lord Provost of the city Dundee is a regional employment and education centre, with over 300,000 persons within 30 minutes drive of the city centre and 700,000 people within one hour. Many people from North East Fife, Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city. In 2006 the city itself had an economically active population of 76.7% of the working age population, about 20% of the working age population are full time students. The city sustains just under 95,000 jobs in around 4,000 companies. The number of jobs in the city has grown by around 10% since 1996. Recent and current investment levels in the city are at a record level. Since 1997 Dundee has been the focus of investment approaching an estimated £1 billion. Despite this economic growth the proportion of Dundee’s population whose lives are affected by poverty and who are classed as socially excluded is second only to Glasgow. Median weekly earnings were £409 in February 2006, an increase of 33% since 1998, on a par with the Scottish median. Unemployment in 2006 was around 3.8%, higher than the Scottish average of 2.6%, although the city has narrowed this disparity since 1996, when unemployment was 8.6% compared to a Scottish average of 6.1%. In 2000 the number of unemployed in the city fell to below 5,000 for the first time in over 25 years. Average house prices in Dundee more than doubled from 1990 to 2006, from an average of £42,475 to £102,025. Total house sales in the city more than tripled from 1990 to 2004, from £115,915,391 to £376,999,716. House prices rose by over 15% between 2001–2002 and 2002–2003 and between 2005 and 2006 by 16.6%. Modern economic history The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city's economy. While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population, new industries were attracted and encouraged. NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945, primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war, good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine. Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947. A fortnight after the 10th anniversary of the plant, the 250,000th cash machine was produced. By the 1960s, NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers, and later ATMs, at several of its Dundee plants. The firm, developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers. Astral, a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people. The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry, particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969. Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards, cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade. To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions, Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984. In 1983, the first Sinclair Sinclair ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex. In the same year the company broke production records, despite a sit-in by workers protesting job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket. Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six month industrial dispute. In January 2007, NCR announced its intention to cut 650 jobs at its Gourdie facility, and to turn the facility over for low volume production. The company has pledged to retain R&D, software, sales and support functions in Dundee. Modern day As in the rest of Scotland manufacturing industries are being gradually replaced by a mixed economy, although 13.5% of the workforce still work in the manufacturing sector, higher than the Scottish and UK average, and more than double that of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen. The main new growth sectors have been software development and biotechnology along with retail. The city has a small financial, banking and insurance sector, employing 11% of the workforce. Magdalen Green and Bandstand, Located in the West End In 2006, 29 companies employed 300 or more staff these include limited and private companies NCR Corporation, Michelin, Tesco, D. C. Thomson & Co, BT, SiTEL, Alliance Trust, Norwich Union, Royal Bank of Scotland, Asda, Strathtay Scottish, Tayside Contracts, Tokheim, Scottish Citylink, W H Brown Construction, C J Lang & Son, Joinery and Timber Creations, HBOS, Debenhams, Travel Dundee, WL Gore and Associates, In Practice Systems, The Wood Group, Simclar, Millipore Life Sciences, Alchemy (antibody technology), Cypex(manufacturers of recombinant drug metabolising enzymes, including cytochrome P450s, and in vitro drug metabolism specialists). Major employers in the public sector and non profit sector are NHS Tayside, the University of Dundee, Tayside Police, Dundee College, Tayside Fire Brigade, HM Revenue and Customs, University of Abertay Dundee and Wellcome Trust. The largest employers in Dundee are the city council and the Health Service, which make up over 10% of the city's workforce. The biomedical and biotechnology sectors, including start-up biomedical companies arising from university research, employ just under 1,000 people directly and nearly 2,000 indirectly. Information technology and software for computer games have been important industries in the city for more than twenty years. Rockstar North, developer of Lemmings and the Grand Theft Auto series was founded in Dundee as DMA Design by David Jones; an undergraduate of the University of Abertay Dundee. (If you look carefully at the advertising hoardings by the airport in Grand Theft Auto Vice City you will see a sign which says "Come to Dundee we have a ship which belonged to a loser"; a reference to Robert Falcon Scott's RRS Discovery). David Jones is now the CEO of Realtime Worlds, which has recently (2007) released Crackdown for the Xbox 360, and is responsible for employing over 200 people of multi national origin, primarily in Dundee. Dundee is responsible for 10% of Britain’s digital entertainment industry, with an annual turnover of £100 million. Outside of specialised fields of medicine, science and technology, the proportion of Dundonians employed in the manufacturing sector is higher than that found in the larger Scottish cities; nearly 12% of workers. Manufacturing income per head in Dundee was £19,700 in 1999, compared to £16,700 in Glasgow. The insolvency rate for businesses in Dundee is lower than other Scottish cities, accounting for only 2.3% of all liquidations in Scotland, compared to 22% and 61.4% for Edinburgh and Glasgow respectively. The surrounding area is home to three major UK military bases, Condor (Royal Marines), Leuchars (RAF) which can cause sudden noise from aircraft exercises, and Barry (army and training). The city is served by Ninewells Hospital—one of the largest and most up to date in Europe, as well as three other public hospitals: Kings Cross, Victoria, and Ashludie, and one private: Fernbrae. A recent addition to Ninewells Hospital is the Maggie's Centre building, which was designed by Frank Gehry officially opened by Sir Bob Geldof in 2007. Dundee is Scotland's first Fibrecity. Transport Dundee is served by the A90 road which connects the city to the M90 and Perth in the west, and Forfar and Aberdeen in the north. The part of the road that is in the city is a dual carriageway and forms the city's main bypass on its north side, known as the Kingsway, which can become very busy at rush hour. To the east, the A92 connects the city to Monifieth and Arbroath. The A92 also connects the city to the county of Fife on the south side of the Tay estuary via the Tay Road Bridge. The main southern route around the city is Riverside Drive and Riverside Avenue (the A991), that runs alongside the Tay from a junction with the A90 in the west, to the city centre where it joins the A92 at the bridge. External view of Dundee (Tay Bridge) Station Dundee has an extensive public bus transport system, with the Seagate Bus Station serving as the city's main terminus for journeys out of town. Travel Dundee operates most of the intra-city services, with other more rural services operated by Stagecoach Strathtay. The city's two railway stations are the main Dundee (Tay Bridge) Station, which is situated near the waterfront and the much smaller Broughty Ferry Station, which is located to the eastern end of the city. These are complemented by the stations at Invergowrie, Balmossie and Monifieth. Passenger services at Dundee are provided by First ScotRail, CrossCountry and NXEC. There are no freight services that serve the city since the Freightliner terminal in Dundee was closed in the 1980s. There are also many intercity bus services offered by Megabus, Citylink and National Express Dundee Airport offers commercial flights to London City Airport, Birmingham International Airport and Belfast City. The airport is capable of serving small aircraft and is located 3 kilometres west of the city centre, adjacent to the River Tay. The nearest major international airport is Edinburgh Airport, to the south. The nearest passenger seaport is Rosyth, about to the south on the Firth of Forth, although there are no current services from here. Education Schools Schools in Dundee have a pupil enrollment of over 20,300. There are thirty-seven primary state schools and nine secondary state schools in the city. Of these, eleven primary and two secondary schools serve the city's Catholic population; the remainder are non-denominational. There is also one specialist school that caters for pupils with learning difficulties aged between five and eighteen from Dundee and the surrounding area. Dundee is home to one independent school, the High School of Dundee, which was founded in the 13th century by the Abbot and monks of Lindores Abbey. The current building was designed by George Angus in a Greek Revival style and built in 1832-34. Early students included William Wallace (according to Blind Harry) and Hector Boece. The brothers James, John and Robert Wedderburn who were the authors of The Gude and Godlie Ballatis, one of the most important literary works of the Scottish Reformation, were also educated there. It was the earliest reformed school in Scotland, having adopted the new religion in 1554. Colleges and universities The University of Dundee Dundee is home to two universities and a student population of approximately 17,000. The University of Dundee became an independent entity in 1967, after 70 years of being incorporated into the University of St Andrews during which time it was known initially as University College and latterly as Queen's College. Significant research in biomedical fields and oncology is carried out in the "College of Life Sciences". The university also incorporates the Duncan of Jordanstone School of Art and Design and the teacher training college. The University of Abertay Dundee was founded as Dundee Institute of Technology in 1888. It was granted university status in 1994 under the Further and Higher Education Act, 1992. The university is noted for its computing and creative technology courses, particularly in computer games technology. Dundee College is the city's umbrella further education college, which was established in 1985 as an institution of higher education and vocational training. Religious sites Christian groups Dundee Parish Church, St Mary's is one of three of the Dundee's City Churches which are joined together; only two function as places of worship: St. Mary's and St. Clement's (the Old Steeple) which can be seen in the background. The Church of Scotland Presbytery of Dundee is responsible for overseeing the worship of 37 congregations in and around the Dundee area, 21 of which are in the city itself, with a further 5 in Broughty Ferry and Barnhill, although dwindling attendances have led to some of the churches becoming linked charges. Due to their city centre location, the City Churches, Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) and the Steeple Church, are the most prominent Church of Scotland buildings in Dundee. They are on the site of the medieval parish kirk of St Mary, of which only the 15th century west tower survives. The attached church was once the largest parish church in medieval Scotland. Dundee was unusual among Scottish medieval burghs in having two parish kirks; the second, dedicated to St Clement, has disappeared, but its site was approximately that of the present City Square. In the Middle Ages Dundee was also the site of houses of the Dominicans (Blackfriars), and Franciscans (Greyfriars), and had a number of hospitals and chapels. These establishments were sacked during the Scottish Reformation, in the mid-16th century, and were reduced to burial grounds, now Barrack Street and Howff burial ground respectively. St. Paul's Cathedral is the seat of the Scottish Episcopal Diocese of Brechin. It is charged with overseeing the worship of 8 congregations in the city (9, including Broughty Ferry), as well as a further 17 in Angus, the Carse of Gowrie and parts of Aberdeenshire. The diocese is led by Bishop John Mantle. St. Andrew's Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dunkeld, led by Bishop Vincent Paul Logan. The diocese is responsible for overseeing 15 congregations in Dundee and 37 in the surrounding area. There are Methodist, Baptist, and Congregationalist, and Pentacostalist and churches in the city, and non-mainstream Christian groups are also well represented, including the Salvation Army, and the Unitarians, the Society of Friends, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, and Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Non-Christian groups Muslims are served by the Dundee Islamic Society Central Mosque in Brown Street built in 2000 to replace their former premises in Hilltown. There are also smaller mosques at Victoria Road and Dura Street and the Al Maktoum Institute of Islamic and Arabic Studies which opened in 2000 in Blackness Road. A recorded Jewish community has existed in the city since the 19th century. There is a small Orthodox synagogue at Dudhope Park was built in the 1960s, with the Hebrew Burial Grounds located three miles (5 km) to the east. Samye Dzong Dundee is a Buddhist Temple based in Reform Street. There is also a Hindu mandir and Sikh gurdwara that share a premises in Taylor's Lane situated in the West End of the city, and there is a second gurdwara in Victoria Road. Culture The McManus Galleries in the city's Albert Square Dundee is home to Scotland's only full-time repertory ensemble, established in the 1930s. One of its alumni, Hollywood actor Brian Cox is a native of the city. The Dundee Repertory Theatre, built in 1982 is the base for Scottish Dance Theatre. Dundee's principal concert auditorium, the Caird Hall (named after its benefactor, the jute baron James Key Caird) regularly hosts the Royal Scottish National Orchestra. Various smaller venues host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual Jazz, Guitar and Blues Festivals. An art gallery and an art house cinema are located in Dundee Contemporary Arts, which opened in 1999 in the city's cultural quarter. McManus Galleries is a Gothic Revival-style building, located in Albert Square. It houses a museum and art gallery; exhibits include a collection of fine and decorative art, items from Dundee's history and natural history artefacts. Britain’s only full-time public observatory, Mills Observatory is located at the summit of the city's Balgay Hill. Sensation Science Centre, is a science center with over 80 exhibits based on the five senses. Dundee Headquarters of DC Thomson & Co. Dundee has a strong literary heritage, with several authors having been born, lived or studied in the city. These include A. L. Kennedy, Rosamunde Pilcher, Kate Atkinson, Thomas Dick, Mary Shelley, Mick McCluskey and John Burnside. The Dundee International Book Prize is a biennial competition open to new authors, offering a prize of £10,000 and publication by Polygon Books. Past winners have included Andrew Murray Scott, Claire-Marie Watson and Malcolm Archibald. William McGonagall, regularly cited as the "worlds worst poet", worked and wrote in the city, often giving performances of his work in pubs and bars. Many of his poems are about the city and events therein, such as his work The Tay Bridge Disaster. City of Recovery Press was founded in Dundee, and has become a controversial figure in documenting the darker side of the city. www.cityofrecovery.com Music Popular music groups such as the 1970s soul-funk outfit Average White Band, the Associates, the band Spare Snare, Danny Wilson and the Indie rock band The View hail from Dundee. The View's debut album went to number one in the UK charts in January 2007. Ricky Ross of Deacon Blue and singer-songwriter KT Tunstall are former pupils of the High School of Dundee, although Tunstall is not a native of the city. The Northern Irish indie rock band Snow Patrol was formed by students at the University of Dundee, Brian Molko, lead singer of Placebo, grew up in the city. At the end of June, Dundee hosts an annual blues festival known as the Dundee Blues Bonanza. Television and radio Dundee is home to 1 of 11 BBC Scotland centres, located within the Nethergate Centre. The regional studios of STV are also located in Dundee and this is where the local news opt-out is broadcast from, within the North Tonight news bulletins shown on STV. The city has three local radio stations. Radio Tay was launched on 17 October 1980. The channel split frequencies in January 1995 launching Tay FM for a younger audience and Tay AM playing classic hits. In 1999 Discovery 102 was launched, later to be renamed Wave 102. Sports Dundee has two professional football teams; Dundee and Dundee United who play at Dens Park and Tannadice Park, respectively. Their stadiums are closer together than any senior football club pair in the UK. Dundee is one of only three British cities to have produced two European Cup semi-finalists. Dundee lost to A.C. Milan in 1963 and Dundee United lost to A.S. Roma in 1984. Dundee also reached the semi-finals of the forerunner to the UEFA Cup in 1968 and Dundee United were runners-up in the UEFA Cup in 1987. There are also seven junior football teams in the area: Dundee North End, East Craigie, Lochee Harp, Lochee United, Dundee Violet,Broughty Athletic JFC and Downfield. In May 2005, Lochee United qualified for the final of the Scottish Junior Cup at Tannadice Park, but were beaten by Tayport. Dundee is home to the Dundee CCS Stars ice hockey team which plays at Dundee Ice Arena. The team participates in the Scottish National League (SNL) with the Dundee Tigers and the Northern League (NL) and in cup competitions. Dundee is home to the Dundee High School Former Pupils rugby club which plays in the First Division of the Scottish Hydro Electric Premiership. Furthermore, Harris Academy F.P.R.F.C, Panmure R.F.C. and Stobswell R.F.C. also operate in the city and participate in the Scottish Hydro Electric Caledonia League Division 2 (Midlands). Menzieshill Hockey Club are one of Scotland's premier field hockey teams and regularly represent Scotland in European competitions. The team plays in the European Indoor Cup A Division and has won the Scottish Indoor National League seven times in the last decade. An outdoor concrete skate park was constructed in Dudhope Park with money from the Scottish Executive’s Quality of Life Fund. Opened in 2006, the park was nominated for the Nancy Ovens Award. Dundee is also home to the floorball club Dundee Northern Lights. Dundee Northern Lights were runners up in the 2009 Scottish Cup and finished 4th in the 2009 UK Nationals, being the best team outside of England. Public services Dundee and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water. Dundee, along with parts of Perthshire and Angus is supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla. Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group. Waste management is handled by Dundee City Council. There is a kerbside recycling scheme that currently serves 15,500 households in Dundee. Cans, glass and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis. Compostable material and non-recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks. Paper is collected for recycling on a four-weekly basis. Recycling centres and points are located at a number of locations in Dundee. Items accepted include, steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and freezers, garden waste, gas bottles, glass, liquid food and drinks cartons, plastic bottles, plastic carrier bags, rubble, scrap metal, shoes and handbags, spectacles, textiles, tin foil, wood and yellow pages. The Dundee City Council area currently has a recycling rate of 31%. Healthcare is supplied in the area by NHS Tayside. Ninewells Hospital, is the only hospital with an accident and emergency department in the area. Primary Health Care in Dundee is supplied by a number of General Practices. Dundee, along with the rest of Scotland is served by the Scottish Ambulance Service. Law enforcement is provided by Tayside Police and Dundee is served by Tayside Fire and Rescue Service. Twin Cities The arms of the twinned cities and their national flags alongside those of Dundee in the City Chambers. Dundee maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with six twin cities: – Orleans, France (1946) – Zadar, Croatia (1959) – Würzburg, Germany (1962) – Alexandria, Virginia, USA (1974) – Nablus, West Bank (1980) – Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2004) In addition, the Scottish Episcopalian Diocese of Brechin (centred on St Paul’s Cathedral in Dundee) is twinned with the diocese of Iowa, USA and the diocese of Swaziland. See also References External links Dundee City Council Dundee Guide Dundee Information Website Heraldry of Dundee Burgh, District and City Dundonian for beginners Dundee Dialect InDundee listings Memorial inscriptions from the cities oldest cemetery Dundee News and Events Information Dundee in 3d | Dundee |@lemmatized dundee:189 fourth:1 large:15 city:129 scotland:31 fully:1 name:13 one:17 local:14 government:6 council:24 area:26 lie:3 north:19 bank:4 firth:3 tay:17 feed:1 sea:3 surround:7 continuously:2 occupy:5 since:12 mesolithic:2 port:3 develop:4 initially:2 back:4 wool:3 trade:7 export:2 angus:13 hinterland:1 cheap:2 produce:7 linen:1 supplant:1 pressure:1 cotton:1 abroad:2 weaver:1 turn:2 skill:1 weave:1 import:1 jute:17 weaving:1 industry:18 cause:3 grow:4 rapidly:2 many:6 migrant:1 worker:5 though:1 town:10 contain:1 stone:4 building:8 prior:3 period:4 also:24 gain:1 reputation:1 marmalade:6 journalism:4 give:4 epithet:1 jam:2 population:14 estimate:2 record:5 reach:2 peak:1 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7,667 | History_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints | The history of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (often colloquially referred to as the Mormon Church, a term the organization itself discourages) is typically divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, Jr. which is in common with all Latter Day Saint movement churches, (2) a "pioneer era" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th Century successors, and (3) a modern era beginnning around the turn of the 20th century as the practice of polygamy was discontinued. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints traces its origins in western New York, where Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement was born and raised. Joseph Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of words found on a set of golden plates that had been buried near his home in western New York by an indigenous American prophet. On April 6, 1830, in western New York, Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ. The church rapidly gained a following, who viewed Smith as their prophet. The main body of the church moved first to Kirtland, Ohio in the early 1830s, then to Missouri in 1838, where the 1838 Mormon War with other Missouri settlers ensued, culminating in adherents being expelled from the state under an Extermination Order signed by the governor of Missouri. After Missouri, Smith built the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, where Smith was assassinated. After Smith's death, a succession crisis ensued, and the majority voted to accept the Quorum of the Twelve, led by Brigham Young, as the church's leading body. After continued difficulties and persecution in Illinois, Young left Nauvoo in 1846 and led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, to the Great Salt Lake Valley. The group branched out in an effort to pioneer a large state to be called Deseret, eventually establishing colonies from Canada to present-day Mexico. Young incorporated The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as a legal entity, and governed his followers as a theocratic leader serving in both political and religious positions. He also publicized the previously-secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy. By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of church teachings on polygamy and theocracy. The Utah Mormon War ensued from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the relatively peaceful invasion of Utah by the United States Army, after which Young agreed to step down from power and be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial governor, Alfred Cumming. Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory as part of a shadow government. At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other powerful members, who continued the practice of polygamy despite opposition by the United States Congress. After tensions with the U.S. government came to a head in 1890, the church officially abandoned the public practice of polygamy in the United States, and eventually stopped performing official polygamous marriages altogether after a Second Manifesto in 1904. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from “fundamentalist” groups still practicing polygamy. During the twentieth century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization. Distancing itself from polygamy, the church began engaging, first with mainstream American culture, and then with international cultures, particularly those of Latin America, by sending out thousands of missionaries across the globe. The church became a strong and public champion of monogamy and the nuclear family, and at times played a prominent role in political matters. Among the official changes to the organization during the modern area include the ordination of black men to the priesthood in 1978, reversing a policy originally instituted by Brigham Young. The church has also periodically changed its temple ceremony, gradually omitting certain controversial elements. There are also periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church, mainly to accommodate the organization's growth and increasing international presence. Early History (c. 1820s to c. 1846) The early history of the LDS Church is shared with other denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement, who all regard Joseph Smith, Jr. as the founder of their religious tradition. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of words found on a set of golden plates that had been buried near his home in western New York by an indigenous American prophet. Smith said he had been in contact with an angel Moroni, who showed him the plates' location and had been grooming him for a role as a religious leader. : "On September 22, 1827, an angel named Moroni—the last Book of Mormon prophet—delivered these records to the Prophet Joseph Smith." . On April 6, 1830, in western New York, The was organized in the log cabin of Joseph Smith, Sr. in the Manchester area, near Rochester, followed by a meeting the next Sunday in nearby Fayette at the house of Peter Whitmer, Sr. Nevertheless, one of Smith's histories and an 1887 reminiscence by David Whitmer say the church was organized at the Whitmer house in Fayette. (Whitmer, however, had already told a reporter in 1875 that the church was organized in Manchester. .) See Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints). The LDS Church refers to Fayette as the place of organization in all its official publications. Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ. The church rapidly gained a following, who viewed Smith as their prophet. In late 1830, Smith envisioned a "city of Zion", a Utopian city in Native American lands near Independence, Missouri. In October 1830, he sent his Assistant President, Oliver Cowdery, and others on a mission to the area. Passing through Kirtland, Ohio, the missionaries converted a congregation of Disciples of Christ led by Sidney Rigdon, and in 1831, Smith decided to temporarily move his followers to Kirtland until lands in the Missouri area could be purchased. In the meantime, the church's headquarters remained in Kirtland from 1831 to 1838; and there the church built its first temple and continued to grow in membership from 680 to 17,881. The Desert Morning News 2008 Church Almanac pg.655 While the main church body was in Kirtland, many of Smith's followers had attempted to establish settlements in Missouri, but had met with resistance from other Missourians who believed Mormons were abolisionists, or who distrusted their political ambitions. After Smith and other Mormons in Kirtland emigrated to Missouri in 1838, hostilities escalated into the 1838 Mormon War, culminating in adherents being expelled from the state under an Extermination Order signed by the governor of Missouri. Joseph Smith, Jr. (pictured), founder of the church, and his brother Hyrum were assassinated in Carthage, Illinois, by a mob on June 27, 1844 After Missouri, Smith built the city of Nauvoo, Illinois as the new church headquarters, and served as the city's mayor and leader of the militia. As church leader, Smith also instituted the then-secret practice of plural marriage, and taught a form of Millennialism which he called "theodemocracy", to be led by a Council of Fifty which had secretly and symbolically annointed him as king of this Millennial theodemocracy. . Partly in response to these trends, on June 7, 1844, an newspaper called the Nauvoo Expositor, edited by dissident Mormon William Law, issued a scathing criticism of polygamy and Nauvoo theocratic government, including a call for church reform based on earlier Mormon principles. Nauvoo Expositor, p. 1, col. E to p. 2, col. E. The paper also contained editorials and letters to the editor that were highly critical of Joseph Smith's political actions and his 1844 candidacy for President of the United States. Considering the paper to be libellous, Smith and the Nauvo city council voted to shut down the paper as a public nuisance. Relations between Mormons and residents of surrounding communities had been strained, and some of them instituted criminal charges against Smith for treason. Smith surrendered to police in the nearby Carthage, Illinois, and while in state custody, he and his brother Hyrum Smith, who was second in line to the church presidency, Regarding Hyrum Smith, Brigham Young later stated: "Did Joseph Smith ordain any man to take his place. He did. Who was it? It was Hyrum, but Hyrum fell a martyr before Joseph did. If Hyrum had lived he would have acted for Joseph" (Times and Seasons, 5 [Oct. 15, 1844]: 683). were killed in a firefight while attempting to escape on June 27, 1844 by an angry mob. Encyclopedia of Latter-Day Saint History pg. 824. After Smith's death, a succession crisis ensued. In this crisis a number of church leaders campaigned to lead the church. The majority of adherents voted on August 8, 1844 to accept the argument of Brigham Young, senior apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve, that there could be no true successor to Joseph Smith, but that the Twelve had all the required authority to lead the church, and were best suited to take on that role. Later, adherents bolstered their succession claims by referring to a March 1844 meeting in which Joseph committed the "keys of the kingdom" to a group of members within the Council of Fifty that included the Quorum of the Twelve. , republished as . In addition, by the end of the 1800s, several of Young's followers had published reminiscences recalling that during Young's August 8 speech, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, to which they attributed the power of God. ; Lynne Watkins Jorgensen, "The Mantle of the Prophet Joseph Smith Passes to Brother Brigham: One Hundred Twenty-one Testimonies of a Collective Spiritual Witness" in John W. Welch (ed.), 2005. Opening the Heavens: Accounts of Divine Manifestations, 1820-1844, Provo, Utah: BYU Press, pp. 374-480; Eugene English, "George Laub Nauvoo Diary," BYU Studies, 18 [Winter 1978]: 167 ("Now when President Young arose to address the congregation his voice was the voice of Bro[ther] Joseph and his face appeared as Joseph's face & should I have not seen his face but heard his voice I should have declared that it was Joseph"); William Burton Diary, May 1845. LDS Church Archives ("But their [Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith's] places were filed by others much better than I once supposed they could have been, the spirit of Joseph appeared to rest upon Brigham"); Benjamin F. Johnson, My Life's Review [Independence, 1928], p. 103-104 ("But as soon as he spoke I jumped upon my feet, for in every possible degree it was Joseph's voice, and his person, in look, attitude, dress and appearance; [it] was Joseph himself, personified and I knew in a moment the spirit and mantle of Joseph was upon him"); Life Story of Mosiah Hancock, p. 23, BYU Library ("Although only a boy, I saw the mantle of the Prophet Joseph rest upon Brigham Young; and he arose lion-like to the occasion and led the people forth"); Wilford Woodruff, Deseret News, 15 Mar. 1892 ("If I had not seen him with my own eyes, there is no one that could have convinced me that it was not Joseph Smith"); George Q. Cannon, Juvenile Instructor, 22 [29 Oct. 1870]: 174-175 ("When Brigham Young spoke it was with the voice of Joseph himself; and not only was it the voice of Joseph which was heard, but it seemed in the eyes of the people as though it was the every person of Joseph which stood before them"). Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1890) Migration to Utah and Colonization of the West Map showing the westward exodus of the LDS church between 1846 and 1869. Also shown are a portion of the route followed by the Mormon Battalion and the path followed by the handcart companies to the Mormon Trail. Under the leadership of Brigham Young, Church leaders planned to leave Nauvoo, Illinois in April 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February. They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now Utah where they founded Salt Lake City. The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the Mormon Pioneers and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the Mormon Trail. The arrival of the original Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847 is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day. Locations of major LDS settlements in North America prior to 1890. Included are major cities originally founded by LDS settlers who later abandoned the area. Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather to Utah in the decades following. Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in much sacrifice and quite a number of deaths. Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico. Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include San Bernardino, California, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Mesa, Arizona. Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership See also, Council of Fifty; Theodemocracy Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the Church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see Succession Crisis). Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Brigham Young was sustained as a member of the First Presidency on December 25, 1847, (Wilford Woodruff Diary, Church Archives), and then as President of the Church on October 8, 1848. (Roberts, Comprehensive History of the Church, 3:318). One of the reasons the Saints had chosen the Great Basin as a settling place was that the area was at the time outside the territorial borders of the United States, which Young had blamed for failing to protect Mormons from political opposition from the states of Missouri and Illinois. However, in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded the area to the United States. As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to Washington, D.C. with a proposal to create a vast State of Deseret, of which Young would naturally be the first governor. Instead, Congress created the much smaller Utah Territory in 1850, and Young was appointed governor in 1851. Because of his religious position, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time. For most of the 19th century, the LDS Church maintained an ecclesiastical court system parallel to federal courts, and required Mormons to use the system exclusively for civil matters, or face church discipline. The Mormon Reformation In 1856-1858, the Church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation. Peterson, Paul H. "The Mormon Reformation of 1856-1857: The Rhetoric and the Reality." 15 Journal of Mormon History 59-87 (1989). In 1855, a drought struck the flourishing territory. Very little rain fell, and even the dependable mountain streams ran very low. An infestation of grasshoppers and crickets destroyed whatever crops the Mormons had managed to salvage. During the winter of 1855-56, flour and other basic necessities were very scarce and very costly. Heber C. Kimball wrote his son, Dollars and cents do not count now, in these times, for they are the tightest that I have ever seen in the territory of Utah. In September 1856, as the drought continued, the trials and difficulties of the previous year led to an explosion of intense soul searching. Jedediah M. Grant, a counselor in the First Presidency and a well-known conservative voice in the extended community, preached three days of fiery sermons to the people of Kaysville, Utah territory. He called for repentance and a general recommitment to moral living and religious teachings. 500 people presented themselves for "rebaptism" — a symbol of their determination to reform their lives. The zealous message spread from Kaysville to surrounding Mormon communities. Church leaders traveled around the territory, expressing their concern about signs of spiritual decay and calling for repentance. Members were asked to seal their rededication with rebaptism. Several sermons Willard Richards and George A. Smith had given earlier in the history of the church had touched on the concept of blood atonement, suggesting that apostates could become so enveloped in sin that the voluntary shedding of their own blood might increase their chances of eternal salvation. On 21 September 1856, while calling for sincere repentance, Brigham Young took the idea further, and stated: "I know that there are transgressors, who, if they knew themselves and the only condition upon which they can obtain forgiveness, would beg of their brethren to shed their blood, that the smoke might ascend to God as an offering to appease the wrath that is kindled against them, and that the law might have its course." Journal of Discourses 4:43. Although this belief was never widely accepted by church members, it became part of the public image of the church at the time and was pilloried in Eastern newspapers along with the practice of polygamy. The concept was frequently criticized by many Mormons and eventually repudiated as official church doctrine by the LDS Church in 1978. However, modern critics of the church and popular writers often attribute a formal doctrine of blood atonement to the Church, to the confusion of some modern members. Throughout the winter special meetings were held and Mormons urged to adhere to the commandments of God and the practices and precepts of the church. Preaching placed emphasis on the practice of plural marriage, adherence to the Word of Wisdom, attendance at church meetings, and personal prayer. On December 30, 1856, the entire all-Mormon territorial legislature was rebaptized for the remission of their sins, and confirmed under the hands of the Twelve Apostles. As time went on, however, the sermons became excessive and intolerant, and some verged on the hysterical. Utah War and Mountain Meadows massacre In 1857-1858, the church was involved in an armed, but bloodless conflict with the U.S. government, entitled the Utah War. The settlers and the United States government battled for hegemony over the culture and government of the territory. Tensions over the Utah War (and possibly other factors) resulted in settlers and (reportedly) Indians in southern Utah massacring a wagon train from Arkansas, known as Mountain Meadows massacre. The result of the Utah War was the succeeding of the governorship of the Utah territory from Brigham Young to Alfred Cumming, an outsider appointed by President James Buchanan. Brigham Young's later years The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the United Order numerous times, most recently during the Mormon Reformation. In 1874, Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he now called the United Order of Enoch in at least 200 Mormon communities, beginning in St. George, Utah on February 9, 1874. In Young's Order, producers would generally deed their property to the Order, and all members of the order would share the cooperative's net income, often divided into shares according to how much property was originally contributed. Sometimes, the members of the Order would receive wages for their work on the communal property. Like the United Order established by Joseph Smith, Young's Order was short-lived. By the time of Brigham Young's death in 1877, most of these United Orders had failed. By the end of the 19th century, the Orders were essentially extinct. Brigham Young died in August 1877. After the death of Brigham Young, the First Presidency was not reorganized until 1880, when Young was succeeded by President John Taylor, who in the interim had served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Polygamy and the United States "Mormon question" For several decades, polygamy was preached as God's law. Brigham Young, the Prophet of the church at that time, had quite a few wives, as did many other church leaders. This early practice of polygamy caused conflict between church members and the wider American society. In 1854 the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and slavery as the "twin relics of barbarism." In 1862, the U.S. Congress enacted the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, signed by Abraham Lincoln, which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by $500 or five years in prison. The law also permitted the confiscation of church property Late Corporation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints v. United States, 136 U.S. 1 (1890) without compensation. This law was not enforced however, by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts. Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place. In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the American Civil War. In 1874, after the war, Congress passed the Poland Act, which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons. In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in 1878 by the United States Supreme Court in the case of Reynolds v. United States. After Reynolds, Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the Edmunds Act in 1882. The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place. The Act also vacated the Utah territorial government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist. Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial. In 1887, Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and confiscated the church's property. By this time, many church leaders had gone into hiding to avoid prosecution, and half the Utah prison population was composed of polygamists. Church leadership officially ended the practice in 1890, based on a revelation to Wilford Woodruff called the 1890 Manifesto. The modern era (after c. 1890) The church's modern era began soon after it renounced polygamy in 1890. Prior to the 1890 Manifesto, church leaders had been in hiding, many ecclesiastical matters had been neglected, . and the church organization itself had been disincorporated. With the reduction in federal pressure afforded by the Manifesto, however, the church began to re-establish its institutions. Post-Manifesto polygamy and the Second Manifesto The 1890 Manifesto did not, itself, eliminate the practice of new plural marriages, as they continued to occur clandestinely, mostly with church approval and authority. (stating that 90% of polygamous marriages between 1890 and 1904 were contracted with church authority). In addition, most Mormon polygamists and every polygamous general authority continued to co-habit with their polygamous wives. Quinn at 51. Mormon leaders, including Woodruff, maintained that the Manifesto was a temporary expediency designed to enable Utah to obtain statehood, and that at some future date, the practice would soon resume. Lyman, 1998, p. 39-40. Nevertheless, the 1890 Manifesto provided the church breathing room to obtain Utah's statehood, which it received in 1896 after a campaign to convince the American public that Mormon leaders had abandoned polygamy and intended to stay out of politics. Lyman, 1998, p. 41. . Despite being admitted to the United States, Utah was initially unsuccessful in having its elected representatives and senators seated in the United States Congress. In 1898, Utah elected general authority B.H. Roberts to the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat. Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy. In 1903, the Utah legislature selected Reed Smoot, also an LDS general authority but also a monogamist, as its first senator. From 1904-07, the United States Senate conducted a series of Congressional hearings on whether Smoot should be seated. Eventually, the Senate granted Smoot a seat and allowed him to vote. However, the hearings raised controversy as to whether polygamy had actually been abandoned as claimed in the 1890 Manifesto, and whether the LDS Church continued to exercise influence on Utah politics. In response to these hearings, President of the Church Joseph F. Smith issued a Second Manifesto denying that any post-Manifesto marriages had the church's sanction, Later scholars, however, have determined that 90% of polygamous marriages between 1890 and 1904 were, in fact, conducted under church authority. See Quinn at 56. and announcing that those entering such marriages in the future would be excommunicated. The Second Manifesto did not annul existing plural marriages within the church, and the church tolerated some degree of polygamy into at least the 1930s. However, eventually the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from Mormon fundamentalist groups still practicing polygamy. In 1998 President Gordon B. Hinckley stated, “If any of our members are found to be practicing plural marriage, they are excommunicated, the most serious penalty the Church can impose. Not only are those so involved in direct violation of the civil law, they are in violation of the law of this Church.” Gordon B. Hinckley, "What Are People Asking About Us?" Ensign, November 1998, 70 In modern times, members of the mormon religion do not practice polygamy. If a person becomes widowed, they are not allowed to be sealed to another person. They can be married by law, but not sealed in the temple. Mormon involvement in national politics Mormons and the women's suffrage movement In 1870, the Utah Territory had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the U.S. Congress revoked in 1887 as part of the Edmunds-Tucker Act. As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist Emmeline Blanch Wells, editor of the Woman's Exponent, a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a feminist and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse. National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah's progressive stand on women's rights, and the church's stand on polygamy. In 1890, after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah's feminism more directly, and in 1891, Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in Salt Lake City, attended by such national feminist leaders as Susan B. Anthony and Anna Howard Shaw. The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in 1889 as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in 1890 became the National American Woman Suffrage Association), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascent state of Utah should enfranchise women. In 1896, Utah became the third state in the U.S. to grant women the right to vote. Mormons and the debate over temperance and prohibition The LDS church was actively involved in support of the temperance movement in the 19th century, and then the prohibition movement in the early 20th century. . Mormonism and the national debate over socialism and communism Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with socialism in its various forms. In the earliest days of Mormonism, Joseph Smith, Jr. had established a form of religious communalism, an idea made popular during the Second Great Awakening, combined with a move toward theocracy. Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communalism as the United Order, or the Law of Consecration. While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of Utah during the theocratic political leadership of Brigham Young. In addition to religious socialism, many Mormons in Utah were receptive to the secular socialist movement that began in America during the 1890s. During the 1890s to the 1920s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the Socialist Party of America in 1901, elected about 100 socialists to state offices in Utah. An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon. While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the church was more circumspect about Marxist Communism, because of its association with violent revolution. From the time of Joseph Smith, Jr., the church had taken a favorable view as to the American Revolution and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government. Thus, in 1917, after the Russian Revolution, LDS apostle David O. McKay initially told an audience in general conference that "It looks as if Russia will have a government 'by the people, of the people, and for the people." (April 7, 1917 Conference Report). Eventually, however, the church began to view the revolutionary nature of Communism as a threat to the United States Constitution, which the church respected about as much as it respected American revolutionaries. In 1936, the First Presidency issued a statement stating: [I]t would be necessary to destroy our government before communism could be set up in the United States. Since Communism, established, would destroy our American Constitutional government, to support communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a communist or supporter of communism. . . . Communism being thus hostile to loyal American citizenship and incompatible with true church membership, of necessity no loyal American citizen and no faithful church member can be a Communist. (First Presidency, "Warning to Church Members," July 3, 1936, Improvement Era 39, no. 8 (August 1936): 488). Institutional reforms Developments in Church financing In the 1890s soon after the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church was in a dire financial condition. It was recovering from the U.S. crackdown on polygamy, and had difficulty reclaiming property that had been confiscated during polygamy raids. Meanwhile, there was a national recession beginning in 1893. By the late 1890s, the church was about $2 million in debt, and near bankruptcy. . In response, Lorenzo Snow, then President of the Church, conducted a campaign to raise the payment of tithing, of which less than 20% of LDS had been paying during the 1890s. Bell, 1994, p. 52. After a visit to Saint George, Utah, which had a much higher-than-average percentage of full 10% tithe-payers, Bell, 1994, p. 63. Snow felt that he had received a revelation. Bell, 1994, p. 65. This prompted him to promise adherents in various Utah settlements that if they paid their tithing, they would experience an outpouring of blessings, prosperity, the preparation for Zion, and protection of the LDS Church from its enemies; however, failure to pay tithing would result in the people being "scattered." Bell, 1994, p. 67. As a result of Snow's vigorous campaign, tithing payment increased dramatically from 18.4% in 1898 to an eventual peak of 59.3% in 1910. Bell, 1994, p. 82. Eventually, payment of tithing would become a requirement for temple worship within the faith. Constructing administration buildings Zions Securities Corporation (managing taxable church properties) Corporation of the President (managing non-taxable church properties) Changes in stipends for bishops and general authorities. (Bishops once received a 10% stipend from tithing funds, but are now purely volunteer. General authorities receive stipends, formerly received loans from church funds.) Church Educational System Church Educational System: As free public schools became available, the church closed or relinquished church-run "stake academies" and junior colleges in 1920s (except Rick's College and Brigham Young Academy). Building of seminaries on church property adjacent to public high schools (beginning 1912). Establishment of a General Board of Education Institutes of religion (beginning 1926 at University of Idaho) Church Welfare System Church welfare systems: Relief Society's Social Services department (1920s—provided therapy, counseling, and adoption services) Church Security Program (1936) Welfare Program (1938) Welfare Services department (Social Services, employment and guidance programs, and health services) Military Relations Committee Changes to meeting schedule In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings took place on Sunday morning and evening, with several meetings during the weekday. This arrangement was acceptable for Utah Saints, who generally lived within walking distance of a church building. Elsewhere other than Utah, however, this meeting schedule was seen as a logistical challenge. In 1980, the Church introduced the "Consolidated Meeting Schedule", in which the majority of church meetings were held on Sunday during a three-hour block. While promoting convenience and making church practice compatible with non-Utahns, this new schedule has been criticized for eroding fellowshipping opportunities among North American Latter-day Saint youth. This erosion, in turn, has been blamed for decreasing LDS participation of young women to below that of young men, and for a downward trend in the percentage of LDS males who accept the call to serve a full time mission. See Quinn, Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power. Changes to missionary service In 1982, the First Presidency announced that the length of service of male full-time missionaries would be reduced to 18 months. In 1984, a little more than 2 years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months (). The change was publicized as a way to increase the ability for missionaries to serve. At the time, missionaries paid for all their expenses in their country of service. Recession during the Carter presidency pushed inflation higher and the exchange rate lower. This sudden increase in costs together with already high costs of living in Europe and other industrialized nations resulted in a steady decline in the number of missionaries able to pay for two full years of service. The shortening of the required service time from 24 to 18 months cut off this decline in numbers, leveling out in the period following the reinstatement. For those in foreign missions, this was barely enough time to learn a more difficult language and difficulty with language was reported. Nevertheless, the shortened period of time also had an impact on numbers of conversions: they declined by 7% annually during the same period. Some also saw the shortening as a weakening of faithfulness among those who were eventually called as missionaries, less length meaning less commitment required in terms of faith. However, it has also been seen as a recognition by the leadership of changes within the LDS cultural climate. Record economic growth starting in the mid-1980s mostly erased the problem of finances preventing service. As a secondary measure, starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations. Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own. This amount paid (about $425 per month currently) is used by the church to pay for the costs of all missionaries, wherever they go. This enabled those going to Bolivia, whose average cost of living is about $100 per month, to help pay for those going to Japan, whose cost tops out at around $900 per month. Changes to church hierarchy structure Priesthood Correlation Program: During the 1960s, the Church aggressively pursued its earlier Correlation Program that had begun in 1908, which streamlined and centralized the structure of the Church. The program also increased Church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings. Priesthood editorial oversight of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines. Adoption of the Scouting program (1911) Priesthood Committee on Outlines established for publishing lesson materials for each priesthood quorum Melchizedek Priesthood handbook (1928) Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928-1937): re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as "priesthood auxiliaries" with reduced autonomy. Other: Elimination of Presiding Patriarch office Emeritus status of general authorities who are too old or ill Reorganizing the quorums of seventy Dismantling ward and stake prayer circles (1978) LDS multiculturalism As the church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture, but were not essential to Mormonism. In 1971, LDS General Authority and scholar Bruce R. McConkie drew parallels between the LDS Church and the New Testament church, who had difficulty embracing the Gentiles within Christianity, and encouraged members not to be so indoctrinated with social customs that they fail to engage other cultures in Mormonism. Other peoples, he stated, "have a different background than we have, which is of no moment to the Lord . . . . It is no different to have different social customs than it is to have different languages. . . . And the Lord knows all languages". In 1987, Boyd K. Packer, another Latter-day Saint Apostle, stated, "We can't move [into various countries] with a 1947 Utah Church! Could it be that we are not prepared to take the gospel because we are not prepared to take (and they are not prepared to receive) all of the things we have wrapped up with it as extra baggage?" 21 Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 97 (Fall 1988) The church and blacks During and after the American Civil Rights Movement, the church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the white American mainstream, began to appear racist and neocolonial. The church came under intense fire for its stances on blacks and native Americans issues. The cause of some of the church's most damaging publicity had to do with the church's policy of discrimination toward blacks. Blacks were always officially welcome in the church, and Joseph Smith, Jr. established an early precedent of ordained black males to the Priesthood. Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as candidate for the presidency of the United States. At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy toward a belief common in his day that blacks were the cursed descendants of Cain. In 1849, church doctrine taught that though blacks could be baptized, they and others could not be ordained to the Priesthood or enter LDS temples. Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination. It is also important to note that while blacks as a whole were specifically withheld from priesthood blessings (although there were some exceptions to this policy in both the 1800s and 1900s), other races and genealogical lineages were also prohibited from holding the priesthood. By the late 1960s, the Church had expanded into Brazil, the Caribbean, and the nations of Africa, and was suffering criticism for its policy of racial discrimination. In the case of Africa and the Caribbean, the church had not yet begun large scale missionary efforts in most areas. There were large groups in both Ghana and Nigeria who desired to join the church and many faithful members of African descent in Brazil. On June 9, 1978, under the administration of Spencer W. Kimball, the church leadership finally received this divine sanction to change the long-standing policy. Doctrine and Covenants, OD-2 Today, there are many black members of the church, and many predominantly black congregations. In the Salt Lake City area black members have organized branches of an official church auxiliary called the Genesis Groups. The church and Native Americans During the post-World War II period, the church also began to focus on expansion into a number of Native American cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity. These peoples were called "Lamanites", because they were all believed to descend from the Lamanite group in the Book of Mormon. In 1947, the church began the Indian Placement Program, where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture. In 1955, the church began ordaining black Melanesians to the Priesthood. Lamanite The church's policy toward Native Americans also came under fire during the 1970s. In particular, the church was criticized for its Indian Placement Program, where Native American students were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year. This program was criticized as neocolonial. In 1977, the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the church was using its influence to push children into joining the program. However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs. One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture. By the late 1980s, the program had been in decline, and in 1996, it was discontinued. In 1981, the church published a new LDS edition of the Standard Works that changed a passage in The Book of Mormon that Lamanites (considered by many Latter-day Saints to be Native Americans) will "become white and delightsome" after accepting the gospel of Jesus Christ. Instead of continuing the original reference to skin color, the new edition replaced the word "white" with the word "pure", emphasizing inward spirituality. Doctrinal reforms and influences Good Neighbor policy (LDS Church) and temple ordinance reforms. Beginning soon after the turn of the Twentieth Century, four influential Latter-day Saint scholars began to systematize, modernize, and codify Mormon doctrine: B.H. Roberts, James E. Talmage, John A. Widtsoe, and Joseph Fielding Smith. In 1921, the church called chemistry professor John A. Widtsoe as an apostle. Widtsoe's writings, particularly Rational theology and Joseph Smith as Scientist, reflected the optimistic faith in science and technology that was pervasive at the time in American life. According to Widtsoe, all Mormon theology could be reconciled within a rational, positivist framework. Reaction to evolution The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church. The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in 1909, which marked the centennial of Charles Darwin's birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, On the Origin of Species. On that year, the First Presidency led by Joseph F. Smith as President, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of creationism, and calling human evolution one of the "theories of men", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. "It is held by some", they said, "that Adam was not the first man upon the earth, and that the original human was a development from lower orders of the animal creation. These, however, are the theories of men." Notably, the church did not opine on the evolution of animals other than humans, nor did it endorse a particular theory of creationism. Soon after the 1909 statement, Joseph F. Smith professed in an editorial that "the church itself has no philosophy about the modus operandi employed by the Lord in His creation of the world." Juvenile Instructor, 46 (4), 208-209 (April 1911)). Some also cite an additional editorial that enumerates various possibilities for creation including the idea that Adam and Eve: (1) "evolved in natural processes to present perfection", (2) were "transplanted [to earth] from another sphere" (see, e.g., Adam-God theory), or (3) were "born here . . . as other mortals have been." (Improvement Era 13, 570 (April 1910)). Proponents of evolution attribute this 1910 editorial to Joseph F. Smith and have sometimes identified it under the title "First Presidency Instructions to the Priesthood: "Origin of Man." However, others have cast doubt on Joseph F. Smith's authorship of the editorial, which was published without attribution and seems to have contradicted contemporary views published elsewhere by Joseph F. Smith himself. They also contend that there is little evidence that the editorial represents "First Presidency Instructions" as the title under which it is often cited indicates. In 1925, as a result of publicity from the "Scopes Monkey Trial" concerning the right to teach evolution in Tennessee public schools, the First Presidency reiterated its 1909 stance, stating that "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity. . . . Man is the child of God, formed in the divine image and endowed with divine attributes." In the early 1930s there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and general authority B. H. Roberts and some members of the Council of the Twelve Apostles over attempts by B. H. Roberts to reconcile the fossil record with the scriptures by introducing a doctrine of pre-Adamic creation, and backing up this speculative doctrine using geology, biology, anthropology, and archeology (The Truth, The Way, The Life, pp.238-240; 289-296). More conservative members of the Twelve Apostles, including Joseph Fielding Smith, rejected his speculation because it contradicted the idea that there was no death until after the fall of Adam. Scriptural references in the Book of Mormon such as 2 Nephi 2:22, Alma 12:23, and Doctrine and Covenants sec. 77:5-7 have been cited as teaching the doctrine that there was no death on the Earth before the Fall of Adam and Eve, and that the Earth's temporal existence consists of a total of seven thousand years (c.4,000 B.C.-c.2,000 A.D.). Some maintain that those scriptural references pertain to a spiritual death, although others disagree. It is clear, however, that the LDS church does not conform to the same young-Earth creationist creed as many other faiths. The church has made it quite clear that the six days of creation are not necessarily six 24-hour periods. Brigham Young definitely addressed the issue (Discourses of Brigham Young, sel. John A. Widtsoe [1971], 100), and even the very anti-evolution Elder Bruce R. McConkie taught that a day, in the Creation accounts, “is a specified time period; it is an age, an eon, a division of eternity; it is the time between two identifiable events. And each day, of whatever length, has the duration needed for its purposes. . . . “There is no revealed recitation specifying that each of the ‘six days’ involved in the Creation was of the same duration” (“Christ and the Creation,” Ensign, June 1982, 11). Elder James E. Talmage published a book through the LDS church that explicitly stated that organisms lived and died on this earth before the earth was fit for human habitation (). However, the official Church Educational System Student Manual teaches that there was no death before the Fall. The debate between different LDS leaders in 1931 prompted the First Presidency, then led by Heber J. Grant as President, to conclude: Upon the fundamental doctrines of the church we are all agreed. Our mission is to bear the message of the restored gospel to the world. Leave geology, biology, archaeology, and anthropology, no one of which has to do with the salvation of the souls of mankind, to scientific research, while we magnify our calling in the realm of the church. . . Upon one thing we should all be able to agree, namely, that Presidents Joseph F. Smith, John R. Winder, and Anthon H. Lund were right when they said: "Adam is the primal parent of our race" [First Presidency Minutes, Apr. 7, 1931]. The debate over pre-Adamites has been interpreted by LDS proponents of evolution as a debate about organic evolution. This view, based on the belief that a dichotomy of thought on the subject of evolution existed between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, has become common among pro-evolution members of the church. As a result, the ensuing 1931 statement has been interpreted by some as official permission for members to believe in organic evolution. However, there is no evidence that the debate included the topic of evolution, and historically there was no strong disagreement between Joseph Fielding Smith and B. H. Roberts concerning evolution; they both rejected it, although to different degrees. B. H. Roberts wrote that the "hypothesis" of organic evolution was "destructive of the grand, central truth of all revelation," (The Gospel and Man's Relationship to Deity, 7th edition, Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1928, pp. 265-267). Later, Joseph Fielding Smith published his book Man: His Origin and Destiny, which denounced evolution without qualification. Similar statements of denunciation were made by Bruce R. McConkie, who as late as 1980 denounced evolution as one of "the seven deadly heresies" (BYU Fireside, June 1, 1980), and stated: "There are those who say that revealed religion and organic evolution can be harmonized. This is both false and devilish." Evolution was also denounced by the conservative Ezra Taft Benson, who as an Apostle called on members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a "falsehood" on a par with socialism, rationalism, and humanism. (Ezra Taft Benson, Conference Report, April 5, 1975). A dichotomy of opinion exists among some church members today. Largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of conservative church members. A minority accept evolution, supported in part by the debate between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, in part by a large amount of scientific evidence, and in part by Joseph F. Smith's words that "the church itself has no philosophy about the modus operandi employed by the Lord in His creation of the world." Meanwhile, Brigham Young University, the largest private university owned and operated by the church, not only teaches evolution to its biology majors, but has also done significant research in evolution.. BYU-I, another church-run school, also teaches it; the following link is an article on how evolution and faith are reconciled at BYU-I. References: . Trent D. Stephens, D. Jeffrey Meldrum, & Forrest B. Peterson, Evolution and Mormonism: A Quest for Understanding (Signature Books, 2001). Reacting to pluralism The role of women: Allowing women to speak in Sacrament Meetings Opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment *#. E.T.Benson's views on whether women should work outside the home The Family: A Proclamation to the World Women and the Priesthood The Church, sexual orientation, and gender identity: Doctrinal position on homosexuality: Statements about homosexuality by Church leaders New views on the separation between gay "identity" and gay "conduct" Connections with the ex-gay movement: Unofficial and informal connections to the ex-gay movement: Evergreen International, Inc. Hinckley: "Marriage should not be viewed as a therapeutic step to solve problems such as homosexual inclinations or practices, which first should clearly be overcome with a firm and fixed determination never to slip to such practices again." The church's political involvement in LGBT issues: In 1992, the First Presidency was involved in efforts to defeat a proposal which would include "sexual orientation" as a protected category in Utah's hate crime law. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the Church began to focus its attention on the issue of same-sex marriages. In 1993, the Supreme Court of the State of Hawaii held that discrimination against same-sex couples in the granting of marriage licences violated the Hawaiian constitution. In response, the Church's First Presidency issued a statement on February 13, 1994 declaring its opposition to same-sex marriage to protect the sanctity of traditional roles of marriage. The statement and urged its members to not discriminate against gays and lesbians, but not condone same gender rights. Supported by the efforts of the LDS Church and several other religious organizations, the Hawaiian legislature enacted a bill in 1994 outlawing same-sex marriages. Officially, the Church continues to oppose efforts in Hawaii to grant gay and lesbian families the right to legal equality, including adoption, child custody, and joint property rights. As other states, including Vermont and Massachusetts, began extending legal protections to same-sex couples, the Church continued to take an active role in preventing any legal equality for families other than the heterosexual married couples. In 2004, the Church officially endorsed an amendment to the United States Constitution banning marriage except between a man and a woman. The Church also officially announced its opposition to political measures that "confer legal status on any other sexual relationship" than a "man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife." ("First Presidency Statement on Same-Gender Marriage", October 19, 2004). Although the statement was directed specifically to gay marriage, the statement could also be read to encompass political opposition by the Church to recognizing civil unions, common-law marriages, plural marriages, or other family arrangements. LGBT Mormon support groups: Some Church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations, including Evergreen International, Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons, North Star, North Star Disciples2, Home Wildflowers, Home Page Family Fellowship, GLYA (Gay LDS Young Adults), Website Disabled LDS Reconciliation, Gay Mormon at LDSReconciliation.org Gamofites and the Guardrail foundation. The Guardrail Foundation Challenges to fundamental church doctrine In 1967, a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the Metropolitan Museum of Art that appear to be the manuscripts from which Joseph Smith, Jr. claimed to have translated the Book of Abraham in 1835. These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871. Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified by some as The Book of the Dead, an ancient Egyptian funery text. Moreover, the scholars' translations of certain portions of the scrolls disagreed with Smith's translation. This discovery forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith's translations were literal one-to-one translations. As a result of this discovery, some Mormon apologists consider The Book of the Dead to be a starting-point that Smith used to reconstruct the original writings of Abraham through inspiration. In the early 1980s, the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript, which came to be known as the "Salamander Letter", received much publicity. This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named Mark Hofmann, alleged that the Book of Mormon was given to Joseph Smith, Jr. by a being that changed itself into a salamander, not by an angel as the official Church history recounted. The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still significantly publicized and even printed in the Church's official magazine, The Ensign. Some Mormon apologists including Apostle Dallin H. Oaks suggested that the letter used the idea of a salamander as a metaphor for an angel. The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in 1985, and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries. Not all of Hofmann's finds have been deemed fraudulent. A document called the 'Anthon transcript' that allegedly contains reformed Egyptian characters from the Book of Mormon plates is still in dispute, although the characters have been highly circulated both by the Church and other individuals. Due to Hofmann's methods, the authenticity of many of the documents he sold to the Church and the Smithsonian will likely never be sorted out. Mormon dissidents and scholars In 1989, George P. Lee, a Navajo member of the First Quorum of the Seventy who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated. The church action occurred not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the affect it had on Native American culture. In October 1994, Lee confessed to, and was convicted of, sexually molesting a 13-year-old girl in 1989. It is not known if church leaders had knowledge of this crime during the excommunication process. In the late 1980s, the administration of Ezra Taft Benson formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings. The existence of this committee was first publicized by an anti-Mormon ministry in 1991, when it was referred to in a memo dated July 19, 1990 leaked from the office of the church's Presiding Bishopric. At the 1992 Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar Lavina Fielding Anderson accused the Committee of being "an internal espionage system," which prompted BYU professor and moderate Mormon scholar Eugene England to "accuse that committee of undermining the Church," a charge for which he later publicly apologized (Letter to the Editor, Sunstone, March 1993). The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the Committee. ("Mormon Church keeps files on its dissenters," St. Petersburg Times, Aug. 15, 1992, at 6e.) The Church explained that the Committee "provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism." ("Secret Files," New York Times, Aug. 22, 1992). The First Presidency also issued a statement on August 22, 1992, explaining its position that the Committee had precedent and was justified based on a reference to D&C (LDS) Sec. 123, written while Joseph Smith, Jr. was imprisoned in Liberty, Missouri, suggesting that a committee be formed to record and document acts of persecution against the church by the people of Missouri. Other topics: BYU academic freedom Statements against Sunstone Excommunication of scholars, including the September Six Dealing with Mormon polygamist sects: The Church ended the practice of polygamy officially in 1890 by instating Official Declaration-1 to the Saints. It states that: "We are not teaching polygamy or plural marriage, nor permitting any person to enter into its practice." Changing doctrinal focus The church and pornography: The church has always been against the creation, distribution and viewing of pornography. Gordon B. Hinckley had been known to say that pornography is as addictive as the worst drugs. Lynn Arave "LDS urged to boost worthiness" Deseret News May 19, 2004 He often talked of what a shame it is to use such great resources (such as the internet) for such material. Genealogy Latter-day Saint public relations By the 1960s and 1970s, as a consequence of its massive, international growth in the post-World War II era, the church was no longer primarily a Utah-based church, but a world-wide organization. The church, mirroring the world around it, felt the disunifying strains of alien cultures and diverse points of view that had brought an end to the idealistic modern age. At the same time, the postmodern world was increasingly skeptical of traditional religion and authority, and driven by mass-media and public image. These influences awoke within the church a new self-consciousness. The church could no longer rest quietly upon its fundamentals and history. It felt a need to sell its image to an increasingly jaded public, to jettison some of its Utah-based parochialism, to control and manage Mormon scholarship that might present an unfavorable image of the church, and to alter its organization to cope with its size and cultural diversity, while preserving centralized control of Latter-day Saint doctrine, practice, and culture. Thus, the church underwent a number of important changes in organization, practices, and meeting schedule. In addition, the church became more media-savvy, and more self-conscious and protective of its public image. The church also became more involved in public discourse, using its new-found political and cultural influence and the media to affect its image, public morality, and Mormon scholarship, and to promote its missionary efforts. At the same time, the church struggled with how to deal with increasingly pluralistic voices within the church and within Mormonism. In general, this period has seen both an increase in cultural and racial diversity and extra-faith ecumenism, and a decrease in intra-faith pluralism. Until the church's rapid growth after World War II, it had been seen in the eyes of the general public as a backward, non- or vaguely-Christian polygamist cult in Utah — an image that interfered with proselyting efforts. As the church's size began to merit new visibility in the world, the church seized upon the opportunity to re-define its public image, and to establish itself in the public mind as a mainstream Christian faith. At the same time, the church became publicly involved in numerous ecumenical and welfare projects that continue to serve as the foundation of its ecumenism today. As part of the church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the church began to moderate its earlier anti-Catholic rhetoric. In Elder Bruce R. McConkie's 1958 edition of Mormon Doctrine, he had stated his unofficial opinion that the Catholic Church was part of "the church of the devil" and "the great and abominable church" because it was among organizations that misled people away from following God's laws. In his 1966 edition of the same book, the specific reference to the Catholic Church was removed. See generally: Armand L. Mauss, The Angel and the Beehive: The Mormon Struggle with Assimilation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Gordon Sheperd & Gary Sheperd, "Mormonism in Secular Society: Changing Patterns in Official Ecclesiastical Rhetoric," Review of Religious Research 26 (Sept. 1984): 28-42. The first routinized system for teaching church principles to potential proselytes had been created in 1953 and named "A Systematic Program for Teaching the Gospel". In 1961, this system was enhanced, expanded, and renamed "A Uniform System for Teaching Investigators". This new system, in the form of a hypothetical dialogue with a fictional character named "Mr. Brown", included intricate details for what to say in almost every situation. These routinized missionary discussions would be further refined in 1973 and 1986, and then de-emphasized in 2003. In 1973, the church recast its missionary discussions, making them more family-friendly and focused on building on common Christian ideals. The new discussions, named "A Uniform System for Teaching Families", de-emphasized the Great Apostasy, which previously held a prominent position just after the story of the First Vision. When the discussions were revised in the early 1980s, the new discussions dealt with the apostasy less conspicuously, and in later discussions, rather than in the first discussion. The discussions also became more family-friendly, including a flip chart with pictures, in part to encourage the participation of children. In 1982, the church renamed its edition of The Book of Mormon to The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ, in order to emphasize that the book is about Jesus. Pre-1995 church logo In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words "JESUS CHRIST" in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words "The Church of" and "of Latter-day Saints". According to Bruce L. Olsen, director of public affairs for the church, "The logo re-emphasizes the official name of the church and the central position of the Savior in its theology. It stresses our allegiance to the Lord, Jesus Christ." On January 1, 2000, the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles released a proclamation entitled "The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the church's official view regarding Christ. In 2001, the church sent out a press release encouraging reporters to use the full name of the church at the beginning of news articles, with following references to the "Church of Jesus Christ". The release discouraged the use of the term "Mormon Church". Cooperation with other churches: The church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups, and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network. The church has participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other churches. Agreement not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy The church and the Information Age: This would include topics like how the church seeks to battle pornography, its use of the internet, its battle to control its public image, broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication, appearances on Larry King Live, etc. The church in the media: Official press releases Explanations of basic beliefs found at lds.org and mormon.org Homefront Our Heavenly Father's Plan, Together Forever, What is Real, Prodigal Son, etc. Legacy, etc. Hinckley's appearances on Larry King Live Communication with foreign countries to allow entry of missionaries Broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication See also Controversies regarding Mormonism History of the Church Latter Day Saint Historians Mormonism and history Church History Museum Temperance organizations Restorationism Restoration movement The Joseph Smith Papers Notes References Allen, James and Leonard, Glen M. (1976, 1992) The Story of the Latter-day Saints; Deseret Book; ISBN 0-87579-565-X Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com Arrington, Leonard J. (1979). The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0-252-06236-1 (1979; Paperback, 1992) Arrington, Leonard J. (1958). Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830-1900; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0-252-02972-0 (1958; Hardcover, October 2004). Givens, Terryl L. The Latter-day Saint Experience in America (The American Religious Experience) Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0-313-32750-5. May, Dean L. Utah: A People's History. Bonneville Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1987. ISBN 0-87480-284-9. Quinn, D. Michael (1985), "LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890-1904," Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 18.1 (Spring 1985): 9-105. Roberts, B. H. (1930). A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I 6 volumes; Brigham Young University Press; ISBN 0-8425-0482-6 (1930; Hardcover 1965) (out of print) Smith, Joseph Smith, Jr. (1902). History of the Church 7 volumes; Deseret Book Company; ISBN 0-87579-486-6 (1902 Boxed Set, Paperback, 1991) Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com . External links The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Chronology of Church History (LDS Church, 2000). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Our Heritage: A Brief History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS Church, 1996). GrupoSUD.com - A large general interest Spanish-language discussion group for LDS Church members. Annotated Early History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (BOAP, 2000) Mormon Studies - A site dedicated to the academic and cultural study of Mormonism. Contains useful essays on aspects of Church history. The Joseph Smith Papers The official website of the forthcoming scholarly collection of extant Joseph Smith documents. 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7,668 | Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden | The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) against the forces of Count Tilly. Gustav II Adolf in Polish 'delia' coat, painting by Merian, 1632 Gustav II Adolf, (19 December 1594 – 16 November 1632, O.S.) or Gustav II Adolphus, widely known in English by the Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus and variously in historical writings sometimes as simply just Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolf the Great, (, from the special distinction passed by the Swedish Parliament in 1634), was founder of the Swedish Empire (or Stormaktstiden "the era of great power") at the beginning of what is widely regarded as the Golden Age of Sweden. In the era, which was characterized by nearly endless warfare, he led his armies as King of Sweden—from 1611, as a seventeen year old, until his death in battle while leading a charge during 1632 in the bloody Thirty Years' war—as Sweden rose from the status as a mere regional power and run-of-the-mill kingdom to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government. Sweden expanded to become the third biggest nation in Europe after Russia and Spain within only a few years during his reign. Some have called him the "father of modern warfare" , or the first great modern general. Under his tutelage, Sweden and the Protestant cause developed a host of good generals who continued to expand the empires' strength and influence long after his death in battle. He was known by the epithets "The Golden King" and "The Lion of the North" by neighboring sovereigns. Gustavus Adolphus is today commemorated by city squares in Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Sundsvall. Gustavus Adolphus College, a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota, is also named for the Swedish king. Biography Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm as the oldest son of King Charles IX of Sweden of the Vasa dynasty and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp. Upon his father's death in , a seventeen year-old Gustav inherited the throne as well as an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin Sigismund III of Poland who, in the preliminary religious strife before the Thirty Years' War, was forced to let go of the throne of Sweden to Gustav's father. Sigismund III wanted to regain the throne of Sweden and tried to force Gustav Adolph to renounce the title. In a round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus invaded Livonia when he was , beginning the Polish-Swedish War (1625–1629). He intervened on behalf of the Lutherans in Germany, who opened the gates to their cities to him. His reign became famous from his actions a few years later when on June 1630 he landed in Germany, continuing Sweden's involvement in the ongoing Thirty Years' War. Gustavus intervened on the anti-Imperial side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies; the Swedish forces would quickly reverse that situation. Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a great loss to the Lutheran side and it prolonged the war for many years. This resulted in large parts of Germany and other countries, which for a large part had become Lutheran in faith, to be forced into Catholicism (via Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the old prophecy that he was the incarnation of "the Lion of the North", or as it is called in German "Der Löwe von Mitternacht" (Literally: "The Lion from Midnight"). Legacy as a general Gustavus Adolphus was known as an able military commander. His innovative tactical integration of infantry, cavalry, artillery and logistics earned him the title of the "Father of Modern Warfare". Future commanders who studied and admired Gustav II Adolf include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz. His advancements in military science made Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the next one hundred years (see Swedish Empire). He is also the only Swedish monarch to be styled "the Great". This decision was made by the Swedish Estates of the Realm, when they convened in 1633. Thus, by their decision he is officially, to this day, to be called Gustaf Adolf the Great (Gustavus Adolphus Magnus). Gustavus Adolphus was the main figure responsible for the success of Sweden during the Thirty Years' War and led his nation to great prestige. As a general, Gustavus Adolphus is famous for employing mobile artillery on the battlefield, as well as very aggressive tactics, where attack was stressed over defense, and mobility and cavalry initiative were emphasized. Among other innovations, he installed an early form of combined arms in his formations, where the cavalry could attack from the safety of an infantry line reinforced by cannon, and retire again within to regroup after their foray. He adopted much shallower infantry formations than were common in the pike and shot armies of the era, with formations typically fighting in 5 or 6 ranks, occasionally supported at some distance by another such formation—the gaps being the provinces of the artillery and cavalry as noted above. His artillery were themselves different—he would not let himself be hindered by cumbersome heavy cannon, but instead over a course of experimentation settled on smaller, more maneuverable weapons, in effect fielding the first light field artillery in history in any significant ratios. These were grouped in batteries supporting his more linearly deployed formations, replacing the cumbersome and unmaneuverable traditional deep squares (such as the Spanish Tercios that were up to 50 ranks deep,) used in other pike and shot armies of the day. In consequence, his forces could redeploy and reconfigure extremely rapidly, confounding his enemies. His armies were very well trained for the day, so that his musketeers were widely known for their firing accuracy and reload speed: three times faster than any contemporary rivals. Carl von Clausewitz and Napoleon Bonaparte considered him one of the greatest generals of all time; a sentiment agreed with by Patton and others. He was also renowned for the consistency of purpose and the amity of his troops—no one part of his armies was considered better or received preferred treatment, as was common in other armies where the cavalry were the elite, followed by the artillerist, and both disdained the lowly infantry. In Gustavus' army the units were extensively cross trained. Both cavalry and infantry could service the artillery, as his heavy cavalry did when turning captured artillery on the opposing Catholic Tercios at First Breitenfeld. Pikemen could shoot—if not as accurately as those designated musketeers—so a valuable firearm could be kept in the firing line. His infantrymen and gunners were taught to ride, if needed. Napoleon thought highly of the achievement, and copied the tactics. Military commander When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June-July 1630, he had just 4,000 troops. But he was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north. Meanwhile, a Catholic army was laying waste to Saxony. Gustavus Adolphus met and defeated it at the First Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631, in spite of the collapse of his Saxon allies. He then made plans for the invasion of the rest of the Holy Roman Empire. In March 1632, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Bavaria. He forced the withdrawal of his Catholic opponents at the Battle of Rain. This would mark the high point of the campaign. In the summer of that year, he sought a political solution that would preserve the existing structure of states in Germany, while guaranteeing the security of its Protestants. But achieving these objectives depended on his continued success on the battlefield. Gustavus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, "The Lord God, is my armor!" It is more likely that he simply wore a leather cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. Gustavus Adolphus was killed at the Battle of Lützen, when, at a crucial point in the battle, he became separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge into a dense smog of mist and gunpowder smoke. After his death, his wife initially kept his body, and later his heart, in her castle for over a year. His remains (including his heart) now rest in Riddarholmskyrkan in Stockholm. In February 1633, following the death of the king, the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates decided that his name would be styled Gustav Adolf the Great (or Gustaf Adolf den Store in Swedish). No such honor has been bestowed on any other Swedish monarch since. The crown of Sweden was inherited in the Vasa family, and from Charles IX's time excluded those Vasa princes who had been traitors or descended from deposed monarchs. Gustavus Adolphus' younger brother had died years before, and therefore there were only female heirs left. Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government on behalf of Gustavus Adolphus' underage daughter Christina upon her father's death. He left one other known child, his illegitimate son Gustav, Count of Vasaborg. Alternative views The German Socialist Franz Mehring (1846–1919) wrote a biography of Gustavus Adolphus with a Marxist perspective on the actions of the Swedish king during the Thirty Years' War. In it, he makes a case that the war was fought over economics and trade rather than religion. In his book "Ofredsår" ("Years of Warfare"), the Swedish historian and author Peter Englund argues that there was probably no single all-important reason for the king's decision to go to war. Instead, it was likely a combination of religious, security, as well as economic considerations. Politics Gustav II Adolf's success in making Sweden one of the top nations in Europe, and perhaps the most important nation in the Thirty Years' War along with France and Spain , was not only due to military brilliance but large changes in the Swedish system of government. For example, he introduced the first Parish registrations, so the central government could keep track on the population across the kingdom. Timeline July 1626. Gustavus Adolphus and his army disembark at Pillau, Prussia, during the Polish-Swedish War (1625–1629). August 18, 1627. The King is seriously wounded in the battle of Dirschau (Tczew). June 1629 his troops meet up with imperial troops under Hans Georg von Arnim-Boitzenburg, who used to serve under Gustav Adolph, and is ordered by emperor Ferdinand to aid Sigismund III. May 1630 and July 6 Gustav Adolph lands in Germany. September 1631. At the Battle of Breitenfeld, Gustavus Adolphus decisively defeats the Catholic forces led by Tilly, even after the allied Protestant Saxon army had been routed and fled with the baggage train. April 1632. At the Battle of Lech, Gustavus Adolphus defeats Tilly once more, and in the battle Tilly sustains a fatal wound. May 1632. Munich yields to the Swedish army. September 1632. Gustavus Adolphus attacks the stronghold of Alte Veste, which is under the command of Wallenstein, but is repulsed, marking the first defeat in the Thirty Years' War of the previously invincible Swedes. This leads to defection of some mercenary elements in the Protestant army. November 1632. At the Battle of Lützen, Gustavus Adolphus is killed in battle, but the Swedes win the fight thanks to Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, who assumes command and defeats Wallenstein. The Swedish war effort was kept up by generals Gustav Horn, Johan Banér, Lennart Torstenson and chancellor Axel Oxenstierna until the Peace of Westphalia. A history of Gustavus Adolphus' wars was written by Johann Philipp Abelin. Gustavus Adolphus Day is celebrated in Sweden each year on November 6. On this day only, a special pastry with a chocolate or marzipan medallion of the king, is sold. The day is also an official flag day in the Swedish calendar. In Finland, the day is celebrated as svenska dagen or ruotsalaisuuden päivä, "Swedishness Day", and is a customary flag day. In Estonia, the day is known as Gustav Adolfi päev. In all three countries, November 6 is the name day for Gustav Adolf, one of the few exceptional name days in the year. In fiction Gustavus Adolphus plays an important supporting role in Eric Flint's 1632 series, living beyond his battle death after being warned by the Americans, fitted with eye-glasses, and becomes Emperor of the United States of Europe. Bertolt Brecht's play Mother Courage and Her Children mentions Gustavus Adolphus several times in the earlier scenes during which the characters are traveling with the Protestant Army. The Cook lampoons the "Hero King" by pointing out that first he sought to liberated Poland from the Germans, then sought liberate Germany from the Germans, and made a profit on the deal. His insufficient reverence for the king also introduces that, unlike Mother Courage and the Chaplain, the Cook is a Dutchman not a Swede. Ancestors Gustavus Adolphus's ancestors in three generations See also History of Sweden Rise of Sweden as a Great Power Axel Oxenstierna Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg Gustavus Adolphus College Gustav Adolf Grammar School Brzezinski, Richard; (illustrator: Hook, Richard)The Army of Gustavus Adolphus. Osprey Publishing (1993). ISBN 1855323508. 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7,669 | Abipón_people | Abipón is a native American language of the Mataco-Guaycuru family that was at one time spoken in Argentina. Its last speaker is thought to have died in the 19th century. As a people they were a nation of Argentina's Gran Chaco. Seasonalbly mobile their territories as hunters, gatherers, fishers and to a limited extent farmers. In the 1640s they began to acquire horses and abandoned farming for raiding. They became feared by their neighbours and the Spanish , from whom they stole over 100,000 horses and even threatened major cities. Even Abipón women were reputedly aggressive and held considerable power in their people's religious rites. From 1710 a major military effort by the Spanish began gradually to impose authority. By 1750 Jesuit missions had been established among the Abipón, and they had been forced to become sedentary. By 1768, when the Jusuits were expelled by the government, over half of the Abipón had succumbed to disease. When they attempted to resume their former lifestyles they found their traditional lands occupied by settlers and other nations. Within fifty years, disease and warfare had destroyed them as a nation, with the remnants assimilated into the general Argentinian population. (Information taken from 'Peoples, Nations and Cultures', edited by Professor John Mackenzie) External links Entry for Abipón at Rosetta Project | Abipón_people |@lemmatized abipón:5 native:1 american:1 language:1 mataco:1 guaycuru:1 family:1 one:1 time:1 speak:1 argentina:2 last:1 speaker:1 think:1 die:1 century:1 people:3 nation:4 gran:1 chaco:1 seasonalbly:1 mobile:1 territory:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 fisher:1 limited:1 extent:1 farmer:1 begin:2 acquire:1 horse:2 abandon:1 farm:1 raid:1 become:2 fear:1 neighbour:1 spanish:2 steal:1 even:2 threaten:1 major:2 city:1 woman:1 reputedly:1 aggressive:1 hold:1 considerable:1 power:1 religious:1 rite:1 military:1 effort:1 gradually:1 impose:1 authority:1 jesuit:1 mission:1 establish:1 among:1 force:1 sedentary:1 jusuits:1 expel:1 government:1 half:1 succumb:1 disease:2 attempt:1 resume:1 former:1 lifestyle:1 find:1 traditional:1 land:1 occupy:1 settler:1 within:1 fifty:1 year:1 warfare:1 destroy:1 remnant:1 assimilate:1 general:1 argentinian:1 population:1 information:1 take:1 culture:1 edit:1 professor:1 john:1 mackenzie:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 rosetta:1 project:1 |@bigram hunter_gatherer:1 external_link:1 |
7,670 | Antigua_and_Barbuda | Antigua and Barbuda (Spanish for "Ancient" and "Bearded") is an island nation located on the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. As its name suggests, it consists of two major islands Antigua () and Barbuda () as well as a number of smaller islets. All are close neighbours within the middle of the Leeward Islands and roughly 17 degrees north of the equator. Antigua has a population of 82,000, comprising chiefly a mixture of people of West African, British and Portuguese descent. The islands of Antigua and Barbuda are part of the Lesser Antilles archipelago. To the south of Antigua and Barbuda lie the islands of Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago. Montserrat lies to the southwest; Saint Kitts and Nevis and Saint Eustatius are to the west, and Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin and Anguilla are to the northwest. History Antigua was first settled by pre-agricultural Amerindians known as "Archaic People", commonly referred to as Ciboney, which means cave dweller in Arawakan. The earliest settlements on the island date to 2900 BC. They were succeeded by ceramic-using agriculturalist Saladoid people who migrated up the island chain from Venezuela. They were later replaced by Arawakan speakers, and around 1500 [BC?] by Island Caribs. The Arawaks were the first well-documented group of Antiguans. The Arawaks called Antigua Wadadli, which means land of oil, perhaps a reference to eucalyptus oil extracted from eucalyptus trees. They paddled to the island by canoe (piragua) from Venezuela, ejected by the Caribs—another people indigenous to the area. Arawaks introduced agriculture to Antigua and Barbuda, raising, among other crops, the famous Antiguan "Black" pineapple. They also cultivated various other foods including: corn, sweet potatoes (white with firmer flesh than the bright orange "sweet potato" used in the United States), chiles, guava, tobacco and cotton. Some of the vegetables listed, such as corn and sweet potatoes, still play an important role in Antiguan cuisine. For example, a popular Antiguan dish, Dukuna (DOO-koo-NAH) is a sweet, steamed dumpling made from grated sweet potatoes, flour and spices. In addition, one of the Antiguan staple foods, fungi (FOON-ji), is a cooked paste made of cornmeal and water. The bulk of the Arawaks left Antigua about 1100 A.D. Those who remained were subsequently raided by the Caribs. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the Carib's superior weapons and seafaring prowess allowed them to defeat most Arawak nations in the West Indies—enslaving some, and possibly cannibalizing others (though this is unclear because many sources dispute the fact that Indian societies cannibalized each other). The Catholic Encyclopedia does make it clear that the European invaders had some difficulty identifying and differentiating between the various native peoples they encountered. As a result, the number and types of ethnic/tribal/national groups in existence at the time may be much more varied and numerous than the two mentioned in this Article. According to A Brief History of the Caribbean (Jan Rogozinski, Penguin Putnam, Inc September 2000 ), European and African diseases, malnutrition and slavery eventually destroyed the vast majority of the Caribbean's native population. No researcher has conclusively proven any of these causes as the real reason for the destruction of West Indian natives. In fact, some historians believe that the psychological stress of slavery may also have played a part in the massive number of native deaths while in servitude. Others believe that the reportedly abundant, but starchy, low-protein diet may have contributed to severe malnutrition of the "Indians" who were used to a diet fortified with protein from sea-life. The indigenous West Indians made excellent sea vessels that they used to sail the Atlantic and Caribbean. As a result, Caribs and Arawaks populated much of South American and the Caribbean Islands. Relatives of the Antiguan Arawaks and Caribs still live in various countries in South America, notably Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. The smaller remaining native populations in the West Indies maintain a pride in their heritage. The island of Antigua was named Wadadli by these natives and is today called "Land of Wadadli" by locals. Christopher Columbus landed on his second trip in 1493 and named the island Santa Maria de la Antigua after a church in Seville, Spain. Early settlement by the Spanish was replaced by English rule from 1632 (British rule from 1707 Acts of Union), with a French interlude in 1666. Slavery, established to run the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations on November 1, 1981, with Elizabeth II as the first Queen of Antigua and Barbuda and the Right Honourable Vere Cornwall Bird became the first prime minister. Politics The politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the Head of State is the monarch, who appoints the Governor-General as vice-regal representative. In 2007 Louise Lake-Tack became the first female to hold the position of Governor-General in the history of Antigua and Barbuda. A Council of Ministers is appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister, currently Baldwin Spencer. The Prime Minister is the head of the government. Vere Cornwall Bird, Antigua and Barbuda's first Prime Minister, is credited with having brought Antigua and Barbuda and the Caribbean into a new era of independence. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by first past the post to serve five-year terms). The last elections held were on 12 March 2009. At the last elections, the Antigua Labour Party won seven seats, while the United Progressive Party won nine. The Barbuda People's Movement won the seventeenth seat. Since 1949, the party system had been dominated by the personalist Antigua Labour Party. However, the Antigua and Barbuda legislative election, 2004, saw the defeat of the longest-serving elected government in the Caribbean. The Prime Minister, Lester Bryant Bird and deputy Robin Yearwood had been in office since 1994, when he succeeded his father, Vere Bird. The elder Bird had been Prime Minister from independence in 1981 and, before independence, had been Chief Minister of Antigua from 1960, except for the period 1971-76 when the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM) defeated them in those elections. The Judicial Branch is the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia; one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction). Antigua is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice. The Supreme Court of Appeal was the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council up until 2001, when the nations of the Caribbean Community voted to abolish the right of appeal to the Privy Council in favour of a Caribbean Court of Justice. Some debate between member countries had repeatedly delayed the court's date of inauguration. As of March, 2005, only Barbados was set to replace appeals to the Privy Council with appeals the Caribbean Court of Justice, which then had come into operation. Parishes and dependencies Antigua and Barbuda is divided into 6 parishes and 2 dependencies: Parishes Saint George Saint John Saint Mary Saint Paul Saint Peter Saint Philip Dependencies Barbuda Redonda Military The ABDF is the country's armed force. It has 250 members. Under the ABDF there is the Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Core which holds 200 strong members between the ages of 12-18. Economy Tourism dominates the economy, accounting for more than half of the GDP. Antigua is famous for its many exclusive luxury resorts. Weak tourist arrival numbers since early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner. Investment Banking and Financial Services also comprise an important part of the economy. Major world banks with offices in Antigua include: Bank of America (Bank of Antigua), Barclays, Royal Bank of Canada (RBC), and Scotia Bank among others. Financial services corporations with offices in Antigua include Price Waterhouse Coopers, among others. According to the New York Times, the US Securities and Exchange Commission has accused the Antigua based Stanford International Bank owned by Texas billionaire Allen Stanford of orchestrating a huge fraud that may have bilked investors of some $8 billion. The dual-island nation's agricultural production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited water supply and a labour shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the United States, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. Demographics Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The ethnic distribution consist of 91% Black or Mulatto, 4.4% Other Mixed Race, 1.7% White, 2.9% Other. The majority of the white population is ethnically Irish and British, and Portuguese. There are also Christian Levantine Arabs (primarily of Syrian, Lebanese and Palestinian descent) and a small population of Asians and Sephardic Jews. Behind the late twentieth century reviving and respecifying of the place of Afro-Antiguans and Barbudans in the cultural life of the society, is a history of race/ethnic relations that systematically excluded them. Within the colonial framework established by the British soon after their initial settlement of Antigua in 1623, five distinct and carefully ranked race/ethnic groups emerged. At the top of this hierarchy were the British, who justified their hegemony with arguments of white supremacy and civilizing missions. Among themselves, there were divisions between British Antiguans and noncreolized Britons, with the latter coming out on top. In short, this was a race/ethnic hierarchy that gave maximum recognition to Anglicized persons and cultural practices. Immediately below the British were the mulattos, a mixed race group that resulted from unions between black Africans and white Europeans. Mulattos were lighter in shade than the masses of black Africans, and on that basis distinguished themselves from the latter. They developed complex ideologies of shade to legitimate their claims to higher status. These ideologies of shade paralleled in many ways British ideologies of white supremacy. Next in this hierarchy were the Portuguese — twenty-five hundred of whom migrated as workers from Madeira between 1847 and 1852 because of a severe famine. Many established small businesses and joined the ranks of the mulatto middle class. The British never really considered Portuguese as whites and so they were not allowed into their ranks. Among Portuguese Antiguans and Barbudans, status differences move along a continuum of varying degrees of assimilation into the Anglicized practices of the dominant group. Below the Portuguese were the Middle Easterners, who began migrating to Antigua and Barbuda around the turn of the twentieth century. Starting as itinerant traders, they soon worked their way into the middle strata of the society. Although Middle Easterners came from a variety of areas in the Middle East, as a group they are usually referred to as Syrians. St. John's Cathedral Fifth and finally were the Afro-Antiguans and Barbudans who were located at the bottom of this hierarchy. Forced to "emigrate" as slaves, Africans started arriving in Antigua and Barbuda in large numbers during the 1670s. Very quickly they came to constitute the majority of the population. As they entered this hierarchy, Africans were profoundly racialized. They ceased being Yoruba, Igbo, or Akan and became Negroes or Blacks. In the 20th century, the colonial hierarchy gradually began to be subversed as a result of universal education and better economic opportunity. This process gave rise to blacks reaching the highest strata of society and government. In the last decade, Spanish-speaking immigrants from the Dominican Republic and Afro-Caribbean immigrants from Guyana and Dominica have been added to this ethnic mosaic. They have entered at the bottom of the hierarchy and it is still too early to predict what their patterns of assimilation and social mobility will be. Today, an increasingly large percent of the population live abroad, most notably in the United Kingdom (Antiguan Britons), United States and Canada. A minority of the Antiguan residents are immigrants from other countries, particularly Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica with an increasing number of immigrants from the Dominican Republic, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Nigeria. There is also a significant population of American citizens estimated at 4500 people which would make it one of the largest American citizen populations in the English speaking Eastern Caribbean. A sizable majority of Antiguans are Christians (74%), with the Anglican Church (about 44%) being the largest denomination. Catholicism is the other significant denomination, with the remainder being other Protestants: including Methodists, Moravians, Pentecostals and Seventh-Day Adventists. There are also Jehovah's Witnesses. Non-Christian religions practiced on the islands include Rastafari, Islam, Judaism, and Baha'i. Languages The official language of Antigua and Barbuda is English, but many of the locals speak Antiguan Creole. The Barbudan accent is slightly different from the Antiguan one. Spanish is also widely spoken in certain communities in Antigua where immigrants from the Dominican Republic make up large numbers. In the years before Antigua and Barbuda's independence, Standard English was widely spoken in preference to Antiguan Creole, but afterwards Antiguans began treating Antiguan Creole as a respectable aspect of their culture. Generally, the upper and middle classes shun Antiguan Creole. The educational system dissuades use of Antiguan Creole and instruction is done in Standard (British) English. The higher up one goes on the socio economic ladder, the less prevalent Antiguan Creole becomes, to the extent that some Antiguans will deny that they speak or understand Antiguan Creole. Many of the words used in the Antiguan dialect are derived from British and also African origins. This can be easily seen in some phrases like: "Me nah go" meaning "I am not going". Another example is: "Ent it?" meaning "Ain't it?" which is in itself dialect and means "Isn't it?". Common island proverbs often can be traced to Africa. Culture The culture of Antigua and Barbuda is predominantly British, and this is evident throughout many aspects of the society. For example, the national sport is cricket, and Antigua has produced several famous cricket players including Sir Vivian Richards, Anderson "Andy" Roberts, and Richard "Richy" Richardson. Following cricket, the next most popular sport is football. Boat racing and surfing are also popular sports; Antigua Sailing week attracts locals and visitors from all over the world. American popular culture and fashion also have a heavy influence. The majority of the media in the country are major United States networks. Antiguans pay close attention to American fashion trends, and major designer items are available at boutiques in St. John's and elsewhere, although many Antiguans prefer to make a special trip to St. Martin, North America, or San Juan, Puerto Rico, for shopping. Family and religion play an important role in the lives of Antiguans. Most Antiguans attend religious services on Sunday, although there is a growing minority of Seventh-day Adventists who observe the Sabbath on Saturday. There is a national Carnival celebration held during August each year. Historically, Carnival commemorates the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies, although on some islands, carnival celebrates the end of Lent. The annual Carnival includes pageants, shows, contests and festive activities and is a notable tourist attraction. Calypso and soca music are important in Antigua and Barbuda Media There are two daily newspapers: Daily Observer, and Antigua Sun which also publishes newspapers on other Caribbean islands. Most American television networks are available in addition to the local face television ABS TV 10 which is the only stations that show 100% local shows. There are several local and regional radio stations. Sport Cricket ground in St. John, Antigua. Like many commonwealth countries, cricket is the most popular sport. The 2007 Cricket World Cup was hosted in the West Indies from 11 March to 28 April 2007. Antigua hosted eight matches at the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, which was completed on 11 February 2007 and can hold up to 20 000 people at full capacity. Antigua is also a Host of Stanford Twenty20 - Twenty20 Cricket, a version started by Allen Stanford in 2006 as a regional cricket game with almost all Caribbean islands taking part. Viv Richards is from Antigua and scored the fastest Test Century and Brian Lara twice scored the World Test Record at Antigua Recreation Ground. Association football is also a very popular sport. Antigua has a national football team although it is inexperienced. Athletics is also popular. Talented athletes are trained from a young age and Antigua and Barbuda have produced a few fairly adept athletes. Janill Williams, a young athlete with much promise comes from Gray's Farm, Antigua. Also, Sonia Williams and Heather Samuel have represented Antigua and Barbuda at the Olympic Games. Others prominent rising stars include Brendan Christian (100 m, 200 m), Daniel Bailey (100 m, 200 m) and James Grayman (High Jump). Antigua also boasts some excellent tennis players most notably Brain Philip #1 and Roberto Esposito #2 on the island for under 18 tournaments, who both are also involved in under 18 ITF tournaments. Also their coach's(Eli Armstrong) daughter Keishora Armstrong who will be turning 13 later this year is the under 18's champion on the girls circuit. Education The people of Antigua & Barbuda have a high level of literacy at well over 90%. In 1998, Antigua and Barbuda adopted a national mandate to become the preeminent provider of medical services in the Caribbean. As part of this mission, Antigua and Barbuda is building the most technologically advanced hospital in the Caribbean, the Mt. St. John Medical Centre. The island of Antigua currently has two medical schools, the American University of Antigua (AUA), founded in 2004 and The University of Health Sciences Antigua (UHSA), founded in 1982. There is also a government owned state college in Antigua as well as the Antigua and Barbuda Institute of Information Technology (ABIIT). The University of the West Indies has a branch in Antigua for locals to continue University studies. Antigua has a number of international schools the foremost of which is CCSET International Academy Foreign relations Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, Caribbean Community, Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, Organization of American States, World Trade Organization and the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System. Antigua and Barbuda is also a member of the International Criminal Court (with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military as covered under Article 98). See also Commonwealth of Nations List of Antigua and Barbuda-related articles List of Antigua and Barbuda-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Antigua and Barbuda Outline of geography Outline of North America United Nations References Liberta Village, Antigua External links Government The Official Website of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda Antigua & Barbuda, its Department of Tourism website Antigua and Barbuda, United States Library of Congress Portals on the World Governments on the WWW: Antigua and Barbuda Country Data Antigua and Barbuda from UCB Libraries GovPubs World Bank's country data profile for Antigua and Barbuda Worldwide Governance Indicators World Intellectual Property Handbook: Antigua and Barbuda Other The High Commission of Antigua and Barbuda. Tourism, business, history and culture, politics - an up to date website. Antigua Carnival - with photo galleries. American University of Antigua - a hospital integrated medical school in Caribbean. Health Sciences library - Library of American University of Antigua Recipes to many Antiguan dishes Video of Antigua and Barbuda be-x-old:Антыґуа і Барбуда | Antigua_and_Barbuda |@lemmatized antigua:79 barbuda:42 spanish:4 ancient:1 beard:1 island:22 nation:9 locate:2 eastern:5 boundary:1 caribbean:22 sea:3 atlantic:2 ocean:1 name:3 suggest:1 consist:3 two:5 major:5 well:4 number:9 small:4 islet:1 close:2 neighbour:1 within:3 middle:7 leeward:1 roughly:1 degree:2 north:3 equator:1 population:9 comprise:2 chiefly:1 mixture:1 people:9 west:9 african:7 british:14 portuguese:6 descent:2 part:5 less:2 antilles:1 archipelago:1 south:3 lie:2 guadeloupe:1 dominica:3 martinique:1 saint:13 lucia:2 vincent:2 grenadine:2 barbados:2 grenada:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 montserrat:1 southwest:1 kitts:1 nevis:1 eustatius:1 barthélemy:1 martin:2 anguilla:1 northwest:1 history:5 first:7 settle:1 pre:1 agricultural:2 amerindian:1 know:1 archaic:1 commonly:1 refer:2 ciboney:1 mean:4 cave:1 dweller:1 arawakan:2 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7,671 | Ammonius_Hermiae | Ammonius Hermiae (c. 440-c. 520) was a Greek philosopher, and the son of the Neoplatonist philosophers Hermias and Aedesia. He was a pupil of Proclus in Athens, and taught at Alexandria for most of his life, writing commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers. Life Ammonius' father, Hermias, died when he was a child, and his mother, Aedesia, raised him and his brother, Heliodorus, in Alexandria. When they reached adulthood, Aedesia accompanied her sons to Athens where they studied under Proclus. Eventually, they returned to Alexandria, where Ammonius, as head of the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, lectured on Plato and Aristotle for the rest of his life. According to Damascius, during the persecution of the pagans at Alexandria in the late 480's, Ammonius made concessions to the Christian authorities so that he could continue his lectures. Damascius, Philosophos Historia, 118B, Athanassiadi Damascius, who scolds Ammonius for the agreement that he made, does not say what the concessions were, but it may have involved limitations on the doctrines he could teach or promote. He was still teaching in 515, since Olympiodorus heard him lecture on Plato's Gorgias in that year. Olympiodorus, in Gorgias, 199, 8-10 He also taught Asclepius of Tralles, John Philoponus, Damascius and Simplicius. Writings Of his reputedly numerous writings, only his commentary on Aristotle's De Interpretatione survives intact. A commentary on Porphyry's Isagogue may also be his, but it is somewhat corrupt and contains later interpolations. In addition, there are some notes of Ammonius' lectures written by various students which also survive: On Aristotle's Categories (anonymous writer) On Aristotle's Prior Analytics I (anonymous writer) On Aristotle's Metaphysics 1-7 (written by Asclepius) On Nicomachus' Introduction to Arithmetic (written by Asclepius) On Aristotle's Prior Analytics (written by John Philoponus) On Aristotle's Posterior Analytics (written by John Philoponus) On Aristotle's On Generation and Corruption (written by John Philoponus) On Aristotle's On the Soul (written by John Philoponus) He was also an accomplished astronomer; he lectured on Ptolemy and is known to have written a treatise on the astrolabe. Notes References Jones, A., Martindale, J., Morris, J., (1992) The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, pages 71-72. Cambridge University Press. Brunschwig, J., (2008), "Le chapitre I du De Interpretatione. Aristote, Ammonius et nous", in M. Achard et F. Renaud (ed.), Le commentaire philosophique (I), Laval théologique et philosophique, 64.1, 2008, 35-87. Sorabji, R., (2005), The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200-600 AD, Cornell University Press. Andron, Cosmin (2008), "Ammonios of Alexandria",The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Natural Scientists, eds. Georgia Irby-Massie and Paul Keyser, Routledge. External links | Ammonius_Hermiae |@lemmatized ammonius:7 hermiae:1 c:2 greek:1 philosopher:3 son:2 neoplatonist:2 hermias:2 aedesia:3 pupil:1 proclus:2 athens:2 taught:1 alexandria:6 life:3 write:9 commentary:3 plato:3 aristotle:10 father:1 die:1 child:1 mother:1 raise:1 brother:1 heliodorus:1 reach:1 adulthood:1 accompany:1 study:1 eventually:1 return:1 head:1 school:1 lecture:5 rest:1 accord:1 damascius:4 persecution:1 pagan:1 late:3 make:2 concession:2 christian:1 authority:1 could:2 continue:1 philosophos:1 historia:1 athanassiadi:1 scold:1 agreement:1 say:1 may:2 involve:1 limitation:1 doctrine:1 teach:3 promote:1 still:1 since:1 olympiodorus:2 heard:1 gorgias:2 year:1 also:4 asclepius:3 tralles:1 john:5 philoponus:5 simplicius:1 writing:2 reputedly:1 numerous:1 de:2 interpretatione:2 survive:2 intact:1 porphyry:1 isagogue:1 somewhat:1 corrupt:1 contain:1 interpolation:1 addition:1 note:2 various:1 student:1 category:1 anonymous:2 writer:2 prior:2 analytics:3 metaphysics:1 nicomachus:1 introduction:1 arithmetic:1 posterior:1 generation:1 corruption:1 soul:1 accomplished:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 know:1 treatise:1 astrolabe:1 reference:1 jones:1 martindale:1 j:3 morris:1 prosopography:1 roman:1 empire:1 page:1 cambridge:1 university:2 press:2 brunschwig:1 le:2 chapitre:1 du:1 aristote:1 et:3 nous:1 achard:1 f:1 renaud:1 ed:2 commentaire:1 philosophique:2 laval:1 théologique:1 sorabji:1 r:1 philosophy:1 commentator:1 ad:1 cornell:1 andron:1 cosmin:1 ammonios:1 routledge:2 encyclopedia:1 ancient:1 natural:1 scientist:1 georgia:1 irby:1 massie:1 paul:1 keyser:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram neoplatonist_philosopher:1 plato_aristotle:2 plato_gorgias:1 john_philoponus:5 prior_analytics:2 aristotle_metaphysics:1 posterior_analytics:1 external_link:1 |
7,672 | Brewing | A 16th century brewery Brewing is the production of alcoholic beverages and alcohol fuel through fermentation. The term is used for the production of beer, although the word "brewing" is also used to describe the fermentation process used to create wine and mead. It can also refer to the process of producing sake and soy sauce. "Brewing" is also sometimes used to refer to any chemical mixing process. Brewing specifically refers to the process of steeping, such as with tea and water, and extraction, usually through heat. Wine and cider technically aren't brewed, rather vinted, as the entire fruit is pressed, and then the liquid extracted. Mead isn't technically brewed, as heating often isn't used in the mixing process, and the honey is used entirely, as opposed to being heated with water, and then discarded, as are hops and barley in beer, and or tea leaves for tea, and coffee beans for coffee. Spices could technically be brewed into a mead though. Brewing has a very long history, and archeological evidence suggests that this technique was used in ancient Egypt. Descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in Sumerian writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort. The brewing industry is part of most western economies. Brewing beer All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is malted grain—depending on the region, traditionally barley, wheat or sometimes rye. (When malting rye, due care must be taken to prevent ergot poisoning (ergotism), as rye is particularly prone to be infected by this toxic fungus.) Malt is made by allowing a grain to germinate, after which it is then dried in a kiln and sometimes roasted. The germination process creates a number of enzymes, notably α-amylase and β-amylase, which convert the starch in the grain into sugar. Depending on the amount of roasting, the malt will take on a dark colour and strongly influence the colour and flavour of the beer. The malt is crushed to break apart the grain kernels, increase their surface area, and separate the smaller pieces from the husks. The resulting grist is mixed with heated water in a vat called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural enzymes within the malt break down much of the starch into sugars which play a vital part in the fermentation process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various temperature rests (waiting periods) activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the brewmaster. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to dextrins and then to fermentable sugars such as maltose. In smaller breweries, the mash tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain. A mash rest from 49-55°C (120-130°F) activates various proteases, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in Germany and the Czech Republic, or non-malted grains such as corn and rice, which are widely used in North American beers. A mash rest at 60°C (140°F) activates β-glucanase, which breaks down gummy β-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process, commercial fungal based β-glucanase may be added as a supplement. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 65-71°C (149-160°F) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range favors β-amylase enzymes, producing more low-order sugars like maltotriose, maltose, and glucose which are more fermentable by the yeast. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in alcohol. A rest closer to the higher end of the range favors α-amylase enzymes, creating more higher-order sugars and dextrins which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result. Duration and pH variances also affect the sugar composition of the resulting wort. Kunze, Wolfgang (2004) "Technology Brewing and Malting" VLB Berlin, ISBN 3-921690-49-8 pp.214-218 After the mashing, the resulting liquid is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to about 75 °C (165-170 °F) (known as a mashout) to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as sparging). At this point the liquid is known as wort. The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with hops and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins, concentrate and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, aroma and bitterness to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled. The wort is then moved into a "fermentation vessel" where yeast is added or "pitched" with it. The yeast converts the sugars from the malt into alcohol, carbon dioxide and other components through a process called fermentation. After one to three weeks, the fresh (or "green") beer is run off into conditioning tanks. After conditioning for a week to several months, the beer is often filtered to remove yeast and particulates. The "bright beer" is then ready for serving or packaging. There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing. Ale (top-fermenting yeasts) Ale yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15-20°C (60-68°F), and occasionally as high as 24°C (75°F). Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, because of this they are often referred to as top-fermenting yeast—though there are some British ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, however, some styles benefit from additional aging for several months or years. Ales range in colour from very pale to an opaque black. England is best known for its variety of ales. Ale yeasts can be harvested from the primary fermenter, and stored in the refrigerator. Lager (bottom-fermenting yeasts) While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until Emil Hansen of the Carlsberg brewery in Denmark isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in Bavaria had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting lager yeasts by storing (lagern) their beers in cold alpine caves. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work. Traditionally, ales and lagers have been differentiated as being either a top fermentor or bottom fermentor, respectively. But, as the years go by homebrewers and microbrewers alike keep pushing the envelope of the craft these distinctions are beginning to blur. The main difference between the two is lager yeast's ability to process raffinose. Raffinose is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. Lager yeast tends to collect at the bottom of the fermenter and is often referred to as bottom-fermenting yeast. Lager is fermented at much lower temperatures, around 10°C (50°F), compared to typical ale fermentation temperatures of 18°C (65°F). It is then stored for 30 days or longer close to freezing point. During storage, the beer mellows and flavours become smoother. Sulfur components developed during fermentation dissipate. The popularity of lager was a major factor that led to the rapid introduction of refrigeration in the early 1900s. Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced, the most famous being a light lager called Pilsner which originated in Pilsen, Czech Republic (Plzeň in Czech). It is a common misconception that all lagers are light in color—lagers can range from very light to deep black, just like ales. Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts) These beers are nowadays primarily only brewed around Brussels, Belgium. They are fermented by means of wild yeast strains that live in a part of the Zenne river which flows through Brussels. These beers are also called Lambic beers. However with the advent of yeast banks and the National Collection of Yeast Cultures, National Collection of Yeast Cultures brewing these beers, although not through spontaneous fermentation, is possible anywhere. Beers of mixed origin These beers are blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers or they are ales/lagers which are also fermented by wild yeasts. The brewing process The brewing process is typically divided into 7 steps: mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering, and filling. Today, many simplified brewing systems exist which can be used at home or in restaurants. These homebrewing systems are often employed for ease of use, although some people still prefer to do the entire brewing process themselves. Mashing Mashing is the process of combining a mix of milled grain, known as the grist (typically malted barley with supplementary grains as maize, sorghum, rye or wheat; in a ratio of 90-10 up to 50-50), with water, and heating this mixture up with rests at certain temperatures (notably 45°C, 62°C and 73°C "Abdijbieren. Geestrijk erfgoed" by Jef Van den Steen Bier brouwen ) to allow enzymes in the malt to break down the starch in the grain into sugars, typically maltose. Boilers at the Samuel Adams brewery Wort Separation Wort separation is the separation of the wort containing the sugar extracted during mashing from the spent grain. It can be carried out in a mash tun outfitted with a false bottom, a lauter tun, a special-purpose wide vessel with a false bottom and rotating cutters to facilitate flow, a mash filter, a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation, or in a Strainmaster. Most separation processes have two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and Sparging, in which extract which remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water. Lauter tun A lauter tun is a special container used in all-grain brewing for separating the sweet wort from the spent grains (malted barley etc.). In essence it is a tank with holes in the bottom small enough to hold back the large bits of grist and hulls. The bed of grist that settles on it is the actual filter. It can be as simple as a plastic bucket with holes in the bottom. Commercial lauter tuns have provision for rotating rakes or knives to cut into the bed of grist to maintain good flow. The knives can be turned so they push the grain, a feature used to drive the spent grain out of the vessel. Goldhammer, T. (2008) The Brewer's Handbook, 2nd edition, Apex, ISBN 978-0-9675212-3-7 pp 181 ff. Mash filter A mash filter is a plate-and-frame filter. The empty frames contain the mash, including the spent grains, and have a capacity of around one hectoliter. The plates contain a support structure for the filter cloth. The plates, frames, and filter cloths are arranged in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with plates at each end of the structure. Newer mash filters have bladders that can press the liquid out of the grains between spargings. The grain does not act like a filtration medium in a mash filter. Strainmaster A Strainmaster is a device invented at Anheuser Busch. It separates the wort by allowing it to flow into horizontal slotted tubes. As with a lauter tun, the actual filtration is carried out by the spent grain. Boiling Boiling the malt extracts, called wort, ensures its sterility, and thus prevents a lot of infections. During the boil hops are added, which contribute bitterness, flavour, and aroma compounds to the beer, and, along with the heat of the boil, causes proteins in the wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to fall. Finally, the vapours produced during the boil volatilise off flavours, including dimethyl sulfide precursors. The boil must be conducted so that it is even and intense. The boil lasts between 50 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort the brewer expects to evaporate. Boiling equipment Brew kettles at Coors Brewing Company. The simplest boil kettles are direct-fired, with a burner underneath. These can produce a vigorous and favourable boil, but are also apt to scorch the wort where the flame touches the kettle, causing caramelization and making clean up difficult. Most breweries use a steam-fired kettle, which uses steam jackets in the kettle to boil the wort. The steam is delivered under pressure by an external boiler. State-of-the-art breweries today use many interesting boiling methods, all of which achieve a more intense boiling and a more complete realisation of the goals of boiling. Many breweries have a boiling unit outside of the kettle, sometimes called a calandria, through which wort is pumped. The unit is usually a tall, thin cylinder, with many tubes upwards through it. These tubes provide an enormous surface area on which vapor bubbles can nucleate, and thus provides for excellent volitization. The total volume of wort is circulated seven to twelve times an hour through this external boiler, ensuring that the wort is evenly boiled by the end of the boil. The wort is then boiled in the kettle at atmospheric pressure, and through careful control the inlets and outlets on the external boiler, an overpressure can be achieved in the external boiler, raising the boiling point by a few Celsius degrees. Upon return to the boil kettle, a vigorous vaporization occurs. The higher temperature due to increased vaporization can reduce boil times up to 30%. External boilers were originally designed to improve performance of kettles which did not provide adequate boiling effect, but have since been adopted by the industry as a sole means of boiling wort. Modern brewhouses can also be equipped with internal calandria, which requires no pump. It works on basically the same principle as external units, but relies on convection to move wort through the boiler. This can prevent overboiling, as a deflector above the boiler reduces foaming, and also reduces evaporation. Internal calandria are generally difficult to clean. Whirlpooling At the end of the boil, the wort is set into a whirlpool. The so-called teacup effect forces the denser solids (coagulated proteins, vegetable matter from hops) into a cone in the center of the whirlpool tank. In most large breweries, there is a separate tank for whirlpooling. These tanks have a large diameter to encourage settling, a flat bottom, a tangential inlet near the bottom of the whirlpool, and an outlet on the bottom near the outer edge of the whirlpool. A whirlpool should have no internal protrusions that might slow down the rotation of the liquid. The bottom of the whirlpool is often slightly sloped towards the outlet. Newer whirlpools often have "Denk rings" suspended in the middle of the whirlpool. These rings are aligned horizontally and have about 75% of the diameter of the whirlpool. The Denk rings prevent the formation of secondary eddies in the whirlpool, encouraging the formation of a cohesive trub cone in the middle of the whirlpool. Smaller breweries often use the brewkettle as a whirlpool. In the United Kingdom, it is common practice to use a device known as a hopback to clear the green wort (green wort is wort to which yeast has not yet been added). This device has the same effect as, but operates in a completely different manner than, a whirlpool. The two devices are often confused but are in function, quite different. While a whirlpool functions through the use of centrifugal forces, a hopback uses a layer of fresh hop flowers in a confined space to act as a filter bed to remove trub (pronounced tr-oo-b, tr-uh-b in the UK). Furthermore, while a whirlpool is only useful for the removal of pelleted hops (as flowers don't tend to separate as easily), hopbacks are generally used only for the removal of whole flower hops (as the particles left by pellets tend to make it through the hopback.) In homebrewing, where a brewer has the power to lift the entire stock and manipulate it by hand; the process of trub removal (the process addressed by the whirlpool and hopback) is generally accomplished by simply allowing the trub to settle to the bottom of the brew kettle and slowly decanting the wort from the top so as not to disturb the thin layer of trub. Siphoning may also be employed but this is rare. Wort cooling After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to fermentation temperatures (20-26°Celsius ) before yeast is added. In modern breweries this is achieved through a plate heat exchanger. A plate heat exchanger has many ridged plates, which form two separate paths. The wort is pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through every other gap between the plates. The cooling medium, usually water, goes through the other gaps. The ridges in the plates ensure turbulent flow. A good heat exchanger can drop 95 °C wort to 20 °C while warming the cooling medium from about 10 °C to 80 °C. The last few plates often use a cooling medium which can be cooled to below the freezing point, which allows a finer control over the wort-out temperature, and also enables cooling to around 10 °C. After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction. Energy Recovery While boiling, it is useful to recover some of the energy used to boil the wort. On its way out of the brewery, the steam created during the boil is passed over a coil through which unheated water flows. By adjusting the rate of flow, the output temperature of the water can be controlled. This is also often done using a plate heat exchanger. The water is then stored for later use in the next mash, in equipment cleaning, or wherever necessary. Kunze, Wolfgang (2004) "Technology Brewing and Malting" VLB Berlin, ISBN 3-921690-49-8 p.302 Another common method of energy recovery takes place during the wort cooling. When cold water is used to cool the wort in a heat exchanger, the water is significantly warmed. In an efficient brewery, cold water is passed through the heat exchanger at a rate set to maximize the water's temperature upon exiting. This now-hot water is then stored in a hot water tank. Ibid, p.351-352 Fermenting Modern fermentation tanks After the wort is cooled and aerated — usually with sterile air — yeast is added to it, and it begins to ferment. It is during this stage that sugars won from the malt are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide, and the product can be called beer for the first time. Fermentation happens in tanks which come in all sorts of forms, from enormous tanks which can look like storage silos, to five gallon glass carboys in a homebrewer's closet. Most breweries today use cylindro-conical vessels, or CCVs, have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 60°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow towards the cones apex, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids which have fallen to the cones apex can be simply flushed out a port at the apex. Krausen in an English brewery's fermentation tank Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, which makes harvesting top fermenting yeasts very easy. The open tops of the vessels make the risk of infection greater, but with proper cleaning procedures and careful protocol about who enters fermentation chambers, the risk can be well controlled. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. If they are simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends, they are arranged vertically, as opposed to conditioning tanks which are usually laid out horizontally. Only a very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation as wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched more or less yearly. After high krausen a bung device (German: Spundapparat) is often put on the tanks to allow the CO2 produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can be set to a given pressure to match the type of beer being produced. The more pressure the bung holds back, the more carbonated the beer becomes. Conditioning When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation slows down and the yeast starts to settle to the bottom of the tank. At this stage, the beer is cooled to around freezing, which encourages settling of the yeast, and causes proteins to coagulate and settle out with the yeast. If a separate conditioning tank is to be used, it is at this stage that the beer will be transferred into one. Unpleasant flavors such as phenolic compounds become insoluble in the cold beer, and the beer's flavor becomes smoother. During this time pressure is maintained on the tanks to prevent the beer from going flat. A similar technique is used in home brewing, wherein the beer is simply siphoned into another vessel (usually a carboy), leaving the now-dormant yeast and other sediment behind. The batch is then sometimes refrigerated for the aforementioned benefits. Conditioning can take from 2 to 4 weeks, sometimes longer, depending on the type of beer. Additionally lagers, at this point, are aged at near freezing temperatures for 1-6 months depending on style. This cold aging serves to reduce sulfur compounds produced by the bottom-fermenting yeast and to produce a cleaner tasting final product with fewer esters. If the fermentation tanks have cooling jackets on them, as opposed to the whole fermentation cellar being cooled, conditioning can take place in the same tank as fermentation. Otherwise separate tanks (in a separate cellar) must be employed. This is where aging occurs. Filtering A mixture of diatomaceous earth and yeast after filtering. Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavour, and gives beer its polished shine and brilliance. Not all beer is filtered. When tax determination is required by local laws, it is typically done at this stage in a calibrated tank. Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles, while others use a fine powder made of, for example, diatomaceous earth, also called kieselguhr, which is introduced into the beer and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed. Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids (e.g. hops, grain particles) left in the beer, to filters tight enough to strain color and body from the beer. Normally used filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is noticeably clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration gives a glass of beer that you could read a newspaper through, with no noticeable cloudiness. Finally, as its name implies, sterile filtration is fine enough that almost all microorganisms in the beer are removed during the filtration process. Sheet (pad) filters These filters use pre-made media and are relatively straightforward. The sheets are manufactured to allow only particles smaller than a given size through, and the brewer is free to choose how finely to filter the beer. The sheets are placed into the filtering frame, sterilized (with hot water, for example) and then used to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked, and usually the sheets are disposable and are replaced between filtration sessions. Often the sheets contain powdered filtration media to aid in filtration. It should be kept in mind that pre-made filters have two sides. One with loose holes, and the other with tight holes. Flow goes from the side with loose holes to the side with the tight holes, with the intent that large particles get stuck in the large holes while leaving enough room around the particles and filter medium for smaller particles to go through and get stuck in tighter holes. Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the nominal rating are caught by the sheet. Kieselguhr filters Filters that use a powder medium are considerably more complicated to operate, but can filter much more beer before needing to be regenerated. Common media include diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, and perlite. Packaging Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in which it will leave the brewery. Typically this means in bottles, aluminium cans and kegs, but it might include bulk tanks for high-volume customers. Secondary fermentation Secondary fermentation is an additional fermentation after the first or primary fermentation. For the secondary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a second fermenter, so that it is no longer exposed to the dead yeast and other debris (also known as "trub") that have settled to the bottom of the primary fermenter. This prevents the formation of unwanted flavors and harmful compounds such as acetylaldehydes, which are commonly blamed for hangovers. Among homebrewers, secondary fermentation is a common source of discussion and debate. Some believe that the majority of homebrewed beers can simply be fermented in a single fermenter for approximately two weeks and then bottled, making secondary fermentation unnecessary. However, secondary fermentation is a necessary step when brewing beers with long fermentation times, such as lagers. Many homebrewers use secondary fermentation as a way of Conditioning, to enhance both the flavor and appearance of the beer. All About Beer: Homebrewing-Secondary Fermentation During secondary fermentation, most of the remaining yeast will settle to the bottom of the second fermenter, yielding a less hazy product. Some beers may have three fermentations, the third being the bottle fermentation. Bottle fermentation See Bottle conditioning. Most homebrewed beers undergo a fermentation in the bottle, giving natural carbonation. This may be a second or third fermentation. They are bottled with a viable yeast population in suspension. If there is no residual fermentable sugar left, sugar may be added. The resulting fermentation generates CO2 which is trapped in the bottle, remaining in solution and providing natural carbonation. Cask conditioning See Cask ale. Beer in casks are managed carefully to allow some of the carbonation to escape. See also Beer Brewery History of beer Homebrewing Mashing Mead Malt granules References External links An overview of the microbiology behind beer brewing from the Science Creative Quarterly Hyfoma on beer brewing - Hyfoma | Brewing |@lemmatized century:2 brewery:18 brewing:15 production:2 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 alcohol:5 fuel:1 fermentation:43 term:1 use:41 beer:70 although:3 word:1 also:17 describe:1 process:29 create:5 wine:2 mead:4 refer:4 produce:9 sake:1 soy:1 sauce:1 brew:14 sometimes:7 chemical:1 mixing:2 specifically:1 refers:1 steep:2 tea:3 water:17 extraction:1 usually:8 heat:11 cider:1 technically:3 rather:1 vinted:1 entire:3 fruit:1 press:2 liquid:6 extract:6 heating:1 often:15 honey:1 entirely:1 oppose:3 discard:1 hop:11 barley:4 leaf:1 coffee:2 bean:1 spice:1 could:2 though:2 long:3 history:2 archeological:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 technique:2 ancient:1 egypt:1 description:1 various:3 recipe:1 find:1 sumerian:1 writing:2 old:1 known:1 sort:2 industry:2 part:3 western:1 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7,673 | Geography_of_Mozambique | Map of Mozambique's population centres Topographic map of Mozambique Location: Southern Africa, bordering the Mozambique Channel, between South Africa and Tanzania Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 801 590 km² land: 784 090 km² water: 17 500 km² Capital Maputo (Lourenço Marques) Major Cities Matola Nampula Beira Chimoio Nacala Quelimane Tete Lichinga Pemba (Porto Amelia) Other Cities Angoche (António Enes) Area - comparative: Belarus: slightly less than four times the size of Belarus Kyrgyzstan: slightly more than four times the size of Kyrgyzstan Iran: slightly less than half the size of Iran Pakistan: slightly less than the size of Pakistan Paraguay: slightly less than twice the size of Paraguay United States: slightly less than twice the size of California Zimbabwe: slightly more than twice the size of Zimbabwe Land boundaries: total: 4 571 km border countries: Malawi 1 569 km, South Africa 491 km, Swaziland 105 km, Tanzania 756 km, Zambia 419 km, Zimbabwe 1 231 km Coastline: 2 470 km Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Climate: tropical to subtropical Terrain: mostly coastal lowlands, uplands in center, high plateaus in northwest, mountains in west Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Monte Binga 2 436 m Natural resources: coal, titanium, natural gas, hydropower, tantalum, graphite Land use: arable land: 5.43% (2005 est.), 3.98% (1998 est.) permanent crops: 0.29% (2005 est.), 0.29% (1998 est.) other: 94.28% (2005 est.), 95.73% (1998 est.) Irrigated land: 1 180 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: severe droughts; devastating cyclones and floods occur in central and southern provinces Environment - current issues: a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters; elephant poaching for ivory is a problem Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Ecoregions Eastern Miombo woodlands Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic Maputaland coastal forest mosaic Southern Miombo woodlands Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic Southern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic Zambezian coastal flooded savanna Zambezian flooded grasslands Zambezian halophytics Zambezian and Mopane woodlands Physical Features The coastline extends from 26° 52' S. to 10° 40' S., and from south to north makes a double curve with a general trend outward to the east. It has a length of . Some north of the South African frontier is the deep indentation of Delagoa Bay. The land then turns outward to Cape Corrientes, a little north of which is Inhambane Bay. Bending westward again and passing the Bazaruto Archipelago of several small islands, of which the chief is Bazaruto, Sofala Bay is reached. Northward the Zambezi River with a wide delta pours its waters into the ocean. From this point onward the coast is studded with small islands, mainly of coral formation. On one of these islands is Mozambique, and immediately north of that port is Conducia Bay. Somewhat farther north are two large bays, Fernao Veloso and Memba. There is a great difference in the character of the coast north and south of Mozambique. To the north the coast is much indented, abounds in rocky headlands and rugged cliffs while, as already stated, there is an almost continuous fringe of islands. South of Mozambique the coastline is low, sandy and lined with mangrove swamps. Harbours are few and poor. The difference in character of these two regions arises from the fact that in the northern half the ocean current which flows south between Madagascar and the mainland is close to the coast, and scours out all the softer material, while at the same time the corals are building in deep waters. But south of Mozambique the ocean current forsakes the coast, allowing the accumulation of sand and alluvial matter. North of Fernao Veloso and Memba the largest bays are Pemba (where there is commodious anchorage for heavy draught vessels), Montepuesi and Tunghi, the last named having for its northern arm Cape Delgado, the northernmost point on Mozambique's coast. Orographically the backbone of the country is the mountain chain which forms the eastern escarpment of the continental plateau. It does not present a uniformly abrupt descent to the plains, but in places, as in the lower Zambezi district, slopes gradually to the coast. The Lebombo Mountains, behind Delagoa Bay, nowhere exceed in height; the Manica Plateau, farther north, is higher. Mt Doe rises to and Mt Panga to The Gorongoza massif with Mt Miranga (6550 ft.), Enhatete (6050 ft.), and Gogogo (5900 ft.) lies north-east of the Manica plateau, and is, like it, of granitic formation. Gorongoza, rising isolated with precipitous outer slopes, has been likened in its aspect to a frowning citadel. The chief mountain range, however, lies north of the Zambezi, and east of Lake Chilwa, namely, the Namuli Mountains, in which Namuli Peak rises to , and Molisani, Mruli and Mresi attain altitudes of 6500 to These mountains are covered with magnificent forests. Farther north the river basins are divided by well-marked ranges with heights of and over. Near the south-east shore of Lake Malawi there is a high range (5000 to ft6000 with an abrupt descent to the lake - some in six miles (10 km). The country between Malawi and Ibo is remarkable for the number of fantastically shaped granite peaks which rise from the plateau. The plateau lands west of the escarpment are of moderate elevation - perhaps averaging 2000 to It is, however, only along the Zambezi and north of that river that Mozambique's territory reaches to the continental plateau. Besides the Zambezi, the most considerable river in Mozambique is the Limpopo which enters the Indian Ocean about north of Delagoa Bay. The Komati, Save, Busi and Pungwe south of the Zambezi; the Lukugu, Lurio, Montepuesi (Mtepwesi) and Msalu, with the Rovuma and its affluent the Lujenda, to the north of it, are the other rivers of the province with considerable drainage areas. The Save (Sabi) rises in Zimbabwe at an altitude of over , and after flowing south for over turns east and pierces the mountains some from the coast, being joined near the Zimbabwe-Mozambique frontier by the Lundi. Cataracts entirely prevent navigation above this point. Below the Lundi confluence the bed of the Sabi becomes considerably broader, varying from half a mile to two miles (3 km). In the rainy season the Save is a large stream and even in the " dries " it can be navigated from its mouth by shallow draught steamers for over 150 m. Its general direction through Portuguese territory is east by north. At its mouth it forms a delta in extent. The Busi (220 m.) and Pungwe (180 m.) are streams north of and similar in character to the Save. They both rise in the Manica plateau and enter the ocean in Pungwe Bay, their mouths a mile or two apart. The lower reaches of both streams are navigable, the Busi for , the Pungwe for about too miles. At the mouth of the Pungwe is the port of Beira. Of the north-Zambezi streams the Lukugu, rising in the hills south-east of Lake Chilwa, flows south and enters the ocean not far north of Quelimane. The Lurio, rising in the Namuli Mountains, flows north-east, having a course of some . The Montepuesi and the Msalu drain the country between the Lurio and Rovuma basins. Their banks are in general well defined and the wet season rise seems fairly constant. See also Mozambique References Links Mozambique Geography from Southern Africa Places Mozambique page from World Travel Guide Mozambique - Geography and Environment from Oxfam's "Cool Planet" | Geography_of_Mozambique |@lemmatized map:3 mozambique:15 population:2 centre:1 topographic:1 location:1 southern:6 africa:5 border:2 channel:1 south:13 tanzania:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:2 area:4 total:2 land:7 water:4 capital:1 maputo:1 lourenço:1 marque:1 major:1 city:2 matola:1 nampula:1 beira:2 chimoio:1 nacala:1 quelimane:2 tete:1 lichinga:1 pemba:2 porto:1 amelia:1 angoche:1 antónio:1 ene:1 comparative:1 belarus:2 slightly:7 less:5 four:2 time:3 size:7 kyrgyzstan:2 iran:2 half:3 pakistan:2 paraguay:2 twice:3 united:1 state:2 california:1 zimbabwe:6 boundary:1 km:12 country:4 malawi:3 swaziland:1 zambia:1 coastline:3 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nautical:2 mile:7 territorial:1 sea:2 climate:2 tropical:1 subtropical:1 terrain:1 mostly:1 coastal:6 lowland:1 upland:1 center:1 high:4 plateau:8 northwest:1 mountain:8 west:2 elevation:2 extreme:1 low:4 point:5 indian:2 ocean:7 monte:1 binga:1 natural:3 resource:1 coal:1 titanium:1 gas:1 hydropower:1 tantalum:1 graphite:1 use:1 arable:1 est:7 permanent:1 crop:1 irrigated:1 hazard:1 severe:1 drought:2 devastate:1 cyclone:1 flood:3 occur:1 central:1 province:2 environment:3 current:3 issue:1 long:1 civil:1 war:1 recurrent:1 hinterland:1 result:1 increased:1 migration:1 urban:1 adverse:1 environmental:1 consequence:1 desertification:2 pollution:1 surface:1 elephant:1 poaching:1 ivory:1 problem:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 select:1 ecoregions:1 eastern:3 miombo:2 woodland:3 montane:2 forest:5 grassland:3 mosaic:4 maputaland:1 rift:1 zanzibar:1 inhambane:2 zambezian:4 savanna:1 halophytics:1 mopane:1 physical:1 feature:1 extend:1 north:20 make:1 double:1 curve:1 general:3 trend:1 outward:2 east:8 length:1 african:1 frontier:2 deep:2 indentation:1 delagoa:3 bay:9 turn:2 cape:2 corrientes:1 little:1 bend:1 westward:1 pass:1 bazaruto:2 archipelago:1 several:1 small:2 island:4 chief:2 sofala:1 reach:3 northward:1 zambezi:7 river:5 wide:1 delta:2 pour:1 onward:1 coast:8 stud:1 mainly:1 coral:2 formation:2 one:1 immediately:1 port:2 conducia:1 somewhat:1 farther:1 two:4 large:3 fernao:2 veloso:2 memba:2 great:1 difference:2 character:3 much:1 indent:1 abound:1 rocky:1 headland:1 rugged:1 cliff:1 already:1 almost:1 continuous:1 fringe:1 sandy:1 line:1 mangrove:1 swamp:1 harbour:1 poor:1 region:1 arises:1 fact:1 northern:2 flow:4 madagascar:1 mainland:1 close:1 scour:1 soft:1 material:1 build:1 forsake:1 allow:1 accumulation:1 sand:1 alluvial:1 matter:1 commodious:1 anchorage:1 heavy:1 draught:2 vessel:1 montepuesi:3 tunghi:1 last:1 named:1 arm:1 delgado:1 northernmost:1 orographically:1 backbone:1 chain:1 form:2 escarpment:2 continental:2 present:1 uniformly:1 abrupt:2 descent:2 plain:1 place:2 district:1 slop:1 gradually:1 lebombo:1 behind:1 nowhere:1 exceed:1 height:2 manica:3 far:3 mt:3 doe:1 rise:9 panga:1 gorongoza:2 massif:1 miranga:1 ft:3 enhatete:1 gogogo:1 lie:2 like:1 granitic:1 isolate:1 precipitous:1 outer:1 slope:1 liken:1 aspect:1 frowning:1 citadel:1 range:3 however:2 lake:4 chilwa:2 namely:1 namuli:3 peak:2 molisani:1 mruli:1 mresi:1 attain:1 altitude:2 cover:1 magnificent:1 basin:2 divide:1 well:2 mark:1 near:2 shore:1 six:1 igbo:1 remarkable:1 number:1 fantastically:1 shape:1 granite:1 moderate:1 perhaps:1 average:1 along:1 territory:2 besides:1 considerable:2 limpopo:1 enter:3 komati:1 save:4 busi:3 pungwe:5 lukugu:2 lurio:3 mtepwesi:1 msalu:2 rovuma:2 affluent:1 lujenda:1 drainage:1 sabi:2 pierce:1 join:1 lundi:2 cataract:1 entirely:1 prevent:1 navigation:1 confluence:1 bed:1 become:1 considerably:1 broad:1 vary:1 rainy:1 season:2 stream:3 even:1 dry:1 navigate:1 mouth:4 shallow:1 steamer:1 direction:1 portuguese:1 extent:1 streams:1 similar:1 apart:1 navigable:1 hill:1 course:1 drain:1 bank:1 define:1 wet:1 seem:1 fairly:1 constant:1 see:1 also:1 link:1 geography:2 page:1 world:1 travel:1 guide:1 oxfam:1 cool:1 planet:1 |@bigram topographic_map:1 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 zone_nautical:1 nautical_mile:2 mile_km:4 tropical_subtropical:1 coastal_lowland:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 severe_drought:1 devastate_cyclone:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 montane_forest:2 zambezi_river:1 rugged_cliff:1 mangrove_swamp:1 zimbabwe_mozambique:1 rainy_season:1 |
7,674 | Ludo_(board_game) | LUDO (from Latin ludo, "I play") is a simple board game, similar to Tock and Sorry!, for two to four players, in which the players race their four tokens from start to finish according to dice rolls. The game is a simplification of the traditional Indian Cross and Circle game Pachisi. The game is popular in many countries and is known as "Ludi" in the Caribbean, and "Fia" in Sweden. History Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century MSN Encarta (2008). Pachisi. . The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta. This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem. Variations of the game made it to England during the British Raj, with one appearing under the name Ludo around 1896, which was then patented . Board A ludo board is normally a square marked with a cross. Each arm of the cross is divided into three columns, with the columns divided into usually six squares. The centre of the cross is the finishing square which is often divided into four coloured triangles. Each coloured triangle is combined with a coloured middle column appears as an arrow pointing to the finish. The shaft of each arrow is a player's "home column" and is five squares long. To the left of each home column, one square from the edge of the board, is a starting square, also coloured. During game play a piece moves from its starting square, clockwise around the perimeter of the board, and up the player's home column to the finishing square. In the space to the left of each arm is a circle or square to hold a player's pieces before they are allowed into play. Unlike Pachisi, there are no resting squares, but the coloured home column may only be entered by its own player's tokens. The special areas on the board are typically brightly coloured with yellow, green, red, and blue. Each player uses cardboard or plastic tokens of matching colour. Rules At the start of the game, the player's four pieces are placed in the start area of their colour. Players take it in turn to throw a single die. A player must first throw a six to be able to move a piece from the starting area onto the starting square. In each subsequent turn the player moves a piece forward 1 to 6 squares as indicated by the die. When a player throws a 6 the player may bring a new piece onto the starting square, or may choose to move a piece already in play. Any throw of a six results in another turn. If a player cannot make a valid move they must pass the die to the next player. If a player's piece lands on a square containing an opponent's piece, the opponent's piece is captured and returns to the starting area. A piece may not land on square that already contain a piece of the same colour (unless playing doubling rules; see below). Once a piece has completed a circuit of the board it moves up the home column of its own colour. The player must throw the exact number to advance to the home square. The winner is the first player to get all four of their pieces onto the home square. Variations To get a game started faster, some house rules, allow a player with no pieces on the board to bring their first piece into play on any roll, on a 1 or a 6, or allow multiple tries to roll a 6. If a piece lands on the same space as the another piece of the same colour, the moved piece must take the preceeding space. If a player's piece lands on another of their own pieces, they are doubled and form a "block" which cannot be passed by any opponent's pieces. Or in some variations may only be passed by rolling a 6. Doubled pieces may move half the number if an even number is thrown e.g. move 2 spaces if a 4 is thrown. A doubled piece may capture another doubled piece (like in Coppit). A board may have only four spaces in each "home column". All four of a player's piece must finish in these spaces for the player to have finished the game. (See Mensch ärgere dich nicht.) To speed the game up, extra turns or bonus moves can be awarded capturing a piece or getting a piece home; these may grant passage past a block. In some parts of Africa the following rules are reportedly played: a doubled block also blocks trailing pieces of the player who created the block, or blocks them unless they roll the exact number to land on the block. This reduces the tactical advantage of a block and makes the game more interesting. there are 4 safety squares on the board, like castle squares in Pachisi, as well as the safe home squares, where a piece may not be captured. capturing an opponent's piece is compulsory and may force a piece to move onto a dangerous square. the game is played at high speed, with players able to move forwards or backwards and start their turn before previous player finishes. Cheating and catching others cheating is an integral part of the play. See also :Category:Cross and Circle games Notes | Ludo_(board_game) |@lemmatized ludo:4 latin:1 play:11 simple:1 board:11 game:15 similar:1 tock:1 sorry:1 two:1 four:7 player:25 race:1 token:3 start:11 finish:5 accord:1 dice:1 roll:5 simplification:1 traditional:1 indian:1 cross:5 circle:3 pachisi:6 popular:1 many:1 country:1 know:1 ludi:1 caribbean:1 fia:1 sweden:1 history:1 originate:1 india:3 century:1 msn:1 encarta:1 early:1 evidence:1 depiction:1 cave:1 ajanta:1 mughal:1 emperor:1 notable:1 example:1 jalaluddin:1 muhammad:1 akbar:1 live:1 use:2 girl:1 harem:1 variation:3 make:3 england:1 british:1 raj:1 one:2 appear:2 name:1 around:2 patent:1 normally:1 square:21 mark:1 arm:2 divide:3 three:1 column:9 usually:1 six:3 centre:1 finishing:2 often:1 coloured:4 triangle:2 combine:1 middle:1 arrow:2 point:1 shaft:1 home:10 five:1 long:1 left:2 edge:1 also:3 colour:7 piece:32 move:11 clockwise:1 perimeter:1 space:6 hold:1 allow:3 unlike:1 rest:1 may:11 enter:1 special:1 area:4 typically:1 brightly:1 yellow:1 green:1 red:1 blue:1 cardboard:1 plastic:1 match:1 rule:4 place:1 take:2 turn:5 throw:6 single:1 die:3 must:5 first:3 able:2 onto:4 subsequent:1 forward:2 indicate:1 bring:2 new:1 choose:1 already:2 result:1 another:4 cannot:2 valid:1 pass:3 next:1 land:5 contain:2 opponent:4 capture:5 return:1 unless:2 double:3 see:3 complete:1 circuit:1 exact:2 number:4 advance:1 winner:1 get:3 faster:1 house:1 multiple:1 try:1 moved:1 preceeding:1 form:1 block:8 half:1 even:1 thrown:1 e:1 g:1 doubled:3 like:2 coppit:1 mensch:1 ärgere:1 dich:1 nicht:1 speed:2 extra:1 bonus:1 award:1 grant:1 passage:1 past:1 part:2 africa:1 following:1 reportedly:1 trail:1 create:1 reduce:1 tactical:1 advantage:1 interesting:1 safety:1 castle:1 well:1 safe:1 compulsory:1 force:1 dangerous:1 high:1 backwards:1 previous:1 cheating:1 catch:1 others:1 cheat:1 integral:1 category:1 note:1 |@bigram dice_roll:1 msn_encarta:1 cave_ajanta:1 brightly_colour:1 |
7,675 | Friedrich_Wöhler | Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 - 23 September 1882) was a German chemist, best-known for his synthesis of urea, but also the first to isolate several chemical elements. Early days He was born in Eschersheim, nowadays a district of Frankfurt am Main. In 1823 Wöhler finished his study of medicine in Heidelberg at the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin, who arranged for him to work under Jöns Jakob Berzelius in Stockholm. He taught chemistry from 1826 to 1831 at the Polytechnic School in Berlin until 1839 when he was stationed at the Higher Polytechnic School at Kassel. Afterwards, he became Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the University of Göttingen, where he remained until his death in 1882. Contributions to chemistry Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in organic chemistry as a result of him (accidentally) synthesizing urea in the Wöhler synthesis in 1828. This synthesis undermined the Vitalism Theory, by showing that organic compounds could be synthesized from inorganic materials. Major works, discoveries and research Friedrich Wöhler circa 1850s. Wöhler was also known for being a co-discoverer of beryllium and silicon, as well as the synthesis of calcium carbide, among others. In 1834, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They proved by their experiments that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in chemical compounds. Thus the foundation was laid of the doctrine of compound radicals, a doctrine which had a profound influence on the development of chemistry. Since the discovery of potassium by Humphry Davy, it had been assumed that alumina, the basis of clay, contained a metal in combination with oxygen. Davy, Oerstedt, and Berzelius attempted the extraction of this metal, but failed. Wöhler then worked on the same subject, and discovered the metal aluminium. To him also is due the isolation of the elements yttrium, beryllium, and titanium, the observation that "silicium" (silicon) can be obtained in crystals, and that some meteoric stones contain organic matter. He analyzed a number of meteorites, and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the Jahresbericht der Chemie; he possessed the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons existing. Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville discovered the crystalline form of boron, and Wöhler and Buff the hydrogen compounds of silicon (the silanes) and a lower oxide of the same element. Wohler also prepared urea, a constituent of urine, from ammonium cyanate in the laboratory without the help of a living cell. Final days and legacy Wöhler's discoveries had great influence on the theory of chemistry. The journals of every year from 1820 to 1881 contain contributions from him. It was remarked that "for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming. Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now." While sojourning at Cassel, Wöhler made, among other chemical discoveries, one for obtaining the metal nickel in a state of purity, and with two friends he founded a factory there for the preparation of the metal. Wöhler had several students who became notable chemists. Among them were Georg Ludwig Carius, Heinrich Limpricht, Rudolph Fittig, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe, Albert Niemann, and Vojtěch Šafařík. Works Lehrbuch der Chemie, Dresden, 1825, 4 vols. Grundriss der Anorganischen Chemie, Berlin, 1830 Grundriss der Organischen Chemie, Berlin, 1840 Praktische Übungen in der Chemischen Analyse, Berlin, 1854 References | Friedrich_Wöhler |@lemmatized friedrich:2 wöhler:13 july:1 september:1 german:1 chemist:2 best:2 know:2 synthesis:4 urea:3 also:4 first:1 isolate:1 several:2 chemical:3 element:6 early:1 day:2 bear:1 eschersheim:1 nowadays:1 district:1 frankfurt:1 main:1 finish:1 study:1 medicine:1 heidelberg:1 laboratory:2 leopold:1 gmelin:1 arrange:1 work:5 jöns:1 jakob:1 berzelius:2 stockholm:1 teach:1 chemistry:7 polytechnic:2 school:2 berlin:4 station:1 high:2 kassel:1 afterwards:1 become:2 ordinary:1 professor:1 university:1 göttingen:1 remain:1 death:1 contribution:2 regard:1 pioneer:1 organic:3 result:1 accidentally:1 synthesize:2 undermine:1 vitalism:1 theory:2 show:1 compound:4 could:1 inorganic:1 material:1 major:1 discovery:4 research:2 circa:1 co:1 discoverer:1 beryllium:2 silicon:3 well:1 calcium:1 carbide:1 among:3 others:1 liebig:1 publish:1 investigation:1 oil:1 bitter:1 almond:1 prove:1 experiment:1 group:1 carbon:1 hydrogen:2 oxygen:2 atom:1 behave:1 like:1 take:1 place:1 exchange:1 thus:1 foundation:1 lay:1 doctrine:2 radical:1 profound:1 influence:2 development:1 since:1 potassium:1 humphry:1 davy:2 assume:1 alumina:1 basis:1 clay:1 contain:3 metal:5 combination:1 oerstedt:1 attempt:1 extraction:1 fail:1 subject:1 discover:2 aluminium:1 due:1 isolation:1 yttrium:1 titanium:1 observation:1 silicium:1 obtain:3 crystal:1 meteoric:2 stone:2 matter:1 analyze:1 number:1 meteorite:2 many:1 year:2 write:1 digest:1 literature:1 jahresbericht:1 der:5 chemie:4 possess:1 private:1 collection:1 iron:1 exist:1 sainte:1 claire:1 deville:1 crystalline:1 form:1 boron:1 buff:1 silanes:1 low:1 oxide:1 wohler:1 prepare:1 constituent:1 urine:1 ammonium:1 cyanate:1 without:1 help:1 living:1 cell:1 final:1 legacy:1 great:1 journal:1 every:1 remark:1 two:2 three:1 deserve:1 honor:1 scientific:1 man:1 sum:1 absolutely:1 overwhelming:1 never:1 live:1 aspect:1 would:1 different:1 sojourn:1 cassel:1 make:1 one:1 nickel:1 state:1 purity:1 friend:1 found:1 factory:1 preparation:1 student:1 notable:1 georg:1 ludwig:1 carius:1 heinrich:1 limpricht:1 rudolph:1 fittig:1 adolph:1 wilhelm:1 hermann:1 kolbe:1 albert:1 niemann:1 vojtěch:1 šafařík:1 lehrbuch:1 dresden:1 vols:1 grundriss:2 anorganischen:1 organischen:1 praktische:1 übungen:1 chemischen:1 analyse:1 reference:1 |@bigram friedrich_wöhler:2 synthesis_urea:1 jöns_jakob:1 jakob_berzelius:1 organic_chemistry:1 wöhler_synthesis:1 organic_compound:1 calcium_carbide:1 humphry_davy:1 sainte_claire:1 claire_deville:1 lehrbuch_der:1 chemie_berlin:2 |
7,676 | Australian_English | Australian English (AusE, AuE, AusEng, en-AU en-AU is the language code for Australian English , as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag). ) is the form of the English language spoken in Australia. Socio-historical linguistic context Australian English began diverging from British English shortly after the foundation of the Australian penal colony of New South Wales (NSW) in 1788. British convicts sent there, including Cockneys from London, came mostly from large English cities. They were joined by free settlers, military personnel and administrators, often with their families. However, a large part of the convict body were Irish (at least 25% directly from Ireland, plus others indirectly via Britain) and other non-English speaking Welsh and Scots, or at least, not from the South/South East of Britain. English was not spoken, or was poorly spoken, by a large part of the convict population, and the dominant English input was that of Cockney South-East England. In 1827 Peter Cunningham, in his book Two Years in New South Wales, reported that native-born white Australians of the time known as "currency lads and lasses" Hughes, Robert. The Fatal Shore. London: Harvill (1986). spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, with a strong Cockney influence. The transportation of convicts to Australia ended in 1868, but immigration of free settlers from Britain, Ireland and elsewhere continued. The first of the Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, began a much larger wave of immigration, which would significantly influence the language. During the 1850s, when the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was under economic hardship, about two per cent of its population emigrated to the Colony of NSW and the Colony of Victoria. Geoffrey Blainey, 1993, The Rush That Never Ended (4th ed.) Melbourne University Press Among the changes wrought by the gold rushes was "Americanisation" of the language the introduction of words, spellings, terms, and usages from North American English. The words imported included some later considered to be typically Australian, such as dirt and digger. Bell, R. Americanization and Australia. UNSW Press (1998). Bonzer, which was once a common Australian slang word meaning "great", "superb" or "beautiful", is thought to have been a corruption of the American mining term bonanza, Robert J. Menner, "The Australian Language" American Speech, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr., 1946), pp. 120 which means a rich vein of gold or silver and is itself a loanword from Spanish. The influx of American military personnel in World War II brought further American influence; though most words were short-lived; and only okay, you guys, and gee have persisted. Since the 1950s American influence has mostly arrived via pop culture, the mass media books, magazines, television programs, and computer software and the world wide web. Some words, such as freeway and truck, have even naturalised so completely that few Australians recognise their origin. One of the first writers to attempt renditions of Australian accents and vernacular was the novelist Joseph Furphy (a.k.a. Tom Collins), who wrote a popular account of rural New South Wales and Victoria during the 1880s, Such is Life (1903). C. J. Dennis wrote poems about working class life in Melbourne, such as The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke (1915), which was extremely popular and was made into a popular silent film (The Sentimental Bloke; 1919). John O'Grady's novel They're a Weird Mob has many examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech in Sydney during the 1950s, such as "owyergoinmateorright?" ("How are you going, mate? All right?") Thomas Keneally's novels set in Australia, particularly The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, frequently use vernacular such as "yair" for "yes" and "noth-think" for "nothing". Other books of note are "Let Stalk Strine" by Afferbeck Lauder where "Strine" is "Australian" and "Afferbeck Lauder" is "alphabetical order" (the book is in alphabetical order) and "How to be Normal in Australia". British words such as mobile (phone) predominate in most cases. Some American and British variants exist side-by-side; in many casesfreeway and motorway, for instance regional, social and ethnic variation within Australia typically defines word usage. Oliver, Mackay and Rochecouste. 'The Acquisition of Colloquial Terms by Western Australian Primary School Children from Non-English Speaking Backgrounds' in Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 24:5 (2003), 413-430. Australian English is most similar to New Zealand English due to shared history and geographical proximity. Both use the expression different to (also encountered in British English, but not American) as well as different from. Words of Irish origin are used, some of which are also common elsewhere in the Irish diaspora, such as bum backside (Irish bun), tucker food, provisions (Irish tacar), as well as one or two native English words whose meaning have changed under Irish influence, such as paddock field, cf. Irish páirc, which has exactly the same meaning as the Australian paddock. Australia adopted decimal currency in 1966 and the metric system in the 1970s. Australians have measured temperatures in degrees celsius since 1972, road signs were metricated in 1974 and goods of all kinds have been measured in litres and kilograms ever since that time. While the older measures may be understood by those born before 1960, younger Australians have lived most or all of their lives in a metric environment and may not be familiar with pounds, ounces, stones, degrees fahrenheit, yards and miles or pounds, shillings and pence. However some imperial measurements persist in popular usage (inches and feet being most common, along with pounds and ounces for newborn babies). Variation and change of Australian English Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: Broad, General and Cultivated. Robert Mannell, "Impressionistic Studies of Australian English Phonetics" They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the social class or educational background of the speaker. Australia's unique and evolving sound Edition 34, 2007 (23 Aug 2007) - The Macquarie Globe Broad Australian English is recognisable and familiar to English speakers around the world because it is used to identify Australian characters in non-Australian films and television programs. Examples are television/film personalities Steve Irwin and Paul Hogan. Slang terms Ocker, for a speaker, and Strine, for the dialect, are used in Australia. The majority of Australians speak with the General Australian accent. This predominates among modern Australian films and television programs and is used by the Wiggles, Dannii Minogue, Kylie Minogue, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett. Cultivated Australian English has many similarities to British Received Pronunciation, and is often mistaken for it. Cultivated Australian English is spoken by some within Australian society, for example Judy Davis and Geoffrey Rush. There are no strong variations in accent and pronunciation across different states and territories, though some differences are sometimes claimed. Differences in pronunciation and vocabulary are small in comparison to those of the British and American English, and Australian pronunciation is determined less by region than by social, cultural and educational influences. In Tasmania, words such as "dance" and "grant" are usually heard with the older pronunciation of these words, using , whereas in South Australia, is more common. Other regions of Australia show different patterns of pronunciation of words with this vowel sound. Crystal, D. (1995). Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. Phonology Australian vowels Australian diphthongs Australian English is a non-rhotic dialect. It is most similar to New Zealand English and South African English, and bears some resemblance to dialects from the Southeast of England, particularly those of Cockney and Received Pronunciation. Like most dialects of English it is distinguished primarily by its vowel phonology. The vowels of Australian English can be divided into two categories: long and short vowels. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, mostly correspond to the lax vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation. The long vowels, consisting of both monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to its tense vowels and centring diphthongs. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a phonemic length distinction: that is, certain vowels differ only by length. Many speakers have also coalesced , and into , and , producing standard pronunciations such as for tune. The flapping of intervocalic and to alveolar tap before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic (bottle), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else, whatever). Thus, for most speakers, pairs such as ladder/latter, metal/medal, and coating/coding are pronounced almost identically. Both intervocalic /nt/ and /n/ may be realized as [n] or [ɾ̃], rarely making winter and winner homophones. Interesting will sound like inner-resting. Most areas in which /nt/ is reduced to /n/, it is accompanied further by nasalization of simple post-vocalic /n/, so that V/nt/ and V/n/ remain phonemically distinct. In such cases, the preceding vowel becomes nasalized, and is followed in cases where the former /nt/ was present, by a distinct /n/. This stop-absorption by the preceding nasal /n/ does not occur when the second syllable is stressed, as in entail. Vocabulary Australian English has many words that some consider unique to the language. One of the best known is outback, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area. Another is The Bush, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general. 'Bush' is a word of Dutch origin: 'Bosch'. However, both terms have been widely used in many English-speaking countries. Early settlers from England brought other similar words, phrases and usages to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example, creek in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the United Kingdom it means a small watercourse flowing into the sea; paddock in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; bush or scrub in Australia, as in North America, means a wooded area, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs). Australian English and several British English dialects (for example, Cockney, Scouse, Glaswegian and Geordie) use the word mate. The origins of other words are not as clear or are disputed. Dinkum (or "fair dinkum") can mean "true", "is that true?" or "this is the truth!” among other things, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the Australian goldrushes of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the Cantonese (or Hokkien) ding kam, meaning, "top gold". But scholars give greater credence to the conjecture that it originated from the extinct East Midlands dialect in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant "hard work" or "fair work", which was also the original meaning in Australian English. Frederick Ludowyk, 1998, "Aussie Words: The Dinkum Oil On Dinkum; Where Does It Come From?" (0zWords, Australian National Dictionary Centre). Access date: November 5, 2007. The derivative dinky-di means 'true' or devoted: a 'dinky-di Aussie' is a 'true Australian'. However, this expression is limited to describing objects or actions that are characteristically Australian. The words dinkum or dinky-di and phrases like true blue are widely purported to be typical Australian sayings, even though they are more commonly used in jest or parody than as authentic slang. Similarly, g'day, a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with "good day" in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for "farewell", as "good day" is in other countries. A few words of Australian origin are now used in other parts of the Anglosphere as well; among these are first past the post, to finalise, brownout, and the colloquialisms uni "university" and <part> short of a <whole> meaning stupid or crazy, (e.g. "A few beers short of a six pack"). The Oxford English Dictionary. , , , , Influence of Australian Aboriginal languages Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been adopted by Australian English mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example dingo). Beyond that, little has been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms and slang. Some examples are cooee and Hard yakka. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced ) which travels long distances. Cooee is also a notional distance: if he's within cooee, we'll spot him. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the / language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from there is the word bung, meaning broken or pretending to be hurt. A failed piece of equipment may be described as having bunged up or as "on the bung" or "gone bung". A person pretending to be hurt is said to be "bunging it on". A hurt person could say, "I've got a bung knee". Although didgeridoo, referring to a well-known wooden musical instrument, is often thought of as an Aboriginal word, it is now believed to be an onomatopoeic word invented by English speakers. It has also been suggested that it may have an Irish derivation because the word dúdaire means "pipe player" in Irish Gaelic, and dúdaire dubh [du:dɪrʲɪ du:] means 'black pipe player'. Dymphna Lonergan, 2002, "Aussie Words: Didgeridoo; An Irish Sound In Australia" (0zWords, Australian National Dictionary Centre). Access date: November 5, 2007. Spelling Australian spelling is usually the same as British spelling, with only a few exceptions. The Macquarie Dictionary is generally used by publishers, schools, universities and governments as the standard spelling reference. Well-known differences from British spelling include 'program' which is more common than programme. Peters, Pam. (1986) "Spelling principles", In: Peters, Pam, ed., Style in Australia: Current Practices in Spelling, Punctuation, Hyphenation, Capitalisation, etc., The So Called "American Spelling." Its Consistency Examined. pre-1901 pamphlet, Sydney, E. J. Forbes. Quoted by Annie Potts in this article Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers of Australian Government Publications, Third Edition, Revised by John Pitson, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1978, page 10, "In general, follow the spellings given in the latest edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary. However, although 'jail' is prevalent, 'gaol' is generally still used in official contexts, is not uncommon, and sets Australian and New Zealand English apart from both their American and British counterparts. There was a widely-held belief in Australia that controversies over spelling resulted from the "Americanisation" of Australian English; the influence of American English in the late 20th century, but the debate over spelling is much older. For example, a pamphlet entitled The So-Called "American Spelling", published in Sydney some time before 1901, argued that "there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc.", alluding to older British spellings which also used the -or ending. The pamphlet also claimed that "the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form". Newspapers are not always a reliable guide to community preference and usage, "A bevan by any other name could be a bogan"; Don Woolford; The Age; 27 March 2002: Given a choice between "colour" and "color", 95 per cent chose the former, surprising given that many newspapers drop the "u". as they are often more concerned about saving space designwrite.ca: The Serial Comma. . By way of example, circa 2007 Melbourne newspaper The Age finally changed its longstanding policy of omitting the "u", in response to continuing complaints from its readers Reported in the pages of The Age at the time. Precise date T.B.C. Compare also with Webster in Australia by James McElvenny: "[...] the Age newspaper used the reformed spellings up to the end of the 1990s." One of the two major political parties is the Australian Labor Party, spelled without a u. Colloquialisms Diminutives are used by some. They are formed in various ways and are often used to indicate familiarity. Some common examples: arvo (afternoon), barbie (barbecue), footy (Australian rules football, rugby union football or rugby league football) and servo (service station). Litotes, such as "you're not wrong", are used by some. Many idiomatic phrases and words once common in Australian English are now stereotypes and caricatured exaggerations, and have disappeared from everyday use. Among the words less used are: strewth, you beaut and crikey. Waltzing Matilda written by bush poet Banjo Paterson contains many obsolete Australian words and phrases that appeal to a rural ideal and are understood by Australians even though they are not in common usage outside the song. One example is the title, which means travelling (particularly with a swag). See also Australian Aboriginal English Australian English vocabulary IPA chart for English New Zealand English Australian Kriol language Strine References Notes Mitchell, Alexander G., 1995, The Story of Australian English, Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre. External links Australian National Dictionary Centre The Australian National Dictionary Online Australian Word Map at the ABC - documents regionalisms Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology Macquarie Dictionary World English Organisation Aussie English for beginners the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge at the National Museum of Australia. English for Australia Some words and expressions are taken from British slang, while others are derived from Aboriginal terms. 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7,677 | Geography_of_El_Salvador | Map of El Salvador Shaded relief map of El Salvador Satellite image of El Salvador in April 2002 Economic activity of El Salvador, 1980 Vegetation and land use, 1980 Topography of El Salvador The geography of El Salvador is unique among the nations of Central America. The country borders the North Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, with Guatemala to the north-northwest and Honduras to the north-northeast. In the southeast, the Golfo de Fonseca separates it from Nicaragua. El Salvador is the smallest Central American country in area and is the only one without a coastline on the Caribbean sea. Geographic coordinates: El Salvador, along with the rest of Central America (a region comprising mainly Mexico and Central America), is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the Earth's surface. The motion of these plates causes the area's earthquake and volcanic activity. Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate. The Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. Ocean floor material is largely composed of basalt, which is relatively dense; when it strikes the lighter granite rocks of Central America, the ocean floor is forced down under the land mass, creating the deep Middle America Trench that lies off the coast of El Salvador. The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast. As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers. North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the northern edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala. The grinding action of these two plates creates a fault, similar to the San Andreas fault in California, that runs the length of the valley of the Rio Motagua in Guatemala. Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador. El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early nineteenth century to the mid 1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name "Lighthouse of the Pacific." Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone. Physical features Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador east to west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85 percent of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands. The northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, form a continuous chain along the border with Honduras. Elevations in this region range from 1,600 to 2,700 meters. The area was once heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion, and it has become semibarren. As a result, it is the country's most sparsely populated zone, with little farming or other development. The southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups. The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, which at 2,365 meters is the highest volcano in El Salvador. Between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits. The volcanic soil is rich, and much of El Salvador's coffee is planted on these slopes. The central plateau constitutes only 25 percent of the land area but contains the heaviest concentration of population and the country's largest cities. This plain is about 50 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 600 meters. Terrain here is rolling, with occasional escarpments, lava fields, and geysers. A narrow plain extends from the coastal volcanic range to the Pacific Ocean. This region has a width ranging from one to thirty-two kilometers with the widest section in the east, adjacent to the Golfo de Fonseca. Near La Libertad, however, the mountains pinch the lowlands out; the slopes of adjacent volcanoes come down directly to the ocean. Surfaces in the Pacific lowlands are generally flat or gently rolling and result from alluvial deposits from nearby slopes. El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river, and it and its tributaries drain about half the country. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific. Numerous lakes of volcanic origin are found in the interior highlands; many of these lakes are surrounded by mountains and have high, steep banks. The largest lake, the Lago de Ilopango, lies just to the east of the capital. Other large lakes include the Lago de Coatepeque in the west and the Lago de Güija on the Guatemalan border. The Cerron Grande Dam on the Rio Lempa has created a large reservoir, the Embalse Cerron Grande, in northern El Salvador. Izalco has erupted at least 51 times since 1770. It earned the nickname "Lighthouse of the Pacific" because it was the most active volcano in Central America. Climate El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate. The rainy season, known locally as invierno, or winter, extends from May to October. Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this time, and yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 200 centimeters. Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador, with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch and Emily in 1998. From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has had most of the precipitation wrung out of it while passing over the mountains in Honduras. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy. This season is known locally as verano, or summer. Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant. The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from 25°C to 29°C. San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of 23°C and absolute high and low readings of 38°C and 6°C, respectively. Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from 12°C to 23°C and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing. Other facts Area: total: 23,040 km² land: 20,720 km² water: 320 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Massachusetts Land boundaries: total: 545 km coconut countries: Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km Coastline: 307 km Maritime claims: territorial sea: 200 nm Climate: tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April); tropical on coast; temperate in uplands Terrain: mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Cerro El Pital 2,730 m Natural resources: hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable land Land use: arable land: 27% permanent crops: 8% permanent pastures: 29% forests and woodland: 5% other: 31% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 1,200 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: El Salvador is known as the Land of Volcanoes; there are frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; catastophic hurricanes are uncommon. Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes; Hurricane Mitch damage Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea References | Geography_of_El_Salvador |@lemmatized map:2 el:23 salvador:24 shade:1 relief:1 satellite:1 image:1 april:3 economic:1 activity:3 vegetation:1 land:11 use:2 topography:1 geography:1 unique:1 among:1 nation:1 central:16 america:7 country:8 border:4 north:5 pacific:16 ocean:8 south:1 southwest:1 guatemala:6 northwest:1 honduras:4 northeast:3 southeast:1 golfo:2 de:5 fonseca:2 separate:1 nicaragua:1 small:2 american:2 area:9 one:3 without:1 coastline:2 caribbean:5 sea:4 geographic:1 coordinate:1 along:4 rest:2 region:6 comprise:2 mainly:1 mexico:2 seismologically:1 active:3 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7,678 | History_of_Africa | The history of Africa begins with the first emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. Obelisk at temple of Luxor, Egypt. c. 1200 BC Africa's written history starts with the rise of Egyptian civilization in the 4th millennium BC, and in succeeding centuries follows the development of the many diverse societies beyond the Nile Valley. From an early date this has involved critical interactions with non-African civilizations. These ranged from the Phoenicians, who established the merchant empire of Carthage, to the Romans, who colonised all of North Africa in the first century BC. Christianity began its spread through large areas of northern Africa at this time, reaching as far south as Kush and Ethiopia. In the late 7th century, North and East Africa were heavily influenced by the spread of Islam, which eventually led to the appearance of new cultures such as those of the Swahili people in East Africa, and powerful kingdoms including the Songhai Empire in the sub-saharan west. Farther south, Ghana, Oyo, and the Benin Empire developed with little influence from either Islam or Christianity. The rise of Islam led to an increase in the Arab slave trade that would culminate in the 19th century. This presaged the forced transport of African people and cultures to the New World in the Atlantic slave trade, and the beginning of the European scramble for Africa. Africa's colonial period lasted from the late 1800s until the advent of African independence movements in 1951, when Libya became the first former colony to become independent. Modern African history has been rife with revolutions and wars as well as the growth of modern African economies and democratization across the continent. African history has been a challenge for researchers in the field of African studies due to the scarcity of written sources in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. Scholarly techniques such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics, archeology and genetics have been crucial. Prehistory Paleolithic According to paleontological, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to their close cousins, the great African apes, but they had adopted a bipedal form of locomotion, giving them a crucial advantage, as this enabled them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and central Africa. The next major evolutionary step occurred approximately 2 million years ago, when primitive stone tools were first used to scavenge kills made by other predators, and harvest carrion for their bones and marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was probably not capable of competing with large predators, and was still more prey than hunter, although s/he probably did steal eggs from nests, and may have been able to catch small game, and weakened larger prey (cubs and older animals). Around 1.8 million years ago Homo erectus first appeared in the fossil record in Africa, but nearly simultaneously in the fossil record of the Caucasus region. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were still fairly small brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean. Possibly the first hunters, H. erectus mastered the art of making fire, and were the first hominids to leave Africa, colonizing the entire Old World, and perhaps later giving rise to Homo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus, a H. habilis descendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. erectus species. The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa at least 100,000 and possibly 150,000 years ago. Around 40,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of our planet by modern human-beings. Their migration is indicated by linguistic, cultural and (increasingly) computer-analyzed genetic evidence. The genetic studies by Luca Cavalli-Sforza are considered pioneering in tracing the spread of modern humans from Africa. Emergence of agriculture Neolithic rock engravings, or 'petroglyphs' and the megaliths in the Sahara desert of Libya attest to early hunter-gatherer culture in the dry grasslands of North Africa during the glacial age. At the end of the Ice Age (perhaps around 10,500 BC), the Sahara had become a green fertile valley again, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands south of the Sahara. In sub-Saharan Africa agriculture arose possibly as early as the 15th millennium BC. (Van Sertima, 1984, p. 20) The region of the present Sahara was an early site for the practice of agriculture (in the second stage of the culture characterized by the so-called "wavy-line ceramics" ca. 4000 BCE.). From this time the climate of the Sahara region gradually became drier. The population trekked out of the Sahara region in all directions, including towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since then dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa. After the desertification of the Sahara, settlement in North Africa became concentrated in the valley of the Nile, where the pre-literate Nomes of Egypt laid a base for the culture of ancient Egypt. Archeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. By 6000 B.C., organized agriculture had appeared. People from the Great Lakes Region settled along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea to become the proto-Canaanites who dominated the lowlands between the Jordan River, the Mediterranean and the Sinai Desert. By 3000 BC agriculture arose independently in Ethiopia, where coffee, teff, finger millet, sorghum, barley, and enset. Donkeys were also independently domesticated somewhere in the region of Ethiopia and Somalia, but most domesticated animals spread there from the Sahel and Nile regions. Agricultural crops were also adopted from other regions around this time as pearl millet, cowpea, groundnut, cotton, watermelon and bottle gourds began to be grown agriculturally in both West Africa and the Sahel Region while finger millet, peas, lentil and flax took hold in Ethiopia. Ethiopia preserved a unique language, culture and crop system. The crop system is adapted to the northern highlands and does not partake of any other area's crops. The most famous member of this crop system is coffee, but one of the more useful plants is sorghum, a dry-land grain; teff is also endemic to the region. Metallurgy The first metal to be smelted in Africa was probably lead, with the oldest artifacts dating from Egypt of the fourth millenium BCE. Copper was already being used in Egypt during the predynastic period, and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) came into use not long after 3000 BCE at the latest Nicholson & Shaw, pp 149–60 and in Nubia around 1750 BCE. The use of gold and silver in Egypt also dates back to the predynastic period Nicholson & Shaw, pp 161–165, 170 By the 1st millennium BCE, iron-working had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly began spreading across the Sahara into regions further south. Martin and O'Meara. "Africa, 3rd Ed." Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995. Metalworking in Western Africa has been dated to earlier than the 2500 BCE and Iron working by the 16th Century BCE. Iron in Africa: Revising the History, UNESCO Aux origines de la métallurgie du fer en Afrique, Une ancienneté méconnue: Afrique de l'Ouest et Afrique centrale. Iron-working was fully established by roughly 500 BCE in areas of East and West Africa, though other regions did not begin iron-working until the early centuries CE. Some copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia have been excavated in West Africa dating from around 500 BCE time period, suggesting that trade networks had been established by this time. Bantu expansion Central Africa Around 1000 BC, Bantu migrants had reached the Great Lakes of East Africa. Halfway through that millennium, the Bantu had also settled as far south as the countries of what are now Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. One of the major events that occurred in Central Africa during this period was the establishment of the Kanem Empire in what is now Chad. The Kanem Empire would flourish in the coming centuries setting the stage for future great states in the Sahel region of Africa. Southern Africa Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples, who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by the 4th or 5th century (see Bantu expansion) displacing and absorbing the original Khoi-San speakers. They slowly moved south and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoi-San people, reaching the Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. Antiquity North Africa Africa's earliest evidence of written history was in Ancient Egypt, and the Egyptian calendar is still used as the standard for dating Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures throughout the region. In about 3100 B.C. Egypt was united under the first known Narmer, who inaugurated the first of the 30 dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided: the Old, Middle Kingdoms and the New Kingdom. The pyramids at Giza (near Cairo), which were built in the Fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567–1085 B.C.). The importance of Ancient Egypt to the development of the rest of Africa has been debated. The earlier generation of Western academia generally saw Egypt as a Mediterranean civilization with little impact on the rest of Africa. Recent scholarship however, has begun to discredit this notion. Some have argued that various early Egyptians like the Badarians probably migrated northward from Nubia, while others see a wide-ranging movement of peoples across the breadth of the Sahara before the onset of desiccation. Whatever may be the origins of any particular people or civilization, however, it seems reasonably certain that the Predynastic communities of the Nile valley were essentially indigenous in culture, drawing little inspiration from sources outside the continent during the several centuries directly preceding the onset of historical times... (Robert July, Pre-Colonial Africa, 1975, p. 60-61) July, Robert, Pre-Colonial Africa, 1975, Charles Scribners and Sons, New York, p. 60-61 Just prior to Saharan desertification, the communities that developed south of Egypt, in what is now modern day Sudan, were full participants in the Neolithic revolution and lived a settled to semi-nomadic lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Dr. Stuart Tyson Smith Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are examples of probably the world's first known archaeoastronomy devices, out dating Stonehenge by some 1000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa - Wendorf (1998) The early A-group peoples, whom inhabited today's northern Sudan and were contemporary with pre-dynastic Naquadan Upper Egypt, were responsible for what may have been one of the oldest known kingdoms in the Nile valley, which the Egyptians called "Ta-seti" (Land of the Bow). Their demise with the onset of Dynastic Egypt, later gave rise to such Kingdoms as Kush, Kerma and Meroe whom collectively comprised what is sometimes referred to as Nubia. The last of the kingdoms would see their final devastating blow by a leader of a rising Kingdom in Ethiopia, Ezana of Axum, effectively bringing to an end the classical Nubian civilizations. Separated by the 'sea of sand', the Sahara, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa have been linked by fluctuating trans-Saharan trade routes largely between northwest and northeastern Africans and the Berber peoples, Bedouins and Arabs. Phoenician, Greek and Roman history of North Africa can be followed in entries for the Roman Empire and for its individual provinces in the Maghreb, such as Mauretania, Africa, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Aegyptus etc. Countries bordering the Mediterranean were colonised and settled by the Phoenicians before 1000 BC. Carthage, founded about 814 BC, speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians subdued the Berber tribes who, then as now, formed the bulk of the population, and became masters of all the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis, and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Greeks founded the city of Cyrene in Ancient Libya around 631 BC. Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes its foundation (332 BC), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and in this way was obtained some knowledge of Ethiopia. From around 500 B.C. to around 500 A.D., the civilization of the Garamantes (probably the ancestors of the Tuareg) existed in what is now the Libyan desert. Pyramids at Meroe, Nubia. c. 500 BC The three powers of Cyrenaica, Egypt and Carthage were eventually supplanted by the Romans. After centuries of rivalry with Rome, Carthage finally fell in 146 BC. Within little more than a century Egypt and Cyrene had become incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable barrier. Nubia and Ethiopia were reached, but an expedition sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile ended in failure. The utmost extent of Mediterranean geographical knowledge of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake reservoirs of the Nile, of trading posts along the shores of the Indian Ocean as far south as Rhapta in modern Tanzania, and had heard of the river Niger. Interaction between Asia, Europe and North Africa during this period was significant, major effects include the spread of classical culture around the shores of the Mediterranean; the continual struggle between Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity throughout the region, and the cultural effects of the churches in Tunisia, Egypt and Ethiopia. The classical era drew to a close with the invasion and conquest of Rome's African provinces by the Vandals in the 5th century. Power passed back in the following century to the Byzantine Empire. Horn of Africa Ethiopia had centralized rule for many millennia and the Aksumite Kingdom, which developed there, had created a powerful regional merchant empire with trade routes going as far as India. According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, merchant communities in northern Somalia that had already been present by the 1st century were also trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula as well as with then Roman-controlled Egypt through such ports as Zeila and Berbera. Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Cultures and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Publishing Group: 2001), p.13 East Africa Historically, the Swahili could be found as far north as northern Kenya, and as far south as Rovuma River in Mozambique. Although once believed to be the descendants of Persian colonists, the ancient Swahili are now recognized by most historians, historical linguists, and archaeologists as a Bantu people who had sustained and important interactions with Muslim merchants beginning in the late 7th and early 8th century AD. Middle Age Swahili Kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes Eastern and Southern Africa 500-1000 AD with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians are "metropolises". Tanzanian dig unearths ancient secret by Tira Shubart Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa A History of Mozambique were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battua. Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354 7th to 16th century Civilizations before European colonization. From the 7th century onward Islamic religious and cultural influence replaced that of Christianity across much of northern Africa. Only in Egypt under Arab rule, and where independence was maintained in Ethiopia, did Christianity survive in any strength. In this period Islamic influence spread slowly south toward sub-saharan kingdoms like the Songhai Empire, and along the Indian Ocean coast, although it never penetrated the Benin Empire or the other civilisations of the forest-belt south of the savannah. Muslim Arabs conquered northern Africa from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and continued into Spain beginning with the invasion of Egypt in the 7th century. Throughout North Africa Christianity nearly disappeared, except in Egypt where the Coptic Church remained strong partly because of the influence of Ethiopia. Some argue that when the Arabs had converted Egypt they attempted to wipe out the Copts, Ethiopia, who also practiced Coptic Christianity, warned the Muslims that if they attempted to wipe out the Copts, Ethiopia would decrease the flow of water from Lake Tana into the Blue Nile which flows into the greater Nile. This is speculated to be one of the reasons that the Coptic minorities still exist today. North and east Africa The first Arab immigrants had recognized the authority of the caliphs of Baghdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty—founded by Aghlab, one of Haroun al-Raschid's generals, at the close of the 8th century—ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early in the 10th century the Fatimid dynasty established itself in Egypt, where Cairo had been founded AD 968, and from there ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, and had seized Egypt in 1517, established the regencies of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1519 and 1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the Sharifan dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end of the 13th century. In the 11th century there was a sizable Arab immigration to North Africa, resulting in a large absorption of Berber culture. Even before this the Berbers had generally adopted the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and the Islamic religion thus became indelibly stamped on northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern seaboard, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala. In this they played a maritime and commercial role analogous to that filled in earlier centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern seaboard. Until the 14th century, Europe and the Arabs of North Africa were both ignorant of these eastern cities and states. Under the early Arab dynasties, Moorish culture had attained a high degree of sophistication, while the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers of Islam led to a considerable extension of their knowledge of the continent. The camel, first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of Egypt in 500 BC, enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert more easily. In this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions were drawn into the Islamic sphere of influence, becoming key centres of the trans-Saharan trade and for the exchange of ideas. For a time the African Muslim conquests in southern Europe had virtually made of the Mediterranean a Muslim lake, but the expulsion in the 11th century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern Italy by the Normans was followed by European attacks on Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the African coastlands, and especially with Egypt, was developed by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North Italy. By the end of the 15th century Spain had expelled its Muslim rulers, but even while the Moors remained in Granada, Portugal was strong enough to carry the war into Africa. In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta on the Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain acquired ports in Algeria and Tunisia. Portugal, however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr al Kebir. The Moors were led by Abd el Malek I of the then recently established Saadi Dynasty. The Barbary states, under the influence of Moors expelled from Spain, degenerated into communities of pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the 16th century to the third decade of the 19th century, is largely made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual reprisals on the other. West Africa By the 9th century AD a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-saharan savannah from the western coast to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the 11th century but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Kanem accepted Islam in the 11th century. Islam then spread through the interior of West Africa, as the religion of the mansas of the Mali Empire (c. 1235–1400). Following the fabled 1324 hajj of Kankan Musa I, Timbuktu became renowned as a centre of Islamic scholarship and as the location of sub-Saharan Africa's first university. That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa (Kilwa) provided the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing Muslim cities of the Swahili on the east African seaboards. The Songhai Empire, c. 1500 Following the breakup of Mali a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464 -1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askiya Mohammad Ture (1493 - 1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship, to Gao. Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988 By the 11th century some Hausa states - such as Kano, jigawa,Katsina, and Gobir - had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the 15th century these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east. Arab progress southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest, stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of 10° North latitude, which barred their advance much as the Sahara had proved an obstacle to their predecessors. The rain forest cut them off from knowledge of the Guinea coast and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which was the last to come under Arab rule was that of Nubia, which had been controlled by Christians up to the 14th century. Bronze sculpture of the Benin Kingdom, Nigeria, early 16th century In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew up with little influence from the Muslim north. Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states, established government under a priestly king, or Oni. Ife was noted as the religious and cultural centre of the region, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at Oyo, where a member of its ruling dynasty controlled several smaller city-states. By the 15th century the Oyo Empire had cut off the mother city from the savanna. Yorubaland established a community in the Edo-speaking area east of Ife at the beginning of the 14th century. This developed into the Benin Empire. By the 15th century Benin had become an independent trading power, blocking Ife's access to the coastal ports. Benin, which may have housed 100,000 inhabitants at its height, spread over twenty-five square kilometres, and was enclosed by three concentric rings of earthworks. By the late 15th century Benin was in contact with Portugal. At its apogee in the 16th and 17th centuries, Benin encompassed parts of southeastern Yorubaland and the western Igbo. Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250-1629) which used to stretch between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the modern states of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It enjoys great fame for the ruins at its old capital of Great Zimbabwe. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. European exploration During the fifteenth century Prince Henry "the Navigator," son of King John I, planned to acquire African territory for Portugal. Under his inspiration and direction Portuguese navigators began a series of voyages of exploration which resulted in the circumnavigation of Africa and the establishment of Portuguese sovereignty over large areas of the coastlands. Portuguese ships rounded Cape Bojador in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by 1480 the whole Guinea coast was known to the Portuguese. In 1482 Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good Hope was rounded by Bartolomeu Dias in 1488, and in 1498 Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east coast, touched at Sofala and Malindi, and went from there to India. Portugal claimed sovereign rights wherever its navigators landed, but these were not exercised in the extreme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous European forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being São Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The European discovery of America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively confined to Muslim Africa. The lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea coast. English mariners went there as early as 1553, and they were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other adventurers. Colonial supremacy along the coast passed in the 17th century from Portugal to the Netherlands and from the Dutch in the 18th and 19th centuries to France and Britain. The whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and "factories" of rival European powers, and this international patchwork persisted into the 20th century although all the West African hinterland had become either French or British territory. Southward from the mouth of the Congo to the region of Damaraland (in what is present-day Namibia), the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, acquired influence over the inhabitants, and in the early part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity was largely adopted in the Kongo Empire. An incursion of tribes from the interior later in the same century broke the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity was transferred to a great extent farther south, São Paulo de Loanda (present-day Luanda) being founded in 1576. Before Angolan independence in 1975, the sovereignty of Portugal over this coastal region, except for the mouth of the Congo, had been only once challenged by a European power, the Dutch, from 1640 to 1648 in which Portugal lost control of the seaports. The slave trade The earliest external African slave trade was trans-Saharan. Although there had long been some trading along the Nile River and very limited trading across the western desert, the transportation of large numbers of slaves did not become viable until camels were introduced from Arabia in the 10th century. At this point, a trans-Saharan trading network came into being to transport slaves north. Unlike the Americas, slaves in North Africa were mainly servants rather than labourers, and an equal or greater number of females than males were taken, who were often employed as chambermaids to the women of northern harems. It was also not uncommon to turn male slaves into eunuchs. The Atlantic slave trade was a later development, but would eventually become far greater and have a much bigger impact. Increasing penetration of the Americas by the Portuguese, Spaniards, English, French, Dutch (among others) created a huge demand for labor in Brazil, Guianas, Caribbean and North America. Workers were needed for agriculture, mining and other tasks. To meet this new demand, a trans-Atlantic slave trade developed. Slaves purchased in those West African regions known to Europeans as the Slave Coast, Gold Coast, and Côte d'Ivoire were often the unfortunate by-product of fighting between rival African states. Powerful African kings on the Bight of Biafra might sell their captives internally or exchange them with European slave traders for trade goods such as firearms, rum, fabrics and seed grain. It should be noted that European traders also conducted their own, quite independent, slave raids. European conquest An 1812 map of Africa by Arrowsmith and Lewis In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly-expanding settlement was a Dutch possession. Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795 ostensibly to stop it falling into the hands of the French, but also seeking to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1806. Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from the exploration of Africa, there were nevertheless significant developments. The invasion of Egypt (1798–1801) first by France and then by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to regain direct control over that country, followed in 1811 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an almost independent state, and the extension of Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward). In South Africa the struggle with Napoleon led the United Kingdom to seize Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. It has been documented that leader of a small African tribe, first heard of in 1821 and called the Snivs, Richard Bilcliffe (of Ugandan/South African descent) was key in the sparking of revolutionary behavior in order to free the supressed African slaves. The Zulu Kingdom (1817-1879) was a southern African state in what is now South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the Anglo-Zulu War, part of the South African Wars (1879-1915). Considerable changes had meanwhile been made in other parts of the continent, the most notable being the invasion of Algiers by France in 1830. This action put an end to the independent Barbary states, a major obstacle to France's Mediterranean strategy. Egyptian authority continued its southward expansion with consequent additions to European knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the "discovery" in 1840–1848, by the missionaries Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johann Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kilimanjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further knowledge. 19th-century European explorers By the middle of the 19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. It was being conducted among people of whom Europeans knew little. In many instances missionaries turned explorer or became agents of trade and colonialism. One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the European map was David Livingstone, who had been engaged since 1840 in missionary work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami, and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone "discovered", November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. These falls are called Mosi-oa-Tunya by Africans. In 1858–1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853–1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857–1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed. Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succoring Livingstone, started again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba, followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean—reached in August 1877—and proved it to be the Congo. Explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs, Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race". But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them; du Chaillu having previously, as the result of journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Carthaginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the 19th century, was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle. Partition among European powers In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was transformed. Lines of partition, drawn often through trackless African countryside, marked out the "possessions" of Germany, France, Britain and the other Great Powers. Railways penetrated the interior, vast areas were "opened up" to European conquest. The causes which led to the partition of Africa can be found in the economic and political state of western Europe at the time. Germany, recently united under Prussian rule as the result of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies, new markets for her growing industries, and with the markets, colonies. Germany was the last country to enter into the race to acquire colonies, and when Bismarck—the German Chancellor —acted, Africa was the only field left to exploit. South America was widely considered the fiefdom of the United States based on the Monroe Doctrine, while Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain had already divided much of Asia and the rest of the world between themselves. Part of the reason Germany began to expand into the colonial sphere at this time, despite Bismarck's lack of enthusiasm for the idea, was a shift in the world view of the Prussian governing elite. Indeed, European elites as a whole began to view the world as a finite place, one in which only the strong would predominate. The influence of social Darwinism was deep, encouraging a view of the world as essentially characterized by zero-sum relationships. For different reasons the war of 1870 was also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost in that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two causes mentioned must be added others. Britain and Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African power. It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought about by the projects of Léopold II, king of the Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial exploitation, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of "savages" to Christianize and "civilize". The possibility of utilizing both these classes in the creation of a vast private estate, of which he should be the head, formed itself in the mind of Léopold II even before Stanley had navigated the Congo. The king's action proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun. Berlin Conference From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the century the work of partition, so far as international agreements were concerned, was practically completed. Soldiers of King Menelik II fended off the Italians, keeping Ethiopia independent from European colonization. No African countries were consulted during the partitioning of Africa. An "International treaty" was signed that disregarded the ethnic, social and economic composition of the people that lived in that area. This was to resurface years later, as ethnic or "tribal" conflict after the African countries gained their independence. 20th century: 1900-1945 The early 20th century Map of Africa just before World War I (larger image (456 kB)) All of the continent was claimed by European powers, except for Ethiopia ("Abyssinia") and Liberia. The European powers set up a variety of different administrations in Africa at this time, with different ambitions and degrees of power. In some areas, parts of British West Africa for example, colonial control was tenuous and intended for simple economic extraction, strategic power, or as part of a long term development plan. In other areas Europeans were encouraged to settle, creating settler states in which a European minority came to dominate society. Settlers only came to a few colonies in sufficient numbers to have a strong impact. British settler colonies included British East Africa, now Kenya, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, later Zambia and Zimbabwe, and South Africa, which already had a significant population of European settlers, the Boers. In the Second Boer War, between the British Empire and the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic), the Boers unsuccessfully resisted absorption in to the British Empire. France planned to settle Algeria and eventually incorporate it into the French state as an equal to the European provinces. Its proximity across the Mediterranean allowed plans of this scale. In most areas colonial administrations did not have the manpower or resources to fully administer the territory and had to rely on local power structures to help them. Various factions and groups within the societies exploited this European requirement for their own purposes, attempting to gain a position of power within their own communities by cooperating with Europeans. One aspect of this struggle included what Terence Ranger has termed the "invention of tradition." In order to legitimize their own claims to power in the eyes of both the colonial administrators, and their own people, people would essentially manufacture "traditional" claims to power, or ceremonies. As a result many societies were thrown into disarray by the new order. During World War I the British and German Empires battled on several occasions, the most notable being the Battle of Tanga, and a sustained guerrilla campaign by the German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck. Interbellum After World War I the formerly German colonies in Africa were taken over by France and the United Kingdom. During this era a sense of local patriotism or nationalism took deeper root among African intellectuals and politicians. Some of the inspiration for this movement came from the First World War in which European countries had relied on colonial troops for their own defense. Many in Africa realized their own strength with regard to the colonizer for the first time. At the same time, some of the mystique of the "invincible" European was shattered by the barbarities of the war. However, in most areas European control remained relatively strong during this period. Italy, under the government of Benito Mussolini, invaded Ethiopia, the last independent African nation, in 1935 and occupied the country until 1941. The postcolonial era: 1945 to 1993 Decolonization Dates of independence of African countries The decolonisation of Africa started with Libya in 1951. (Although Liberia, South Africa, Egypt and Ethiopia were already independent.) Many countries followed in the 50s and 60s, with a peak in 1960 with independence of a large part of French West Africa. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) and Angola (1975) from Portugal, Djibouti from France in 1977, Zimbabwe from United Kingdom in 1980, and Namibia from South Africa in 1990. Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993. Because many cities were founded, enlarged and renamed by the Europeans, after independence many place names (for example Stanleyville, Léopoldville, Rhodesia) were renamed: see historical African place names for these. East Africa The Mau Mau Rebellion took place in Kenya from 1952 until 1956, but was put down by British and local forces. A State of Emergency remained in place until 1960. Kenya became independent in 1963, and Jomo Kenyatta served as its first president. The early 1990s also signaled the start of major clashes between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi. In 1994 this culminated in the Rwandan Genocide, a conflict in which over 800 000 people were murdered. North Africa In 1954 Gamal Abdel Nasser deposed the monarchy on Egypt and came to power. Muammar al-Gaddafi led a coup in Libya in 1969 and has remained in power. Egypt was involved in several wars against Israel, and was allied with other Arab countries. The first was right after the Israel was founded, in 1947. Egypt went to war again in 1967 and lost the Sinai Peninsula to Israel. They went to war yet again in 1973. In 1979 Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords, which gave back the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for the recognition of Israel. The accords are still in effect today. In 1981 Sadat was assassinated by an Islamist for signing the accords. Southern Africa In 1948 the apartheid laws were started in South Africa by the dominant party, the National Party. These were largely a continuation of existing policies, e.g. the Land Act of 1913. The difference was the policy of "separate development;" Where previous policies had only been disparate efforts to economically exploit the African Majority, Apartheid represented an entire philosophy of separate racial goals, leading to both the divisive laws of 'petty apartheid,' and the grander scheme of African Homelands. In 1994 the South African government abolished Apartheid. South Africans elected Nelson Mandela of the African National Congress in the country's first multiracial presidential election. West Africa Following World War II, nationalist movements arose across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah. In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies; by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous. Since independence, many West African nations have been plagued by corruption and instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d'Ivoire, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso. Many states have failed to develop their economies despite enviable natural resources, and political instability is often accompanied by undemocratic government. See also Late Stone Age African archaeology African Empires Bantu expansion Economic history of Africa Legends of Africa Pan-Africanism Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures References Notes Literature Further reading Cheikh Anta Diop (1987) Precolonial Black Africa Chicago Review Press, Incorporated Clark, J. Desmond (1970) The Prehistory of Africa Thames and Hudson Davidson, Basil (1964) The African Past, Penguin, Harmondsworth Freund, Bill (1998) The Making of Contemporary Africa, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1998 (including a substantial "Annotated Bibliography" pp. 269–316) Reader, John 1997 Africa: A Biography of the Continent, Hamish Hamilton ISBN 0241130476 Shillington, Kevin (1989) History of Africa, St. Martin's, New York UNESCO (1980-1994) General History of Africa 8 volumes Théophile Obenga (1980) Pour une Nouvelle Histoire Présence Africaine, Paris | History_of_Africa |@lemmatized history:16 africa:111 begin:15 first:31 emergence:2 homo:4 sapiens:2 east:16 continue:3 modern:9 present:6 patchwork:2 diverse:2 politically:1 develop:10 nation:5 state:27 obelisk:1 temple:1 luxor:1 egypt:37 c:9 bc:14 write:3 start:6 rise:5 egyptian:6 civilization:8 millennium:5 succeed:3 century:57 follow:12 development:7 many:12 society:7 beyond:4 nile:15 valley:6 early:27 date:9 involve:2 critical:1 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7,679 | M-theory | In theoretical physics, M-theory is a new limit of string theory in which 11 dimensions of spacetime may be identified. Because the dimensionality exceeds the dimensionality of five superstring theories in 10 dimensions, it was originally believed that the 11-dimensional theory is more fundamental and unifies all string theories (and supersedes them). However, in a more modern understanding, it is another, sixth possible description of physics of the full theory that is still called "string theory." Though a full description of the theory is not yet known, the low-entropy dynamics are known to be supergravity interacting with 2- and 5-dimensional membranes. This theory is the unique supersymmetric theory in eleven dimensions, with its low-entropy matter content and interactions fully determined, and can be obtained as the strong coupling limit of type IIA string theory because a new dimension of space emerges as the coupling constant increases. Drawing on the work of a number of string theorists (including Ashoke Sen, Chris Hull, Paul Townsend, Michael Duff and John Schwarz), Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study suggested its existence at a conference at USC in 1995, and used M-theory to explain a number of previously observed dualities, sparking a flurry of new research in string theory called the second superstring revolution. However, originally the letter was taken from membrane, but since Witten was more skeptical about membranes than his colleagues, he just kept the "M". Later, he let the meaning be a matter of taste for the user of the word "M-theory". Edward Witten, in a radio interview in "Vetandets värld" on Swedish public radio, 2008-06-06, http://www.sr.se/webbradio/?Type=db&Id=1182281 In the early 1990s, it was shown that the various superstring theories were related by dualities, which allow physicists to relate the description of an object in one super string theory to the description of a different object in another super string theory. These relationships imply that each of the super string theories is a different aspect of a single underlying theory, proposed by Witten, and named "M-theory". M-theory is not yet complete; however it can be applied in many situations (usually by exploiting string theoretic dualities). The theory of electromagnetism was also in such a state in the mid-19th century; there were separate theories for electricity and magnetism and, although they were known to be related, the exact relationship was not clear until James Clerk Maxwell published his equations, in his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Witten has suggested that a general formulation of M-theory will probably require the development of new mathematical language. However, some scientists have questioned the tangible successes of M-theory given its current incompleteness, and limited predictive power, even after so many years of intense research. In late 2007, Bagger, Lambert and Gustavsson set off renewed interest in M-theory with the discovery of a candidate Lagrangian description of coincident M2-branes, based on a non-associative generalization of Lie Algebra, Nambu 3-algebra or Filippov 3-algebra. Practitioners hope the Bagger-Lambert-Gustavsson action (BLG action) will provide the long-sought microscopic description of M-theory. History and Development Prior to May 1995 Prior to 1995 there were five (known) consistent superstring theories (henceforth referred to as string theories), which were given the names Type I string theory, Type IIA string theory, Type IIB string theory, heterotic SO(32) (the HO string) theory, and heterotic E8×E8 (the HE string) theory. The five theories all share essential features that relate them to the name of string theory. Each theory is fundamentally comprised of vibrating, one dimensional strings at approximately the length of the Planck length. Calculations have also shown that each theory requires more than the normal four spacetime dimensions (although all extra dimensions are in fact spatial.) However, when the theories are analyzed in detail, significant differences appear. Type I string theory and others The Type I string theory has vibrating strings like the rest of the string theories. These strings vibrate both in closed loops, so that the strings have no ends, and as open strings with two loose ends. The open loose strings are what separates the Type I string theory from the other four string theories. This was a feature that the other string theories did not contain (The Type IIA and Type IIB string theories also contain open strings, however these strings are bound to D-branes, that is to say, they are tight). String vibrational patterns The calculations of the String Vibrational Patterns show that the list of string vibrational patterns and the way each pattern interacts and influences others vary from one theory to another. These and other differences hindered the development of the string theory as being the theory that united quantum mechanics and general relativity successfully. Attempts by the physics community to eliminate four of the theories, leaving only one string theory, have not been successful. M-theory M-theory attempts to unify the five string theories by examining certain identifications and dualities. Thus each of the five string theories becomes a special case of M-theory. As the names suggest, some of these string theories were thought to be related to each other. In the early 1990s, string theorists discovered that some relations were so strong that they could be thought of as an identification. Type IIA and Type IIB The Type IIA string theory and the Type IIB string theory were known to be connected by T-duality; this essentially meant that the IIA string theory description of a circle of radius R is exactly the same as the IIB description of a circle of radius 1/R, where distances are measured in units of the Planck length. This was a profound result. First, this was an intrinsically quantum mechanical result; the identification did not hold in the realm of classical physics. Second, because it is possible to build up any space by gluing circles together in various ways, it would seem that any space described by the IIA string theory can also be seen as a different space described by the IIB theory. This implies that the IIA string theory can identify with the IIB string theory: any object which can be described with the IIA theory has an equivalent, although seemingly different, description in terms of the IIB theory. This suggests that the IIA string theory and the IIB string theory are really aspects of the same underlying theory. Other dualities There are other dualities between the other string theories. The heterotic SO(32) and the heterotic E8×E8 theories David A. Lowe(1998)"E8 × E8 Small Instantons in Matrix Theory" Philip Candelas,Eugene Perevalov and Govindan Rajesh(1996)"F-Theory Duals of Nonperturbative Heterotic E8 × E8 Vacua in Six Dimensions" are also related by T-duality; the heterotic SO(32) description of a circle of radius R is exactly the same as the heterotic E8×E8 description of a circle of radius 1/R. This implies that there are really only three superstring theories, which might be called (for discussion) the Type I theory, the Type II theory, and the heterotic theory. There are still more dualities, however. The Type I string theory is related to the heterotic SO(32) theory by S-duality; this means that the Type I description of weakly interacting particles can also be seen as the heterotic SO(32) description of very strongly interacting particles. This identification is somewhat more subtle, in that it identifies only extreme limits of the respective theories. String theorists have found strong evidence that the two theories are really the same, even away from the extremely strong and extremely weak limits, but they do not yet have a proof strong enough to satisfy mathematicians. However, it has become clear that the two theories are related in some fashion; they appear as different limits of a single underlying theory. Only two string theories Given the above commonalities there appear to be only two string theories: the heterotic string theory (which is also the type I string theory) and the type II theory. There are relations between these two theories as well, and these relations are in fact strong enough to allow them to be identified. Last step This last step is best explained first in a certain limit. In order to describe our world, strings must be extremely tiny objects. So when one studies string theory at low energies, it becomes difficult to see that strings are extended objects — they become effectively zero-dimensional (pointlike). Consequently, the quantum theory describing the low energy limit is a theory that describes the dynamics of these points moving in spacetime, rather than strings. Such theories are called quantum field theories. However, since string theory also describes gravitational interactions, one expects the low-energy theory to describe particles moving in gravitational backgrounds. Finally, since superstring string theories are supersymmetric, one expects to see supersymmetry appearing in the low-energy approximation. These three facts imply that the low-energy approximation to a superstring theory is a supergravity theory. Supergravity theories The possible supergravity theories were classified by Werner Nahm in the 1970s. In 10 dimensions, there are only two supergravity theories, which are denoted Type IIA and Type IIB. This similar denomination is not a coincidence; the Type IIA string theory has the Type IIA supergravity theory as its low-energy limit and the Type IIB string theory gives rise to Type IIB supergravity. The heterotic SO(32) and heterotic E8×E8 string theories also reduce to Type IIA and Type IIB supergravity in the low-energy limit. This suggests that there may indeed be a relation between the heterotic/Type I theories and the Type II theories. In 1994, Edward Witten outlined the following relationship: The Type IIA supergravity (corresponding to the heterotic SO(32) and Type IIA string theories) can be obtained by dimensional reduction from the single unique eleven-dimensional supergravity theory. This means that if one studied supergravity on an eleven-dimensional spacetime that looks like the product of a ten-dimensional spacetime with another very small one-dimensional manifold, one gets the Type IIA supergravity theory. (And the Type IIB supergravity theory can be obtained by using T-duality.) However, eleven-dimensional supergravity is not consistent on its own — it does not make sense at extremely high energy, and likely requires some form of completion. It seems plausible, then, that there is some quantum theory — which Witten dubbed M-theory — in eleven-dimensions which gives rise at low energies to eleven-dimensional supergravity, and is related to ten-dimensional string theory by dimensional reduction. Dimensional reduction to a circle yields the Type IIA string theory, and dimensional reduction to a line segment yields the heterotic SO(32) string theory. Same underlying theory M-theory would implement the notion that all of the different string theories are different special cases and/or different presentations of the same underlying theory (M-theory). Thus the concept of string theory is expanded. Unfortunately little is known about M-theory, but there is a great deal of interest in the concept from the theoretical physics community. Computations in M-theory and string theory in general are extremely complex, so concrete results are very difficult to produce. It may be some time before the full implications of these theories are known. The promise of M-theory is that all of the different string theories would become different limits of a single underlying theory. Nomenclature There are two issues to be dealt with here: When Witten named M-theory, he did not specify what the "M" stood for, presumably because he did not feel he had the right to name a theory which he had not been able to fully describe. According to Witten himself, "'M' stands for "magick," "mystery" , or "matrix", according to taste." "The Theory Formerly Known As Strings" (page 64) According to the BBC/TLC documentary Parallel Universes, the M stands for "membrane". Other suggestions by people such as Michio Kaku, Michael Duff and Neil Turok in that documentary are "mother" (as in "mother of all theories"), and "master" theory. Parallel Universes; BBC/TLC Cynics have noted that the M might be an upside down "W", standing for Witten. Others have suggested that for now, the "M" in M-theory should stand for Missing or Murky String People: Ed Witten . The various speculations as to what "M" in "M-theory" stands for are explored in the PBS documentary based on Brian Greene's book The Elegant Universe. The name M-theory is slightly ambiguous. It can be used to refer to both the particular eleven-dimensional theory which Witten first proposed, or it can be used to refer to a kind of theory which looks in various limits like the various string theories. Ashoke Sen has suggested that more general theory could go by the name U-theory, which might stand for , Uber, Ultimate, Underlying, or perhaps Unified. (It might also stand for U-duality, which is both a reference to Sen's own work and a kind of particle physics pun.) M-theory in the following descriptions refers to the more general theory, and will be specified when used in its more limited sense. M-theory and membranes In the standard string theories, strings are assumed to be the single fundamental constituent of the universe. M-theory adds another fundamental constituent - membranes. Like the tenth spatial dimension, the approximate equations in the original five superstring models proved too weak to reveal membranes. P-branes A membrane, or brane, is a multidimensional object, usually called a P-brane, with P referring to the number of dimensions in which it exists. The value of 'P' can range from zero to nine, thus giving branes dimensions from zero (0-brane ≡ point particle) to nine - five more than the world we are accustomed to inhabiting (3 spatial and 1 time). The inclusion of p-branes does not render previous work in string theory wrong on account of not taking note of these P-branes. P-branes are much more massive ("heavier") than strings, and when all higher-dimensional P-branes are much more massive than strings, they can be ignored, as researchers had done unknowingly in the 1970s. Strings with "loose ends" Shortly after Witten's breakthrough in 1995, Joseph Polchinski of the University of California, Santa Barbara discovered a fairly obscure feature of string theory. He found that in certain situations the endpoints of strings (strings with "loose ends") would not be able to move with complete freedom as they were attached, or stuck within certain regions of space. Polchinski then reasoned that if the endpoints of open strings are restricted to move within some p-dimensional region of space, then that region of space must be occupied by a p-brane. These type of "sticky" branes are called Dirichlet-P-branes, or D-p-branes. His calculations showed that the newly discovered D-P-branes had exactly the right properties to be the objects that exert a tight grip on the open string endpoints, thus holding down these strings within the p-dimensional region of space they fill. Strings with closed loops Not all strings are confined to p-branes. Strings with closed loops, like the graviton, are completely free to move from membrane to membrane. Of the four force carrier particles, the graviton is unique in this way. Researchers speculate that this is the reason why investigation through the weak force, the strong force, and the electromagnetic force have not hinted at the possibility of extra dimensions. These force carrier particles are strings with endpoints that confine them to their p-branes. Further testing is needed in order to show that extra spatial dimensions indeed exist through experimentation with gravity. Membrane Interactions One of the reasons M-theory is so difficult to formulate is that the numbers of different types of membranes in the various dimensions increases exponentially. For example once you get to 3 dimensional surfaces you have to deal with solid objects with knot shaped holes, and then you need the whole of knot theory just to classify them. Since M-theory is thought to operate in 11 dimensions this problem then becomes very difficult. But just like string theory, in order for the theory to satisfy causality, the theory must be local, and so the topology changing must occur at a single point. The basic orientable 2-brane interactions are easy to show. Orientable 2-branes are tori with multiple holes cut out of them. Matrix theory The original formulation of M-theory was in terms of a (relatively) low-energy effective field theory, called 11-dimensional Super gravity. Though this formulation provided a key link to the low-energy limits of string theories, it was recognized that a full high-energy formulation (or "UV-completion") of M-theory was needed. Analogy with water For an analogy, the Super gravity description is like treating water as a continuous, incompressible fluid. This is effective for describing long-distance effects such as waves and currents, but inadequate to understand short-distance/high-energy phenomena such as evaporation, for which a description of the underlying molecules is needed. What, then, are the underlying degrees of freedom of M-theory? 9 matrices Banks, Fischler, Shenker and Susskind (BFSS) conjectured that Matrix theory could provide the answer. They demonstrated that a theory of 9 very large matrices, evolving in time, could reproduce the Super gravity description at low energy, but take over for it as it breaks down at high energy. While the Super gravity description assumes a continuous space-time, Matrix theory predicts that, at short distances, non-commutative geometry takes over, somewhat similar to the way the continuum of water breaks down at short distances in favor of the graininess of molecules. See also AdS/CFT correspondence References Banks, T., W. Fischer, S.H. Shenker, L. Suskind (1996). M Theory As A Matrix Model: A Conjecture B. de Wit, J. Hoppe, H. Nicolai, "On The Quantum Mechanics Of Supermembranes". Nucl.Phys. B305:545 (1988). Duff, Michael J., M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings), International Journal of Modern Physics A, 11 (1996) 5623-5642, online at Cornell University's arXiv ePrint server . Gribbin, John. The Search for Superstrings, Symmetry, and the Theory of Everything, ISBN 0-316-32975-4, Little, Brown & Company, 1ST BACK B Edition, August 2000, specifically pages 177-180. Greene, Brian. The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory, ISBN 0-393-04688-5, W.W. Norton & Company, February 1999 Kaku, Michio (December 2004). Parallel Worlds: A Journey Through Creation, Higher Dimensions, and the Future of the Cosmos. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50986-3, 448. Taubes, Gary. "String theorists find a Rosetta Stone." Science, v. 285, July 23, 1999: 512-515, 517. Q1.S35 Smolin, Lee. "The Trouble with Physics", ISBN 0-618-91868-X, Houghton Mifflin, Mariner 2007 Witten, Edward. Magick, Mystery and Matrix, Notices of the AMS, October 1998, 1124-1129 Duff, Michael J. , "The Theory Formerly Known As Strings". Scientific American, February 1998, pages 64–69. Books Brian Greene has written books explaining string theory and M-theory for the layperson in 1999, The Elegant Universe, ISBN 0-375-70811-1 and in 2004, The Fabric of the Cosmos, ISBN 0-375-41288-3. for a more advanced introduction. Universe in a Nutshell by Stephen Hawking External links The Elegant Universe - A Three-Hour Miniseries with Brian Greene by NOVA (original PBS Broadcast Dates: October 28, 8-10 p.m. and November 4, 8-9 p.m., 2003). Various images, texts, videos and animations explaining string theory and M-theory. Superstringtheory.com - The "Official String Theory Web Site", created by Patricia Schwarz. Excellent references on string theory and M-theory for the layperson and expert. Basics of M-Theory by A. Miemiec and I. Schnakenburg is a lecture note on M-Theory published in Fortsch.Phys.54:5-72,2006. 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7,680 | Baroque_music | Baroque music describes a period or style of European classical music approximately extending from 1600 to 1750. Palisca, Grove online This era is said to begin in music after the Renaissance and was followed by the Classical music era. The word "baroque" came from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning "misshapen pearl", Mackay & Romanec [n.d.], 5. a strikingly fitting characterization of the architecture of this period; later, the name came to be applied also to its music. Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. It is associated with composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Arcangelo Corelli, Claudio Monteverdi, and Tomaso Albinoni. The baroque period saw the development of functional tonality. During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate musical ornamentation; made changes in musical notation, and developed new instrumental playing techniques. Baroque music expanded the size, range and complexity of instrumental performance, and also established opera as a musical genre. Many musical terms and concepts from this era are still in use today. History of the name Music conventionally described as Baroque encompasses a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed during a period of approximately 160 years. The systematic application of the term "baroque", which literally means "irregularly shaped pearl", to music of this period is a relatively recent development. It was in 1919 that Curt Sachs was the first to attempt to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflin’s theory of the Baroque systematically to music. Sachs 1919. In English the term only acquired currency in the 1940s, in the writings of Lang and Bukofzer. Palisca, Grove Online Indeed, as late as 1960 there was still considerable dispute in academic circles, particularly in France and Britain, whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of Jacopo Peri, Domenico Scarlatti and J.S. Bach with a single term; yet the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. Palisca, Grove online It may be helpful to distinguish it from both the preceding (Renaissance) and following (Classical) periods of musical history. Aesthetics The transition from Renaissance to Baroque was dramatic. Composers associated with the Florentine Camerata like Jacopo Peri, Caccini and Claudio Monteverdi, sought to depict human affects in a direct manner expressed by a solo voice, so very different from the previous polyphonic music. The historic debate between Monteverdi and Artusi Strunk 1952. highlights this, and consequences for instrumental music were profound. Later, the way to view affects became codified, and a main treatise is Mattheson's Der vollkommene Kapellmeister from 1739. Seen from this theory the main affect should be sustained through an entire movement. Handel's well-known works yield good examples of this. For example, "He was despised" and "The trumpet shall sound" from the first and last parts of the oratorio "Messiah" depict a soft feeling of pity and a heroic feeling, respectively. Styles and forms The Baroque suite The Baroque suite was scored with or without soloists. Overture The Baroque suite was generally begun with a French overture ("Ouverture" in French). Allemande Often the first dance of an instrumental suite, the allemande was a very popular dance that had its origins in the Renaissance era, when it was more often called the almain. The allemande was played at a moderate tempo and could start on any beat of the bar. Courante The courante is a lively, French dance in triple meter. The Italian version is called the corrente. Sarabande The sarabande, a Spanish dance, is one of the slowest of the baroque dances. It is also in triple meter and can start on any beat of the bar, although there is an emphasis on the second beat, creating the characteristic 'halting', or iambic rhythm of the sarabande. Gigue The gigue is an upbeat and lively baroque dance in compound meter, typically the concluding movement of an instrumental suite. The gigue can start on any beat of the bar and is easily recognized by its rhythmic feel. The gigue originated in the British Isles, its counterpart in folk music being the jig. These four dance types make up the majority of 17th century suites; later suites interpolate additional movements between the sarabande and gigue: Gavotte The gavotte can be identified by a variety of features; it is in 4/4 time and always starts on the third beat of the bar, although this may sound like the first beat in some cases, as the first and third beats are the strong beats in duple time. The gavotte is played at a moderate tempo, although in some cases it may be played faster. Bourrée The bourrée is similar to the gavotte as it is in 2/2 time although it starts on the second half of the last beat of the bar, creating a different feel to the dance. The bourrée is commonly played at a moderate tempo, although for some composers, such as Handel, it can be taken at a much faster tempo. Minuet The minuet is perhaps the best-known of the baroque dances in triple meter. It can start on any beat of the bar. In some suites there may be a Minuet I and II, played in succession, with the Minuet I repeated. Passepied The passepied is a fast dance in binary form and triple meter that originated as a court dance in Brittany. Little 2001a. Examples can be found in later suites such as those of Bach and Handel. Rigaudon The rigaudon is a lively French dance in duple meter, similar to the bourrée, but rhythmically simpler. It originated as a family of closely related southern-French folk dances, traditionally associated with the provinces of Vavarais, Languedoc, Dauphiné, and Provence. Little 2001b. Baroque versus Renaissance style Baroque instruments including hurdy gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol, lute, violin, and baroque guitar. Baroque music shares with Renaissance music a heavy use of polyphony and counterpoint. However, its use of these techniques differs from Renaissance music. In the Renaissance, harmony is more the result of consonances incidental to the smooth flow of polyphony, while in the early Baroque era the order of these consonances becomes important, for they begin to be felt as chords in a hierarchical, functional tonal scheme. Around 1600 there is considerable blurring of this definition: for example essentially tonal progressions around cadential points in madrigals are noted, while in early monody the feeling of tonality is still rather tenuous. Another distinction between Renaissance and Baroque practice in harmony is the frequency of chord root motion by third in the earlier period, while motion of fourths or fifths predominates later (which partially defines functional tonality). In addition, baroque music uses longer lines and stronger rhythms: the initial line is extended, either alone or accompanied only by the basso continuo, until the theme reappears in another voice. In this later approach to counterpoint, the harmony was more often defined either by the basso continuo, or tacitly by the notes of the theme itself. These stylistic differences mark the transition from the ricercars, fantasias, and canzonas of the Renaissance to the fugue, a defining baroque form. Claudio Monteverdi called this newer, looser style the seconda pratica, contrasting it with the prima pratica that characterized the motets and other sacred choral pieces of high Renaissance masters like Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Monteverdi used both styles; he wrote his Mass In illo tempore in the older, Palestrinan style, and his 1610 Vespers in the new style. There are other, more general differences between baroque and Renaissance style. Baroque music often strives for a greater level of emotional intensity than Renaissance music, and a Baroque piece often uniformly depicts a single particular emotion (exultation, grief, piety, and so forth). Baroque music was more often written for virtuoso singers and instrumentalists and is characteristically harder to perform than Renaissance music, although idiomatic instrumental writing was one of the most important innovations of the period. Baroque music employs a great deal of ornamentation, which was often improvised by the performer. Expressive performance methods such as notes inégales were common and were expected to be applied by performers, often with considerable latitude. Instruments came to play a greater part in baroque music, and a cappella vocal music receded in importance. Other features Basso continuo - a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system, figured bass, usually for a sustaining bass instrument and a keyboard instrument Monody - music for one melodic voice with accompaniment, characteristic of the early 17th century, especially in Italy Homophony - music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance texture, polyphony) Text over music - intelligible text with instrumental accompaniment not overpowering the voice Vocal soloists Dramatic musical expression Dramatic musical forms like opera, dramma per musica Combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the oratorio and cantata New instrumental techniques, like tremolo and pizzicato Clear and linear melody Notes inégales, a technique of applying dotted rhythms to evenly written notes. The aria The ritornello aria (repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages) The concertato style (contrast in sound between orchestra and solo-instruments or small groups of instruments) Precise instrumental scoring (in the Renaissance, exact instrumentation for ensemble playing was rarely indicated) Idiomatic instrumental writing: better use of the unique properties of each type of musical instrument Virtuosic instrumental and vocal writing, with appreciation for virtuosity as such Ornamentation Development to modern Western tonality (major and minor scales) Cadenza- an extended virtuosic section for the soloist usually near the end of a movement of a concerto. Genres Baroque composers wrote in many different musical genres. Opera, invented in the late Renaissance, became an important musical form during the Baroque, with the operas of Alessandro Scarlatti, Handel, and others. The oratorio achieved its peak in the work of Bach and Handel; opera and oratorio often used very similar music forms, such as a widespread use of the da capo aria. In other religious music, the Mass and motet receded slightly in importance, but the cantata flourished in the work of Bach and other Protestant composers. Virtuoso organ music also flourished, with toccatas, fugues, and other works. Instrumental sonatas and dance suites were written for individual instruments, for chamber groups, and for (small) orchestra. The concerto emerged, both in its form for a single soloist plus orchestra and as the concerto grosso, in which a small group of soloists is contrasted with the full ensemble. The French overture, with its contrasting slow and fast sections, added grandeur to the many courts at which it was performed. Keyboard works were sometimes written largely for the pleasure and instruction of the performer. These included a series of works by the mature Bach that are widely considered to be the intellectual culmination of the Baroque era: the Well-Tempered Clavier, the Goldberg Variations, and The Art of Fugue. Vocal Opera Zarzuela Opera seria Opera comique Opera-ballet Masque Oratorio Passion (music) Cantata Mass (music) Anthem Monody Chorale Instrumental Concerto grosso Fugue Suite Allemande Courante Sarabande Gigue Gavotte Minuet Sonata Sonata da camera Sonata da chiesa Trio sonata Partita Canzona Sinfonia Fantasia Ricercar Toccata Prelude Chaconne Passacaglia Chorale prelude Stylus fantasticus History Composers of the Baroque Early baroque music (1600–1654) The conventional dividing line for the Baroque from the Renaissance begins in Italy, with the Florentine Camerata, a group of academics who met informally in Florence in the palace of Count Giovanni de' Bardi to discuss arts, as well as the sciences. Concerning music, their ideals were based on their perception of ancient Greek musical drama, in which the declamation of the text was of utmost importance. As such, they rejected the complex polyphony of the late renaissance and desired a form of musical drama which consisted primarily of a simple solo melody, with a basic accompaniment. The early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peri's Dafne and L'Euridice, marked the beginning of opera. Musically, the adoption of the figured bass represents a larger change in musical thinking—namely that harm, that is "taking all of the parts together" was as important as the linear part of polyphony. Increasingly, polyphony and harmony were seen as two sides of the same idea, with harmonic progressions entering the notion of composing, as well as the use of the tritone as a dissonance. Harmonic thinking had existed among particular composers in the previous era, notably Carlo Gesualdo; however the Renaissance is felt to give way to the Baroque at the point where it becomes the common vocabulary. Some historians of music point to the introduction of the seventh chord without preparation as being the key break with the past. This created the idea that chords, rather than notes, created the sense of closure, which is one of the fundamental ideas of what came to be known as tonality. Italy formed one of the cornerstones of the new style, as the papacy—besieged by Reformation but with coffers fattened by the immense revenues flowing in from Habsburg conquest—searched for artistic means to promote faith in the Roman Catholic Church. One of the most important musical centers was Venice, which had both secular and sacred patronage available. Giovanni Gabrieli became one of the important transitional figures in the emergence of the new style, although his work is largely considered to be in the "High Renaissance" manner. However, his innovations were foundational to the new style. A these are instrumentation (labeling instruments specifically for specific tasks) and the use of dynamics. The demands of religion were also to make the text of sacred works clearer, and hence there was pressure to move away from the densely layered polyphony of the Renaissance, to lines which put the words front and center, or had a more limited range of imitation. This created the demand for a more intricate weaving of the vocal line against backdrop, or homophony. Claudio Monteverdi became the most visible of a generation of composers who felt that there was a secular means to this "modern" approach to harmony and text, and in 1607 his opera L'Orfeo became the landmark which demonstrated the array of effects and techniques that were associated with this new school, called seconda pratica, to distinguish it from the older style or prima pratica. Monteverdi was a master of both, producing precisely styled madrigals that extended the forms of Luca Marenzio and Giaches de Wert. But it is his pieces in the new style which became the most influential. These included features which are recognizable even to the end of the baroque period, including use of idiomatic writing, virtuoso flourishes, and the use of new techniques. This musical language proved to be international, as Heinrich Schütz, a German composer who studied in Venice under both Gabrieli and later Monteverdi, used it to the liturgical needs of the Elector of Saxony and served as the choir master in ecreaon. Middle baroque music (1654–1707) The rise of the centralized court is one of the economic and political features of what is often labelled the Age of Absolutism, personified by Louis XIV of France. The style of palace, and the court system of manners and arts which he fostered, became the model for the rest of Europe. The realities of rising church and state patronage created the demand for organized public music, as the increasing availability of instruments created the demand for chamber music. This included the availability of keyboard instruments. The middle Baroque is separated from the early Baroque by the coming of systematic thinking to the new style and a gradual institutionalization of the forms and norms, particularly in opera. As with literature, the printing press and trade created an expanded international audience for works and greater cross-pollination between national centres of musical activity. The middle Baroque, in music theory, is identified by the increasingly harmonic focus of musical practice and the creation of formal systems of teaching. Music was an art, and it came to be seen as one that should be taught in an orderly manner. This culminated in the later work of Johann Fux in systematizing counterpoint. One pre-eminent example of a court style composer is Jean-Baptiste Lully. His career rose dramatically when he collaborated with Molière on a series of comédie-ballets, that is, plays with dancing. He used this success to become the sole composer of operas for the king, using not just innovative musical ideas such as the tragédie lyrique, but patents from the king which prevented others from having operas staged. Lully's instinct for providing the material that his monarch desired has been pointed out by almost every biographer, including his rapid shift to church music when the mood at court became more devout. His 13 completed lyric tragedies are based on libretti that focus on the conflicts between the public and private life of the monarch. Musically, he explored contrast between stately and fully orchestrated sections, and simple recitatives and airs. In no small part, it was his skill in assembling and practicing musicians into an orchestra which was essential to his success and influence. Observers noted the precision and intonation, this in an age where there was no standard for tuning instruments. One essential element was the increased focus on the inner voices of the harmony and the relationship to the soloist. He also established the string-dominated norm for orchestras. Arcangelo Corelli is remembered as influential for his achievements on the other side of musical technique— as a violinist who organized violin technique and pedagogy— and in purely instrumental music, particularly his advocacy and development of the concerto grosso. Whereas Lully was ensconced at court, Corelli was one of the first composers to publish widely and have his music performed all over Europe. As with Lully's stylization and organization of the opera, the concerto grosso is built on strong contrasts— sections alternate between those played by the full orchestra, and those played by a smaller group. Dynamics were "terraced", that is with a sharp transition from loud to soft and back again. Fast sections and slow sections were juxtaposed against each other. Numbered among his students is Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works based on the principles in Corelli's trio sonatas and concerti. In England the middle Baroque produced a cometary genius in Henry Purcell, who, despite dying at age 36, produced a profusion of music and was widely recognized in his lifetime. He was familiar with the innovations of Corelli and other Italian style composers; however, his patrons were different, and his musical output was prodigious. Rather than being a painstaking craftsman, Purcell was a fluid composer who was able to shift from simple anthems and useful music such as marches, to grandly scored vocal music and music for the stage. His catalogue runs to over 800 works. He was also one of the first great keyboard composers, whose work still has influence and presence. In contrast to these composers, Dieterich Buxtehude was not a creature of court but instead was an organist and entrepreneurial presenter of music. Rather than publishing, he relied on performance for his income, and rather than royal patronage, he shuttled between vocal settings for sacred music, and organ music that he performed. His output is not as fabulous or diverse, because he was not constantly being called upon for music to meet an occasion. Buxtehude's employment of contrast was between the free, often improvisatory sections, and more strict sections worked out contrapuntally. This procedure would be highly influential on later composers such as Bach, who took the contrast between free and strict to greater limits. Late baroque music (1680–1750) The dividing line between middle and late Baroque is a matter of some debate. Dates for the beginning of "late" baroque style range from 1680 to 1720. In no small part this is because there was not one synchronized transition; different national styles experienced changes at different rates and at different times. Italy is generally regarded as the first country to move to the late baroque style. The important dividing line in most histories of baroque music is the full absorption of tonality as a structuring principle of music. This was particularly evident in the wake of theoretical work by Jean-Philippe Rameau, who replaced Lully as the important French opera composer. At the same time, through the work of Johann Fux, the Renaissance style of polyphony was made the basis for the study of counterpoint. The combination of modal counterpoint with tonal logic of cadences created the sense that there were two styles of composition— the homophonic dominated by vertical considerations and the polyphonic dominated by imitation and contrapuntal considerations. The forms which had begun to be established in the previous era flourished and were given wider range of diversity; concerto, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet all saw a proliferation of national styles and structures. The overall form of pieces was generally simple, with repeated binary forms (AABB), simple three part forms (ABC), and rondeau forms being common. These schematics in turn influenced later composers. Antonio Vivaldi is a figure who was forgotten in concert music making for much of the 19th century, only to be revived in the 20th century. Born in Venice in 1678, he began as an ordained priest of the Catholic Church but ceased to say Mass by 1703. Around the same time he was appointed maestro di violino at a Venetian girls' orphanage with which he had a professional relationship until nearly the end of his life. Vivaldi's reputation came not from having an orchestra or court appointment, but from his published works, including trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concerti. They were published in Amsterdam and circulated widely through Europe. It is in these instrumental genres of baroque sonata and baroque concerto, which were still evolving, that Vivaldi's most important contributions were made. He settled on certain patterns, such as a fast-slow-fast three-movement plan for works, and the use of ritornello in the fast movements, and explored the possibilities in hundreds of works— 550 concerti alone. He also used programmatic titles for works, such as his famous "The Four Seasons" violin concerti. Vivaldi's career reflects a growing possibility for a composer to be able to support himself by his publications, tour to promote his own works, and have an independent existence. Domenico Scarlatti was one of the leading keyboard virtuosi of his day, who took the road of being a royal court musician, first in Portugal and then, starting in 1733, in Madrid, Spain, where he spent the rest of his life. His father, Alessandro Scarlatti, was a member of the Neapolitan School of opera and has been credited with being among its most skilled members. Domenico also wrote operas and church music, but it is the publication of his keyboard works, which spread more widely after his death, which have secured him a lasting place of reputation. Many of these works were written for his own playing but others for his royal patrons. As with his father, his fortunes were closely tied to his ability to secure, and keep, royal favour. But perhaps the most famous composer to be associated with royal patronage was George Frideric Handel, who was born in Germany, studied for three years in Italy, and went to London in 1711, which was his base of operations for a long and profitable career that included independently produced operas and commissions for nobility. He was constantly searching for successful commercial formulas, in opera, and then in oratorios in English. A continuous worker, Handel borrowed from others and often recycled his own material. He was also known for reworking pieces such as the famous Messiah, which premiered in 1741, for available singers and musicians. Even as his economic circumstances rose and fell with his productions, his reputation, based on published keyboard works, ceremonial music, constant stagings of operas and oratorios and concerti grossi, grew exponentially. By the time of his death, he was regarded as the leading composer in Europe and was studied by later classical-era musicians. Handel, because of his very public ambitions, rested a great deal of his output on melodic resource combined with a rich performance tradition of improvisation and counterpoint. The practice of ornamentation in the Baroque style was at a very high level of development under his direction. He travelled all over Europe to engage singers and learn the music of other composers, and thus he had among the widest acquaintance of other styles of any composer. Johann Sebastian Bach has, over time, come to be seen as the towering figure of Baroque music, with what Béla Bartók described as "a religion" surrounding him. During the baroque period, he was better known as a teacher, administrator and performer than composer, being less famous than either Handel or Georg Philipp Telemann. Born in Eisenach in 1685 to a musical family, he received an extensive early education and was considered to have an excellent boy soprano voice. He held a variety of posts as an organist, rapidly gaining in fame for his virtuosity and ability. In 1723 he settled at the post which he was associated with for virtually the rest of his life: cantor and director of music for Leipzig. His varied experience allowed him to become the town's leader of music both secular and sacred, teacher of its musicians, and leading musical figure. Bach's musical innovations plumbed the depths and the outer limits of the Baroque homophonic and polyphonic forms. He was a virtual catalogue of every contrapuntal device possible and every acceptable means of creating webs of harmony with the chorale. As a result, his works in the form of the fugue coupled with preludes and toccatas for organ, and the baroque concerto forms, have become fundamental in both performance and theoretical technique. Virtually every instrument and ensemble of the age— except for the theatre genres— is represented copiously in his output. Bach's teachings became prominent in the classical and romantic eras as composers rediscovered the harmonic and melodic subtleties of his works. Georg Philipp Telemann was the most famous instrumental composer of his time, and massively prolific— even by the standards of an age where composers had to produce large volumes of music. His two most important positions — director of music in Frankfurt in 1712 and in 1721 director of music of the Johanneum in Hamburg — required him to compose vocal and instrumental music for secular and sacred contexts. He composed two complete cantata cycles for Sunday services, as well as sacred oratorios. Telemann also founded a periodical that published new music, much of it by Telemann. This dissemination of music made him a composer with an international audience, as evidenced by his successful trip to Paris in 1731. Some of his finest works were in the 1750s and 1760s, when the Baroque style was being replaced by simpler styles but were popular at the time and afterwards. Among these late works are "Der Tod Jesu" ("The death of Jesus") 1755, "Die Donner-Ode" ("The Ode of Thunder") 1756, "Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu" ("The Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus") 1760 and "Der Tag des Gerichts" ("The Day of Judgement") 1762. Influence on later music Transition to the Classical era (1740–1780) The phase between the late Baroque and the early Classical era, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and "worldview", goes by many names. It is sometimes called "Galant", "Rococo", or "pre-Classical", or at other times, "early Classical". It is a period where composers still working in the Baroque style were still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present— Bach, Handel and Telemann all composed well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form; he went far in overhauling the older forms from the Baroque. The practice of the baroque era was the standard against which new composition was measured, and there came to be a division between sacred works, which held more closely to the Baroque style from secular or "profane" works, which were in the new style. Especially in the Catholic countries of central Europe, the baroque style continued to be represented in sacred music through the end of the eighteenth century, in much the way that the stile antico of the Renaissance continued to live in the sacred music of the early 17th century. The masses and oratorios of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, while Classical in their orchestration and ornamentation, have many Baroque features in their underlying contrapuntal and harmonic structure. The decline of the baroque saw various attempts to mix old and new techniques, and many composers who continued to hew to the older forms well into the 1780s. Many cities in Germany continued to maintain performance practices from the Baroque into the 1790s, including Leipzig, where J.S. Bach worked to the end of his life. In England, the enduring popularity of Handel ensured the success of Charles Avison, William Boyce, and Thomas Arne — among other accomplished imitators — well into the 1780s, who competed alongside Mozart and Bach. In Continental Europe, however, it was considered an old-fashioned way of writing and was a requisite for graduation from the burgeoning number of conservatories of music, and otherwise reserved only for use in sacred works. After 1760 Because baroque music was the basis for pedagogy, it retained a stylistic influence even after it had ceased to be the dominant style of composing or of music making. Even as Baroque practice fell out of use, it continued to be part of musical notation. In the early 19th century, scores by baroque masters were printed in complete edition, and this led to a renewed interest in the "strict style" of counterpoint, as it was then called. With Felix Mendelssohn's revival of Bach's choral music, the baroque style became an influence through the 19th century as a paragon of academic and formal purity. Throughout the 19th century, the fugue in the style of Bach held enormous influence for composers as a standard to aspire to and a form to include in serious instrumental works. In the 20th century, Baroque was named as a period, and its music began to be studied. Baroque form and practice influenced composers as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg, Max Reger, Igor Stravinsky and Béla Bartók. There was also a revival of the middle baroque composers such as Purcell and Corelli. There are several instances of contemporary pieces being published as "rediscovered" Baroque masterworks. Some examples of this include a viola concerto written by Henri Casadesus but attributed to Johann Christian Bach, as well as several pieces attributed by Fritz Kreisler to lesser-known figures of the Baroque such as Gaetano Pugnani and Padre Martini. Alessandro Parisotti attributed his aria for voice and piano, "Se tu m'ami", to Pergolesi. Today, there is a very active core of composers writing works exclusively in the Baroque style, an example being Giorgio Pacchioni. Various works have been labelled "neo-baroque" for a focus on imitative polyphony, including the works of Giacinto Scelsi, Paul Hindemith, Paul Creston and Bohuslav Martinů, even though they are not in the baroque style proper. Musicologists attempted to complete various works from the Baroque, most notably Bach's ‘’The Art of Fugue’’. Because the baroque style is a recognized point of reference, implying not only music, but a particular period and social manner, Baroque styled pieces are sometimes created for media, such as film and television. Composer Peter Schickele parodies classical and baroque styles under the pen name PDQ Bach. Baroque performance practice had a renewed influence with the rise of "Authentic" or Historically informed performance in the late 20th century. Texts by Johann Joachim Quantz and Leopold Mozart among others, formed the basis for performances which attempted to recover some of the aspects of baroque sound world, including one on a part performance of works by Bach, use of gut strings rather than metal, reconstructed harpsichords, use of older playing techniques and styles. Several popular ensembles adopted some or all of these techniques, including the Anonymous 4, the Academy of Ancient Music, Boston's Handel and Haydn Society, the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields, William Christie's Les Arts Florissants and others. This movement then attempted to apply some of the same methods to classical and even early romantic era performance. See also Baroque composers List of Baroque composers Baroque instruments Baroque guitar Baroque trumpet Baroque violin Harpsichord Lute Oboe da caccia Viol Viola d'amore Notes References Little, Meredith Ellis. 2001a. "Passepied". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. New York: Grove's Dictionaries. Little, Meredith Ellis. 2001b. "Rigaudon". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. New York: Grove's Dictionaries. Mackay, Alison, and Craig Romanec. [n.d.] "Baroque Guide". Tafelmusik website. Palisca, Claude. "Baroque", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed August 21, 2007), (subscription access) Strunk, Oliver. 1952. Source Readings in Music History. From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic Era.. London: Faber & Faber, p. 393-415, "Stile Rappresentativo". Sachs, Curt. 1919. "‘Barokmusik". Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters 1919, 7–15. Further reading Christensen, Thomas Street, and Peter Dejans. Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007. ISBN 9789058675873 Cyr, Mary. Essays on the Performance of Baroque Music Opera and Chamber Music in France and England. Variorum collected studies series, 899. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2008. ISBN 9780754659266 Foreman, Edward. A Bel Canto Method, or, How to Sing Italian Baroque Music Correctly Based on the Primary Sources. Twentieth century masterworks on singing, v. 12. Minneapolis, Minn: Pro Musica Press, 2006. ISBN 1887117180 Schubert, Peter, and Christoph Neidhöfer. Baroque Counterpoint. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN 0131834428 Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. ISBN 0-19-512232-1 Stauffer, George B. The World of Baroque Music New Perspectives. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. ISBN 025334798X Table of Contents Strunk, Oliver.Source Readings in Music History. From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic Era.. London, Faber & Faber, 1952. 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7,681 | Mass | Mass is a concept used in the physical sciences to explain a number of observable behaviors. In everyday usage, it is common to identify mass with the behaviors that result from it. In particular, mass is commonly identified with weight. But, in physics and engineering, weight means the strength of the gravitational pull on an object; that is, how heavy it is, measured in units of newtons. In normal situations, the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, which usually makes it unproblematic to use the same word for both concepts. However, the distinction between mass and weight becomes important for measurements with a precision better than a few percent (due to slight differences in the strength of the Earth's gravitational field at different places), and for places far from the surface of the Earth, such as in space or on other planets. The concept of mass was introduced in, and is central to, Isaac Newton’s explanation of gravitation and inertia. Prior to Newton’s time, the orbits of the planets, the gravitational acceleration of objects near the surface of the earth, and the inertial resistance of objects to changing their motion were viewed as distinct and potentially unrelated phenomena. However, Isaac Newton united these phenomena using a single underlying concept called mass. Since Newton’s time, the concept of mass has grown to include explanations for both quantum and relativistic effects. Units of mass The primary instrument used to measure mass is the scale or balance scale. In the SI system of units, mass is measured in kilograms, kg. Many other units of mass are also employed, such as: gram: 1 g = 0.001 kg (1000 g = 1 kg) tonne: 1 tonne = 1000 kg MeV/c2 (Typically used to specify the mass of subatomic particles. See Mass-energy equivalence) Outside the SI system, a variety of different mass units are used, depending on context, such as the: Slug Pound atomic mass unit Planck mass solar mass Because of the relativistic connection between mass and energy (see mass in special relativity), it is possible to use any unit of energy as a unit of mass instead. For example, the eV energy unit is normally used as a unit of mass (roughly ) in particle physics. A mass can sometimes also be expressed in terms of length. Here one identifies the mass of a particle with its inverse Compton wavelength (). Summary of concepts of mass In physical science, one may distinguish conceptually between at least seven types of mass, or seven physical phenomena that can be explained using the concept of mass: Inertial mass is a measure of an object's resistance to changing its state of motion when a force is applied. It is determined by applying a force to an object and measuring the acceleration that results from that force. An object with small inertial mass will accelerate more than an object with large inertial mass when acted upon by the same force. One says the body of greater mass has greater inertia. The amount of matter in certain types of samples can be exactly determined through electrodeposition or other precise processes. The mass of an exact sample is determined in part by the number and type of atoms or molecules it contains, and in part by the energy involved in binding it together (which contributes a negative "missing mass," or mass deficit). Active gravitational mass is a measure of the strength of an object’s gravitational field. Gravitational field can be measured by allowing a small ‘test object’ to freely fall and measuring its free-fall acceleration. For example, an object in free-fall near the moon will experience less gravitational field, and hence accelerate slower, than the same object would if it were in free-fall near the earth. The gravitational field near the Moon is weaker because the Moon has less active gravitational mass. Passive gravitational mass is a measure of the strength of an object's interaction with a gravitational field. Passive gravitational mass is determined by dividing an object’s weight by its free-fall acceleration. Two objects within the same gravitational field will experience the same acceleration, however, the object with a smaller passive gravitational mass will experience a smaller force (less weight) than the object with a larger passive gravitational mass. Energy also has mass according to the principle of mass–energy equivalence. This equivalence is exemplified in a large number of physical processes including pair production, nuclear fusion, and the gravitational bending of light. Pair production and nuclear fusion are processes through which measurable amounts of mass and energy are converted into each other. In the gravitational bending of light, photons of pure energy are shown to exhibit a behavior similar to passive gravitational mass. Curvature of spacetime is a relativistic manifestation of the existence of mass. Curvature is extremely weak and difficult to measure. For this reason, curvature wasn’t discovered until after it was predicted by Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Extremely precise atomic clocks on the surface of the earth, for example, are found to measure less time (run slower) than similar clocks in space. This difference in elapsed time is a form of curvature called gravitational time dilation. Other forms of curvature have been measured using the Gravity Probe B satellite. Quantum mass manifests itself as a difference between an object’s quantum frequency and its wave number. In natural units: . The quantum mass of an electron, the Compton wavelength, can be determined through various forms of spectroscopy and is closely related to the Rydberg constant, the Bohr radius, and the classical electron radius. The quantum mass of larger objects can be directly measured using a watt balance. Inertial and gravitational mass Although inertial mass, passive gravitational mass and active gravitational mass are conceptually distinct, no experiment has ever unambiguously demonstrated any difference between them. In classical mechanics, Newton's third law implies that active and passive gravitational mass must always be identical (or at least proportional), but the classical theory offers no compelling reason why the gravitational mass has to equal the inertial mass. That it does is merely an empirical fact. Albert Einstein developed his general theory of relativity starting from the assumption that this correspondence between inertial and (passive) gravitational mass is not accidental: that no experiment will ever detect a difference between them (the weak version of the equivalence principle). However, in the resulting theory gravitation is not a force and thus not subject to Newton's third law, so "the equality of inertial and active gravitational mass [...] remains as puzzling as ever". Inertial mass This section uses mathematical equations involving differential calculus. Inertial mass is the mass of an object measured by its resistance to acceleration. To understand what the inertial mass of a body is, one begins with classical mechanics and Newton's Laws of Motion. Later on, we will see how our classical definition of mass must be altered if we take into consideration the theory of special relativity, which is more accurate than classical mechanics. However, the implications of special relativity will not change the meaning of "mass" in any essential way. According to Newton's second law, we say that a body has a mass m if, at any instant of time, it obeys the equation of motion where f is the force acting on the body and v is its velocity. For the moment, we will put aside the question of what "force acting on the body" actually means. Now, suppose that the mass of the body in question is a constant. This assumption, known as the conservation of mass, rests on the ideas that (i) mass is a measure of the amount of matter contained in a body, and (ii) matter can never be created or destroyed, only split up or recombined. These are very reasonable assumptions for everyday objects, though, as we will see, matter can indeed be created or destroyed if "matter" is defined strictly as certain kinds of particles and not others. However (see below) in theory of relativity all mathematically definably definitions of mass are separately conserved over time within closed systems (where no particles or energy are allowed into or out of the system), because energy is conserved over time in such systems, and mass and energy in relativity always occur in exact association. When the mass of a body is constant (neither mass nor energy are being allowed in or out of the body), Newton's second law becomes where a denotes the acceleration of the body. This equation illustrates how mass relates to the inertia of a body. Consider two objects with different masses. If we apply an identical force to each, the object with a bigger mass will experience a smaller acceleration, and the object with a smaller mass will experience a bigger acceleration. We might say that the larger mass exerts a greater "resistance" to changing its state of motion in response to the force. However, this notion of applying "identical" forces to different objects brings us back to the fact that we have not really defined what a force is. We can sidestep this difficulty with the help of Newton's third law, which states that if one object exerts a force on a second object, it will experience an equal and opposite force. To be precise, suppose we have two objects A and B, with constant inertial masses mA and mB. We isolate the two objects from all other physical influences, so that the only forces present are the force exerted on A by B, which we denote fAB, and the force exerted on B by A, which we denote fBA. As we have seen, Newton's second law states that and where aA and aB are the accelerations of A and B respectively. Suppose that these accelerations are non-zero, so that the forces between the two objects are non-zero. This occurs, for example, if the two objects are in the process of colliding with one another. Newton's third law then states that Substituting this into the previous equations, we obtain Note that our requirement that aA be non-zero ensures that the fraction is well-defined. This is, in principle, how we would measure the inertial mass of an object. We choose a "reference" object and define its mass mB as (say) 1 kilogram. Then we can measure the mass of any other object in the universe by colliding it with the reference object and measuring the accelerations. Gravitational mass Gravitational mass is the mass of an object measured using the effect of a gravitational field on the object. The concept of gravitational mass rests on Newton's law of gravitation. Let us suppose we have two objects A and B, separated by a distance |rAB|. The law of gravitation states that if A and B have gravitational masses MA and MB respectively, then each object exerts a gravitational force on the other, of magnitude where G is the universal gravitational constant. The above statement may be reformulated in the following way: if g is the acceleration of a reference mass at a given location in a gravitational field, then the gravitational force on an object with gravitational mass M is This is the basis by which masses are determined by weighing. In simple bathroom scales, for example, the force f is proportional to the displacement of the spring beneath the weighing pan (see Hooke's law), and the scales are calibrated to take g into account, allowing the mass M to be read off. Note that a balance (see the subheading within Weighing scale) as used in the laboratory or the health club measures gravitational mass; only the spring scale measures weight. Equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses The equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses is sometimes referred to as the Galilean equivalence principle or weak equivalence principle. The most important consequence of this equivalence principle applies to freely falling objects. Suppose we have an object with inertial and gravitational masses m and M respectively. If the only force acting on the object comes from a gravitational field g, combining Newton's second law and the gravitational law yields the acceleration This says that the ratio of gravitational to inertial mass of any object is equal to some constant K if and only if all objects fall at the same rate in a given gravitational field. This phenomenon is referred to as the 'universality of free-fall'. (In addition, the constant K can be taken to be 1 by defining our units appropriately.) The first experiments demonstrating the universality of free-fall were conducted by Galileo. It is commonly stated that Galileo obtained his results by dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, but this is most likely apocryphal; actually, he performed his experiments with balls rolling down inclined planes. Increasingly precise experiments have been performed, such as those performed by Loránd Eötvös, using the torsion balance pendulum, in 1889. , no deviation from universality, and thus from Galilean equivalence, has ever been found, at least to the accuracy 10-12. More precise experimental efforts are still being carried out. The universality of free-fall only applies to systems in which gravity is the only acting force. All other forces, especially friction and air resistance, must be absent or at least negligible. For example, if a hammer and a feather are dropped from the same height through the air on Earth, the feather will take much longer to reach the ground; the feather is not really in free-fall because the force of air resistance upwards against the feather is comparable to the downward force of gravity. On the other hand, if the experiment is performed in a vacuum, in which there is no air resistance, the hammer and the feather should hit the ground at exactly the same time (assuming the acceleration of both objects towards each other, and of the ground towards both objects, for its own part, is negligible). This can easily be done in a high school laboratory by dropping the objects in transparent tubes that have the air removed with a vacuum pump. It is even more dramatic when done in an environment that naturally has a vacuum, as David Scott did on the surface of the Moon during Apollo 15. A stronger version of the equivalence principle, known as the Einstein equivalence principle or the strong equivalence principle, lies at the heart of the general theory of relativity. Einstein's equivalence principle states that within sufficiently small regions of space-time, it is impossible to distinguish between a uniform acceleration and a uniform gravitational field. Thus, the theory postulates that inertial and gravitational masses are fundamentally the same thing. Mass and energy in relativity The term mass in special relativity usually refers to the rest mass of the object, which is the Newtonian mass as measured by an observer moving along with the object. The invariant mass is another name for the rest mass of single particles. However, the more general invariant mass (calculated with a more complicated formula) may also be applied to systems of particles in relative motion, and because of this, is usually reserved for systems which consist of widely separated high-energy particles. The invariant mass of systems is the same for all observers and inertial frames, and cannot be destroyed, and is thus conserved, so long as the system is closed. In this case, "closure" implies that an idealized boundary is drawn around the system, and no mass/energy is allowed across it. In as much as energy is conserved in closed systems in relativity, the relativistic definition(s) of mass are quantities which are conserved also; they do not change over time, even as some types of particles are converted to others. In bound systems, the binding energy must (often) be subtracted from the mass of the unbound system, simply because this energy has mass, and this mass is subtracted from the system when it is given off, at the time it is bound. Mass is not conserved in this process because the system is not closed during the binding process. A familiar example is the binding energy of atomic nuclei, which appears as other types of energy (such as gamma rays) when the nuclei are formed, and (after being given off) results in nuclides which have less mass than the free particles (nucleons) of which they are composed. The term relativistic mass is also used, and this is the total quantity of energy in a body or system (divided by c2). The relativistic mass (of a body or system of bodies) includes a contribution from the kinetic energy of the body, and is larger the faster the body moves, so unlike the invariant mass, the relativistic mass depends on the observer's frame of reference. However, for given single frames of reference and for closed systems, the relativistic mass is also a conserved quantity. Because the relativistic mass is proportional to the energy, it has gradually fallen into disuse among physicists. There is disagreement over whether the concept remains pedagogically useful. For a discussion of mass in general relativity, see mass in general relativity. Notes References R.V. Eötvös et al., Ann. Phys. (Leipzig) 68 11 (1922) External links Usenet Physics FAQ Does mass change with velocity? What is the mass of a photon? The Origin of Mass and the Feebleness of Gravity (video) - a colloquium lecture by the Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek Photons, Clocks, Gravity and the Concept of Mass by L.B.Okun The Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop Online mass units conversion Scientific American Magazine (July 2005 Issue) The Mysteries of Mass be-x-old:Маса | Mass |@lemmatized mass:124 concept:10 use:16 physical:5 science:2 explain:2 number:4 observable:1 behavior:3 everyday:2 usage:1 common:1 identify:3 result:5 particular:1 commonly:2 weight:7 physic:3 engineering:1 mean:2 strength:4 gravitational:46 pull:1 object:51 heavy:1 measure:22 unit:13 newton:15 normal:1 situation:1 proportional:4 usually:3 make:1 unproblematic:1 word:1 however:9 distinction:1 becomes:1 important:2 measurement:1 precision:1 well:2 percent:1 due:1 slight:1 difference:5 earth:6 field:12 different:4 place:2 far:1 surface:4 space:3 planet:2 introduce:1 central:1 isaac:2 explanation:2 gravitation:4 inertia:3 prior:1 time:12 orbit:1 acceleration:16 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7,682 | CLU_(programming_language) | CLU is a programming language created at MIT by Barbara Liskov and her students between 1974 and 1975. It was notable for its use of constructors for abstract data types that included the code that operated on them, a key step in the direction of object-oriented programming (OOP). However many of the other features of OOP are (intentionally) missing, notably inheritance, and the language is also hindered by a sometimes frustrating if elegant syntax. Clusters The syntax of CLU was based on ALGOL, then the starting point for most new language design. The key addition was the concept of a cluster, CLU's type extension system and the root of the language's name (CLUster). Clusters correspond generally to the concept of an "object" in an OO language, and have roughly the same syntax. For instance, here is the CLU syntax for a cluster that implements complex numbers: complex_number = cluster is add, subtract, multiply, ... rep = record [ real_part: real, imag_part: real ] add = proc ... end add; subtract = proc ... end subtract; multiply = proc ... end multiply; ... end complex_number; While clusters offered a then-advanced system for structuring programs, CLU did not offer any sort of structure for the clusters themselves. Cluster names are global, and no namespace mechanism was provided to group clusters or allow them to be created "locally" inside other clusters. This problem is not unique to CLU, but it is surprising that so many languages have lacked this feature — given the centralness in ALGOL of giving scope to variables, it seems that giving scope to cluster/object names would be an obvious extension. CLU does not perform implicit type conversions. In a cluster, the explicit type conversions 'up' and 'down' change between the abstract type and the representation. There is a universal type 'any', and a procedure force[] to check that an object is a certain type. Objects may be mutable or immutable, the latter being "base types" such as integers. Other features Another key feature of the CLU type system are iterators, which return objects from a collection one after the other. Iterators were "black boxes" that offered an identical API no matter what data they were being used with. Thus the iterator for a collection of complex_numbers would be identical to that for an array of integers. Iterators are now a common feature of most modern languages. (See Generator) CLU also includes exception handling, based on various attempts in other languages; exceptions are raised using signal and handled with except. Oddly, given the focus on type design, CLU does not offer enumerated types, nor any obvious way to create them. A final distinctive feature in CLU is multiple assignment, where more than one variable can appear on the left hand side of an assignment operator. For instance, writing x,y = y,x would exchange values of x and y. In the same way, functions could return several values, like x,y,z = f(t). All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. Trivia Clu was the name of Kevin Flynn's program avatar in the 1982 cult classic film Tron. Influence on other programming languages Python and Ruby borrowed several concepts from CLU (such as the yield statement and multiple assignment) CLU and Ada were major inspirations for C++ templates. CLU's exception handling mechanisms also influenced newer languages like Java and C++. All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. These elements directly influenced Java. Python and C# include generators (iterators in C#), which first appeared in CLU as iterators. Lua took multiple assignment and multiple returns from function calls from CLU. External links CLU Home Page A History of CLU (pdf) clu2c: a program to compile CLU code to C Dictionary of Programming Languages CLU comparison at '99 bottles of beer' multi-language demo algorithm site | CLU_(programming_language) |@lemmatized clu:23 programming:2 language:12 create:3 mit:1 barbara:1 liskov:1 student:1 notable:1 use:3 constructor:1 abstract:2 data:2 type:11 include:3 code:2 operate:1 key:3 step:1 direction:1 object:8 orient:1 oop:2 however:1 many:2 feature:6 intentionally:1 miss:1 notably:1 inheritance:1 also:3 hinder:1 sometimes:1 frustrating:1 elegant:1 syntax:4 cluster:13 base:3 algol:2 starting:1 point:1 new:2 design:2 addition:1 concept:3 extension:2 system:3 root:1 name:4 correspond:1 generally:1 oo:1 roughly:1 instance:2 implement:1 complex:1 number:1 add:3 subtract:3 multiply:3 rep:1 record:1 real:2 proc:3 end:4 offer:4 advanced:1 structure:2 program:7 sort:1 global:1 namespace:1 mechanism:2 provide:1 group:1 allow:1 locally:1 inside:1 problem:1 unique:1 surprising:1 lack:1 give:4 centralness:1 scope:2 variable:2 seem:1 would:3 obvious:2 perform:1 implicit:1 conversion:2 explicit:1 change:1 representation:1 universal:1 procedure:1 force:1 check:1 certain:1 may:1 mutable:1 immutable:1 latter:1 integer:2 another:1 iterators:5 return:3 collection:2 one:2 black:1 box:1 identical:2 api:1 matter:1 thus:1 iterator:1 array:1 common:1 modern:1 see:1 generator:2 exception:3 handling:1 various:1 attempt:1 raise:1 signal:1 handle:2 except:1 oddly:1 focus:1 enumerated:1 way:2 final:1 distinctive:1 multiple:4 assignment:4 appear:2 left:1 hand:1 side:1 operator:1 write:1 x:4 exchange:1 value:2 function:2 could:1 several:2 like:2 z:1 f:1 live:2 heap:2 memory:2 management:2 automatic:2 trivia:1 kevin:1 flynn:1 avatar:1 cult:1 classic:1 film:1 tron:1 influence:3 python:2 ruby:1 borrow:1 yield:1 statement:1 ada:1 major:1 inspiration:1 c:5 template:1 java:2 element:1 directly:1 first:1 lua:1 take:1 call:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 history:1 pdf:1 compile:1 dictionary:1 comparison:1 bottle:1 beer:1 multi:1 demo:1 algorithm:1 site:1 |@bigram orient_programming:1 programming_oop:1 add_subtract:2 subtract_multiply:2 python_ruby:1 external_link:1 |
7,683 | OpenSSH | OpenSSH (OpenBSD Secure Shell) is a set of computer programs providing encrypted communication sessions over a computer network using the ssh protocol. It was created as an open source alternative to the proprietary Secure Shell software suite offered by SSH Communications Security. OpenSSH is developed as part of the OpenBSD project, which is led by Theo de Raadt The project's development is funded via donations. History OpenSSH was created by the OpenBSD team as an alternative to the original SSH software by Tatu Ylönen, which is now proprietary software. The OpenSSH developers claim that it is more secure than the original, due to their policy of producing clean and audited code and the fact, to which the word open in the name refers, that it is released under the open source BSD license. Although source code is available for the original SSH, various restrictions are imposed on its use and distribution. OpenSSH first appeared in OpenBSD 2.6 and the first portable release was made in October 1999. Freshmeat announcement: Portable OpenSSH 1.0pre2 Release History: OpenSSH 5.2: February 23, 2009 OpenSSH 5.1: July 21, 2008 OpenSSH 5.0: April 3, 2008 OpenSSH 4.9: March 30, 2008 Added chroot support for sshd OpenSSH 4.7: September 4, 2007 OpenSSH 4.6: March 9, 2007 OpenSSH 4.5: November 7, 2006 OpenSSH 4.4: September 27, 2006 OpenSSH 4.3: February 1, 2006 OpenSSH 4.2: September 1, 2005 OpenSSH 4.1: May 26, 2005 OpenSSH 4.0: March 9, 2005 OpenSSH 3.9: August 17, 2004 OpenSSH 3.8: February 24, 2004 OpenSSH 3.7.1: September 16, 2003 OpenSSH 3.7: September 16, 2003 OpenSSH 3.6.1: April 1, 2003 OpenSSH 3.6: March 31, 2003 OpenSSH 3.5: October 14, 2002 OpenSSH 3.4: June 26, 2002 Development and structure OpenSSH remotely controlling a server through Linux command line. OpenSSH is developed as part of the OpenBSD operating system. Rather than including changes for other operating systems directly into OpenSSH, a separate portability infrastructure is maintained by the OpenSSH Portability Team and "portable releases" are made periodically. This infrastructure is substantial, partly because OpenSSH is required to perform authentication, a capability that has many varying implementations. This model is also used for other OpenBSD projects such as OpenNTPD. The OpenSSH suite includes the following tools: ssh, a replacement for rlogin and telnet to allow shell access to a remote machine. scp, a replacement for rcp, and sftp, a replacement for ftp to copy files between computers. sshd, the SSH server daemon. ssh-keygen, a tool to inspect and generate the RSA and DSA keys that are used for user and host authentication. ssh-agent and ssh-add, utilities to ease authentication by holding keys ready and avoid the need to enter passphrases every time they are used. ssh-keyscan, which scans a list of hosts and collects their public keys. The OpenSSH server can authenticate users using the standard methods supported by the ssh protocol: with a password; public-key authentication, using per-user keys; host-based authentication, which is a secure version of rlogin's host trust relationships using public keys; keyboard-interactive, a generic challenge-response mechanism that is often used for simple password authentication but which can also make use of stronger authenticators such as tokens; and Kerberos/GSSAPI. The server makes use of authentication methods native to the host operating system; this can include using the BSD authentication system (bsd auth) or PAM to enable additional authentication through methods such as one time passwords. However, this occasionally has side-effects: when using PAM with OpenSSH it must be run as root, as root privileges are typically required to operate PAM. OpenSSH versions after 3.7 (September 16, 2003) allow PAM to be disabled at run-time, so regular users can run sshd instances. Features OpenSSH includes the ability to forward remote TCP ports over a secure tunnel. This is used to multiplex additional TCP connections over a single ssh connection, concealing connections and encrypting protocols which are otherwise unsecured, and for circumventing firewalls. An X Window System tunnel may be created automatically when using OpenSSH to connect to a remote host, and other protocols, such as http and VNC, may be forwarded easily. In addition, some third-party software includes support for tunneling over SSH. These include DistCC, CVS, rsync, and fetchmail. On some operating systems, remote filesystems can be mounted over SSH using tools such as sshfs (using FUSE), shfs, The shfs website. lufs, The lufs website. and podfuk. The podfuk website. An ad hoc SOCKS proxy server may be created using OpenSSH. This allows more flexible proxying than is possible with ordinary port forwarding. For example, by using the single command ssh -D1080 user@example.com a local SOCKS server is established that listens on "localhost:1080" and forwards all traffic via the "example.com" host. Beginning with version 4.3, OpenSSH implements an OSI layer 2/3 tun-based VPN. This is the most flexible of OpenSSH's tunnelling capabilities, allowing applications to transparently access remote network resources without modifications to make use of SOCKS. Trademark In February 2001, Tatu Ylönen, Chairman and CTO of SSH Communications Security informed the OpenSSH development mailing list, that after speaking with key OpenSSH developers Markus Friedl, Theo de Raadt, and Niels Provos, the company would be asserting its ownership of the "SSH" and "Secure Shell" trademarks. Ylönen commented that the trademark "is a significant asset ... SSH Communications Security has made a substantial investment in time and money in its SSH mark" Ylönen, Tatu. Mail to the openssh-unix-dev mailing list: SSH trademarks and the OpenSSH product name. February 14, 2001. Accessed December 24, 2005. and sought to change references to the protocol to "SecSH" or "secsh", in order to maintain control of the "SSH" name. He proposed that OpenSSH change its name in order to avoid a lawsuit, a suggestion that developers resisted. OpenSSH developer Damien Miller replied that "SSH has been a generic term to describe the protocol well before your [Ylönen's] attempt to trademark it" and urged Ylönen to reconsider, commenting: "I think that the antipathy generated by pursuing a free software project will cost your company a lot more than a trademark." Miller, Damien. Mail to the openssh-unix-dev mailing list: Re: SSH trademarks and the OpenSSH product name.February 14, 2001. Accessed August 4, 2007. At the time, "SSH," "Secure Shell" and "ssh" had appeared in documents proposing the protocol as an open standard and it was hypothesised that by doing so, without marking these within the proposal as registered trademarks, Ylönen was relinquishing all exclusive rights to the name as a means of describing the protocol. Improper use of a trademark, or allowing others to use a trademark incorrectly, results in the trademark becoming a generic term, like Kleenex or Aspirin, which opens the mark to use by others. CNet News article: "Ssh! Don't use that trademark." February 14, 2001. Accessed August 4, 2007. After study of the USPTO trademark database, many online pundits opined that the term "ssh" was not trademarked, merely the logo using the lower case letters "ssh." In addition, the six years between the company's creation and the time when it began to defend its trademark, and that only OpenSSH was receiving threats of legal repercussions, weighed against the trademark's validity. Newsforge article: "Ylönen: We own ssh trademark, but here's a proposal." February 16, 2001. Accessed August 4, 2007. Both developers of OpenSSH and Ylönen himself were members of the IETF working group developing the new standard; after several meetings this group denied Ylönen's request to rename the protocol, citing concerns that it would set a bad precedent for other trademark claims against the IETF. The participants argued that both "Secure Shell" and "SSH" were generic terms and could not be trademarks. Network World article: "SSH inventor denied trademark request." March 21, 2001. Accessed August 4, 2007. Books (First edition ISBN 0-596-00011-1). See also Secure Shell Comparison of SSH clients BSD Authentication FTP over SSH POSSE project TCP Wrapper CopSSH References Further reading The 101 Uses of OpenSSH: Part 1 The 101 Uses of OpenSSH: Part 2 External links OpenSSH official website Portable releases Darren Tucker's OpenSSH Page (mirror available here) Privilege Separation of OpenSSH PKCS#11 patch for OpenSSH X.509 patch for OpenSSH | OpenSSH |@lemmatized openssh:57 openbsd:6 secure:9 shell:7 set:2 computer:3 program:1 provide:1 encrypted:1 communication:4 session:1 network:3 use:25 ssh:33 protocol:9 create:4 open:5 source:3 alternative:2 proprietary:2 software:5 suite:2 offer:1 security:3 develop:3 part:4 project:5 lead:1 theo:2 de:2 raadt:2 development:3 fund:1 via:2 donation:1 history:2 team:2 original:3 tatu:3 ylönen:10 developer:5 claim:2 due:1 policy:1 produce:1 clean:1 audited:1 code:2 fact:1 word:1 name:6 refers:1 release:5 bsd:4 license:1 although:1 available:2 various:1 restriction:1 impose:1 distribution:1 first:3 appear:2 portable:4 make:6 october:2 freshmeat:1 announcement:1 february:8 july:1 april:2 march:5 add:2 chroot:1 support:3 sshd:3 september:6 november:1 may:4 august:5 june:1 structure:1 remotely:1 control:2 server:6 linux:1 command:2 line:1 operating:3 system:6 rather:1 include:6 change:3 operate:2 directly:1 separate:1 portability:2 infrastructure:2 maintain:2 periodically:1 substantial:2 partly:1 require:2 perform:1 authentication:10 capability:2 many:2 vary:1 implementation:1 model:1 also:3 openntpd:1 following:1 tool:3 replacement:3 rlogin:2 telnet:1 allow:5 access:7 remote:5 machine:1 scp:1 rcp:1 sftp:1 ftp:2 copy:1 file:1 daemon:1 keygen:1 inspect:1 generate:2 rsa:1 dsa:1 key:7 user:5 host:7 agent:1 utility:1 ease:1 hold:1 ready:1 avoid:2 need:1 enter:1 passphrases:1 every:1 time:6 keyscan:1 scan:1 list:4 collect:1 public:3 authenticate:1 standard:3 method:3 password:3 per:1 base:2 version:3 trust:1 relationship:1 keyboard:1 interactive:1 generic:4 challenge:1 response:1 mechanism:1 often:1 simple:1 strong:1 authenticator:1 token:1 kerberos:1 gssapi:1 native:1 auth:1 pam:4 enable:1 additional:2 one:1 however:1 occasionally:1 side:1 effect:1 must:1 run:3 root:2 privilege:2 typically:1 disable:1 regular:1 instance:1 feature:1 ability:1 forward:3 tcp:3 port:2 tunnel:4 multiplex:1 connection:3 single:2 conceal:1 encrypt:1 otherwise:1 unsecured:1 circumvent:1 firewall:1 x:2 window:1 automatically:1 connect:1 http:1 vnc:1 easily:1 addition:2 third:1 party:1 distcc:1 cv:1 rsync:1 fetchmail:1 filesystems:1 mount:1 sshfs:1 fuse:1 shf:2 website:4 lufs:2 podfuk:2 ad:1 hoc:1 sock:3 proxy:1 flexible:2 proxying:1 possible:1 ordinary:1 forwarding:1 example:3 com:2 local:1 establish:1 listen:1 localhost:1 traffic:1 begin:2 implement:1 osi:1 layer:1 tun:1 vpn:1 application:1 transparently:1 resource:1 without:2 modification:1 trademark:20 chairman:1 cto:1 inform:1 mail:5 speak:1 markus:1 friedl:1 niels:1 provo:1 company:3 would:2 assert:1 ownership:1 comment:2 significant:1 asset:1 investment:1 money:1 mark:3 unix:2 dev:2 product:2 december:1 seek:1 reference:2 secsh:2 order:2 propose:2 lawsuit:1 suggestion:1 resist:1 damien:2 miller:2 reply:1 term:4 describe:2 well:1 attempt:1 urge:1 reconsider:1 think:1 antipathy:1 pursue:1 free:1 cost:1 lot:1 document:1 hypothesise:1 within:1 proposal:2 registered:1 relinquish:1 exclusive:1 right:1 mean:1 improper:1 others:2 incorrectly:1 result:1 become:1 like:1 kleenex:1 aspirin:1 cnet:1 news:1 article:3 study:1 uspto:1 database:1 online:1 pundit:1 opine:1 merely:1 logo:1 low:1 case:1 letter:1 six:1 year:1 creation:1 defend:1 receive:1 threat:1 legal:1 repercussion:1 weigh:1 validity:1 newsforge:1 member:1 ietf:2 work:1 group:2 new:1 several:1 meeting:1 deny:2 request:2 rename:1 cite:1 concern:1 bad:1 precedent:1 participant:1 argue:1 could:1 world:1 inventor:1 book:1 edition:1 isbn:1 see:1 comparison:1 client:1 posse:1 wrapper:1 copssh:1 far:1 read:1 us:2 external:1 link:1 official:1 darren:1 tucker:1 page:1 mirror:1 separation:1 pkcs:1 patch:2 |@bigram de_raadt:2 bsd_license:1 ad_hoc:1 proxy_server:1 osi_layer:1 registered_trademark:1 cnet_news:1 external_link:1 |
7,684 | First_Epistle_of_John | In the Christian New Testament, the First Epistle of John is the fourth catholic or "general" epistle. Written in Ephesus about AD 100-110, the epistle is traditionally attributed to John the Evangelist, also the traditional author of the Gospel of John and the other two epistles of John. Not actually an epistle (or letter), the work is a sermon written to counter heresies that Jesus did not come "in the flesh," but only as a spirit. It also defines how Christians are to discern true teachers: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love. Authorship The epistle is traditionally held to have been written by John the Evangelist, and probably also at Ephesus, and when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John, and 3 John. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) "1 John," p. 355-356 Modern scholars believe that the apostle John wrote none of the New Testament books traditionally attributed to him. "Although ancient traditions attributed to the Apostle John the Fourth Gospel, the Book of Revelation, and the three Epistles of John, modern scholars believe that he wrote none of them." Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) p. 355 Purpose The author wrote the Epistle so that the joy of his audience would "be full" (1.4) and that they would "sin not" (2.1) and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may know that you have eternal life." (5.13) It appears as though the author was concerned about heretical teachers that had been influencing churches under his care. Such teachers were considered Antichrists (2.18-19) who had once been church leaders but whose teaching became heterodox. It appears that these teachers taught that Jesus Christ was a Spirit being without a body (4.2), that his death on the cross was not as an atonement for sins (1.7) and that they were no longer able to sin (1.8-10). It appears that John might have also been rebuking a proto-Gnostic named Cerinthus, who also denied the humanity of Christ. The purpose of the author (1:1-4) is to declare the Word of Life to those to whom he writes, in order that they might be united in fellowship with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ. He shows that the means of union with God are, (1) on the part of Christ, his atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 4:10, 14; 5:11, 12) and his advocacy (2:1); and (2), on the part of man, holiness (1:6), obedience (2:3), purity (3:3), faith (3:23; 4:3; 5:5), and love (2:7, 8; 3:14; 4:7; 5:1). Comma Johanneum Among the most controversial verses of the Bible is an explicit reference to what some people consider the trinity, the Comma Johanneum, (1 John 5:7-8). These verses do not appear in any version of the text prior to the ninth century, but do appear in the King James Bible, something Isaac Newton commented on in An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. This is sometimes used as evidence to counter the King-James-Only Movement. About the year 800, the Comma appeared in some texts of the Latin Vulgate, and was subsequently translated into Greek and added to later Greek manuscripts. Bart Ehrman suggests in his book Misquoting Jesus that the King James Version would not have included the passage if Desiderius Erasmus had not given in to pressure to include it in the Textus Receptus even though he doubted its authenticity. The majority of modern translations (for example New International Version, English Standard Version and New American Standard Bible) do not include this text. Albert Barnes (1798-1870) said regarding its authenticity: On the whole, therefore, the evidence seems to me to be clear that this passage is not a genuine portion of the inspired writings, and should not be appealed to in proof of the doctrine of the Trinity. See also Textual variants in the First Epistle of John John the Apostle John the Evangelist Footnotes External links Online translations of the First Epistle of John Online Bible at GospelHall.org Related article: 1 John from the Biblical Resource Database | First_Epistle_of_John |@lemmatized christian:2 new:4 testament:2 first:3 epistle:11 john:19 fourth:2 catholic:1 general:1 write:7 ephesus:2 ad:1 traditionally:3 attribute:3 evangelist:3 also:6 traditional:1 author:5 gospel:3 two:2 actually:1 letter:1 work:2 sermon:1 counter:2 heresy:1 jesus:5 come:1 flesh:2 spirit:2 define:1 discern:1 true:1 teacher:4 ethic:1 proclamation:1 love:2 authorship:1 hold:1 probably:1 writer:1 advanced:1 age:1 content:1 language:1 conceptual:1 style:1 indicate:1 may:2 harris:2 stephen:2 l:2 understand:2 bible:6 palo:2 alto:2 mayfield:2 p:2 modern:3 scholar:2 believe:3 apostle:3 none:2 book:3 although:1 ancient:1 tradition:1 revelation:1 three:1 purpose:2 joy:1 audience:1 would:3 full:1 sin:3 name:2 son:2 god:2 know:1 eternal:1 life:2 appear:6 though:2 concern:1 heretical:1 influence:1 church:2 care:1 consider:2 antichrist:1 leader:1 whose:1 teaching:1 become:1 heterodox:1 teach:1 christ:4 without:1 body:1 death:1 cross:1 atonement:1 longer:1 able:1 might:2 rebuke:1 proto:1 gnostic:1 cerinthus:1 deny:1 humanity:1 declare:1 word:1 order:1 unite:1 fellowship:1 father:1 show:1 mean:1 union:1 part:2 atone:1 advocacy:1 man:1 holiness:1 obedience:1 purity:1 faith:1 comma:3 johanneum:2 among:1 controversial:1 verse:2 explicit:1 reference:1 people:1 trinity:2 version:4 text:3 prior:1 ninth:1 century:1 king:3 james:3 something:1 isaac:1 newton:1 comment:1 historical:1 account:1 notable:1 corruption:1 scripture:1 sometimes:1 use:1 evidence:2 movement:1 year:1 latin:1 vulgate:1 subsequently:1 translate:1 greek:2 add:1 later:1 manuscript:1 bart:1 ehrman:1 suggests:1 misquote:1 include:3 passage:2 desiderius:1 erasmus:1 give:1 pressure:1 textus:1 receptus:1 even:1 doubt:1 authenticity:2 majority:1 translation:2 example:1 international:1 english:1 standard:2 american:1 albert:1 barnes:1 say:1 regard:1 whole:1 therefore:1 seem:1 clear:1 genuine:1 portion:1 inspired:1 writing:1 appeal:1 proof:1 doctrine:1 see:1 textual:1 variant:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 online:2 gospelhall:1 org:1 related:1 article:1 biblical:1 resource:1 database:1 |@bigram harris_stephen:2 bible_palo:2 palo_alto:2 alto_mayfield:2 jesus_christ:2 atonement_sin:1 comma_johanneum:2 isaac_newton:1 latin_vulgate:1 bart_ehrman:1 misquote_jesus:1 desiderius_erasmus:1 textus_receptus:1 doubt_authenticity:1 textual_variant:1 external_link:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 |
7,685 | Netscape | {{Infobox Company | company_name = Netscape Communications | company_logo = | slogan = We Only Use the Netscape | fate = | successor = | foundation = 1994 | location = Dulles, Loudoun County, Virginia, USA(AOL's headquarters) | industry = Internet, Software, & Telecommunication | key_people = Marc Andreessen and Jim Clark (founders) | products = Internet suiteweb browserInternet service providerweb portal | num_employees = 10,000 | parent = AOL | subsid = | website = Netscape.com | | homepage = Netscape.com }} Netscape Communications (formerly known as Netscape Communications Corporation and commonly known as Netscape) is a US computer services company, best known for its web browser. The browser was once dominant in terms of usage share, but lost most of that share to Internet Explorer during the first browser war. By the end of 2006, the usage share of Netscape browsers had fallen, from over 90% in the mid 1990s, to less than 1%. Netscape developed the Secure Sockets Layer Protocol (SSL) used for securing online communication, which is still widely used. History of SSL at IBM.com Netscape stock traded between 1995 and 2003, subsequently as a subsidiary of AOL LLC. However, it became a holding company following AOL's purchase of Netscape in 1998. The Netscape brand is still extensively used by AOL. Some services currently offered under the Netscape brand, other than the web browser, include a discount Internet service provider and a popular social news website. As of December 2007, AOL announced it would no longer be updating the Netscape browser. Tom Drapeau, director of AOL's Netscape Brand, announced that the company would stop supporting Netscape software products as of March 1, 2008. The decision met mixed reactions from communities, with many arguing that the termination of product support is significantly belated. Internet security site Security Watch stated that a trend of infrequent security updates for AOL's Netscape cause the browser to become a "security liability", specifically the 2005-2007 versions, Netscape Browser 8. Asa Dotzler, one of Firefox's original programmers, greeted the news with "good riddance" in his blog post, but praised the various members of the Netscape team over the years for enabling the creation of Mozilla in 1998. Others protested and petitioned AOL to continue providing vital security fixes to unknowing or loyal users of its software, as well as protection of a well-known brand. Netscape Internet Service Netscape ISP Logo Netscape ISP is a 56 kbit/s dial-up service offered at $9.95 per month ($6.95 with 12-month commitment). The company serves webpages in a compressed format to increase effective speeds up to 1300 kbit/s (average 500 kbit/s). The Internet service provider is run by AOL under the Netscape brand. The low-cost ISP was officially launched on January 8, 2004. Its main competitor is NetZero. Netscape ISP's advertising is generally aimed at a younger demographic, e.g., college students, and people just out of school, as an affordable way to gain access to the Internet. Web Accelerator The Web Accelerator is the main feature that sets Netscape's service apart from others. The accelerator precompresses text at the Server side to approximately 4% its original size, increasing effective throughput to 1300 kbit/s. The accelerator also precompresses Flash executables and images to approximately 30% and 12%, respectively. Netscape advertises this as "DSL speeds over regular phone lines", although such speeds are limited to only web browsing, not downloads of files. Another drawback of this approach is a loss in quality, where the graphics become heavily compacted and smeared, but the speed is dramatically improved such that web pages load in less than 5 seconds, and the user can manually choose to view the uncompressed images at any time. History Early years The logo of Mosaic Communications Corporation and its browser Netscape was the second company to attempt to capitalize on the (then) nascent World Wide Web. It was originally founded under the name, Mosaic Communications Corporation, on April 4, 1994, the brainchild of Jim Clark who had recruited Marc Andreessen as co-founder and Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers as investors. Clark recruited other early Netscape team members from SGI and NCSA Mosaic, including Rosanne Siino who became Vice President of Communications. The company's first product was the web browser, called Mosaic Netscape 0.9, released on October 13, 1994. This browser was subsequently renamed Netscape Navigator, and the company took the 'Netscape' name on November 14, 1994 to avoid trademark ownership problems with NCSA, where the initial Netscape employees had previously created the NCSA Mosaic web browser. The Mosaic Netscape web browser utilized some NCSA Mosaic code with NCSA's permission, as noted in the application's "About" dialog box. Netscape made a very successful IPO on August 9, 1995. The stock was set to be offered at $14 per share. But, a last-minute decision doubled the initial offering to $28 per share. The stock's value soared to $75 on the first day of trading, nearly a record for first-day gain. The company's revenues doubled every quarter in 1995. Netscape's success landed Andreessen, barefoot, on the cover of Time Magazine . Netscape advertised that "the web is for everyone" and stated one of its goals as to "level the playing field" among operating systems by providing a consistent web browsing experience across them. The Netscape web browser interface was identical on any computer. Netscape later experimented with prototypes of a web-based system which would enable users to access and edit their files anywhere across a network, no matter what computer or operating system they happened to be using. This did not escape the attention of Microsoft, which viewed the commodification of operating systems as a direct threat to its bottom line. It is alleged that several Microsoft executives visited the Netscape campus in June 1995 to propose dividing the market (although Microsoft denies this as it would have breached anti-trust laws), which would have allowed Microsoft to produce web browser software for Windows while leaving all other operating systems to Netscape. Netscape refused the proposition. Microsoft released version 1.0 of Internet Explorer as a part of the Windows 95 Plus Pack add-on. According to former Spyglass developer Eric Sink, Internet Explorer was based not on NCSA Mosaic as commonly believed, but on a version of Mosaic developed at Spyglass (which itself was based upon NCSA Mosaic). Microsoft quickly released several successive versions of Internet Explorer, bundling them with Windows, never charging for them, financing their development and marketing with revenues from other areas of the company. This period of time became known as the browser wars, in which Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer added many new features (not always working correctly) and went through many version numbers (not always in a logical fashion) in attempts to outdo each other. But Internet Explorer had the upper hand, as the amount of manpower and capital dedicated to it eventually surpassed the resources available in Netscape's entire business. By version 3.0, IE was roughly a feature-for-feature equivalent of Netscape Communicator, and by version 4.0, it was generally considered to be more stable on Windows than on the Macintosh platform. Microsoft also targeted other Netscape products with free workalikes, such as the Internet Information Server (IIS), a web server which was bundled with Windows NT. Netscape could not compete with this strategy. In fact, it didn't attempt to. Netscape Navigator was not free to the general public until January 1998, while Internet Explorer and IIS have always been free or came bundled with an operating system and/or other applications. Meanwhile, Netscape faced increasing criticism for the bugs in its products; critics claimed that the company suffered from 'featuritis' – putting a higher priority on adding new features than on making them work properly. This was particularly true with Netscape Navigator 2, which was only on the market for 5 months in early 1996 before being replaced by Netscape Navigator 3. The tide of public opinion, having once lauded Netscape as the David to Microsoft's Goliath, steadily turned negative, especially when Netscape experienced its first bad quarter at the end of 1997 and underwent a large round of layoffs in January 1998. (There were, however, always users who appreciated Netscape's functionality with frames and image-saving, and who liked using a non-Microsoft product.) Open sourcing January 1998 was also the month that Netscape started the open source Mozilla project. Netscape publicly released the source code of Netscape Communicator 4.0 in the hopes that it would become a popular open source project. It placed this code under the Netscape Public License, which was similar to the GNU General Public License but allowed Netscape to continue to publish proprietary work containing the publicly released code. However, after having released the Communicator 4.0 code this way, Netscape proceeded to work on Communicator 4.5 which was focused on improving email and enterprise functionality. It eventually became clear that the Communicator 4.0 browser was too difficult to develop, and open source development was halted on this codebase. Instead, the open source development shifted to a next generation browser built from scratch. Utilizing the newly built Gecko layout engine, this browser had a much more modular architecture than Communicator 4.0 and was therefore easier to develop with a large number of programmers. It also included an XML user interface language named XUL that allowed single development of a user interface that ran on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux. The United States Department of Justice filed an antitrust case against Microsoft in May 1998. Netscape was not a plaintiff in the case, though its executives were subpoenaed and it contributed much material to the case, including the entire contents of the 'Bad Attitude' internal discussion forum. In October 1998, Netscape acquired web directory site NewHoo for the sum of $1 million, renamed it the Open Directory Project, and released its database under an open content license. Acquisition by America Online Netscape logo as a throbber America Online (AOL) on November 24, 1998 announced it would acquire Netscape Communications in a tax-free stock-swap valued at US$4.2 billion at the time of the announcement. This merger was ridiculed by many who believed that the two corporate cultures could not possibly mesh; one of its most prominent critics was longtime Netscape developer Jamie Zawinski.[15][16] The acquisition was seen as a way for AOL to gain a bargaining chip against Microsoft, to let it become less dependent on the Internet Explorer web browser. Others believed that AOL was interested in Netcenter, or Netscape's web properties, which drew some of the highest traffic worldwide. Eventually, Netscape's server products and its Professional Services group became part of iPlanet, a joint marketing and development alliance between AOL and Sun Microsystems. On November 14, 2000, AOL released Netscape 6, based on the Mozilla 0.6 source code. (Version 5 was skipped.) Unfortunately, Mozilla 0.6 was far from being stable yet, and so the effect of Netscape 6 was to further drive people away from the Netscape brand. It was not until August 2001 that Netscape 6.1 appeared, based on Mozilla 0.9.2 which was significantly more robust. A year later came Netscape 7.0, based on the Mozilla 1.0 core. Disbanding Netscape logo used from 1994 until 2002 After the Microsoft antitrust case found that Microsoft held and had abused monopoly power, AOL filed a suit against it for damages. This suit was settled in May 2003 when Microsoft paid US $750 million to AOL and agreed to share some technologies, including granting AOL a license to use and distribute Internet Explorer royalty-free for seven years. This was considered to be the death knell for Netscape. On July 15, 2003, Time Warner (formerly AOL Time Warner) disbanded Netscape. Most of the programmers were laid-off, and the Netscape logo was removed from the building. However, the Netscape 7.2 web browser (developed in-house rather than with Netscape staff) was released by AOL on August 18, 2004. Red Hat announced on September 30, 2004 that it had acquired large portions of the Netscape Enterprise Suite and was planning to convert them into an open source product to be bundled with Red Hat Enterprise Linux. http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/30/169253 On June 1, 2005, Red Hat released Fedora Directory Server. On October 12, 2004, the popular developer website Netscape DevEdge was shut down by AOL. DevEdge was an important resource for Internet-related technologies, maintaining definitive documentation on the Netscape browser, documentation on associated technologies like HTML and JavaScript, and popular articles written by industry and technology leaders such as Danny Goodman. Some content from DevEdge has been republished at the Mozilla website. Final release of the browser Netscape logo 2005-2007, still used in some portals The Netscape brand name continued to be used extensively. The company once again had its own programming staff devoted to the development and support for the series of web browsers. UFAQ. org - "Announcing Netscape 9" by Jay Garcia Retrieved on 2007-02-05 Additionally, Netscape also maintained the Propeller web portal, which was a popular social-news site, similar to Digg, which was given a new look in June 2006. AOL marketed a discount ISP service under the Netscape brand name. A new version of the Netscape browser, Netscape Navigator 9, based on Firefox 2, was released in October 2007. It featured a sleek green and grey interface. In November 2007, IE had 77.4% of the browser market, Firefox 16.0% and Netscape 0.6%, according to Net Applications, an Internet metrics firm. On December 28, 2007, AOL announced that on February 1, 2008 it would drop support for the Netscape web browser and would no longer develop new releases. The date was later extended to March 1 to allow a major security update and to add a tool to assist users in migrating to other browsers. These additional features were included in the final version of Netscape Navigator 9 (version 9.0.0.6), released on February 20, 2008. Software Classic releases Netscape Navigator (versions 0.9–4.08) Netscape Navigator 2.02 32-bit Netscape 0.91 running on 64-bit Windows Vista. Netscape Navigator was Netscape's web browser from versions 1.0–4.8. The first beta versions were released in 1994 and were called Mosaic and later Mosaic Netscape. Then, a legal challenge from the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (makers of NCSA Mosaic), which many of Netscape's founders used to develop, led to the name Netscape Navigator. The company's name also changed from Mosaic Communications Corporation to Netscape Communications Corporation. The browser was easily the most advanced available and so was an instant success, becoming market leader while still in beta. Netscape's feature-count and market share continued to grow rapidly after version 1.0 was released. Version 2.0 added a full email reader called Netscape Mail, thus transforming Netscape from a mere web browser to an Internet suite. The main distinguishing feature of the email client was its ability to display HTML. During this period, the suite was called Netscape Navigator. Version 3.0 of Netscape (the first beta was codenamed "Atlas") was the first to face any serious competition in the form of Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0. But Netscape easily remained the number one browser for the time being. Netscape also released a Gold version that incorporated JavaScript, RSA security and an Apple Inc. QuickTime decoder. Netscape Communicator (versions 4.0–4.8) Netscape Communicator 4.61 for OS/2 Warp Netscape 4 addressed the problem of Netscape Navigator being used as both the name of the suite and the browser contained within it by renaming the suite to Netscape Communicator. After releasing five preview releases from 1996–1997, Netscape released the final version of Netscape Communicator in June 1997. This new version, more or less based on Netscape Navigator 3 Code, updated and added new features. The new suite was successful, despite increasing competition from Internet Explorer (IE) 4.0 (which had a more advanced HTML engine) and problems with the outdated browser core. IE was slow and unstable on the Mac platform until version 4.5. The Communicator suite was made up of Netscape Navigator, Netscape Mail & Newsgroups, Netscape Address Book and Netscape Composer (an HTML editor). In January 1998, Netscape Communications Corporation announced that all future versions of its software would be available free of charge and developed by an open source community, Mozilla. Netscape Communicator 5.0 was announced (codenamed "Grommit"). However, its release was greatly delayed, and meanwhile there were newer versions of Internet Explorer, starting with version 4. Those had more features than the old Netscape version, including better support of HTML 4, CSS, DOM, and ECMAScript. The more advanced Internet Explorer 5.0 became the market leader. In October 1998, Netscape Communicator 4.5 was released. It featured various functionality improvements, especially in the Mail and Newsgroups component, but did not update the browser core, whose functionality was essentially identical to that of version 4.08. One month later, Netscape Communications Corporation was bought by AOL. In November, work on Netscape 5.0 was canceled in favor of developing a completely new program from scratch. Mozilla-based releases Netscape 6 (versions 6.0–6.2.3) Netscape 6.1 In 1998, an informal group called the Mozilla Organization was formed and largely funded by Netscape (the vast majority of programmers working on the code were paid by Netscape) to co-ordinate the development of Netscape 5 (codenamed "Gromit"), which would be based on the Communicator source code. However, the aging Communicator code proved difficult to work with and the decision was taken to scrap Netscape 5 and re-write the source code. The re-written source code was in the form of the Mozilla web browser, which, with a few additions, Netscape 6 was based on. This decision meant that Netscape's next major version was severely delayed. In the meantime, Netscape was taken over by AOL who, acting under pressure from the Web Standards Project, forced its new division to release Netscape 6.0 in 2000. The suite again consisted of Netscape Navigator and the other Communicator components, with the addition of a built-in AOL Instant Messenger client, Netscape Instant Messenger. However, it was clear that Netscape 6 was not yet ready for release and it flopped badly. It was based on Mozilla 0.6, which was not ready to be used by the general public yet due to many serious bugs that would cause it to crash often or render web pages slowly. Later versions of Netscape 6 were much improved (especially 6.2.x was regarded as a good release), but the browser still struggled to make an impact on a disappointed community. Netscape 7 (versions 7.0–7.2) Netscape 7.2 Netscape 7.0 (based on Mozilla 1.0.1) was released in August 2002 was a direct continuation of Netscape 6 with very similar components. It picked up a few users, but was still very much a minority browser. It did, however, come with the popular Radio@Netscape Internet radio client. AOL had decided to deactivate Mozilla's popup-blocker functionality in Netscape 7.0, which created an outrage in the community. AOL learned the lesson for Netscape 7.01 and allowed Netscape to reinstate the popup-blocker. Netscape also introduced a new AOL-free-version (without the usual AOL addons) of the browser suite. Netscape 7.1 (codenamed "Buffy" and based on Mozilla 1.4) was released in June 2003. In 2003, AOL closed down its Netscape division and laid-off or re-assigned all of Netscape's employees. Mozilla. org continued, however, as the independent Mozilla Foundation, taking on many of Netscape's ex-employees. AOL continued to develop Netscape in-house, but, due to there being no staff committed to it, improvements were minimal. One year later, in August 2004, the last version based on Mozilla was released: Netscape 7.2, based on Mozilla 1.7.2. After an official poll posted on Netscape's community support board in late 2006, speculation arose of the Netscape 7 series of suites being fully supported and updated by Netscape's in-house development team on. Netscape Community Announcement - Netscape 7.2 Retrieved on 2007-02-08 Netscape Community poll - Should Netscape continue to update 7.2? Retrieved on 2007-02-08 Mozillazine - Netscape 9 announced Retrieved on 2007-02-08 This was not to be. Mozilla Firefox-based releases Netscape Browser (version 8.0-8.1.3) Netscape Browser 8.1.3 Between 2005 and 2007, Netscape's releases became known as Netscape Browser. AOL chose to base Netscape Browser on the relatively successful Mozilla Firefox, a re-written version of Mozilla produced by the Mozilla Foundation. This release is not a full Internet suite as before, but is solely a web browser. Other controversial decisions include the browser's being made only for Microsoft Windows and its featuring both the Gecko rendering engine of previous releases and the Trident engine used in Internet Explorer. AOL's acquisition of Netscape years ago made it less of a surprise when the company laid off the Netscape team and outsourced development to Mercurial Communications. Netscape Browser 8.1.3 was released on April 2, 2007, and included general bug fixes identified in versions 8.0-8.1.2 Netscape Community - Netscape 8.1.3 Retrieved on 2007-02-08 Netscape Community - Netscape 8.1.3 released Retrieved on 2007-04-02 Netscape Navigator (version 9.0) Netscape Navigator 9.0 Netscape Navigator 9 was released on 15 October 2007. Its features were said to include newsfeed support and become more integrated with the Propeller Internet portal, Netscape 9.0 confirmed on Netscape's community support board Retrieved on 2007-01-24 alongside more enhanced methods of discussion, submission and voting on web pages. Netscape 9 - 20 February Announcement Retrieved on 2007-02-20 It also sees the browser return to multi-platform support across Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. Netscape 9.0 30- January 07 announcement Retrieved on 2007-01-30 Like Netscape version 8.x, the new release was be based upon the popular Mozilla Firefox (version 2.0), and supposedly have full support of all Firefox add-ons and plugins, some of which Netscape is already providing. Netscape 9 - 6 February 2007 announcement Retrieved on 2007-02-06 Also for the first time since 2004, the browser was produced in-house with its own programming staff. Netscape announces cross-platform Netscape 9 to be developed in-house - Mozillazine Retrieved on 2007-02-05 A beta of the program was first released on 5 June 2007. Netscape 9.0b1 released Retrieved on 06-05-2007 The final version was released on October 15, 2007. End of development and support AOL officially announced Netscape 9 Users: Time to Flock or Firefox - The Netscape Blog that support for Netscape Navigator would end on 1 March, 2008, and recommended that its users download either the Flock or Firefox browsers, both of which were based on the same technology. Mozilla Thunderbird-based releases Netscape Messenger 9 Netscape Messenger 9.0a1 On June 11, 2007, Netscape announced Netscape Mercury, a stand-alone Email / News Client that was to accompany Navigator 9. Mercury was based on Mozilla Thunderbird. Netscape Mercury in progress Retrieved on 06-011-2007 The product was later renamed Netscape Messenger 9, and an alpha version was released. In December 2007, AOL announced it was canceling Netscape's development of Messenger 9 as well as Navigator 9. Product list Installation disk of Netscape 2.0 Netscape's initial product line consisted of: Netscape Navigator web browser for Windows, Macintosh, OS/2, Unix, and Linux Netsite Communications web server, with a web-based configuration interface Netsite Commerce web server, simply the Communications server with SSL (https) added Netscape Proxy Server Later Netscape products included: Netscape Personal Edition (the browser along with PPP software and an account creation wizard to sign up with an ISP) Netscape Communicator (a suite which included Navigator along with tools for mail, news, calendar, VoIP, and composing web pages, and was bundled with AOL Instant Messenger and RealAudio) Netscape FastTrack and Enterprise web servers Netscape Collabra Server, a NNTP news server acquired in a purchase of Collabra Software, Inc. Netscape Directory Server, an LDAP server Netscape Messaging Server, an IMAP and POP mail server Netscape Certificate Server, for issuing SSL certificates Netscape Calendar Server, for group scheduling Netscape Compass Server, a search engine and spider Netscape Application Server, for designing web applications Netscape Publishing System, for running a commercial site with news articles and charging users per access Netscape Xpert Servers ECxpert - a server for EDI message exchange SellerXpert - B to B Commerce Engine BuyerXpert - eProcurement Engine BillerXpert - Online Bill Paying Engine TradingXpert - HTML EDI transaction frontend CommerceXpert - Online Retail Store engine Radio@Netscape and Radio@Netscape Plus Netscape created the JavaScript web page scripting language. It also pioneered the development of "push technology," which effectively allowed web sites to send regular updates of information (weather, stock updates, package tracking, etc.) directly to a user's desktop (aka "webtop"); Netscape's implementation of this was named Netcaster. http://www.catdancers.com/webmags/webrevu/1997/04_18/developers/04_18_97_2.html Unfortunately, businesses quickly recognized the use of push technology to deliver ads to users, and annoyed users turned off the feature, so Netcaster was short-lived. Netscape was notable for its cross-platform efforts. Its client software continued to be made available for Windows (3.1, 95, 98, NT), Macintosh, Linux, OS/2, BeOS, and many versions of Unix including DEC, Sun Solaris, BSDI, IRIX, IBM AIX, and HP-UX. Its server software generally was only available for Unix and Windows NT, though some of its servers were made available on Linux, and a version of Netscape FastTrack Server was made available for Windows 95/98. Today, most of Netscape's server offerings live on as the Sun Java System, formerly under the Sun ONE branding. Although Netscape Browser 8 was Windows only, multi-platform support exists in the Netscape Navigator 9 series of browsers. See reference 15 Internet portals and services Netscape.com Netscape always drove lots of traffic from various links included in the browser menus to its web properties. Some say it was very late to leverage this traffic for what would become the start of the major online portal wars. When it did, Netcenter, the new name for its notorious http://home.netscape.com site entered the race with Yahoo!, Infoseek, and MSN, which Google would only join years later. Netscape.com is currently an AOL Netscape-branded mirror duplicate of the AOL.com portal, replacing the former Social News website in September 2007. It features facilities such as news, sports, horoscopes, dating, movies, music and more. The change has come to much criticism amongst many site users, effectively the site becoming an AOL clone and simply re-directing to regional AOL portals in some areas across the globe. Netscape's exclusive features, such as the Netscape Blog, Netscape NewsQuake, Netscape Navigator, My Netscape and Netscape Community pages, are less accessible from the AOL Netscape designed portal and in some countries not accessible at all without providing a full URL or completing an Internet search. Netscape Community responses. Retrieved on 20 September 2007 The new AOL Netscape site was originally previewed in August 2007 before moving the existing site in September 2007. New Netscape Portal - Netscape Community Retrieved on 14 August 2007 CompuServe's website, compuserve.com, is similar to the original generic Netscape portal used prior to June 2006. Propeller Propeller logo Netscape also operates the site Propeller, which is a social news aggregator, similar to Digg, and formally known as Netscape.com between June 2006 and September 2007. Revised in late 2007, propeller.com has been re-released and the use of the new social structure has spawned over 1,000,000 pages within a 2.5 month period. Open Directory Project The Open Directory Project (ODP), also known as dmoz (from directory.mozilla.org, its original domain name), is a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links owned by Netscape that is constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors. Netscape Search Netscape operates a search engine, Netscape Search, powered by AOL Search. Another version of Netscape Search can be found at netscape.com/search, which has since been incorporated into Propeller. Netscape Forum Center Netscape also has a wide variety of community-based forums within Netscape Forum Center, including its browser's community support board. To post on the forums, users must possess an AOL Screenname account in which to sign in, referred to within the site as the Netscape Network. The same service is also available through Compuserve Forum Center. Other sites Netscape also operates a number of country-specific portals, including Netscape Canada, the Netscape UK, Netscape Germany among others. The Netscape Blog is written by Netscape employees discussing the latest on Netscape products and services. Netscape NewsQuake (formally Netscape Reports'') is Netscape's news and opinion blog, including video clips and discussions. See also Mozilla SeaMonkey The Book of Mozilla Code Rush, a 1998 documentary about Netscape engineers. Radio@Netscape References External links Netscape.com Netscape Navigator Netscape Browser Archive Complete Netscape FTP Archive Silly Dog's Netscape Browser Archive Netscape Forum Center Propeller.com Netscape ISP home page Netscape Community The Netscape Unofficial FAQ Netscape Version Guide A list of key events in Netscape's history Book of Mozilla, a portal for former Netscape employees Netscape Blog Mosaic Communications Corporation | Netscape |@lemmatized infobox:1 company:14 netscape:276 communication:16 slogan:1 use:17 fate:1 successor:1 foundation:3 location:1 dulles:1 loudoun:1 county:1 virginia:1 usa:1 aol:45 headquarters:1 industry:2 internet:30 software:10 telecommunication:1 marc:2 andreessen:3 jim:2 clark:3 founder:3 product:14 suiteweb:1 browserinternet:1 service:13 providerweb:1 portal:13 parent:1 subsid:1 website:6 com:14 homepage:1 formerly:3 know:8 corporation:8 commonly:2 u:3 computer:3 best:1 web:41 browser:57 dominant:1 term:1 usage:2 share:7 lose:1 explorer:14 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7,686 | Hate_speech | Hate speech is a term for speech intended to degrade a person or group of people based on their race, gender, age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, language ability, ideology, social class, occupation, appearance (height, weight, hair color, etc.), mental capacity, and any other distinction that might be considered by some as a liability. The term covers written as well as oral communication and some forms of behaviors in a public setting . It is also sometimes called antilocution and is the first point on Allport's scale which measures prejudice in a society. Critics have claimed that the term "Hate Speech" is a modern example of Newspeak, used to silence critics of social policies that have been poorly implemented in a rush to appear politically correct UK-USA: The British Character of America The PCspeak of Diversity George Orwell meets the OIC . Speech codes Various institutions in the United States and Europe began developing codes to limit or punish hate speech in the 1990s, on the grounds that such speech amounts to discrimination. Thus, such codes prohibit words or phrases deemed to express, either deliberately or unknowingly, hatred or contempt towards a group of people, based on areas such as their ethnic, cultural, religious or sexual identity, or with reference to physical health or mental health. There has been an increase of prohibition of terms regarded as "hate speech" based on socio-economic class in the United States, same goes to regional slurs and comments in Europe. But for many North Americans and western Europeans, hate speech has become unacceptable (at least in public), immoral and sometimes, it is taboo to use certain words or discuss certain subjects they fear may be offensive or illegal. In some contexts it may also be offensive or illegal to challenge the rights of individuals based on any or all of the above criteria. In addition to legal prohibition in many jurisdictions, prohibitions on the use of hate speech have been written into the bylaws of some governmental and non-governmental institutions, such as public universities, trade unions and other organizations (see below), though the use of speech codes in public universities in the United States is illegal, because public universities, as agents of the State, are Constitutionally restricted from regulating or penalizing speech based on content. Its use is also frowned upon by many publishing houses, broadcasting organizations and newspaper groups. However, most business corporations adapted strict rules and regulations concerning verbal conduct at the workplace. These are similar to anti-hate speech laws and any employee caught in a violation of anti-hate speech codes may be dismissed. Many schools and universities have speech codes restricting some free speech. Hate speech codes are rules intended to ensure an atmosphere free from harassment and intimidation, conducive to a learning environment. Many academics have criticised these policies, arguing they are an impediment for free and uncensored discussion on controversial topics. Moreover, it is argued that the very concept of harassment is often misused and frequently cheapened, interpreting criticism (of a faith, opinion, or lifestyle) as something traumatic and harmful. Opponents of hate speech codes maintain that debate is essential to searching for the truth, and hate speech codes interfere with this mandate by silencing discussion from the very start (becoming censorship). They maintain that "harassment" should only be interpreted as a direct personal threat. They also argue that students should be confronted with perspectives they can find repulsive, as it will help strengthen their own arguments and ultimately achieve a more sturdy, well-rounded understanding of the issue. One organization active in opposing campus speech codes is the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, or FIRE. Laws against hate speech In many countries, deliberate use of hate speech is a criminal offence prohibited under incitement to hatred legislation. Australia The Commonwealth of Australia The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 forbids hate speech on several grounds. The Act makes it “unlawful for a person to do an act, otherwise than in private, if the act is reasonably likely, in all the circumstances, to offend, insult, humiliate or intimidate another person or a group of people; and the act is done because of the race, colour or national or ethnic origin of the other person, or of some or all of the people in the group. http://scaletext.law.gov.au/html/comact/9/4573/0/CM000080.htm ” An aggrieved person can lodge a complaint with the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. If the complaint is validated, the Commission will attempt to conciliate the matter. If the Commission cannot negotiate an agreement which is acceptable to the complainant, the complainant's only redress is through the Federal Court or through the Federal Magistrates Service. In 2002, the Federal Court applied the Act in the case of Jones v. Toben. The case involved a complaint about a website which contained material that denied the Holocaust. The Federal Court ruled that the material was a violation of the Act. http://opennet.net/research/regions/au-nz Section 85ZE of the Crimes Act 1914 makes it an offence to use the Internet to disseminate material intentionally that results in a person being menaced or harassed. This offence includes material communicated by email. Federal criminal law, therefore, is available to address racial vilification where the element of threat or harassment is also present, although it does not apply to material that is merely offensive. http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/index.html Tasmania Section 19 of Tasmania's Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 prohibits anyone from inciting hatred. The Act says: A person, by a public act, must not incite hatred towards, serious contempt for, or severe ridicule of, a person or a group of persons on the ground of – (a) the race of the person or any member of the group; or (b) any disability of the person or any member of the group; or (c) the sexual orientation or lawful sexual activity of the person or any member of the group; or (d) the religious belief or affiliation or religious activity of the person or any member of the group. New South Wales In 1989, by an amendment to the Anti-Discrimination Act 1977, New South Wales became the first state to make it unlawful for a person, by a public act, to incite hatred towards, serious contempt for, or severe ridicule of a person or group on the grounds of race. The amendment also created a criminal offence for inciting hatred, contempt or severe ridicule towards a person or group on the grounds of race by threatening physical harm (towards people or their property) or inciting others to threaten such harm. Prosecution of the offence of serious vilification requires consent from the Attorney-General and carries a maximum penalty of a $10,000 fine or 6 months imprisonment for an individual—$100,000 for a corporation. An offence has not yet been prosecuted under this law. Queensland Queensland's Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 and amendments create laws that are similar to Tasmania's. In 2001, the Islamic Council of Queensland brought the first action under the Anti-Discrimination Act for victimisation on account of religion. The Islamic Council complained that the respondent Mr. Lamb, a candidate in a federal election, had expressed some unfavourable opinions about Muslims in an electioneering-pamphlet. Walter Sofronoff, for the Anti-Discrimination Tribunal, dismissed the action on the ground that Mr. Lamb did not intend to incite hatred or contempt but rather wanted to let the electors know his opinions on political matters. Deen v. Lamb (2001) QADT 20 (8 November 2001) Western Australia Unlike other jurisdictions, Western Australian law imposes criminal but not civil sanctions against racial vilification. In Western Australia, the Criminal Code was amended in 1989 to criminalise the possession, publication and display of written or pictorial material that is threatening or abusive with the intention of inciting racial hatred or of harassing a racial group. Penalties range between 6 months and two years imprisonment. It is noteworthy that the Western Australian legislation only addresses written or pictorial information—not verbal comments. The emphasis on written material arose in direct response to the racist poster campaigns of the Australian Nationalist Movement in the late 1980s and early 1990s. There have been no prosecutions to date. Victoria On 1 January 2002, Victoria put into effect its Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001 which makes religious vilification as well as racial vilification unlawful. Section 8(1) of the Act states: A person must not, on the ground of the religious belief or activity of another person or class of persons, engage in conduct that incites hatred against, serious contempt for, or revulsion or severe ridicule of, that other person or class of persons. Note: "engage in conduct" includes use of the internet or e-mail to publish or transmit statements or other material. Section 11 of the Act provides this concession in favour of freedom of expression: A person does not contravene section 7 or 8 if the person establishes that the person's conduct was engaged in reasonably and in good faith— (a) in the performance, exhibition or distribution of an artistic work; or (b) in the course of any statement, publication, discussion or debate made or held, or any other conduct engaged in, for— (i) any genuine academic, artistic, religious or scientific purpose; or (ii) any purpose that is in the public interest; or (c) in making or publishing a fair and accurate report of any event or matter of public interest. In 2004, the Islamic Council of Victoria laid a complaint under the Act about the preaching by two Christian pastors. One pastor, a man who had fled Pakistan when a charge of blasphemy was made against him there, was Daniel Scot. The other pastor was Danny Nalliah. Scot and Nalliah made controversial remarks about Islam at a seminar. Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, 'Legislating Religious Correctness: Religious vilification laws converge with the Islamist vision of a blasphemy-free society' The Daily Standard 27 October 2005. On 17 December 2004, the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal, in the person of Judge Michael Higgins, determined that the pastors had violated the Act. The judge sentenced them to print an apology—drafted by the judge—on their website, in their newsletter, and in eight advertisements appearing in two newspapers. The pastors appealed. The Supreme Court of Victoria overturned the Tribunal's decision. [2006] VSCA 284 (14 December 2006) The Court said the Tribunal had no business “attempt[ing] to assess the theological propriety of what was asserted at the Seminar.” The Court directed a re-hearing before a different judge. The pastors and the Islamic Council of Victoria prevented a re-hearing by resolving their conflict through mediation on 22 June 2007. Jenny Stokes, 'Religious Vilification complaint - finally resolved' 10 July 2007 South Australia The Racial Vilification Act 1996 is similar to the law in New South Wales. The Northern Territory The Anti-Discrimination Act 1992 prohibits discrimination and harassment in activities associated with education, work, accommodation, services, clubs, and insurance or superannuation. The Australian Capital Territory The Discrimination Act 1991 is similar to the law in New South Wales. Brazil In Brazil, according to the 1988 Brazilian Constitution, racism and other forms of race-related hate speech are "imprescriptible crime(s) with no right to bail to its accused". "1988 Constitution made racism a crime with no right to bail", Folha de São Paulo, 15/04/2005. In 2006, a joint-action between the Federal Police and the Argentinian police has cracked down several hate-related websites. However, some of these sites have recently reappeared—the users have re-created the same sites on American domain. The federal police have asked permission from the FBI to crack down these sites, but the FBI denied claiming that the First Amendment guarantees the right to any speech, even if it involves racism. Canada In Canada, advocating genocide or inciting hatred http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/ShowFullDoc/cs/H-6///en#aSec12 against any 'identifiable group' is an indictable offense under the Criminal Code of Canada with maximum terms of two to fourteen years. An 'identifiable group' is defined as 'any section of the public distinguished by colour, race, religion, ethnic origin or sexual orientation.' It makes exceptions for cases of statements of truth, and subjects of public debate and religious doctrine. The landmark judicial decision on the constitutionality of this law was R. v. Keegstra (1990). Canadian Federal Law In 2003 in Saskatchewan, the Crown charged David Ahenakew with wilfully promoting hatred because of the remarks he made about Jews to a reporter. The Court convicted Ahenakew, and fined him $1,000. In 2008, the Attorney General for Saskatchewan decided to retry the matter after the conviction was overturned on appeal. Retrial for David Ahenakew On 23 February 2009, Judge Wilfred Tucker of the Saskatchewan Provincial Court said Ahenakew's remarks were "revolting, disgusting, and untrue," but they did not constitute "promoting hatred." Ahenakew acquitted; accessed 23 February 2009. Canadian Provincial and Territorial Law Canada's provinces and territories have human rights commissions or tribunals which can award compensation in matters of hate speech. Saskatchewan had the first legislation in North America (1947) to prohibit victimisation on account of race, religion, colour, sex, nationality, ancestry, and place of origin. Saskatchewan's legislation is more restrictive than the prevailing model of legislation in Canada. Saskatchewan's Human Rights Code says "No person shall publish or display ... any representation ... that ... affronts the dignity of any person or class of persons ...." The Saskatchewan Human Rights Code, s. 14 The prevailing model of legislation prohibits communication which victimises anyone, or which is likely to expose any individual or class of individuals to hatred or contempt. In June 1997, the Saskatchewan Human Rights Tribunal held that Hugh Owens had breached the Human Rights Code by placing in a newspaper an advertisement that gave citations for passages in the Bible. The passages condemn homosexual behaviour. Owens appealed. The Court of Queen's Bench agreed with the Tribunal. Owens appealed. In 2006, the Court of Appeal reversed the Tribunal's decision. Owens v. Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission In 2005, the Saskatchewan Human Rights Tribunal fined Bill Whatcott, leader of a small group called the Christian Truth Activists, $17,500 because he distributed flyers that had controversial comments about homosexuals. In 2006, the Muslim Council of Edmonton and the Supreme Islamic Council of Canada complained to the Alberta Human Rights and Citizenship Commission when Ezra Levant published cartoons that were featured first in Denmark in the magazine Jyllands-Posten. Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy The Commission dismissed the complaint on 5 August 2008. Ezra Levant cartoons In December 2007, the Canadian Islamic Congress filed a complaint about hate speech against Maclean's, a magazine. The substance of the complaint was that Maclean's was publishing articles (including a Mark Steyn column) that insulted Muslims. The Congress filed its complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission, the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal and the Ontario Human Rights Commission. Human rights complaints against Maclean's magazine The Ontario Human Rights Commission ruled that it did not have the jurisdiction to hear the complaint. The British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal dismissed the complaint 10 October 2008. http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20081010/muslim_complaint_081010/20081010?hub=Canada The Canadian Human Rights Commission dismissed the complaint on 26 June 2008. In April 2008, a group in Nova Scotia, the Centre for Islamic Development, filed a complaint with the police and with the Human Rights Commission of Nova Scotia over a cartoon published in the Halifax Chronicle-Herald. The matter is pending. Complaint against the Halifax Chronicle-Herald Council of Europe The Council of Europe has worked intensively on this issue. While Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights does not prohibit criminal laws against revisionism such as denial or minimization of genocides or crimes against humanity, as interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe went further and recommended to member governments to combat hate speech under its Recommendation R (97) 20. The Council of Europe also created the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (www.coe.int/ecri ) which has produced country reports and several general policy recommendations, for instance against anti-Semitism and intolerance against Muslims. Denmark Denmark prohibits hate speech, and defines it as publicly making statements that threaten, ridicule or hold in contempt a group due to race, skin colour, national or ethnic origin, faith or sexual orientation. Danish Penal code, Straffeloven, section 266 B. Finland Finland prohibits hate speech, kiihotus kansanryhmää vastaan/hets mot folkgrupp, and defines it as publicly making statements that threaten or insult a national, racial, ethnic or religious group or a similar group. Finnish Penal code Rikoslaki/Strafflagen Chapter 11, section 8 France France prohibits the publication of material which is defamatory or insulting, or which incites discrimination, hatred, or violence against a person or a group of persons on account of place of origin, ethnicity or lack thereof, nationality, race, or specific religion. The law prohibits incitement to discrimination, hatred, or violence against persons on the basis of their sex, sexual orientation, or handicap. The law prohibits declarations that justify or deny crimes against humanity, for example, the Holocaust and the Armenian Massacres by the Ottoman Turks during WWI. French law allows a plaintiff to launch an action on account of hate speech in a criminal court or in a civil court. The Public Prosecutor can turn a civil action into a criminal action. The penalties include imprisonment, a fine, or both. http://www.taylorwessing.com/topical-issues/details/defamation-and-privacy-law-and-procedure-in-england-germany-and-france.html In 2002, a court found writer Michel Houellebecq not guilty of inciting racism for saying during an interview that Islam was "the stupidest religion." Houellebecq Acquitted of Insulting Islam In 2006, Paris Mosque, the Union of Islamic Organizations of France, and the World Islamic League began its suit against Charlie-Hebdo magazine and its director Philippe Val for publishing caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad. The Islamic organizations complained that the caricatures, which were from a Danish newspaper, Jyllands-Posten, insulted Muslims. On 22 March 2007, a court ruled against the plaintiffs. http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/03/france-newspaper-cleared-of-defamation.php In 2007, a correctional tribunal in Lyon sentenced Bruno Gollnisch to a three-month, suspended prison-term and a fine of €55,000 for the offense of verbal contestation of the existence of crimes against humanity because of his remarks about the Holocaust. In 2008, legendary French actress Brigitte Bardot was convicted for the fifth time for inciting racial hatred. The Movement Against Racism and for Friendship between Peoples (MRAP) filed the charge against Bardot because, in a letter to the government about the Muslim festival of Eid-al-Kabir, she complained about "this population that leads us around by the nose, [and] which destroys our country." Bruce Crumley, 'Is Brigitte Bardot Bashing Islam?' Time, Tuesday, April 15, 2008. Germany In Germany, Volksverhetzung (incitement of hatred against a minority under certain conditions) is a punishable offense under Section 130 of the Strafgesetzbuch (Germany's criminal code) and can lead to up to five years imprisonment. Volksverhetzung is punishable in Germany even if committed abroad and even if committed by non-German citizens, if only the incitement of hatred takes effect within German territory, e.g. the seditious sentiment was expressed in German writ or speech and made accessible in Germany (German criminal code's Principle of Ubiquity, Section 9 §1 Alt. 3 and 4 of the Strafgesetzbuch). Iceland In Iceland, the hate speech law is not confined to inciting hatred, as one can see from Article 233 a. in the Icelandic Penal Code, but includes simply expressing such hatred publicly: "Anyone who in a ridiculing, slanderous, insulting, threatening or any other manner publicly assaults a person or a group of people on the basis of their nationality, skin colour, race, religion or sexual orientation, shall be fined or jailed for up to 2 years." (The word "assault" in this context does not refer to physical violence, only to expressions of hatred.) Ireland In Ireland, the right to free speech is guaranteed under the Constitution (Article 40.6.1.i). However, the Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred Act, proscribes words or behaviours which are "threatening, abusive or insulting and are intended or, having regard to all the circumstances, are likely to stir up hatred" against "a group of persons in the State or elsewhere on account of their race, colour, nationality, religion, ethnic or national origins, membership of the travelling community or sexual orientation." Irish Statute Book Database Jordan In 2006, two Jordanian newspaper editors were jailed for two months after being found guilty of "attacking religious sentiment." The editors had reprinted cartoons from the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten. "Jordanian poet accused of 'atheism and blasphemy'," The Daily Star Lebanon Saturday, October 25, 2008. Netherlands In January 2009, a court in Amsterdam ordered the prosecution of Geert Wilders, a Dutch Member of Parliament, "for inciting hatred and discrimination, based on comments by him in various media on Muslims and their beliefs." BBC report on Geert Wilders New Zealand New Zealand prohibits hate speech under the Human Rights Act 1993. Section 61 (Racial Disharmony) makes it unlawful to publish or distribute "threatening, abusive, or insulting...matter or words likely to excite hostility against or bring into contempt any group of persons...on the ground of the colour, race, or ethnic or national or ethnic origins of that group of persons." Section 131 (Inciting Racial Disharmony) lists offences for which "racial disharmony" creates liability. Norway Norway prohibits hate speech, and defines it as publicly making statements that threaten or ridicule someone or that incite hatred, persecution or contempt for someone due to their skin colour, ethnic origin, homosexual life style or orientation or, religion or philosophy of life. Norwegian Penal code, Straffeloven, section 135 a. Serbia Serbia - Serbian constitution guarantees freedom of speech, but declares that it may be restricted by law to protect rights and respectability of others. Because of inter ethnic conflicts during last decade of 20th century, Serbian authorities are very rigorous about ethnic, racial and religion based hate speech. It is processed as "Provoking ethnic, racial and religion based animosity and intolerance" criminal act, and punished with six months to ten years of imprisonment. Serbian Penal code, section 317. Singapore Singapore has passed numerous laws that prohibit speech that causes disharmony among various religious groups. The Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act is an example of such legislation. In 2005, three men were convicted for hate speech under the Law of Singapore. South Africa Act No. 4 of 2000: Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act. contains the following clause: Sweden Sweden prohibits hate speech, hets mot folkgrupp, and defines it as publicly making statements that threaten or express disrespect for an ethnic group or similar group regarding their race, skin colour, national or ethnic origin, faith or sexual orientation. Swedish Penal code, Brottsbalken, chapter 16, section 8. Switzerland In Switzerland public discrimination or invoking to rancor against persons or a group of people because of their race, ethnicity, is getting penalized with a term of imprisonment until 3 years or a mulct. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the Public Order Act 1986 prohibits, by its Part 3, expressions of racial hatred. "Racial hatred" is defined as hatred against a group of persons by reason of the group's colour, race, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins. Section 18 of the Act says: A person who uses threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour, or displays any written material which is threatening, abusive or insulting, is guilty of an offence if— (a) he intends thereby to stir up racial hatred, or (b) having regard to all the circumstances racial hatred is likely to be stirred up thereby. Offences under Part 3 carry a maximum sentence of seven years imprisonment or a fine or both. The Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 amended the Public Order Act 1986 by adding Part 3A. That Part says, "A person who uses threatening words or behaviour, or displays any written material which is threatening, is guilty of an offence if he intends thereby to stir up religious hatred." The Part protects freedom of expression by stating in Section 29J: Nothing in this Part shall be read or given effect in a way which prohibits or restricts discussion, criticism or expressions of antipathy, dislike, ridicule, insult or abuse of particular religions or the beliefs or practices of their adherents, or of any other belief system or the beliefs or practices of its adherents, or proselytising or urging adherents of a different religion or belief system to cease practising their religion or belief system. The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 amended Part 3A of the Public Order Act 1986. The amended Part 3A adds, for England and Wales, the offence of inciting hatred on the ground of sexual orientation. All the offences in Part 3 attach to the following acts: the use of words or behaviour or display of written material, publishing or distributing written material, the public performance of a play, distributing, showing or playing a recording, broadcasting or including a programme in a programme service, and possession of inflammatory material. In the circumstances of hatred based on religious belief or on sexual orientation, the relevant act (namely, words, behaviour, written material, or recordings, or programme) must be threatening and not just abusive or insulting. http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2008/en/08en04-g.htm United States The United States federal government and state governments are broadly forbidden by the First Amendment of the Constitution from restricting speech. See, e.g., Gitlow v. New York (1925), incorporating the free speech clause. Generally speaking, the First Amendment prohibits governments from regulating the content of speech, subject to a few recognized exceptions such as defamation http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/media/unfetter/press08.htm and incitement to riot. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/usc_sec_18_00002101----000-.html Even in cases where speech encourages illegal violence, instances of incitement qualify as criminal only if the threat of violence is imminent. http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/06/11/america/hate.php This strict standard prevents prosecution of many cases of incitement, including prosecution of those advocating violent opposition to the government, and those exhorting violence against racial, ethnic, or gender minorities. See, e.g., Yates v. United States (1957), Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969). "Hate Speech" in U.S. Professional and Educational Contexts Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, employers may sometimes be prosecuted for tolerating "hate speech" by their employees, if that speech contributes to a broader pattern of harassment resulting in a "hostile or offensive working environment" for other employees. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0477_0057_ZS.html See, e.g., Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986), Patterson v. McLean Credit Union (1989). Both public and private educational institutions in the United States frequently adopt rules prohibiting stigmatization on the basis of attributes such as race, sexual orientation, religion, disability, or national origin. In the 1980s and 1990's, more than 350 public universities adopted "speech codes" regulating discriminatory speech by faculty and students. http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/speech/pubcollege/topic.aspx?topic=campus_speech_codes These codes have not fared well in the courts, where they are frequently overturned as violations of the First Amendment. See, e.g., Doe v. Michigan (1989), UWM Post v. Board of Regents of University of Wisconsin (1991), Dambrot v. Central Michigan University (1995), Corry v. Stanford (1995). Debate over restriction of "hate speech" in public universities has resurfaced with the adoption of anti-harassment codes covering discriminatory speech. http://www.springerlink.com/content/c8471v256244nn2k/ Differing concepts of what is offensive A central aspect of the hate speech debate is that concepts of what is acceptable and unacceptable differ, depending on eras in history and one's cultural and religious background. For example, personalised criticism of homosexuality (e.g., expressing the belief that homosexuality is "immoral" or harmful because it conflicts with a person's religious beliefs) is, to some, a valid expression of one's values; to others, however, it is an expression of homophobia and is therefore homophobic hate speech. Prohibition in such cases is seen by some as an interference in their rights to express their beliefs. To others, these expressions generate harmful attitudes that potentially cause discrimination. Furthermore, words which once "embodied" negative hate speech connotations, such as 'queer' or 'faggot' against homosexuals, 'nigger' against people of African origin and 'bitch' against women, have themselves been reclaimed by their respective groups or communities, who attached more positive meanings to the words, so undermining their value to those who wish to use them in a negative sense. Significations differ following the context, as Judith Butler argues. However, others argue that such epithets demean and undermine these very individuals and so should qualify as hate speech. This point of view has been vehemently articulated by influential and well-known members of minority communities. As an example, the use of the word "nigger" by African Americans has been condemned by Bill Cosby Blacks must drop victimhood and reclaim dignity | csmonitor.com , Rev. Jesse Jackson The News & Observer, Raleigh, N.C., Barry Saunders column: 'N' word's hideouts exposed. | News & Observer (Raleigh, NC) (December, 2006) , Richard Pryor and Rev. Ben Chavis, Jr Rap's Embrace of 'Nigger' Fires Bitter Debate - New York Times , among others. Concepts of what qualifies as hate speech broadened in the late twentieth century to include certain views expressed from an ideological standpoint. For instance, some feminists consider jokes about women or lesbians to be hate speech. Recently, the Canadian government added sexual orientation to the list of relevant characteristics eligible for protection from hate speech. Not everyone accepts that there is a difference between classic forms of hate speech, which were incitements to hatred or even to physical harm, and the use of language that merely shows disrespect. Some discussions between politically right wing and left wing can be viewed as hateful, even though the language used by both sides is not normally classified as hate speech. Attitudes towards controlling hate speech cannot be reliably correlated with the traditional political spectrum. In the United States, there is a general consensus that free speech values take precedence over limiting the harm caused by verbal insult. At the same time, some conservatives believe verbally expressed "discrimination" against religions such as blasphemy, or sometimes "morally incorrect" or "unpatriotic" speech which opposes deep-seated sociocultural or religious mores, and national interest, should be condemned or prohibited, while liberals feel the same way about verbal "discrimination" against identity-related personal characteristics, such as homosexuality and language of someone who happens not to speak English (in the US and Canada when it comes to bilingualism). See also Allport's scale Anti-Christian sentiment Anti-Cult Movement Anti-LGBT slogans Anti-Semitism Antilocution Cisgender Colorism Diversity Elitism Ethnic joke Freedom of speech Foundation for Individual Rights in Education Gay bashing Gender neutrality in English The Good Citizen Harassment Hate crime Hate group Hate mail Heroes of the Fiery Cross Historical revisionism Holocaust denial Homophobia Homosexuality and religion International Freedom of Expression Exchange Islamophobia Misandry Misogyny Morality Nazism Personal attack Political correctness Prejudice Profanity Race baiting Race card Race war Racial profiling Racism Religion Sedition Sexism Taboo Thoughtcrime Tolerance Transphobia Volksverhetzung References External links Reconciling Rights and Responsibilities of Colleges and Students: Offensive Speech, Assembly, Drug Testing and Safety From Discipline to Development: Rethinking Student Conduct in Higher Education Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses The 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7,687 | Jury_instructions | Jury instructions are the set of legal rules that jurors should follow when the jury is deciding a civil or criminal case. Jury instructions are given to the jury by the judge, who usually reads them aloud to the jury. They are often the subject of discussion by attorneys on both sides in the case and the judge in order to make sure their interests are represented and nothing prejudicial is said. Under the American judicial system, juries are the trier of fact when they serve in a trial, meaning it's their job to sort through disputed accounts presented in evidence. The judge decided questions of law, meaning he or she decides how the law applies to a given set of facts. The jury instructions provide something of a flow chart on what verdict jurors should deliver based on what they determine to be true. Put another way, "If you believe A (set of facts), you must find X (verdict). If you believe B (set of facts), you must find Y (verdict)." Forty-eight states (Texas and West Virginia are the exceptions) have a basic set of instructions, usually called "pattern jury instructions", which provide the framework for the charge to the jury; sometimes, only names and circumstances have to be filled in for a particular case. Often they are much more complex, although certain elements frequently recur. For instance, if a criminal defendant chooses not to testify, the jury will be instructed not to draw any conclusions from that decision. France According to the French Code of Penal Procedure, all jurors must individually swear to the following message from the judge presiding the court: You swear and promise to examine with the most scrupulous attention the charges that will be laid against [the defendant]; to betray neither the interests of the defendant, nor the interests of the society that accuses him, nor the interests of the victim; not to communicate with anybody until you [declare your verdict]; not to listen to hatred, malice, fear or affection; to remember that the defendant is presumed to be innocent and that doubt must benefit him; to decide for yourself according to the charges and the means of defense, according to your conscience and intimate conviction, with the impartiality and firmness that befits an honest and free person, and to keep the secret of the deliberations, even after you cease to be a juror. External links Jury Instructions in Insurance-Coverage and Insurance Bad-Faith Cases Sample California Civil Jury Instructions | Jury_instructions |@lemmatized jury:12 instruction:7 set:5 legal:1 rule:1 juror:4 follow:1 decide:4 civil:2 criminal:2 case:4 give:2 judge:4 usually:2 read:1 aloud:1 often:2 subject:1 discussion:1 attorney:1 side:1 order:1 make:1 sure:1 interest:4 represent:1 nothing:1 prejudicial:1 say:1 american:1 judicial:1 system:1 trier:1 fact:4 serve:1 trial:1 mean:3 job:1 sort:1 disputed:1 account:1 present:1 evidence:1 question:1 law:2 apply:1 provide:2 something:1 flow:1 chart:1 verdict:4 deliver:1 base:1 determine:1 true:1 put:1 another:1 way:1 believe:2 must:4 find:2 x:1 b:1 forty:1 eight:1 state:1 texas:1 west:1 virginia:1 exception:1 basic:1 call:1 pattern:1 framework:1 charge:3 sometimes:1 names:1 circumstance:1 fill:1 particular:1 much:1 complex:1 although:1 certain:1 element:1 frequently:1 recur:1 instance:1 defendant:4 choose:1 testify:1 instruct:1 draw:1 conclusion:1 decision:1 france:1 accord:3 french:1 code:1 penal:1 procedure:1 individually:1 swear:2 following:1 message:1 preside:1 court:1 promise:1 examine:1 scrupulous:1 attention:1 lay:1 betray:1 neither:1 society:1 accuse:1 victim:1 communicate:1 anybody:1 declare:1 listen:1 hatred:1 malice:1 fear:1 affection:1 remember:1 presume:1 innocent:1 doubt:1 benefit:1 defense:1 conscience:1 intimate:1 conviction:1 impartiality:1 firmness:1 befit:1 honest:1 free:1 person:1 keep:1 secret:1 deliberation:1 even:1 cease:1 external:1 links:1 insurance:2 coverage:1 bad:1 faith:1 sample:1 california:1 |@bigram read_aloud:1 external_links:1 |
7,688 | Nominative_case | The nominative case is a grammatical case for a noun, which generally marks the subject of a verb, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments. (Basically, it is a noun that is doing something, usually joined (such as in Latin) with the accusative case.) Linguistic characteristics The nominative case is the usual, natural form (more technically, the least marked) of certain parts of speech, such as nouns, adjectives, pronouns and less frequently numerals and participles, and sometimes does not indicate any special relationship with other parts of speech. Therefore, in some languages the nominative case is unmarked, that is, the form or stem, with no inflection; alternatively, it may said to be marked by a zero morpheme. Moreover, in most languages with a nominative case, the nominative form is the lemma; that is, it is the one used to cite a word, to list it as a dictionary entry, etc. Nominative cases are found in Lithuanian, German, Latin, Icelandic, Old English, Polish, Czech, Romanian and Russian, among other languages. English still retains some nominative pronouns, as opposed to the accusative (which sounds the same as oblique or disjunctive in other languages): I (accusative, me), we (accusative, us), he (accusative, him), she (accusative, her) and they (accusative, them). An archaic usage is the singular second-person pronoun thou (accusative thee). A special case is the word you: Originally ye was its nominative form and you the accusative, but over time you has come to be used for the nominative as well. The term "nominative case" is most properly used in the discussion of nominative-accusative languages, such as Latin, Greek, and most modern Western European languages. In active-stative languages there is a case sometimes called nominative which is the most marked case, and is used for the subject of a transitive verb or a voluntary subject of an intransitive verb, but not for an involuntary subject of an intransitive verb; since such languages are a relatively new field of study, there is no standard name for this case. Subjective Case Some writers of English employ the term subjective case instead of nominative, in order to draw attention to the differences between the "standard" generic nominative and the way it is used in English. Generally, when the term subjective case is used, the accusative and dative are collectively labelled as the objective case. This is possible in English because the two have merged; there are no surviving examples where the accusative and the dative are distinct in form, though their functions are still distinct. The genitive case is then usually called the possessive form and often is not considered as a noun case per se; English is then said to have two cases, the subjective and the objective. This view is an oversimplification, but it is didactically useful. External links Nominative Case In Russian Resources around the Internet for the Nominative Case in Russian | Nominative_case |@lemmatized nominative:16 case:21 grammatical:1 noun:4 generally:2 mark:2 subject:4 verb:5 oppose:2 object:1 argument:1 basically:1 something:1 usually:2 join:1 latin:3 accusative:12 linguistic:1 characteristic:1 usual:1 natural:1 form:6 technically:1 least:1 marked:2 certain:1 part:2 speech:2 adjective:1 pronoun:3 less:1 frequently:1 numeral:1 participle:1 sometimes:2 indicate:1 special:2 relationship:1 therefore:1 language:8 unmarked:1 stem:1 inflection:1 alternatively:1 may:1 say:2 zero:1 morpheme:1 moreover:1 lemma:1 one:1 use:6 cite:1 word:2 list:1 dictionary:1 entry:1 etc:1 find:1 lithuanian:1 german:1 icelandic:1 old:1 english:6 polish:1 czech:1 romanian:1 russian:3 among:1 still:2 retain:1 sound:1 oblique:1 disjunctive:1 u:1 archaic:1 usage:1 singular:1 second:1 person:1 thou:1 thee:1 originally:1 ye:1 time:1 come:1 well:1 term:3 properly:1 discussion:1 greek:1 modern:1 western:1 european:1 active:1 stative:1 call:2 transitive:1 voluntary:1 intransitive:2 involuntary:1 since:1 relatively:1 new:1 field:1 study:1 standard:2 name:1 subjective:4 writer:1 employ:1 instead:1 order:1 draw:1 attention:1 difference:1 generic:1 way:1 dative:2 collectively:1 label:1 objective:2 possible:1 two:2 merge:1 survive:1 example:1 distinct:2 though:1 function:1 genitive:1 possessive:1 often:1 consider:1 per:1 se:1 view:1 oversimplification:1 didactically:1 useful:1 external:1 link:1 resource:1 around:1 internet:1 |@bigram noun_adjective:1 adjective_pronoun:1 nominative_accusative:1 transitive_verb:1 subject_intransitive:2 intransitive_verb:2 accusative_dative:2 per_se:1 external_link:1 |
7,689 | Marsilio_Ficino | Marsilio Ficino (Latin name: Marsilius Ficinus; October 19 1433 - October 1 1499) was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's school, had enormous influence on the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy. Early life Ficino was born at Figline Valdarno. His father was a physician under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, who took the young man into his household and became the lifelong patron of Marsilio, who was made tutor to his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the Italian humanist philosopher and scholar was another of his students. During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438-1445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Orthodox and Catholic churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence, his choice to head it was Marsilio, who made the classic translation of Plato from Greek to Latin (published in 1484), as well as a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents of the Hermetic Corpus - particularly the "Corpus Hermeticum" of Hermes Trismegistos, Yates, Frances A. (1964) Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. University of Chicago Press 1991 edition: ISBN 0-226-95007-7 and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, for example Porphyry, Iamblichus, Plotinus, et al. Following suggestions laid out by Gemistos Plethon, Ficino tried to synthesize Christianity and Platonism. Work Marsilio Ficino's main original work was his treatise on the immortality of the soul (Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae). In the rush of enthusiasm for every rediscovery from Antiquity, Marsilio exhibited a great interest in the arts of astrology, which landed him in trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. In 1489 he was accused of magic before Pope Innocent VIII and needed strong defense to preserve him from the condemnation of heresy. However, in 1513, fourteen years after Ficino's death, the Roman Catholic Church declared the natural immortality of the soul as dogma; a doctrine followed later by the Protestant Church. Domenico Ghirlandaio (1486-1490). Zachariah in the Temple [detail]: Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino, Angelo Poliziano and Demetrios Chalkondyles (detail). Fresco. Santa Maria Novella, Tornabuoni Cappella, Florence, Italy. Marsilio Ficino, writing in 1492, proclaimed, "This century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music... this century appears to have perfected astrology." His letters, extending over the years 1474 – 1494, survive and have been published. He also wrote De amore and the influential De vita libri tres (Three books on life.) De vita, published in 1489, provides a great deal of curious contemporary medical and astrological advice for maintaining health and vigor, as well as espousing the Neoplatonist view of the world's ensoulment and its integration with the human soul. "[...] There will be some men or other, superstitious and blind, who see life plain in even the lowest animals and the meanest plants, but do not see life in the heavens or the world [...] Now if those little men grant life to the smallest particles of the world, what folly! what envy! neither to know that the Whole, in which 'we live and move and have our being,' is itself alive, nor to wish this to be so." Marsilio Ficino, Three Books on Life, translated by Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark, Tempe AZ: The Renaissance Society of America, 2002. From the Apologia, p. 399. (The internal quote is from Acts 17:28.) One metaphor for this integrated "aliveness" is Ficino's astrology. In the Book of Life, Marsilio details the interlinks between behavior and consequence. It talks about a list of things that hold sway over a man's destiny. Ficino practiced love metaphysic with Giovanni Cavalcanti whom he made the principal character in his commentary on the Convivio, and to whom he wrote ardent love letters in Latin which were published in his Epistulae in 1492. Apart from these letters there are numerous indications that Ficino's erotic impulses were directed towards men. After his death his biographers had a difficult task trying to refute those who spoke of his homosexual tendencies. However his sincere and deep faith, and membership of the Catholic clergy, put him outside the reach of gossip and suspicions of sodomy. Giovanni dell'Orto, Socratic love as a disguise for same sex love in the Italian Renaissance, Journal of Homosexuality, 16 Death Ficino died at Careggi. His memory has been honored with a bust in the north side of the nave in the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. See also Platonic love Notes Books Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae (Platonic Theology). Harvard University Press, Latin with English translation. vol. I, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00345-4 vol. II, 2002. ISBN 0-674-00764-6 vol. III, 2003. ISBN 0-674-01065-5 vol. IV, 2004. ISBN 0-674-01482-0 vol. V, 2005. ISBN 0-674-01719-6 vol. VI with index, 2006. ISBN 0-674-01986-5 The Letters of Marsilio Ficino Shepheard-Walwyn, English translation with extensive notes. vol. I, 1975. ISBN 0-85683-010-0 vol. II, 1978. ISBN 0-85683-036-4 vol. III, 1981. ISBN 0-85683-052-6 vol. IV, 1988. ISBN 0-85683-070-4 vol. V, 1994. ISBN 0-85683-129-8 vol. VI, 1999. ISBN 0-85683-167-0 vol. VII, 2003 ISBN 0-85683-192-1 De vita libri tres (Three Books on Life, 1489) translated by Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clarke, Tempe, Arizona: The Renaissance Society of America, 2002. with notes, commentaries and Latin text on facing pages. ISBN 0-86698-041-5 De religione Christiana et fidei pietate (1475–6), dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici. In Epistolas Pauli commentaria, Marsilii Ficini Epistolae (Venice, 1491; Florence, 1497). Meditations on the Soul: Selected letters of Marsilio Ficino, tr. by the Language Department of the School of Economic Science, London. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 1996. ISBN 0-89281-658-9. Note for instance, letter 31: A man is not rightly formed who does not delight in harmony, pp. 5–60; letter 9: One can have patience without religion, pp. 16–18; Medicine heals the body, music the spirit, theology the soul, pp.63–64; letter 77: The good will rule over the stars, p. 166. Commentary on Plato's Symposium on Love, tr. by Sears Jayne. Spring Publications, 2nd edition, 2000. ISBN 0-88214-601-7 Collected works: Opera (Florence,1491, Venice, 1516, Basel, 1561). Further reading Allen, Michael J. B., Nuptial Arithmetic: Marsilio Ficino's Commentary on the Fatal Number in Book VIII of Plato's Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. ISBN 0-520-08143-9 Ernst Cassirer, Paul Oskar Kristeller, John Herman Randall, Jr., The Renaissance Philosophy of Man. The University of Chicago Press (Chicago, 1948.) Marsilio Ficino, Five Questions Concerning the Mind, pp. 193–214. Anthony Gottlieb, The Dream of Reason: A History of Western Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance (Penguin, London, 2001) ISBN 0-14-025274-6 Paul Oskar Kristeller, Eight Philosophers of the Italian Renaissance. Stanford University Press (Stanford California, 1964) Chapter 3, "Ficino," pp.37–53. Thomas Moore, The Planets Within: The Astrological Psychology of Marsilio Ficino. Lindisfarne Books 1990: ISBN 0-940262-28-2 Raffini, Christine, "Marsilio Ficino, Pietro Bembo, Baldassare Castiglione: Philosophical, Aesthetic, and Political Approaches in Renaissance Platonism", Renaissance and Baroque Studies and Texts, v.21, Peter Lang Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-8204-3023-4 Robb, Nesca A., Neoplatonism of the Italian Renaissance, New York: Octagon Books, Inc., 1968. Field, Arthur, The Origins of the Platonic Academy of Florence, New Jersey: Princeton, 1988. (ed) Michael Shepherd, Friend to Mankind : Marsilio Ficino, 1433-1499'. 18 essays celebrating Ficino's quincentenary in 1999. London : Shepheard-Walwyn, 1999.ISBN 0 85683 184 0 Allen, Michael J.B., and Valery Rees, with Martin Davies, eds. Marsilio Ficino : His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy.Leiden : E.J.Brill, 2002. A wide range of new essays.ISBN 9004118551 External links Several of Ficino's works online (Latin) http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/ficino.html Short Biography of Ficino Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911: Ficino Catholic Encyclopedia entry The Influence of Marsilio Ficino www.ficino.it Website of the International Ficino Society | Marsilio_Ficino |@lemmatized marsilio:19 ficino:29 latin:7 name:2 marsilius:1 ficinus:1 october:2 one:3 influential:2 humanist:2 philosopher:4 early:2 italian:6 renaissance:11 astrologer:1 reviver:1 neoplatonism:2 touch:1 every:2 major:1 academic:1 thinker:1 writer:1 day:1 first:1 translator:1 plato:8 complete:1 extant:1 work:5 florentine:1 academy:3 attempt:2 revive:1 school:2 enormous:1 influence:2 direction:1 tenor:1 development:1 european:1 philosophy:4 life:8 bear:1 figline:1 valdarno:1 father:1 physician:1 patronage:1 cosimo:3 de:11 medici:4 take:1 young:1 man:4 household:1 become:2 lifelong:1 patron:1 make:4 tutor:1 grandson:1 lorenzo:2 giovanni:3 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7,690 | Namibia | Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the east, and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990 following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek (). Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), the Commonwealth of Nations and many other international organisations. It has been given many names: the land of contrasts, the land God made in anger, the ageless land. For many years it was known only as South West Africa, but it adopted the name Namibia, after the Namib Desert. It is the second most sparsely populated country in the world, after Mongolia. It was visited by the British and Dutch missionaries during the late 18th century, but became a German protectorate in 1884. In 1920, the League of Nations mandated the country to South Africa, which imposed their laws and apartheid policy without bounds. In 1966, local uprisings and letters sent by traditional African leaders like Hosea Kutako forced the United Nations to assume direct responsibility over the territory, changing the name to Namibia in 1968 and recognizing South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) as official representative of the Namibian people in 1973. Namibia, however, remained under South African administration during this time. Namibian leaders longed for independence and commenced guerrilla activities, especially in the north. In 1970, SWAPO made alliances with Fidel Castro who sent Cuban troops to join SWAPO-forces in their struggle for independence. These actions forced South Africa to install an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Following negotiations Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990. Namibia's independence came in conjunction with South Africa's withdrawal from Angola and became governed by a democratically elected President, Prime Minister, Cabinet and National Assembly. Namibia is one of Africa's most developed and stable countries, with a stable multiparty parliamentary democracy and an estimated population of 1,820,916. Tourism and mining of precious stones and metals form the backbone of Namibia's economy. The nation has suffered heavily from the effects of HIV and AIDS; One in seven are estimated to be living with AIDS, and the number affected by HIV is feared to be even higher. History The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by Bushmen, Damara, Namaqua, and since about the 14th century AD, by immigrating Bantu who came with the Bantu expansion. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, still the region was not claimed by the Portuguese crown. However, like most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century. Namibia became a German colony and was known as German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika) – apart from Walvis Bay, which was under British control. From 1904 to 1907, the Herero and the Namaqua took up arms against the Germans and in the subsequent Herero and Namaqua genocide, 10,000 Nama (half the population) and 25,000 to 100,000 Herero (three quarters of the population) were killed. South Africa occupied the colony during World War I and administered it as a League of Nations mandate territory. Following the League's supersession by the United Nations in 1946, South Africa refused to surrender its earlier mandate to be replaced by a United Nations Trusteeship agreement, requiring closer international monitoring of the territory's administration. Although the South African government wanted to incorporate 'South-West Africa' into its territory, it never officially did so, although it was administered as the de facto 'fifth province', with the white minority having representation in the whites-only Parliament of South Africa. In 1966, the South-West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) military wing, People's Liberation Army of Namibia, a guerrilla group launched a war of independence, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its administration of Namibia, in accordance with a United Nations peace plan for the entire region. Transition for independence started in 1989 but it was only on 21 March 1990 in which the country officially claimed full independence. Walvis Bay was ceded to Namibia in 1994 upon the end of Apartheid in South Africa. Geography A map of Namibia, based on radar images from The Map Library At , Namibia is the world's thirty-fourth largest country (after Venezuela). After Mongolia, Namibia is the least densely populated country in the world (). The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristic abiotic conditions and vegetation with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, the Namib Desert, the Escarpment, the Bushveld, and the Kalahari Desert. Although the climate is generally extremely dry, there are a few exceptions. The cold, north-flowing Benguela current of the Atlantic Ocean accounts for some of the low precipitation. Fish River Canyon Namib Desert Namib Escarpment The Kalahari Desert Windhoek skyline Central Plateau The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by the Skeleton Coast to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, the Orange River to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east. The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia at Königstein elevation . landsat.usgs.gov Within the wide, flat Central Plateau is the majority of Namibia’s population and economic activity. Windhoek, the nation’s capital, is located here, as well as most of the arable land. Although arable land accounts for only 1% of Namibia, nearly half of the population is employed in agriculture. World Almanac. 2004. The abiotic conditions here are similar to those found along the Escarpment, described below; however the topographic complexity is reduced. Summer temperatures in the area can reach 40°C, and frosts are common in the winter. Namib Desert The Namib Desert is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along the entire coastline, which varies in width between 100 to many hundreds of kilometres. Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and the Kaokoveld in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast. Spriggs, A. 2001.(AT1315) The sands that make up the sand sea are a consequence of erosional processes that take place within the Orange River valley and areas further to the south. As sand-laden waters drop their suspended loads into the Atlantic, onshore currents deposit them along the shore. The prevailing south west winds then pick up and redeposit the sand in the form of massive dunes in the widespread sand sea, the largest sand dunes in the world. In areas where the supply of sand is reduced because of the inability of the sand to cross riverbeds, the winds also scour the land to form large gravel plains. In many areas within the Namib Desert, there is little vegetation with the exception of lichens found in the gravel plains, and in dry river beds where plants can access subterranean water. Great Escarpment The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over . Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase as you move further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is nonetheless significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation. Spriggs, A. 2001.(AT1316) The water, along with rapidly changing topography, is responsible for the creation of microhabitats which offer a wide range of organisms, many of them endemic. Vegetation along the Escarpment varies in both form and density, with community structure ranging from dense woodlands to more shrubby areas with scattered trees. A number of Acacia species are found here, as well as grasses and other shrubby vegetation. Bushveld The Bushveld is found in north eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip which is the vestige of a narrow corridor demarcated for the German Empire to access the Zambezi River. The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the county, averaging around 400 millimetres (15.7") per year. Temperatures are also cooler and more moderate, with approximate seasonal variations of between and . The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water. Cowling, S. 2001. Located adjacent to the Bushveld in north-central Namibia is one of nature’s most spectacular features: the Etosha Pan. For most of the year it is a dry, saline wasteland, but during the wet season, it forms a shallow lake covering more than 6000 square kilometres. The area is ecologically important and vital to the huge numbers of birds and animals from the surrounding savannah that gather in the region as summer drought forces them to the scattered waterholes that ring the pan. Kalahari Desert The Kalahari Desert is perhaps Namibia’s best known geographical feature. Shared with South Africa and Botswana, it has a variety of localized environments ranging from hyper-arid sandy desert, to areas that seem to defy the common definition of desert. One of these areas, known as the Succulent Karoo, is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them endemic; fully one third of the world’s succulents are found in the Karoo. The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation. Spriggs, A. 2001.(AT0709) The Karoo apparently does not experience drought on a regular basis, so even though the area is technically desert, regular winter rains provide enough moisture to support the region’s interesting plant community. Another feature of the Kalahari, indeed many parts of Namibia, are inselbergs, isolated mountains that create microclimates and habitat for organisms not adapted to life in the surrounding desert matrix. Towns The capital and largest city, Windhoek, is in the centre of the country. It is home to the country's Central Administrative Region, Windhoek Hosea Kutako International Airport and the country's railhead. Other important towns are: Walvis Bay - sea port, international airport, railhead Oshakati - main business centre in the North, railhead Otjiwarongo - main business centre in Central-North, rail junction Lüderitz - sea port, railhead Gobabis - farming centre Keetmanshoop - railhead Tsumeb - mining See also towns in Namibia. Politics Tintenpalast, the centre of government The politics of Namibia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president of Namibia is elected to a five-year term and is both the head of state and the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the bicameral Parliament, the National Assembly and the National Council. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Regions and constituencies Namibia is divided into 13 regions and subdivided into 102 constituencies. Foreign relations Namibia follows a largely independent foreign policy, with lingering affiliations with states that aided the independence struggle, including Libya and Cuba. With a small army and a fragile economy, the Namibian Government's principal foreign policy concern is developing strengthened ties within the Southern African region. A dynamic member of the Southern African Development Community, Namibia is a vocal advocate for greater regional integration. Namibia became the 160th member of the United Nations on 23 April 1990. On its independence it became the fiftieth member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The Reporters Without Borders' Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007 World Press Freedom Index 2007Reporters Without Borders ranks Namibia as 25th out of 169 countries, as compared with 56th out of 166 in 2003, and 31st out of 139 in 2002. International disputes Namibia is involved in several minor international disputes, including: Small residual disputes with Botswana along the Caprivi Strip, including the Situngu marshlands and specifically Kasikili or Sedudu Island. A dormant dispute over where the boundaries of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe converge. Disputes over Angolan rebels and refugees residing in Namibia. Population Demographics A group of Herero women, Windhoek, Namibia Among the sovereign countries with the lowest population density, Namibia lies in second place, after Mongolia. The majority of the Namibian population is Black African — mostly of the Ovambo ethnicity, which forms about half of the population — and concentrated in the north of the country. There are also the Herero and Himba people who speak a similar language. In addition to the Bantu majority, there are large groups of Khoisan (e.g. Nama and Bushmen), who are descendants of the original inhabitants of Southern Africa. Blacks of other Bantu descent are descendants of refugees from Angola. There are also two smaller groups of people with mixed racial origins, called "Coloureds" and "Basters", who together make up 6.5% (with the Coloureds outnumbering the Basters two to one). As of 2006 there were as many as 40,000 Chinese in Namibia. China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration, By Malia Politzer, Migration Information Source, August 2008 Whites of Portuguese, Dutch, German, British and French ancestry make up about 7% of the population — which is the second largest proportion and number in Sub-Saharan Africa, after South Africa. Namibia: People: Ethnic Groups. World Factbook of CIA Most of Namibian whites and nearly all those of mixed race are Afrikaans speakers and share similar origins, culture, religion and genealogy as the white and coloured populations of neighbouring South Africa. A smaller proportion of whites (around 30,000) trace their family origins directly back to German settlers and maintain German cultural and educational institutions. Deutschnamibier, economy-point.org Nearly all Portuguese settlers came to the country from the former Portuguese colony of Angola. Flight from Angola, The Economist , August 16, 1975 Religion The Christian community makes up at least 80% of the population of Namibia, with at least 50% of these Lutheran. At least 10% of the population hold Indigenous beliefs. The faith of the remaining portion of the population is unknown. the World Factbook the World Factbook Missionary work during the 1800s drew many Namibians to Christianity. While most Namibian Christians are Lutheran, there also are Roman Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, Jewish, African Methodist Episcopal, and Dutch Reformed Christians represented. Department of State Language Although its official language is English, Namibia is a multilingual country as it is illustrated on these examples in English, German, Afrikaans and Oshiwambo. The official language is English. Until 1990, German and Afrikaans were also official languages. When Namibia became independent of South Africa, the new Namibian government wanted to avoid accusations of preferential treatment for either the Afrikaans- or the German-speaking groups. Therefore, English became the sole official language of Namibia. Afrikaans, German, and Oshiwambo became recognised regional languages. Half of all Namibians speak Oshiwambo as their first language, whereas the most widely understood language is Afrikaans. Among the younger generation, the most widely understood language is English. Both Afrikaans and English are used primarily as a second language reserved for public sphere communication, but small first language groups exist throughout the country. While the official language is English, most of the white population speaks either German or Afrikaans. Even today, 90 years after the end of the German colonial era, the German language plays a ruling role as a commercial language. Afrikaans is spoken by 60% of the white community, German is spoken by 32%, English is spoken by 7% and Portuguese by 1%. Namibia . Portuguese is spoken by blacks and whites from Angola. HIV, AIDS and malaria in Namibia The AIDS epidemic is a large problem in Namibia. Though its rate of infection is substantially lower than that of its eastern neighbor, Botswana, approximately 10% (210,000 people out of 2,063,927) of the Namibian population is infected with the HIV/AIDS. In 2001, there were an estimated 210,000 people living with HIV/AIDS, and the estimated death toll in 2003 was 16,000. (aidsinafrica.net, 2007) The malaria problem seems to be compounded by the epidemic. Research has shown in Namibia, that the risk of contracting malaria is 14.5% greater if a person is also infected with HIV. The risk of death from malaria is also raised by approximately 50% with a concurrent HIV infection. (Korenromp, et al. 2005) Given infection rates this large as well as a looming malaria problem, it may be very difficult for the government to deal with both the medical and economic impacts of this epidemic. Economy A Himba teenager, north of Opuwo, Namibia Namibia’s economy consists primarily of mining and manufacturing which represent 8% of the gross domestic product (GDP) respectively. CIA World Factbook 2008, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wa.html#Econ Namibia has a 30-40% unemployment rate and recently passed a 2004 labour act to protect people from job discrimination stemming from pregnancy and HIV/AIDS status. Namibia’s economy is tied closely to South Africa’s due to their shared history. (United States Central Intelligence Agency, 2007) (United States State Department, 2007) The Central Plateau serves as a transportation corridor from the more densely populated north to South Africa, the source of four-fifths of Namibia’s imports. Namibia is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa and the world's fifth largest producer of uranium. There has been significant investment in uranium mining and Namibia is set to become the largest exporter of uranium by 2015. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia also produces large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. Agriculture About half of the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood, but Namibia must still import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is five times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorest countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in rural areas and exist on a subsistence way of life. Namibia has one of the highest rates of income inequality in the world, due in part to the fact that there is an urban economy and a more rural cash-less economy. The inequality figures thus take into account people who do not actually rely on the formal economy for their survival. Agreement has been reached on the privatisation of several more enterprises in coming years, with hopes that this will stimulate much needed foreign investment. However, reinvestment of environmentally derived capital has hobbled Namibian per capita income. (Lange, 2004) One of the fastest growing areas of economic development in Namibia is the growth of wildlife conservancies. These conservancies are particularly important to the rural generally unemployed population. Tourism An example of Namibian wildlife, the Plains Zebra, which attract tourism. Namibia generally attracts eco-tourists with the majority visiting to experience the different climates and natural geographical landscapes such as the great eastern desert and plains. There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate eco-tourists. In addition, extreme sports such as sandboarding and 4x4ing have become popular, and many cities have companies that provide tours. The most visited places include the Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, the Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan and the coastal towns of Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz. Child labour Child labour occurs in Namibia, and key stakeholders including government ministries endorsed the Action Programme towards the Elimination of Child Labour in January 2008. Namibia endorses national child labour plan - The Namibian (Nam), 1 Feb 08 — TECL It has been reported that Namibia may be a source and destination also for trafficked children, however, the magnitude of the problem is unknown due to insufficient and unreliable reporting. Low public awareness and inadequate training for law enforcement and social service officials lie as being major factors in combatting the problem. There is evidence that small numbers of children are trafficked within the country for domestic activities, including forced agricultural labour, cattle herding and vending. Laws exist against child labour and trafficking, however, the government has failed to prosecute a single case in human trafficking. Military The constitution of Namibia defined the role of the military as "defending the territory and national interests." Namibia formed the National Defence Force (NDF), comprising former enemies in a 23-year bush war: the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) and South West African Territorial Force (SWATF). The British formulated the force integration plan and began training the NDF, which consists of five battalions and a small headquarters element. The United Nations Transitional Assistance Group (UNTAG)'s Kenyan infantry battalion remained in Namibia for three months after independence to assist in training the NDF and to stabilize the north. According to the Namibian Defence Ministry, enlistments of both men and women will number no more than 7,500. Defence and security account for approximately 3.7% of government spending. Culture Education Secondary school students Namibia has compulsory free education for 10 years between the ages of 6 and 16 with 7 years of Primary education and 5 years of secondary education. There are four Teacher Training Colleges, three Colleges of Agriculture, a Police Training College, a Polytechnic and a National University. Namibian Educational profile In 1998, there were 400,325 Namibian students in primary school, about 80% of those eligible, and 115,237 students in secondary schools, about 34% of those eligible. The pupil-teacher ratio in 1999 was estimated at 32:1, with about 8% of the GDP being spent on education. Encyclopedia of Nations Namibia- Education Most schools in Namibia are state-run, however, there are a few private and semi-private schools that serve the country's education system. These are St. Pauls College, Windhoek Afrikaanse Privaatskool and Windhoek Gymnasium. Click here for an incomplete list of schools in Namibia. Communal Wildlife Conservancies Quivertree Forest, Bushveld. Namibia is the only country in the world to specifically address conservation and protection of natural resources in its constitution. (Stefanova 2005) Article 95 states, “The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilization of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future.” In 1993, the newly formed government of Namibia received funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project. (Community Based Natural Resource Management, date unknown) The Ministry of Environment and Tourism with the financial support from organizations such as USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, and Canadian Ambassador’s Fund, together form a Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The main goal of this project is promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism. (UNEP et al. 2005) Sport The most popular sport in Namibia is football (soccer). The Namibia national football team qualified for the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations. Rugby union and cricket are also popular. Namibia were participants in the 1999, 2003 and 2007 Rugby World Cups. They also played in the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Inline Hockey was first played in 1995 and has also become more and more popular in the last years. The Women's Inline Hockey National Team participated in the 2008 FIRS World Championships. Gallery See also References General references AIDSinAfrica.net Web Publication (2007), Retrieved May 20, 2007. From http://www.aidsinafrica.net/ Christy, S.A. (2007) Namibian Travel Photography Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Programme Details (n.d.). http://www.met.gov.na/programmes/cbnrm/cbnrmHome.htm Cowling, S. 2001. Succulent Karoo (AT 1322) World Wildlife Fund Website: www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at1322_full.html Korenromp, E.L., Williams, B.G., de Vlas, S.J., Gouws, E., Gilks, C.F., Ghys, P.D., Nahlen, B.L. (2005). Malaria Attributable to the HIV-1 Epidemic, Sub-Saharan Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11, 9, 1410-1419. Lange, Glenn-marie. Wealth, Natural Capital, and Sustainable Development: Contrasting Examples from Botswana and Namibia. Environmental & Resource Economics; Nov 2004, Vol. 29 Issue 3, pp. 257–83, 27 p. Fritz, Jean-Claude . La Namibie indépendante. Les coûts d'une décolonisation retardée, Paris, L'Harmattan, 1991. Spriggs, A. 2001. Namib Desert (AT1315) World Wildlfe Fund Website: www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at1315_full.html Spriggs, A. 2001. Namibian Savannah Woodlands (AT1316) World Wildlfe Fund Website: www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at1316_full.html Spriggs, A. 2001. Namibian Savannah Woodlands (AT0709) World Wildlife Fund Website: www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0709_full.html Stefanova K. 2005. Protecting Namibia’s Natural Resources. EjournalUSA. UNEP, UNDP, WRI, and World Bank. 2005. Nature in Local Hands: The Case for Namibia’s Conservancies. http://www.wri.org/biodiv/pubs_content_text.cfm?cid=3842 World Almanac. 2004. World Almanac Books. New York, NY External links A Welwitschia mirabilis (female) in Namibia. WhatsonWindhoek.com Events and venues in Windhoek - updated daily. Government Republic of Namibia Government Portal Constitution of the Republic of Namibia from orusovo.com Chief of State and Cabinet Members Current weather in Namibia General Namibia from UCB Libraries GovPubs Namibian Business Directory Map of Namibia Video of Namibia from The New York Times Debie LeBeau's Development work on Namibia Media Insight Namibia news in English be-x-old:Намібія | Namibia |@lemmatized namibia:93 officially:3 republic:4 country:20 southern:5 africa:32 whose:1 western:1 border:6 atlantic:4 ocean:2 share:4 angola:6 zambia:2 north:13 botswana:6 zimbabwe:2 east:3 south:30 gain:1 independence:12 march:3 follow:4 namibian:23 war:4 capital:5 large:13 city:3 windhoek:9 member:5 state:12 united:10 nation:15 un:1 african:10 development:6 community:10 sadc:1 union:2 au:1 commonwealth:2 many:11 international:8 organisation:2 give:3 name:3 land:7 contrast:1 god:1 make:7 anger:1 ageless:1 year:11 know:4 west:7 adopt:2 namib:12 desert:19 second:4 sparsely:1 populated:3 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7,691 | HOTOL | HOTOL, for Horizontal Take-Off and Landing, was an unrealised British space shuttle proposal. Designed as a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) reusable winged launch vehicle, it was to be fitted with a unique air-breathing engine, the RB545, to be developed by Rolls Royce. The engine was technically a liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen design, but by air-breathing as the spacecraft climbed through the lower atmosphere, the amount of propellant needed to be carried onboard, for use in the upper atmosphere and space, was dramatically reduced. Since propellant typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, HOTOL was to be considerably smaller than normal pure-rocket designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80. Vehicle description HOTOL would have been 63 metres long, 7 metres in diameter and with a wingspan of 28 metres. The unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around seven tonnes in orbit. It was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to "working speed". The engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26-32 km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at Mach 5 to 7. After reaching orbit, HOTOL was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway. The internal landing gear would have been too small to carry the weight of the fully-fueled rocket, so emergency landings would have required the fuel to be dumped. Development program Development began with government funding in 1986. The design team was a joint effort between Rolls-Royce and British Aerospace led by John Scott and Dr Bob Parkinson. Around the same time, the X-30 scramjet program was announced in America. Problems found during development During development, it was found that the comparatively heavy rear-mounted engine moved the center of mass of the vehicle rearwards. This meant that the vehicle had to be designed to push the center of drag as far rearward as possible to ensure stability over the entire flight regime. Redesign of the vehicle to do this cost a significant proportion of the payload, and made the economics unclear. In particular, some of the analysis seemed to indicate that similar technology applied to a pure rocket approach would give at least as good performance at lower cost. Program shutdown In 1988 the government withdrew further funding, the project was approaching the end of its design phase but the plans were still speculative and dogged with aerodynamic problems and operational disadvantages. Follow on programs A cheaper redesign, Interim HOTOL or HOTOL 2, to be launched from the back of a modified Antonov An-225 transport aircraft, was offered by BAE in 1991 but that too was rejected. Interim HOTOL was to have dispensed with an air-breathing engine cycle and was designed to use more conventional LOX and liquid hydrogen. Alan Bond has formed Reaction Engines Limited where they have since been working on the Reaction Engines Skylon vehicle which aims to solve most of the problems of HOTOL. External links Cutaway drawing of the HOTOL is here - See also NASP - a scramjet vehicle that HOTOL would have competed wirh Reaction Engines Skylon - a follow on design that seems to be more technically successful and promising Reaction Engines A2 - a design for a hypersonic antipodal airliner | HOTOL |@lemmatized hotol:10 horizontal:1 take:2 landing:3 unrealised:1 british:2 space:2 shuttle:1 proposal:1 design:9 single:1 stage:1 orbit:3 ssto:1 reusable:1 wing:1 launch:2 vehicle:7 fit:1 unique:1 air:3 breathing:3 engine:8 develop:1 roll:2 royce:2 technically:2 liquid:3 hydrogen:2 oxygen:1 spacecraft:1 climb:1 low:2 atmosphere:3 amount:1 propellant:2 need:1 carry:2 onboard:1 use:2 upper:1 dramatically:1 reduce:1 since:2 typically:1 represent:1 majority:1 takeoff:1 weight:2 rocket:6 considerably:1 small:2 normal:1 pure:3 roughly:1 size:1 medium:1 haul:1 airliner:2 mcdonnell:1 douglas:1 dc:1 md:1 description:1 would:7 metre:3 long:1 diameter:1 wingspan:1 unmanned:1 craft:3 intend:4 put:1 payload:2 around:2 seven:1 tonne:1 runway:2 mount:2 back:2 large:1 boost:1 trolley:1 help:1 get:1 work:2 speed:1 switch:1 jet:1 propulsion:2 km:1 high:1 time:2 travel:1 mach:1 reach:1 enter:1 glide:1 land:1 conventional:2 internal:1 gear:1 fully:1 fuel:2 emergency:1 require:1 dump:1 development:4 program:4 begin:1 government:2 funding:2 team:1 joint:1 effort:1 aerospace:1 lead:1 john:1 scott:1 dr:1 bob:1 parkinson:1 x:1 scramjet:2 announce:1 america:1 problem:3 find:2 comparatively:1 heavy:1 rear:1 move:1 center:2 mass:1 rearward:2 meant:1 push:1 drag:1 far:2 possible:1 ensure:1 stability:1 entire:1 flight:1 regime:1 redesign:2 cost:2 significant:1 proportion:1 make:1 economics:1 unclear:1 particular:1 analysis:1 seem:2 indicate:1 similar:1 technology:1 apply:1 approach:2 give:1 least:1 good:1 performance:1 shutdown:1 withdraw:1 project:1 end:1 phase:1 plan:1 still:1 speculative:1 dog:1 aerodynamic:1 operational:1 disadvantage:1 follow:2 cheap:1 interim:2 modify:1 antonov:1 transport:1 aircraft:1 offer:1 bae:1 reject:1 dispense:1 cycle:1 lox:1 alan:1 bond:1 form:1 reaction:4 limit:1 engines:1 skylon:2 aim:1 solve:1 external:1 link:1 cutaway:1 draw:1 see:1 also:1 nasp:1 compete:1 wirh:1 successful:1 promising:1 hypersonic:1 antipodal:1 |@bigram space_shuttle:1 roll_royce:2 takeoff_weight:1 mcdonnell_douglas:1 douglas_dc:1 jet_propulsion:1 rocket_propulsion:1 landing_gear:1 antonov_transport:1 external_link:1 |
7,692 | Janet_Reno | Janet Reno (born July 21, 1938) was the Attorney General of the United States (1993–2001). Biographies of the Attorneys General She was nominated by President Bill Clinton on February 11, 1993, and confirmed on March 11. She was the first female Attorney General and the second longest serving Attorney General after William Wirt. She was one of two Danish Americans in the cabinet, the other being Lloyd Bentsen. Early life and career Reno's father, Henry Reno (original surname Rasmussen), immigrated to the United States from Denmark and for forty-three years was a police reporter for the Miami Herald. Jane Wood, Reno's mother, raised her children and then became an investigative reporter for the Miami News. Janet Reno has three younger siblings. Reno attended public school in Miami-Dade County, Florida, where she was a debating champion and was valedictorian at Coral Gables High School. In 1956 Reno enrolled at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where she majored in chemistry, lived in Balch Hall, became president of the Women's Self-Government Association, and earned her room and board. Reno enrolled at Harvard Law School in 1960, one of only sixteen women in a class of more than 500 students. She received her LL.B. from Harvard three years later. Reno was named staff director of the Judiciary Committee of the Florida House of Representatives in 1971. She helped revise the Florida court system. In 1973 she accepted a position with the Dade County State's Attorney's Office. She left the state's attorney's office in 1976 to become a partner in a private law firm. In 1978, Reno was appointed State Attorney for Dade County (now called Miami-Dade County). She was elected to the Office of State Attorney in November 1978 and was returned to office by the voters four more times. During this time, allegations about Reno's sexual orientation became a major part of Republican opponent Jack Thompson's campaign against her. He was repeatedly rebuffed by many critics due to this. She won the race with 69% of the vote. She helped reform the juvenile justice system and pursued delinquent fathers for child support payments and established the Miami Drug Court. During her time in Dade County, she was the lead prosecutor in a police brutality case. She was unable to convict any of the four officers charged with beating Arthur McDuffie in 1979. Reno has been criticized for her prosecutions of alleged sexual abusers during this time, which have been described as a "crusade" involving the "manipulative questioning" of child witnesses. Planting Ominous Seeds In the Minds of Children, reviewed by Walter Goodman for the New York Times She was involved in the prosecution of Bobby Fijnje, a 14-year old accused of Satanic ritual abuse who was eventually acquitted. In 1995, Reno was diagnosed with Parkinson's Disease. Attorney General In 1993, Reno was nominated and confirmed as the first female Attorney General under Bill Clinton, after both of his previous nominees, Zoe Baird and Kimba Wood, had confirmation problems when it was revealed both had previously employed illegal immigrants as nannies. Reno remained Attorney General for the rest of Clinton's presidency, making her the longest-serving Attorney General since William Wirt in 1829. While Clinton could steer a middle ground between his Democratic supporters and the Republican Congress on monetary issues, Reno's job was at the center of a variety of intractable cultural conflicts. This made her a lightning rod for criticism of the Clinton Administration from activists who often denounced the federal government as a threat to their fundamental freedoms. At the Justice Department Reno supervised the following Department of Justice actions: The 51 day fiasco standoff and resulting deaths of 76 men, women, and children--the Branch Davidians--in Waco, Texas. Bringing suit against the software company Microsoft for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Prosecution resulting in the conviction of 21 of the Montana Freemen after an 81 day armed standoff. Capture and conviction of Theodore Kaczynski, the Unabomber. Capture and conviction of Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols for the Oklahoma City bombing. Capture and conviction of those who conducted the World Trade Center bombing (resulting in life-sentences of Sheik Omar Abdel-Rahman and 4 conspirators) Leak to the news media regarding Richard Jewell that led to the widespread and incorrect presumption of his guilt in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing. She later apologized, saying "I'm very sorry it happened. I think we owe him an apology. I regret the leak." Reno to Jewell: 'I regret the leak' (July 31, 1997) Reno v. ACLU Identification of the correct suspect (Eric Rudolph) in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing and other bombings, who remained a fugitive throughout her tenure. Capture and conviction of Mir Aimal Kasi for the 1993 CIA headquarters shootings. The armed seizure of six-year-old Elián González and his return to his father, who eventually took him home to Cuba; Elián's mother and stepfather had died in dangerous trip by sea, and though his U.S. relatives had lost custody to his father in court, local law enforcement had refused to act. In 1998, the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee voted to cite Reno for contempt of Congress for not turning over documents during the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. The full House of Representatives never voted on the resolution and the documents were turned over to the House. Her Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Division, David W. Ogden, led a lawsuit against the tobacco companies Post-political life Reno ran for Governor of Florida in 2002, but lost in the Democratic primary to Bill McBride. Voting problems arose in the election, and she did not concede defeat until a week later. She has since retired from public life but frequently makes guest appearances for Democratic and other political causes. After her tenure as attorney general and her unsuccessful gubernatorial election bid, Reno tours the country giving speeches on topics relating to the criminal justice system. For example, on March 31, 2006, she spoke at a criminology conference held at the University of Pennsylvania. At this conference, she stated that she believes that the education system in the USA needs to be improved, as there is a link between the quality of education and the crime rate. She also believes that too much money has been diverted away from the juvenile court system and believes that the government should find some way to make the juvenile courts work effectively so as to prevent problems in troubled children and adolescents before these problems are exacerbated by the time these adolescents reach adulthood. In 2001, Reno appeared alongside Will Ferrell on Saturday Night Live in the final installment of the recurring sketch "Janet Reno's Dance Party". SNL Archives | Impression In another television appearance, on a 2007 Super Bowl XLI TV commercial, Janet Reno was among the guests at Chad Johnson's Super Bowl party. Chad Johnson's Super Bowl Party - NFL - Viral Videos - SPIKE Reno is also curating a compilation of old-time American songs performed by contemporary artists called the Song of America. Pitchfork: Devendra, Andrew Bird, Danielson on Janet Reno Comp Reno also serves on the Board of Directors for the Innocence Project, a nonprofit organization which assists prisoners who could be exonerated through DNA testing. On April 17, 2009, Reno was awarded the Justice Award by the American Judicature Society. "Former Attorney General to Receive National Award"AJS Media Release. January 15, 2009. Retrieved 17 Apr 2009. Eric Holder, Jr, Attorney General under the Obama Administration, presented Reno the award. Seth Andersen, Executive Vice President of AJS said the award recognizes “her commitment to improving our systems of justice and educating Americans about our great common enterprise -- to ensure equality under the law.” "Holder to Present Reno with AJS's Justice Award" Palazzolo, Joe. The BLT:The Blog of Legal Times. April 17, 2009. Retrieved April 18, 2009. The award is the highest given by the AJS, and recognizes significant contributions toward improvements in the administration of justice within the United States. Sources This article incorporates text from the Department of Justice website, which is in the public domain. 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7,693 | Archimedes | Archimedes of Syracuse (Greek: ) (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and the explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, including siege engines and the screw pump that bears his name. Modern experiments have tested claims that Archimedes designed machines capable of lifting attacking ships out of the water and setting ships on fire using an array of mirrors. Archimedes is generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of . He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers. Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which was surmounted by a sphere inscribed within a cylinder. Archimedes had proven that the sphere has two thirds of the volume and surface area of the cylinder (including the bases of the latter), and regarded this as the greatest of his mathematical achievements. Unlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until c. 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance, while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results. Biography This bronze statue of Archimedes is at the Archenhold Observatory in Berlin. It was sculpted by Gerhard Thieme and unveiled in 1972. Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a colony of Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years. T. L. Heath, Works of Archimedes, 1897 In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing is known. Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse. A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children. During his youth Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria, Egypt, where Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene were contemporaries. He referred to Conon of Samos as his friend, while two of his works (The Method of Mechanical Theorems and the Cattle Problem) have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes. Archimedes died c. 212 BC during the Second Punic War, when Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword. Plutarch also gives a account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. According to this story, Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments, and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items. General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed. A sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder. A sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles" (), a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. This quote is often given in Latin as "Noli turbare circulos meos," but there is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch. The tomb of Archimedes carried a sculpture illustrating his favorite mathematical proof, consisting of a sphere and a cylinder of the same height and diameter. Archimedes had proven that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder including its bases. In 75 BC, 137 years after his death, the Roman orator Cicero was serving as quaestor in Sicily. He had heard stories about the tomb of Archimedes, but none of the locals was able to give him the location. Eventually he found the tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes. Cicero had the tomb cleaned up, and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. The standard versions of the life of Archimedes were written long after his death by the historians of Ancient Rome. The account of the siege of Syracuse given by Polybius in his Universal History was written around seventy years after Archimedes' death, and was used subsequently as a source by Plutarch and Livy. It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city. Discoveries and inventions The Golden Crown Archimedes may have used his principle of buoyancy to determine whether the golden crown was less dense than solid gold. The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius, a new crown in the shape of a laurel wreath had been made for King Hiero II, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether it was of solid gold, or whether silver had been added by a dishonest goldsmith. Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density. While taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown. For practical purposes water is incompressible, so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the weight of the crown by the volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added. Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!" (Greek: "εὕρηκα!," meaning "I have found it!") The story of the golden crown does not appear in the known works of Archimedes. Moreover, the practicality of the method it describes has been called into question, due to the prohibitive amount of accuracy required in measuring the water displacement. Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes' Principle, which he describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies. This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample, then immersing the apparatus in water. If the crown was less dense than gold, it would displace more water due to its larger volume, and thus experience a greater buoyant force than the reference sample. This difference in buoyancy would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself." The Archimedes Screw The Archimedes screw can raise water efficiently. A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. The Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hieron II commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship, the Syracusia, which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a naval warship. The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity. According to Athenaeus, it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities. Since a ship of this size would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull, the Archimedes screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water. Archimedes' machine was a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder. It was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a body of water into irrigation canals. The Archimedes screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. The Archimedes screw described in Roman times by Vitruvius may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The Claw of Archimedes The Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as "the ship shaker," the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device. The Archimedes Heat Ray – myth or reality? Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse. The 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote that during the Siege of Syracuse (c. 214–212 BC), Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire. Centuries later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-glasses as Archimedes' weapon. Hippias, 2 (cf. Galen, On temperaments 3.2, who mentions pyreia, "torches"); Anthemius of Tralles, On miraculous engines 153 [Westerman]. The device, sometimes called the "Archimedes heat ray", was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships, causing them to catch fire. This purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance. René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes. It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship. This would have used the principle of the parabolic reflector in a manner similar to a solar furnace. A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas. The experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens. On this occasion 70 mirrors were used, each with a copper coating and a size of around five by three feet (1.5 by 1 m). The mirrors were pointed at a plywood of a Roman warship at a distance of around 160 feet (50 m). When the mirrors were focused accurately, the ship burst into flames within a few seconds. The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint, which may have aided combustion. In October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one-foot (30 cm) square mirror tiles, focused on a wooden ship at a range of around 100 feet (30 m). Flames broke out on a patch of the ship, but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes. It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions. The MIT group repeated the experiment for the television show MythBusters, using a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target. Again some charring occurred, along with a small amount of flame. In order to catch fire, wood needs to reach its flash point, which is around 300 degrees Celsius (570 °F). When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006, the claim was placed in the category of "busted" (or failed) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur. It was also pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east, the Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors. MythBusters also pointed out that conventional weaponry, such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult, would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances. Other discoveries and inventions While Archimedes did not invent the lever, he wrote the earliest known rigorous explanation of the principle involved. According to Pappus of Alexandria, his work on levers caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth." () Quoted by Pappus of Alexandria in Synagoge, Book VIII Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move. Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled. Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue De re publica, which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After the capture of Syracuse c. 212 BC, General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms used as aids in astronomy, which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus' mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus: This is a description of a planetarium or orrery. Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had written a manuscript (now lost) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled . Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism, another device from classical antiquity that was probably designed for the same purpose. Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing. This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks. Mathematics While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics. Plutarch wrote: "He placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life." Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to approximate the value of . Archimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the value of (pi). He did this by drawing a larger polygon outside a circle and a smaller polygon inside the circle. As the number of sides of the polygon increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. When the polygons had 96 sides each, he calculated the lengths of their sides and showed that the value of π lay between (approximately 3.1429) and (approximately 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416. He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle. In Measurement of a Circle, Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as being more than (approximately 1.7320261) and less than (approximately 1.7320512). The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of the method used to obtain it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results." Quoted in T. L. Heath, Works of Archimedes, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-42084-1. As proven by Archimedes, the area of the parabolic segment in the upper figure is equal to 4/3 that of the inscribed triangle in the lower figure. In The Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio : If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series which sums to . In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote: "There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited." To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word is from the Greek murias, for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8. Writings The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid, and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors. Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the Catoptrica. During his lifetime, Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were collected by the Byzantine architect Isidore of Miletus (c. 530 AD), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187 AD). During the Renaissance, the Editio Princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin. Around the year 1586 Galileo Galilei invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water after apparently being inspired by the work of Archimedes. Surviving works Archimedes is said to have remarked about the lever: Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth. On the Equilibrium of Planes (two volumes) The first book is in fifteen propositions with seven postulates, while the second book is in ten propositions. In this work Archimedes explains the Law of the Lever, stating: Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas. On the Measurement of a Circle This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes shows that the value of (pi) is greater than and less than . The latter figure was used as an approximation of π throughout the Middle Ages and is still used today when only a rough figure is required. On Spirals This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in polar coordinates (r, θ) it can be described by the equation with real numbers a and b. This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician. On the Sphere and the Cylinder (two volumes) In this treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume is for the sphere, and for the cylinder. The surface area is for the sphere, and for the cylinder (including its two bases), where is the radius of the sphere and cylinder. The sphere has a volume and surface area that of the cylinder. A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. On Conoids and Spheroids This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids. On Floating Bodies (two volumes) In the first part of this treatise, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round. The fluids described by Archimedes are not , since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape. Archimedes is commemorated on a Greek postage stamp from 1983. In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float. Archimedes' principle of buoyancy is given in the work, stated as follows: The Quadrature of the Parabola In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio . (O)stomachion This is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square. Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square. Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways. The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded. The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics. The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for throat or gullet, stomachos (). Ausonius refers to the puzzle as Ostomachion, a Greek compound word formed from the roots of (osteon - bone) and (machē - fight). The puzzle is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes' Box. Archimedes' cattle problem This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers. This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor B. Krumbiegel, A. Amthor, Das Problema Bovinum des Archimedes, Historisch-literarische Abteilung der Zeitschrift Für Mathematik und Physik 25 (1880) 121-136, 153-171. in 1880, and the answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271. The Sand Reckoner In this treatise, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will fit inside the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named Phidias. The Sand Reckoner or Psammites is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy. The Method of Mechanical Theorems This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work Archimedes uses infinitesimals, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As with The Cattle Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria. Apocryphal works Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. The scholars T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost. It has also been claimed that Heron's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes. However, the first reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Archimedes Palimpsest Stomachion is a dissection puzzle in the Archimedes Palimpsest. The foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople and examined a 174-page goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century AD. He discovered that it was a palimpsest, a document with text that had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them, which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously unknown treatises by Archimedes. The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s. On October 29, 1998 it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million at Christie's in New York. The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek. It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest is now stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it has been subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and light to read the overwritten text. The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest are: On the Equilibrium of Planes, On Spirals, Measurement of a Circle, On the Sphere and the Cylinder, On Floating Bodies, The Method of Mechanical Theorems and Stomachion. Legacy The Fields Medal carries a portrait of Archimedes. There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes (29.7° N, 4.0° W) in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the Montes Archimedes (25.3° N, 4.6° W). The asteroid 3600 Archimedes is named after him. The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes, along with his proof concerning the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to him which reads in Latin: "Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri" (Rise above oneself and grasp the world). Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua (1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963). The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush. A movement for civic engagement targeting universal access to health care in the US state of Oregon has been named the "Archimedes Movement," headed by former Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber. See also Archimedes' axiom Archimedes number Archimedes paradox Archimedean property Archimedes' screw Archimedean solid Archimedes' twin circles Archimedes' use of infinitesimals Diocles Hydrostatics Methods of computing square roots Pseudo-Archimedes Salinon Steam cannon Vitruvius Zhang Heng Notes and references Notes a. In the preface to On Spirals addressed to Dositheus of Pelusium, Archimedes says that "many years have elapsed since Conon's death." Conon of Samos lived , suggesting that Archimedes may have been an older man when writing some of his works. b. The treatises by Archimedes known to exist only through references in the works of other authors are: On Sphere-Making and a work on polyhedra mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria; Catoptrica, a work on optics mentioned by Theon of Alexandria; Principles, addressed to Zeuxippus and explaining the number system used in The Sand Reckoner; On Balances and Levers; On Centers of Gravity; On the Calendar. Of the surviving works by Archimedes, T. L. Heath offers the following suggestion as to the order in which they were written: On the Equilibrium of Planes I, The Quadrature of the Parabola, On the Equilibrium of Planes II, On the Sphere and the Cylinder I, II, On Spirals, On Conoids and Spheroids, On Floating Bodies I, II, On the Measurement of a Circle, The Sand Reckoner. c. Boyer, Carl Benjamin A History of Mathematics (1991) ISBN 0471543977 "Arabic scholars inform us that the familiar area formula for a triangle in terms of its three sides, usually known as Heron's formula — k = √(s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)), where s is the semiperimeter — was known to Archimedes several centuries before Heron lived. Arabic scholars also attribute to Archimedes the 'theorem on the broken chord' … Archimedes is reported by the Arabs to have given several proofs of the theorem." References Further reading Republished translation of the 1938 study of Archimedes and his works by an historian of science. Complete works of Archimedes in English. The Works of Archimedes online Text in Classical Greek: PDF scans of Heiberg's edition of the Works of Archimedes, now in the public domain In English translation: The Works of Archimedes, trans. T.L. Heath; supplemented by The Method of Mechanical Theorems, trans. L.G. Robinson External links Archimedes—The Greek mathematician and his Eureka moments—In Our Time, broadcast in 2007 (requires RealPlayer) The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland The Mathematical Achievements and Methodologies of Archimedes Article examining how Archimedes may have calculated the square root of 3 at MathPages Archimedes On Spheres and Cylinders at MathPages Photograph of the Sakkas experiment in 1973 Testing the Archimedes steam cannon Stamps of Archimedes be-x-old:Архімэд | Archimedes |@lemmatized archimedes:156 syracuse:15 greek:18 c:11 bc:9 mathematician:7 physicist:1 engineer:1 inventor:1 astronomer:4 although:1 detail:2 life:4 know:16 regard:3 one:4 lead:1 scientist:3 classical:4 antiquity:5 among:2 advance:1 physic:1 foundation:1 hydrostatics:3 static:1 explanation:3 principle:12 lever:6 credit:2 design:7 innovative:1 machine:4 include:8 siege:5 engine:2 screw:9 pump:3 bear:2 name:8 modern:7 experiment:7 test:5 claim:3 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7,694 | Kilobyte | Kilobyte (derived from the SI prefix "kilo-", meaning 1,000) is a unit of digital information storage equal to either 1,000 bytes (103) or 1,024 bytes (210), depending on context. It is abbreviated in a number of ways: KB, kB, K and Kbyte. Ambiguity The exact number of bytes in a kilobyte has traditionally been ambiguous. Locations in electronic memory circuits are identified by binary numbers, which means that the number of addressable locations naturally becomes a power of 2, and memory sizes are therefore not integer multiples (or fractions) of 1000. However, as 210 = 1024 ≈ 1000, the established "k" (for "kilo") was early on employed as a convenient "approximate" prefix for memory capacities in multiples of 1024. On the other hand, for products where (some) capacity factors were not equally bound to powers of two, such as magnetic disks (sector and track numbers) and networking equipment (bit rates), strict decimal-based units were used. Some have suggested that the capitalized prefix "K" be used to distinguish this quantity from the SI prefix "k", but this has never been formally mandated. Further, it is not extensible to higher-order prefixes, as already uses the prefixes "m" and "M" to mean "milli-" and "mega-" respectively. There are also proposals to capitalize all greater-than-unity prefixes (D, H, K, M, G, ...), which would conflict with this. See SI prefix. These prefixes are therefore used with either decimal (powers of 1000) or binary (powers of 1024) values, depending on context: 1024 bytes (210): This unit is used when expressing quantities which are based on powers of two, such as memory chip capacities. Most software also expresses storage capacity in units of 1024 bytes. Although the use of "kilobyte" for this unit is common, this usage has been expressly forbidden by the SI standard The International System of Units (SI), 7th edition, 1998, section 3.1, page 103, marginal note and other standards organisations. To indicate a quantity of 1024 bytes, the term "kibibyte" ("KiB") has been recommended instead. Prefixes for Binary Multiples — The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty IEEE Std 260.1-2004, IEEE Standard Letter Symbols for Units of Measurement (SI Units, Customary Inch-Pound Units, and Certain Other Units), Revision of IEEE Std 260.1-1993 (IEEE, New York, 2004) 1000 bytes (103): This definition is recommended for all uses by international standards organizations such as IEC, IEEE, and ISO, with the abbreviation "kB". This unit is common for quantities which are not based on powers of two, such as bitrates. This term is starting to be adopted by some software, such as the Linux kernel. Post on Linux Kernel Mailing List announcing the change. Kilobyte (abbreviated as "KB") is not to be confused with the term kilobit (abbreviated as kb). See also Orders of magnitude (data) Terabyte Megabyte Gigabyte Kilobit External links "Kilobyte" - an xkcd comic lampooning the aforementioned ambiguity of the term References | Kilobyte |@lemmatized kilobyte:5 derive:1 si:6 prefix:10 kilo:2 mean:3 unit:12 digital:1 information:1 storage:2 equal:1 either:2 byte:7 depend:2 context:2 abbreviate:3 number:5 way:1 kb:5 k:5 kbyte:1 ambiguity:2 exact:1 traditionally:1 ambiguous:1 location:2 electronic:1 memory:4 circuit:1 identify:1 binary:3 addressable:1 naturally:1 become:1 power:6 size:1 therefore:2 integer:1 multiple:3 fraction:1 however:1 establish:1 early:1 employ:1 convenient:1 approximate:1 capacity:4 hand:1 product:1 factor:1 equally:1 bind:1 two:3 magnetic:1 disk:1 sector:1 track:1 networking:1 equipment:1 bit:1 rate:1 strict:1 decimal:2 base:3 use:6 suggest:1 capitalized:1 distinguish:1 quantity:4 never:1 formally:1 mandate:1 far:1 extensible:1 high:1 order:2 already:1 milli:1 mega:1 respectively:1 also:3 proposal:1 capitalize:1 great:1 unity:1 h:1 g:1 would:1 conflict:1 see:2 value:1 express:2 chip:1 software:2 although:1 common:2 usage:1 expressly:1 forbid:1 standard:4 international:2 system:1 edition:1 section:1 page:1 marginal:1 note:1 organisation:1 indicate:1 term:4 kibibyte:1 kib:1 recommend:2 instead:1 nist:1 reference:2 constant:1 uncertainty:1 ieee:5 std:2 letter:1 symbol:1 measurement:1 customary:1 inch:1 pound:1 certain:1 revision:1 new:1 york:1 definition:1 us:1 organization:1 iec:1 iso:1 abbreviation:1 bitrates:1 start:1 adopt:1 linux:2 kernel:2 post:1 mail:1 list:1 announce:1 change:1 confuse:1 kilobit:2 magnitude:1 data:1 terabyte:1 megabyte:1 gigabyte:1 external:1 link:1 xkcd:1 comic:1 lampoon:1 aforementioned:1 |@bigram si_prefix:3 prefix_kilo:1 kb_kb:1 expressly_forbid:1 ieee_std:2 std_ieee:2 linux_kernel:2 megabyte_gigabyte:1 external_link:1 |
7,695 | MAC_address | In computer networking, a Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for identification, and used in the Media Access Control protocol sublayer. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered identification number. It may also be known as an Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA), hardware address, adapter address, or physical address. Three numbering spaces, managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), are in common use for formulating a MAC address: MAC-48, EUI-48, and EUI-64. The IEEE claims trademarks on the names "EUI-48" and "EUI-64", where "EUI" stands for Extended Unique Identifier. Although intended to be a permanent and globally unique identification, it is possible to change the MAC address on most of today's hardware, an action often referred to as MAC spoofing. Unlike IP address spoofing, where a sender spoofing their address in a request tricks the other party into sending the response elsewhere, in MAC address spoofing (which takes place only within a local area network), the response is received by the spoofing party. A host cannot determine from the MAC address of another host whether that host is on the same OSI Layer 2 network segment as the sending host, or on a network segment bridged to that network segment. In TCP/IP networks, the MAC address of a subnet interface can be queried with the IP address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) or the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6. On broadcast networks, such as Ethernet, the MAC address uniquely identifies each node and allows frames to be marked for specific hosts. It thus forms the basis of most of the Link layer (OSI Layer 2) networking upon which upper layer protocols rely to produce complex, functioning networks. Notational conventions The standard (IEEE 802) format for printing MAC-48 addresses in human-friendly form is six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens (-) or colons (:), in transmission order, e.g. 01-23-45-67-89-ab, 01:23:45:67:89:ab. This form is also commonly used for EUI-64. Other less common conventions use three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by dots (.), e.g. 0123.4567.89ab; again in transmission order. Address details The original IEEE 802 MAC address comes from the original Xerox Ethernet addressing scheme. IEEE Std 802-2001 This 48-bit address space contains potentially 248 or 281,474,976,710,656 possible MAC addresses. All three numbering systems use the same format and differ only in the length of the identifier. Addresses can either be "universally administered addresses" or "locally administered addresses." A universally administered address is uniquely assigned to a device by its manufacturer; these are sometimes called "burned-in addresses" (BIA). The first three octets (in transmission order) identify the organization that issued the identifier and are known as the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI). IEEE OUI and Company_id Assignments The following three (MAC-48 and EUI-48) or five (EUI-64) octets are assigned by that organization in nearly any manner they please, subject to the constraint of uniqueness. The IEEE expects the MAC-48 space to be exhausted no sooner than the year 2100; EUI-64s are not expected to run out in the foreseeable future. A locally administered address is assigned to a device by a network administrator, overriding the burned-in address. Locally administered addresses do not contain OUIs. Universally administered and locally administered addresses are distinguished by setting the second least significant bit of the most significant byte of the address. If the bit is 0, the address is universally administered. If it is 1, the address is locally administered. The bit is 0 in all OUIs. For example, 02-00-00-00-00-01. The most significant byte is 02h. The binary is 00000010 and the second least significant bit is 1. Therefore, it is a locally administered address. Standard Group MAC Addresses: A Tutorial Guide If the least significant bit of the most significant byte is set to a 0, the packet is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. This is called unicast. If the least significant bit of the most significant byte is set to a 1, the packet is meant to be sent only once but still reach several NICs. This is called multicast. The following technologies use the MAC-48 identifier format: Ethernet 802.11 wireless networks Bluetooth IEEE 802.5 token ring most other IEEE 802 networks FDDI ATM (switched virtual connections only, as part of an NSAP address) Fibre Channel and Serial Attached SCSI (as part of a World Wide Name) The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) Local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables). The G.hn Application Protocol Convergence (APC) layer accepts Ethernet frames that use the MAC-48 format and encapsulates them into G.hn MAC Service Data Units (MSDUs). The distinction between EUI-48 and MAC-48 identifiers is purely semantic: MAC-48 is used for network hardware; EUI-48 is used to identify other devices and software. (Thus, by definition, an EUI-48 is not in fact a "MAC address", although it is syntactically indistinguishable from one and assigned from the same numbering space.) The IEEE now considers the label MAC-48 to be an obsolete term which was previously used to refer to a specific type of EUI-48 identifier used to address hardware interfaces within existing 802-based networking applications and should not be used in the future. Instead, the term EUI-48 should be used for this purpose. EUI-64 identifiers are used in: FireWire IPv6 (as the least-significant 64 bits of a unicast network address or link-local address when stateless autoconfiguration is used) ZigBee / 802.15.4 wireless personal-area networks The IEEE has built in several special address types to allow more than one network interface card to be addressed at one time: Packets sent to the broadcast address, all one bits, are received by all stations on a local area network. In hexadecimal the broadcast address would be "FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF". Packets sent to a multicast address are received by all stations on a LAN that have been configured to receive packets sent to that address. Functional addresses identify one or more Token Ring NICs that provide a particular service, defined in IEEE 802.5. These are "group addresses", as opposed to "individual addresses"; the least significant bit of the first octet of a MAC address distinguishes individual addresses from group addresses. That bit is set to 0 in individual addresses and 1 in group addresses. Group addresses, like individual addresses, can be universally administered or locally administered. In addition, the EUI-64 numbering system encompasses both MAC-48 and EUI-48 identifiers by a simple translation mechanism. To convert a MAC-48 into an EUI-64, copy the OUI, append the two octets "FF-FF", and then copy the organization-specified part. To convert an EUI-48 into an EUI-64, the same process is used, but the sequence inserted is "FF-FE". In both cases, the process can be trivially reversed when necessary. Organizations issuing EUI-64s are cautioned against issuing identifiers that could be confused with these forms. The IEEE policy is to discourage new uses of 48-bit identifiers in favor of the EUI-64 system. IPv6—one of the most prominent standards that uses EUI-64—treats MAC-48 as EUI-48 instead (as it is chosen from the same address pool). This results in extending MAC addresses (such as IEEE 802 MAC address) to EUI-64 using "FF-FE" rather than "FF-FF." Individual address block An Individual Address Block comprises a 24-bit OUI managed by the IEEE Registration Authority, followed by 12 IEEE-provided bits (identifying the organization), and 12 bits for the owner to assign to individual devices. An IAB is ideal for organizations requiring fewer than 4097 unique 48-bit numbers (EUI-48). Bit-reversed notation The standard transmission order notation for MAC addresses, as seen in the output of the ifconfig/ipconfig command for example, is also called canonical format. However, since IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus) send the bits over the wire with least significant bit first, while IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) and IEEE 802.6 send the bits over the wire with most significant bit first, confusion may arise where an address in the latter scenario is represented with bits reversed from the canonical representation. So for instance, an address whose canonical form is 12-34-56-78-9A-BC would be transmitted over the wire as bits 01001000 00101100 01101010 00011110 01011001 00111101 in the standard transmission order (least significant bit first). But for Token Ring networks, it would be transmitted as bits 00010010 00110100 01010110 01111000 10011010 10111100 in most significant bit first order. If care is not taken to translate correctly and consistently to the canonical representation, the latter might be displayed as 482C6A1E593D, which could cause confusion. This would be referred to as "Bit-reversed order", "Non-canonical form", "MSB format", "IBM format", or "Token Ring format" as explained by RFC 2469. Canonical form is preferred, generally because the more modern implementations do not use non-canonical form. See also NSAP address, another endpoint addressing scheme. Cisco Hot Standby Router Protocol or standard alternative VRRP Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol, which allows multiple routers to share one IP address and MAC address to provide router redundancy. The OpenBSD project has an open source alternative, the Common Address Redundancy Protocol (CARP). Internet Protocol version 6 References External links IEEE OUI and Company_id Assignments Michael Patton's "Ethernet Codes Master Page" MAC Address Lookup (Both OUI and IAB) | MAC_address |@lemmatized computer:1 networking:3 medium:2 access:2 control:2 address:72 mac:32 unique:5 identifier:12 assign:7 network:19 adapter:2 interface:4 card:2 nics:3 manufacturer:4 identification:3 use:21 protocol:10 sublayer:1 usually:1 encode:1 register:1 number:4 may:2 also:4 know:2 ethernet:7 hardware:5 eha:1 physical:1 three:5 space:4 manage:2 institute:1 electrical:1 electronics:1 engineer:1 ieee:21 common:3 formulate:1 eui:26 claim:1 trademark:1 name:2 stand:1 extend:2 although:2 intend:1 permanent:1 globally:1 possible:2 change:1 today:1 action:1 often:1 refer:3 spoofing:3 unlike:1 ip:4 sender:1 spoof:2 request:1 trick:1 party:2 send:7 response:2 elsewhere:1 take:2 place:1 within:2 local:4 area:4 receive:5 host:5 cannot:1 determine:1 another:2 whether:1 osi:2 layer:5 segment:3 sending:1 bridge:1 tcp:1 subnet:1 query:1 resolution:1 arp:1 internet:2 version:2 neighbor:1 discovery:1 ndp:1 broadcast:3 uniquely:2 identify:5 node:1 allow:3 frame:2 mark:1 specific:2 thus:2 form:8 basis:1 link:3 upon:1 upper:1 rely:1 produce:1 complex:1 function:1 notational:1 convention:2 standard:7 format:8 print:1 human:1 friendly:1 six:1 group:7 two:2 hexadecimal:3 digit:2 separate:2 hyphen:1 colon:1 transmission:5 order:7 e:2 g:5 ab:2 commonly:1 less:1 four:1 dot:1 detail:1 original:2 come:1 xerox:1 scheme:2 std:1 bit:27 contain:2 potentially:1 system:3 differ:1 length:1 either:1 universally:5 administer:12 locally:7 device:4 sometimes:1 call:4 burn:2 bia:1 first:6 octet:4 organization:6 issue:3 organizationally:1 oui:6 assignment:2 following:1 five:1 nearly:1 manner:1 please:1 subject:1 constraint:1 uniqueness:1 expect:2 exhaust:1 sooner:1 year:1 run:1 foreseeable:1 future:2 administrator:1 override:1 ouis:2 distinguish:1 set:4 second:2 least:8 significant:14 byte:4 example:2 binary:1 therefore:1 tutorial:1 guide:1 packet:5 mean:2 reach:2 one:8 nic:1 unicast:2 still:1 several:2 multicast:2 follow:2 technology:1 wireless:2 bluetooth:1 token:6 ring:5 fddi:1 atm:1 switch:1 virtual:2 connection:1 part:3 nsap:2 fibre:1 channel:1 serial:1 attach:1 scsi:1 world:1 wide:1 itu:1 hn:3 provide:4 way:1 create:1 high:1 speed:1 gigabit:1 exist:2 home:1 wiring:1 power:1 line:2 phone:1 coaxial:1 cable:1 application:2 convergence:1 apc:1 accepts:1 encapsulate:1 service:2 data:1 unit:1 msdus:1 distinction:1 purely:1 semantic:1 software:1 definition:1 fact:1 syntactically:1 indistinguishable:1 numbering:2 consider:1 label:1 obsolete:1 term:2 previously:1 type:2 base:1 instead:2 purpose:1 firewire:1 stateless:1 autoconfiguration:1 zigbee:1 personal:1 build:1 special:1 time:1 station:2 would:4 ff:12 lan:1 configure:1 functional:1 particular:1 define:1 oppose:1 individual:7 distinguishes:1 like:1 addition:1 encompass:1 simple:1 translation:1 mechanism:1 convert:2 copy:2 append:1 specify:1 process:2 sequence:1 insert:1 fe:2 case:1 trivially:1 reverse:4 necessary:1 caution:1 could:2 confuse:1 policy:1 discourage:1 new:1 us:1 favor:1 prominent:1 treat:1 choose:1 pool:1 result:1 rather:1 block:2 comprise:1 registration:1 authority:1 owner:1 iab:2 ideal:1 require:1 notation:2 see:2 output:1 ifconfig:1 ipconfig:1 command:1 canonical:7 however:1 since:1 bus:1 wire:3 confusion:2 arise:1 latter:2 scenario:1 represent:1 representation:2 instance:1 whose:1 bc:1 transmit:2 care:1 translate:1 correctly:1 consistently:1 might:1 display:1 cause:1 non:2 msb:1 ibm:1 explain:1 rfc:1 prefer:1 generally:1 modern:1 implementation:1 endpoint:1 cisco:1 hot:1 standby:1 router:4 alternative:2 vrrp:1 redundancy:3 multiple:1 share:1 openbsd:1 project:1 open:1 source:1 carp:1 reference:1 external:1 michael:1 patton:1 code:1 master:1 page:1 lookup:1 |@bigram mac_eui:5 ip_address:3 osi_layer:2 tcp_ip:1 layer_osi:1 notational_convention:1 hexadecimal_digit:2 ab_ab:1 ieee_std:1 foreseeable_future:1 token_ring:5 nsap_address:2 coaxial_cable:1 ff_ff:7 multicast_address:1 ieee_ethernet:1 external_link:1 |
7,696 | Epigram | An Epigram is a brief, clever, and usually memorable statement. Derived from the (epi-gramma) "to write on - inscribe" http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=epigram , the literary device has been employed for over two millennia. The Greek tradition of epigrams began as poems inscribed on votive offerings at sanctuaries — including statues of athletes — and on funerary monuments, for example "Go tell it to the Spartans, passer-by…". These original epigrams did the same job as a short prose text might have done, but in verse. Epigram became a literary genre in the Hellenistic period, probably developing out of scholarly collections of inscriptional epigrams. Though modern epigrams are usually thought of as very short, Greek literary epigram was not always as short as later examples, and the divide between 'epigram' and 'elegy' is sometimes indistinct (they share a characteristic metre, elegiac couplets); all the same, the origin of the genre in inscription exerted a residual pressure to keep things concise. Many of the characteristic types of literary epigram look back to inscriptional contexts, particularly funerary epigram, which in the Hellenistic era becomes a literary exercise. Other types look instead to the new performative context which epigram acquired at this time, even as it made the move from stone to papyrus: the Greek symposium. Many 'sympotic' epigrams combine sympotic and funerary elements — they tell their readers (or listeners) to drink and live for today because life is short. We also think of epigram as having a 'point' — that is, the poem ends in a punchline or satirical twist. By no means do all Greek epigrams behave this way; many are simply descriptive. We associate epigram with 'point' because the European epigram tradition takes the Latin poet Martial as its principal model; he copied and adapted Greek models (particularly the contemporary poets Lucillius and Nicarchus) selectively and in the process redefined the genre, aligning it with the indigenous Roman tradition of 'satura', hexameter satire, as practised by (among others) his contemporary Juvenal. Greek epigram was actually much more diverse, as the Milan Papyrus now indicates. Our main source for Greek literary epigram is the Greek Anthology, a compilation from the 10th century AD based on older collections. It contains epigrams ranging from the Hellenistic period through the Imperial period and Late Antiquity into the compiler's own Byzantine era - a thousand years of short elegiac texts on every topic under the sun. The Anthology includes one book of Christian epigrams. Ancient Roman Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries. Roman epigrams, however, were often more satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect. Latin epigrams could be composed as inscriptions or graffiti, such as this one from Pompeii, which exists in several versions and seems from its inexact meter to have been composed by a less educated person. Its content, of course, makes it clear how popular such poems were: Admiror, O paries, te non cecidisse ruinis qui tot scriptorum taedia sustineas. I'm astonished, wall, that you haven't collapsed into ruins, since you're holding up the weary verse of so many poets. However, in the literary world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published, not inscriptions. Many Roman writers seem to have composed epigrams, including Domitius Marsus, whose collection 'Cicuta' (now lost) was named after the poisonous plant Cicuta for its biting wit, and Lucan, more famous for his epic Pharsalia. Authors whose epigrams survive include Catullus, who wrote both invectives and love epigrams – his poem 85 is one of the latter. Odi et amo. Quare id faciam fortasse requiris. Nescio, sed fieri sentio, et excrucior. I hate and I love. Perhaps you ask why I do this. I know not, but I feel that it is happening, and am tormented greatly. The master of the Latin epigram, however, is Martial. His technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre. Here he defines his genre against a (probably fictional) critic (in the latter half of 2.77): Disce quod ignoras: Marsi doctique Pedonis saepe duplex unum pagina tractat opus. Non sunt longa quibus nihil est quod demere possis, sed tu, Cosconi, disticha longa facis. Learn what you don't know: one work of (Domitius) Marsus or learned Pedo often stretches out over a doublesided page. A work isn't long if you can't take anything out of it, but you, Cosconius, write even a couplet too long. Poets known for their epigrams whose work has been lost include Cornificia. English In early English literature the short couplet poem was dominated by the poetic epigram and proverb, especially in the translations of the Bible and the Greek and Roman poets. Since 1600, two successive lines of verse that rhyme with each other, known as a couplet featured as a part of the longer sonnet form, most notably in William Shakespeare's sonnets. Sonnet 76 is an excellent example. The two line poetic form as a closed couplet was also used by William Blake in his poem Auguries of Innocence and also by Byron (Don Juan (Byron) XIII); John Gay (Fables); Alexander Pope (An Essay on Man). In Victorian times the epigram couplet was often used by the prolific American poet Emily Dickinson, her poem no. 1534 is a typical example of her eleven poetic epigrams .The novelist George Eliot also included couplets throughout her writings, her best example is shown within her sequenced sonnet poem entitled BROTHER AND SISTER each of the eleven sequenced sonnet ends with a couplet.In her sonnets, the preceding lead-in-line, to the couplet ending of each,could be thought of as a title for the couplet, and as is exampled in Sonnet VIII of the sequence. In the early 20th century the rhymed epigram Couplet form developed into a fixed verse image form, with an integral title as the third line, when Adelaide Crapsey codified the Couplet form into a two line rhymed verse of ten syllables per line with her image couplet poem first published, 1915 in Rochester, NY by The Manas Press. ON SEEING WEATHER-BEATEN TREES. By the 1930s this five line cinquain verse form became widely known in the poetry of the Scottish poet William Soutar. Originally labelled epigrams but later identified as image cinquains in the style of Adelaide Crapsey. In the last decade of the 20th century the American poet Denis Garrison developed a two line 17 syllable variation of the image couplet with his , where euphony is the key component and a title thereto optional. Poetic epigrams What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole; Its body brevity, and wit its soul. — Samuel Taylor Coleridge Little strokes Fell great oaks. — Benjamin Franklin Here lies my wife: here let her lie! Now she's at rest — and so am I. — John Dryden I am His Highness' dog at Kew; Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you? — Alexander Pope I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme. But Money gives me pleasure all the time. — Hilaire Belloc I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free. — Nikos Kazantzakis To define the beautiful is to misunderstand it. — Charles Robert Anon = Fernando Pessoa To be safe on the Fourth, Don't buy a fifth on the third. — James H Muehlbauer This Humanist whom no belief constrained Grew so broad-minded he was scatter-brained. — J.V. Cunningham Non-poetic epigrams Occasionally, simple and witty statements, though not poetic per se, may also be considered epigrams, such as one attributed to Oscar Wilde: "I can resist everything except temptation." This shows the epigram's tendency towards paradox. Dorothy Parker's witty one-liners can be considered epigrams. Also, Macdonald Carey's legendary line "Like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives" can be considered an epigram, as the meaning of life is concisely explained in a simile. The term is sometimes used for particularly pointed or much-quoted quotations taken from longer works. 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7,697 | Musical_tuning | In music, there are two common meanings for tuning: Tuning practice, the act of tuning an instrument or voice. Tuning systems, the various systems of pitches used to tune an instrument, and their theoretical basis. Tuning practice Tuning is the process of adjusting the pitch of one or many tones from musical instruments to establish typical intervals between these tones. Tuning is usually based on a fixed reference, such as A = 440 Hz. Out of tune refers to a pitch/tone that is either too high (sharp) or too low (flat). While an instrument might be in tune relative to its own range of notes, it may not be considered 'in tune' if it does not match A = 440 Hz (or whatever reference pitch one might be using). Some instruments become 'out of tune' with damage or time and have to be repaired. Different methods of sound production require different methods of adjustment: Tuning to a pitch with one's voice is called matching pitch and is the most basic skill learned in ear training. Turning pegs to increase or decrease the tension on strings so as to control the pitch. Instruments such as the harp, piano, and harpsichord require a wrench to turn the tuning pegs, while others such as the violin can be tuned manually. Modifying the length or width of the tube of a wind instrument, brass instrument, pipe, bell, or similar instrument to adjust the pitch. Some instruments produce a sound which contains irregular overtones harmonic series, and are known as inharmonic. This makes their tuning complicated, and usually compromised. The tuning of bells, for instance, is extremely involved. Tuning may be done aurally by sounding two pitches and adjusting one of them to match or relate to the other. A tuning fork or electronic tuning device may be used as a reference pitch, though in ensemble rehearsals often a piano is used (as its pitch cannot be adjusted for each rehearsal). Symphony orchestras tend to tune to an A provided by the principal oboist. Interference beats are used to objectively measure the accuracy of tuning. As the two pitches approach a harmonic relationship, the frequency of beating decreases. When tuning a unison or octave it is desired to reduce the beating frequency until it cannot be detected. For other intervals, this is dependent on the tuning system being used. Harmonics may be used to check the tuning of strings which are not tuned to the unison. For example, lightly touching the highest string of a cello at halfway down its length (at a node) while bowing produces the same pitch as doing the same one third of the way down its second highest string. Open strings In music, the term open string refers to the fundamental note of the unstopped, full string. The strings of a guitar are normally tuned to fourths (excepting the G and B strings in standard tuning), as are the strings of the bass guitar and double bass. Violin, viola, and cello strings are tuned to fifths. However, non-standard tunings (called scordatura) exist to change the sound of the instrument or create other playing options. To tune an instrument, usually only one reference pitch is given. This reference is used to tune one string, to which the other strings are tuned in the desired intervals. On a guitar, often the lowest string is tuned to an E. From this, each successive string can be tuned by fingering the fifth fret of an already tuned string and comparing it with the next higher string played open. This works with the exception of the G string, which must be stopped at the fourth fret to sound B against the open B string above. This table lists open strings on some common string instruments and their standard tunings. violin, mandolinG, D, A, Eviola, cello, tenor banjo, mandola, mandocello, tenor guitarC, G, D, Adouble bass, mando-bass, bass guitar*(B*,) E, A, D, G guitarE, A, D, G, B, EukuleleG, C, E, A (the G string is higher than the C and E, and two half steps below the A string, known as reentrant tuning)5-string banjoG, D, G, B, D Altered tunings Unconventional tunings, or scordatura (It., from scordare, to mistune), were first used in the 16th century by Italian lutenists. It was primarily used to facilitate difficult passages, but was also used to alter timbral characteristics, reinforce tonalities through the use of open strings, and to extend the range of the instrument. Violin scordatura was employed in the 17th and 18th centuries by Italian and German composers, namely, Biagio Marini, Antonio Vivaldi, Heinrich Ignaz Biber —who in the Rosary Sonatas prescribes a great variety of scordaturas, including crossing the middle strings— Johann Pachelbel and J.S. Bach, whose Fifth Suite For Unaccompanied Cello calls for the lowering of the A string to G. In Mozart's Sinfonia Concertante in E-flat major (K. 364), all the strings of the solo viola are raised one half-step, ostensibly to give the instrument a brighter tone so as not to be overshadowed by the solo violin. The open D-string then sounds the tonic of the piece, E-flat. However, in modern performance it is often performed without scordatura. Scordatura for the violin was also used in the 19th and 20th centuries in works by Paganini, Schumann, Saint-Saëns and Bartók. In Saint-Saëns' "Danse Macabre", the high string of the violin is lower half a tone to the E so as to have the most accented note of the main theme sound on an open string. In Bartók's Contrasts, the violin is tuned G-D-A-E to facilitate the playing of tritones on open strings. American folk violinists of the Appalachians and Ozarks often employ alternate tunings for dance songs and ballads. The most commonly used tuning is A-E-A-E. A musical instrument which has had its pitch deliberately lowered during tuning is colloquially said to be "down-tuned". Common examples include the electric guitar and electric bass in contemporary heavy metal music, whereby one or more strings are often tuned lower than concert pitch. This is not to be confused with electronically changing the fundamental frequency, which is referred to as pitch shifting. Tuning systems A tuning system is the system used to define which tones, or pitches, to use when playing music. In other words, it is the choice of number and spacing of frequency values which are used. Due to the psychoacoustic interaction of tones and timbres, various tone combinations will sound more or less "natural" when used in combination with various timbres. For example, using harmonic timbres, a tone caused by a vibration twice the speed of another (the ratio of 1:2) forms the natural sounding octave a tone caused by a vibration three times the speed of another (the ratio of 1:3, or 2:3 when octave-reduced) forms the natural sounding perfect fifth. More complex musical effects can be created through other relationships. W. A. Mathieu (1997) Harmonic Experience : Tonal Harmony from Its Natural Origins to Its Modern Expression. Inner Traditions The creation of a tuning system is complicated because musicians want to make music with more than just a few differing tones. As the number of tones is increased, conflicts arise in how each tone combines with every other. Finding a successful combination of tunings has been the cause of debate, and has led to the creation of many different tuning systems across the world. Each tuning system has its own characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. Theoretical comparison There are many techniques for theoretical comparison of tunings, usually utilizing mathematical tools such as those of linear algebra, topology and group theory. Techniques of interest include: Comma, a measure of a tuning system's compromise between just intervals. Modulatory space, geometrical analysis of transpositional possibilities. Pitch space, geometrical analysis of tuning systems. Regular temperament, a system's definition in terms of a small number of generating units. Tonnetz, an arrangement of a tuning system as a lattice. Systems for the twelve-note chromatic scale It is impossible to tune the twelve-note chromatic scale so that all intervals are "perfect"; many different methods with their own various compromises have thus been put forward. The main ones are: Just intonation In Just Intonation the frequencies of the scale notes are related to one another by simple numeric ratios, a common example of this being 1:1, 9:8, 5:4, 4:3, 3:2, 5:3, 15:8, 2:1 to define the ratios for the 7 notes in a C major scale. In theory a variety of approaches are possible, such as basing the tuning of pitches on the harmonic series (music), which are all whole number multiples of a single tone. In practice however this quickly leads to potential for confusion depending on context, especially in the larger system of 12 chromatic notes used in the West. For instance, a major second may end up either in the ratio 9:8 or 10:9. For this reason, just intonation may be less suitable system for use on keyboard instruments or other instruments where the pitch of individual notes is not flexible. (On fretted instruments like guitars and lutes, multiple frets for one interval can be practical.) Pythagorean tuning A Pythagorean tuning is technically a type of just intonation, in which the frequency ratios of the notes are all derived from the number ratio 3:2, a ratio of central importance to the School of Pythagoras in Ancient Greece. Using this approach for example, the 12 notes of the Western chromatic scale would be tuned to the following ratios: 1:1, 256:243, 9:8, 32:27, 81:64, 4:3, 729:512, 3:2, 128:81, 27:16, 16:9, 243:128, 2:1. Also called "3-limit" because there are no prime factors other than 2 and 3, this Pythagorean system was of primary importance in Western musical development in the Medieval and Renaissance periods. As a concept it was further developed by Safi ad-Din al-Urmawi, who divided the octave into seventeen parts (limmas and commas) and used in the Turkish and Persian tone systems. Meantone temperament A system of tuning which averages out pairs of ratios used for the same interval (such as 9:8 and 10:9), thus making it possible to tune keyboard instruments. Next to the twelve-equal temperament, which some would not regard as a form of meantone, the best known form of this temperament is quarter-comma meantone, which tunes major thirds justly in the ratio of 5:4 and divides them into two whole tones of equal size. To do this, eleven perfect fifths in each octave are flattened by a quarter of a syntonic comma, with the remaining fifth being left very sharp (such an unacceptably out-of-tune fifth is known as a wolf interval). However, the fifth may be flattened to a greater or lesser degree than this and the tuning system will retain the essential qualities of meantone temperament; examples include the 31-equal fifth and Lucy tuning. Both just intonation and meantone temperament can be regarded as forms of regular temperament. Well temperament Any one of a number of systems where the ratios between intervals are unequal, but approximate to ratios used in just intonation. Unlike meantone temperament, the amount of divergence from just ratios varies according to the exact notes being tuned, so that C-E will probably be tuned closer to a 5:4 ratio than, say, D-F. Because of this, well temperaments have no wolf intervals. A well temperament system is usually named after whoever first came up with it. Equal temperament (a special case of mean-tone temperament), in which adjacent notes of the scale are all separated by logarithmically equal distances (100 cents): A harmonized C major scale in equal temperament (.ogg format, 96.9KB). This is the most common tuning system used in Western music, and is the standard system for tuning a piano. Since this scale divides an octave into twelve equal-ratio steps and an octave has a frequency ratio of two, the frequency ratio between adjacent notes is then the twelfth root of two, 21/12, or ~1.05946309... Syntonic temperament A tuning system which subsumes nearly all of the above tuning systems. Milne, A., Sethares, W.A. and Plamondon, J., Invariant Fingerings Across a Tuning Continuum, Computer Music Journal, Winter 2007, Vol. 31, No. 4, Pages 15-32. For example, of the regular temperaments, "equal temperament" is the syntonic tuning in which the tempered perfect fifth (P5) is 700 cents wide; 1/4-comma meantone is the syntonic tuning in which the P5 is 696.6 cents wide; Pythagorean tuning is the syntonic tuning in which the P5 is 702 cents wide; 5-equal is the syntonic tuning in which the P5 is 720 cents wide; and 7-equal is the tuning in which the P5 is 686 cents wide. All of these syntonic tunings have identical fingering on an isomorphic keyboard. Milne, A., Sethares, W.A. and Plamondon, J., Tuning Continua and Keyboard Layouts, Journal of Mathematics and Music, Spring 2008. So do many irregular tunings such as well temperaments and Just Intonation tunings. Milne, A., Sethares, W.A., Tiedje, S., Prechtl, A., and Plamondon, J., Spectral Tools for Dynamic Tonality and Audio Morphing, Computer Music Journal, Spring 2009 (in press). Tempered timbres A timbre's partials (also known as harmonics or overtones) can be tempered such that each of the timbre's partials aligns with a note of a given tempered tuning. This alignment of tuning and timbre is the ultimate source of consonance, Sethares, W. A. (1993), Local consonance and the relationship between timbre and scale. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 94(1): 1218. (A non-technical version of the article is available at ) of which one notable example is the alignment between the partials of a harmonic timbre and a Just Intonation tuning. Hence, using tempered timbres, one can achieve a degree of consonance, in any tempered tuning, that is comparable to the consonance achieved by the combination of Just Intonation tuning and harmonic timbres. Tempering timbres in real time, to match a tuning that can change smoothly in real time, using the tuning-invariant fingering of an isomorphic keyboard, is a central component of Dynamic Tonality (ibid., Milne et al., 2009). Tuning systems that are not produced with exclusively just intervals are usually referred to as temperaments. Other scale systems Natural overtone scale, a scale derived from the harmonic series. This scale is present on the Ancient Chinese Guqin and is regarded the first musical scale. Slendro, a pentatonic scale used in Indonesian music. Pelog, the other main gamelan scale, with three hemitonic pentatonic modes superimposed to form a scale with seven notes to the octave 43-tone scale, created by Harry Partch, an American composer who wrote musical and dramatic works in just intonation Bohlen-Pierce scale LucyTuning, a meantone system advocated by Charles Lucy, related to the number and writings of John Harrison. Alpha and beta scales of Wendy Carlos Quarter tone scale, first presented by Mikha'il Mishaqah, used in the theory of Arabic music tone systems. From this the heptatonic scales consisting of minor, neutral, and major seconds of maqamat are chosen, this system was first promoted by al-Farabi using a 25 tone scale. Thirteenth Sound 19 equal temperament 22 equal temperament 31 equal temperament 53 equal temperament 88 equal temperament Schismatic temperament Miracle temperament Stretched tuning makes an octave represent slightly more than a doubling in frequency. It is usually applied to keyboard instruments with tines or thick strings, where the ratio of harmonic to fundamental can be slightly greater than a true integer ratio (most notably the piano, and some electric pianos). Hexany Comparisons and controversies among tunings All musical tunings have advantages and disadvantages. Twelve tone equal temperament (12-TET) is the standard and most usual tuning system used in Western music today because it gives the advantage of modulation to any key without dramatically going out of tune, as all keys are equally and slightly out of tune. However, just intonation provides the advantage of being entirely in tune, with at least some, and possibly a great deal, loss of ease in modulation. The composer Terry Riley, said "Western music is fast because it's not in tune", meaning that its inherent beating forces motion. Twelve tone equal temperament also, currently, has an advantage over just intonation in that most musicians are trained in, and have instruments designed to play in equal temperament. Other tuning systems have other advantages and disadvantages and are chosen for various qualities. The octave (or even other intervals, such as the so-called tritave, or twelfth) can advantageously be divided into a number of equal steps different from twelve. Popular choices for such an equal temperament include 19, 22, 31, 53 and 72 parts to an octave, each of these and the many other choices possible have their own distinct characteristics. Continuous pitch instruments, such as the violin, don't limit the musician to particular pitches, allowing to choose the tuning system "on the fly". Many performers on such instruments adjust the notes to be more in tune than the equal temperament system allows, perhaps even without realizing it. Like the violin and other fretless stringed instruments, the pedal steel guitar places absolute control of pitch into the hands of the player. Most steel guitarists tune their instrument to just intonation. The steel guitar is unique among western instruments in its ability to create complex chords in just intonation in any key. Smooth, beatless chords are part of the steel guitar's characteristic sound. This section's "controversies" are based on the assumption that musical timbres (spectra) are harmonic, i.e., follow the harmonic series, in which the partials' placement follows a pattern of ratios of small whole numbers. Western music uses harmonic timbres almost exclusively, so their use is often assumed in discussions of tuning such as this. However: The tension of the piano's highest-pitched strings makes their timbre slightly inharmonic, requiring them to be tuned using stretched octaves. Hence, even the West's (arguably) dominant instrument is not strictly harmonic. The timbres of the dominant instruments of some other cultures are entirely inharmonic, and are most consonant in tunings that have little or no relationship to ratios of small whole numbers (except perhaps the octave at 2:1). For example, the 7-equal tuning of Thai classical music is related to the inharmonic timbre of Thai ranats, Sethares, W.A. (2004) Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale, Springer, ISBN 3-540-76173-X], p. 303-316. Strumolo, W., Greenhut, B., (2007) Relating Spectrum and Tuning of the Classical Thai Renat Ek exactly as Just Intonation tuning is related to the timbre of harmonic instruments. The consonance achieved by the combination of harmonic timbres and Just Intonation can be delivered without sacrificing modulatory freedom by using a combination of tempered tunings and tempered timbres. Specifically, a timbre can be electronically synthesized or processed, in real time, such that its partials align with the notes of a given tempered tuning (ibid., Milne, et al., 2009). When using a tuning invariant isomorphic keyboard to drive a Dynamic Tonality-compatible synthesizer, one can change the current tuning "on the fly," in a smooth continuum which includes most of the specific tunings mentioned in this article, while retaining consonance and modulatory freedom, and without wolf intervals. Although limited to electronically- synthesized or processed timbres, the dynamic tempering of timbres offers a different approach to resolving the controversies above. See also 3rd Bridge Chinese musicology Electronic tuner Ethnomusicology Mathematics of musical scales Microtonal music Microtuner MIDI Musical theory Physics of music Pseudo-octave Psychoacoustics Standard tuning String (physics) Xenharmonic References Footnotes Notations J. Murray Barbour Tuning and Temperament: A Historical Survey ISBN 0-486-43406-0 External links Alternate Tunings For Bass The Alternate Tunings Mailing List Schmidt-Jones, Catherine. (November 22, 2005). Tuning Systems. Connexions History of tuning by Kyle Gann Article on the history of absolute pitch to today's A=440 standard Understanding Temperaments, a concise, but comprehensive explanation of temperaments. Pythagorean tuning, detailed definition and explanation. Temperament resources on the Web, lots more links Albert Gräf: Musical scale rationalization — a graph-theoretic approach (the paper is number 45 on the list, and is in .pdf format) HyperPhysics: Temperament and Musical Scales The Keyboard Tuning of Domenico Scarlatti The Ring of Truth — mathematical derivation of the western musical intervals, by Peter Wakefield Sault LucyTuning Bach Tuning Stopper Scale — equal temperament based on the 19th root of 3 (1988) Let's try Musical Tuning and Temperament on your computer! Barbieri, Patrizio. Enharmonic instruments and music, 1470-1900. 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7,698 | Alexander_Selkirk | An 1835 book inspired by Selkirk's life Alexander Selkirk, born Alexander Selcraig (1676 – 13 December 1721), was a Scottish sailor who spent four years as a castaway when he was marooned on an uninhabited island. It is probable that his travails provided the inspiration for Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe. He was immortalised by the poet William Cowper in his poem The Solitude Of Alexander Selkirk, which gave rise to the common phrase, monarch of all I survey, as in: I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Early life The son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, Selkirk was born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. Summoned on 27 August 1695 before the Kirk Session for his "undecent carriage" (indecent behaviour) in church, he "did not comper [appear], having gone away to þe [the] sea: this business is cotinued till his return"[sic]. At an early period he was engaged in buccaneer expeditions to the South Seas and in 1703 joined in with the expedition of famed privateer and explorer William Dampier. While Dampier was captain of the St. George, Selkirk served on the galley Cinque Ports, the St. Georges companion, as a sailing master serving under Thomas Stradling. Castaway In October 1704, after the ships had parted ways because of a dispute between Stradling and Dampier, the Cinque Ports was brought by Stradling to the uninhabited archipelago of Juan Fernández for a mid-expedition restocking of supplies and fresh water. Selkirk had grave concerns by this time about the seaworthiness of this vessel (the Cinque Ports, indeed, later foundered, losing most of its hands). He tried to convince some of his crewmates to desert with him, remaining on the island; he was counting on an impending visit by another ship. No one else agreed to come along with him. Stradling, who was tired of Selkirk's troublemaking, declared that he would grant him his wish and leave him alone on Juan Fernández. Selkirk promptly regretted his decision. He chased and called after the boat, to no avail. Selkirk lived the next four years and four months without any human company. All he had brought with him was a musket, gunpowder, carpenter's tools, a knife, a Bible and some clothing. Life on the island The Juan Fernández Islands. Hearing strange sounds from the inland, which he feared were dangerous beasts, Selkirk remained at first along the shoreline. During this time he camped in a small cave, ate shellfish and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathering on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island's interior. Once there, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were now available: feral goats, introduced by earlier sailors, provided him meat and milk; wild turnips, cabbage, and black pepper berries offered him variety and spice. Although rats would attack him at night, he was able, by domesticating and living near feral cats, to sleep soundly and in safety. (After his rescue, he was to live with cats in Lower Largo.) Selkirk proved resourceful in using equipment from the ship as well as materials that were native to the island. He built two huts BBC report on archaeological find out of pimento trees. He used his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying unconscious for about a day. (His prey had cushioned his fall, sparing him a broken back.) Rodgers, Woodes, Providence display’d, or a very surprising account of one, p. 6. He read from the Bible frequently, finding it a comfort to him in his condition and a mainstay for his English. When Selkirk's clothes wore out, he made new garments from goatskin, using a nail for sewing. The lessons he had learned as a child from his father, a tanner, helped him greatly during his stay on the island. As his shoes became unusable, he had no need to make new ones, since his toughened, callused feet made protection unnecessary. He forged a new knife out of barrel rings left on the beach. Two vessels had arrived and departed before his escape, but both of them were Spanish: as a Scotsman and privateer, he risked a terrible fate if captured. He hid himself from these crews. His long-anticipated rescue occurred on 2 February 1709 by way of the Duke, a privateering ship piloted by the above-mentioned William Dampier. Selkirk was discovered by the Dukes captain, Woodes Rogers, who referred to him as Governor of the island. Now rescued, he was almost incoherent in his joy. The agile Selkirk, catching two or three goats a day, helped restore the health of Rogers' men. Rogers eventually made Selkirk his mate, giving him independent command of one of his ships. Rogers' A cruising voyage round the world: first to the South-Sea, thence to the East-Indies, and homewards by the Cape of Good Hope was published in 1712 and included an account of Selkirk's ordeal. Journalist Richard Steele interviewed Selkirk about his adventures and wrote a much-read article about him in The Englishman. Article, dated 1 December 1713. Early in 1717 Selkirk returned to Lower Largo but stayed only a few months. There he met Sophia Bruce, a sixteen-year-old dairymaid. They eloped to London but apparently did not marry. In March 1717 he again went off to sea. While on a visit to Plymouth, he married a widowed innkeeper. According to the ship's log, Selkirk died at 8 p.m. on 13 December 1721 while serving as a lieutenant on board the Royal ship Weymouth. He probably succumbed to the yellow fever which had devastated the voyage. He was buried at sea off the west coast of Africa. Commemoration In 1863, the crew of HMS Topaze placed a bronze tablet on a spot called Selkirk's lookout on a hill of the island in memory of his stay. Kraske (2005), p.100 On 1 January 1966 Selkirk's island was officially renamed Robinson Crusoe Island. At the same time, the most western island of the Juan Fernández Islands was renamed Alejandro Selkirk Island although Selkirk probably never saw that island (97 miles west). Archaeological finding of the camp of Selkirk Around 2000 an expedition led by the Japanese Daisuke Takahashi, searching for Selkirk's camp on the island, found part of an early 18th (or late 17th) century nautical instrument that almost certainly belonged to Selkirk. Richard Lloyd Parry (September 17, 2005). "'In an ill hour, I went on board a ship bound for London . . .'", The Times. Retrieved on 2008-07-14. Research by Dr. David Caldwell purports to have found his camp on the island. Richard Alleyne (30 Oct 2008). "'Mystery of Alexander Selkirk, the real Robinson Crusoe, solved'", The Telegraph. Retrieved on 2008-10-30. Selkirk in other literary works William Cowper's The Solitude Of Alexander Selkirk is about the feelings of Alexander Selkirk as he lived all alone on the island. This poem gave rise to the common phrase monarch of all I survey via the verse: I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch's Sten science fiction series, Book Two, The Wolf Worlds, the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing; 'A slackit way f'r a mon,' Alex mourned to himself. 'Ah dinnae ken Ah'd ever be Alex Selkirk.' Selkirk is mentioned in Sailing Alone Around The World by Joshua Slocum. During his stay on the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk's stay. Charles Dickens used Selkirk as a simile in Chapter Two of The Pickwick Papers: "Colonel Builder and Sir Thomas Clubber exchanged snuff–boxes, and looked very much like a pair of Alexander Selkirks — ‘Monarchs of all they surveyed.’" This probably refers to William Cowper's poem. In his poem 'Inniskeen Road: July Evening', the poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk: <blockquote>Oh, Alexander Selkirk knew the plightOf being king and government and nation. A road, a mile of kingdom, I am kingOf banks and stones and every blooming thing.</blockquote> In Etiquette, one of W.S. Gilbert's Bab Ballads, Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways: These passengers, by reason of their clinging to a mast,Upon a desert island were eventually cast. They hunted for their meals, as Alexander Selkirk used,But they couldn’t chat together – they had not been introduced. Notes References Selcraig, B. (July 2005). "The Real Robinson Crusoe". Smithsonian, p.82-90. Robert Kraske. (2005). Marooned: The Strange But True Adventures of Alexander Selkirk. Clarion Books. ISBN 0618568433. Further reading Diana Souhami, Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe, (2001) ISBN 0-15-100526-5 Daisuke Takahashi, In Search of Robinson Crusoe'', (2002) ISBN 0-8154-1200-2 External links Account of a trip to Selkirk's Island "Site of Selkirk's camp identified", from The Times (London), 17 September 2005. "The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk" by John Howell (1829) from Google Books We saw a light ashore - The Diary Junction Blog "Diaries of swashbuckling hero who rescued Robinson Crusoe unearthed", from Telegraph.co.uk, 5 January 2009. | Alexander_Selkirk |@lemmatized book:4 inspire:1 selkirk:44 life:5 alexander:11 bear:2 selcraig:2 december:3 scottish:2 sailor:2 spend:1 four:3 year:3 castaway:3 maroon:2 uninhabited:2 island:22 probable:1 travail:1 provide:2 inspiration:1 daniel:1 defoe:1 novel:1 robinson:7 crusoe:7 immortalise:1 poet:2 william:5 cowper:3 poem:4 solitude:2 give:3 rise:2 common:2 phrase:2 monarch:5 survey:5 right:2 none:2 dispute:3 centre:2 round:3 sea:8 lord:2 fowl:2 brute:2 early:5 son:1 shoemaker:1 tanner:2 low:2 largo:3 fife:1 scotland:1 youth:1 display:2 quarrelsome:1 unruly:1 disposition:1 summon:1 august:1 kirk:1 session:1 undecent:1 carriage:1 indecent:1 behaviour:1 church:1 comper:1 appear:1 go:3 away:1 þe:1 business:1 cotinued:1 till:1 return:2 sic:1 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lion:1 gather:1 beach:2 mating:1 season:1 eventually:3 drive:1 interior:1 take:1 turn:1 good:2 food:1 available:1 feral:2 goat:3 introduce:2 meat:1 milk:1 wild:1 turnip:1 cabbage:1 black:1 pepper:1 berry:1 offer:1 variety:1 spice:1 although:2 rat:1 attack:1 night:1 able:1 domesticate:1 near:1 cat:2 sleep:1 soundly:1 safety:1 prove:1 resourceful:1 use:6 equipment:1 well:1 material:1 native:1 build:1 two:5 hut:1 bbc:1 report:1 archaeological:2 find:4 pimento:1 tree:1 hunt:2 clean:1 carcass:1 dwindle:1 prey:2 foot:2 badly:1 injure:1 tumble:1 cliff:1 lie:1 unconscious:1 day:2 cushion:1 fall:1 spar:1 break:1 back:1 rodgers:1 woodes:2 providence:1 surprising:1 account:3 p:4 read:2 frequently:1 comfort:1 condition:1 mainstay:1 english:2 clothes:1 wear:1 make:4 new:3 garment:1 goatskin:1 nail:1 sew:1 lesson:1 learn:1 child:1 father:1 help:2 greatly:1 stay:5 shoe:1 become:1 unusable:1 need:1 since:1 toughen:1 callused:1 protection:1 unnecessary:1 forge:1 barrel:1 ring:1 arrive:1 depart:1 escape:1 spanish:1 scotsman:1 risk:1 terrible:1 fate:1 capture:1 hide:1 crew:2 long:1 anticipate:1 occur:1 february:1 duke:2 privateering:1 pilot:1 mention:2 discover:1 rogers:4 refer:2 governor:1 almost:2 incoherent:1 joy:1 agile:1 catch:1 three:1 restore:1 health:1 men:1 mate:1 independent:1 command:1 cruising:1 voyage:2 world:3 thence:1 east:1 indie:1 homewards:1 cape:1 hope:1 publish:1 include:1 ordeal:1 journalist:1 richard:3 steele:1 interview:1 adventure:4 write:1 much:2 article:2 englishman:1 date:1 lower:1 meet:1 sophia:1 bruce:1 sixteen:1 old:1 dairymaid:1 elope:1 london:3 apparently:1 marry:2 march:1 plymouth:1 widowed:1 innkeeper:1 accord:1 log:1 die:1 lieutenant:1 board:2 royal:1 weymouth:1 probably:3 succumb:1 yellow:1 fever:1 devastate:1 bury:1 west:2 coast:1 africa:1 commemoration:1 hm:1 topaze:1 place:1 bronze:1 tablet:1 spot:1 lookout:1 hill:1 memory:1 kraske:2 january:2 officially:1 rename:2 western:1 alejandro:1 never:1 saw:2 mile:2 finding:1 around:2 lead:1 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7,699 | Hezbollah | Hezbollah Other transliterations include Hizbullah, Hizbollah, Hezballah, Hizballah, Hisbollah, and Hizb Allah. ( , In English the stress is most commonly placed on the final syllable, as suggested in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (this is in accord with the Persian pronunciation, of Iran); in the Arabic of Hezbollah's theatre of operations it is most commonly placed on the second syllable. Hizb (party) is the Modern Standard Arabic pronunciation, and hezb is closer to Persian and Lebanese dialect. The name is derived from a Qur’anic ayat (verse) referring to those who belong to and follow the "party of God" . حزب الله ḥizbu-'llāh(i) -u nominative case marker in iḍāfa, initial "a" (written as "alif" ا) in Allāh (الله) is silent. Initial letter alif (ا) is usually dropped in this situation. Hence, expresssions: bi-'llaah(i), wa-'llaah(i), etc. Final i (unwritten "kasra") (often dropped - is the genitive case marker). The 1st word ends in -u (unwritten ḍamma) in nominative case, -a in accusative, -i in genitive. ḥizbu-'llāh(i) - nominative ḥizbi-'llāh(i) - genitive ḥizba-'llāh(i) - accusative literally "party of God") is a Shi'a Islamist political and paramilitary organisation based in Lebanon. Hezbollah is now also a major provider of social services, which operate schools, hospitals, and agricultural services for thousands of Lebanese Shiites, and plays a significant force in Lebanese politics. It is regarded as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab and Muslim world. Many governments, including Arab ones, have condemned actions by Hezbollah while others have praised the party. Iran and Syria continue to support resistance Six Western countries, including Israel and the United States, "Current List of Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations ... 14. Hizballah (Party of God)". list it in whole or in part as terrorist. Hezbollah first emerged as a militia in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, also known as Operation Peace for Galilee, in 1982, set on resisting the Israeli occupation of Lebanon during the Lebanese civil war. Its leaders were inspired by Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of Iranian Revolutionary Guards. Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its three main goals as "putting an end to any colonialist entity" in Lebanon, bringing the Phalangists to justice for "the crimes they [had] perpetrated," and the establishment of an Islamic regime in Lebanon. Stalinsky, Steven. "An Islamic Republic Is Hezbollah's Aim." The New York Sun. 2 August 2006. 1 November 2007. Recently, however, Hezbollah has made little mention of establishing an Islamic state, and forged alliances across religious lines. Hezbollah leaders have also made numerous statements calling for the destruction of Israel, which they refer to as a "Zionist entity... built on lands wrested from their owners." Hezbollah, which started with only a small militia, has grown to an organization with seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite television-station, and programs for social development. Hezbollah maintains strong support among Lebanon's Shi'a population, and gained a surge of support from Lebanon's broader population (Sunni, Christian, Druze) immediately following the 2006 Lebanon War, and is able to mobilize demonstrations of hundreds of thousands. "Huge Beirut protest backs Syria." BBC News. 8 March 2005. 7 February 2007. Hezbollah alongside with some other groups began the 2006–2008 Lebanese political protests in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. Later dispute over Hezbollah preserve its telecoms network led to clashes and Hezbollah-led opposition fighters seized control of several West Beirut neighborhoods from Future Movement militiamen loyal to Fouad Siniora, this areas then handed over to the Lebanese Army. Finally, on the basis of Doha Agreement, Hezbollah was granted veto power in Lebanon's parliament. In addition, National unity government was formed which Hezbollah has one minister and controls eleven of thirty seats in it. National unity government Hezbollah receives its financial support from Iran, Syria, and the donations of Lebanese and other Shi'a. Iranian official admits Tehran supplied missiles to Hezbollah It has also gained significantly in military strength the last few years. Despite a June 2008 certification by the United Nations that Israel had withdrawn from all Lebanese territory, in August of that year, Lebanon's new Cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement which secures Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands." Since 1992, the organization has been headed by Hassan Nasrallah, its Secretary-General. History Map of southern Lebanon, featuring the Blue Line and Litani River, 2006. Foundation Scholars differ as to when Hezbollah came to be a distinct entity. Some organizations list the official formation of the group as early as 1982, GlobalSecurity.org, 2005 in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Diaz and Newman maintain however, that Hezbollah remained an amalgamation of various violent Shi’a activists until as late as 1985. Diaz & Newman, 2005, p. 55 Another source states that it was formed by supporters of Sheikh Ragheb Harb, a leader of the southern Shiite resistance, who was killed by Israelis in 1984. 1980s Ending Israel's occupation of Southern Lebanon was the primary focus of Hezbollah's early activities. Israel had become militarily involved in Lebanon in combat with the Palestine Liberation Organization, which had been invited into Lebanon after Black September in Jordan. Israel had been attacking the PLO in Southern Lebanon in the lead-up to the 1982 Lebanon War, and Israel had invaded and occupied Southern Lebanon and besieged Beirut. Avi Shlaim (2001) The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World W.W. Norton, ISBN 0393321126 Chapter 10; The lebanese Quagmire 1981-1984 pp 384-423 Hezbollah waged an asymmetrical guerrilla war against Israel. At the beginning, it had used suicide attacks against the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and against Israeli targets outside of Lebanon. Specifically: "Suicide Terrorist Campaigns, 1980-2003", Appendix 1. (Page 253 of Australian paperback edition, published by Scribe Publications) Hezbollah is reputed to have been among the first Islamic resistance groups to use tactical suicide bombing, assassination, and capturing against foreign soldiers in the Middle East. But gradually, Hezbollah turned into a paramilitary organization and used missiles, Katyusha, and other type of rocket launchers and detonations of explosive charges Zionism and Israel - Encyclopedic Dictionary, Hezbollah Definition Hezbollah – the real story dead link instead of capturings, Telegraph, 2004/2/21 murders, hijackings, and bombings. United States Department of State, April 2005. Hezbollah has been subject to assassination and abduction by Israel as well. During Lebanese Civil War, although Hezbollah battled the Amal militia for control of Shiite areas and vigorously attacked Israel's Lebanese proxies(SLA), unlike other wartime militias, it never engaged in sectarian bloodletting (or fought a major engagement with the army) during the war. At the end of civil war in 1990, despite Taif Agreement asked "disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias", Syria, in control of Lebanon at that time allowed Hezbollah to maintain their arsenal, control the Shiite areas in Southern Lebanon along the border with Israel. After 1990 In this decade Hezbollah transformed from a revolutionary group into political one, in a process which is described as Lebanonisation of Hezbollah. Unlike the uncompromising revolutionary stance in 1980s, Hezbollah conveyed a lenient stance towards the Lebanese state. The process start with the election of Abbas al-Musawi as the secretary general and promoted when he succeeded by Hasan Nasrallah. Hezbollah changed its discourse and made it pluralistic and inclusive in orientation which is called "Infitah policy". In 1991, al-Manar TV station was launched. In 1992, Hezbollah decided to participate in election and Ali Khamenei, supreme leader of Iran, endorsed it. Former Hezbollah secretary general, Subhi al-Tufayli, contested this decision which led to schism in Hezbollah. Then Hezbollah published its political program which contains liberation of Lebanese land from Zionist occupation, abolishment of political sectarianism, ensuring political and media freedom, amending in electoral law to make it more representative of the populace. This program led to the victory of all of twelve seats which were on its electoral list. At the end of that year Hezbollah began to dialog with Lebanese Christians. Hezbollah regards cultural, political and religious freedoms in Lebanon as sanctified. This dialog expands to other groups except those who have relation with Israel. Alagha (2006), pp.41-44 In 1997, Hezbollah formed Multi-confessional Lebanese Brigades to Fighting the Israeli Occupation, which was an attempt to revive national and secular resistance against Israel, which marks the Lebanonisation of resistance. Alagha (2006), p.47 Ideology On February 16, 1985, Sheik Ibrahim al-Amin issued Hezbollah's manifesto. According to this manifesto (titled "An Open Letter: The Hizballah Program"), the three objectives of the organization are: To expel the Americans, the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land. To submit the Phalanges to a just power and bring them all to justice for the crimes they have perpetrated against Muslims and Christians. To permit all the sons of our people to determine their future and to choose in all the liberty the form of government they desire. We call upon all of them to pick the option of Islamic government which, alone, is capable of guaranteeing justice and liberty for all. Only an Islamic regime can stop any future tentative attempts of imperialistic infiltration onto our country. The 1985 manifesto makes it clear that Hezbollah intends to use armed force to achieve these goals and phrases its argument for this measure through the language of defensive jihad. Qassem, (2005) page 39 Hezbollah's Shi'a Islamic doctrine Hezbollah was formed in the early 1980s, mostly with the aid of the Ayatollah Khomeini's followers, in order to spread Islamic revolution. It follows a newly invented distinct version of Islamic Shi'a Faqihi ideology (“Willayat Al-Faqih”) developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Islamic Revolution of Iran. Translated excerpts from Hezbollah's original 1985 manifesto read:We are the sons of the umma (Muslim community) ...... We are an ummah linked to the Muslims of the whole world by the solid doctrinal and religious connection of Islam, whose message God wanted to be fulfilled by the Seal of the Prophets, i.e., Prophet Muhammad. Our behavior is dictated to us by legal principles laid down by the light of an overall political conception defined by the leading jurist....As for our culture, it is based on the Holy Quran, the Sunna and the legal rulings of the faqih who is our source of imitation... Although Hezbollah originally aimed to transform Lebanon into a formal Faqihi Islamic republic, this goal has been abandoned. Nasrallah has been quoted as saying, "We believe the requirement for an Islamic state is to have an overwhelming popular desire, and we're not talking about fifty percent plus one, but a large majority. And this is not available in Lebanon and probably never will be." Doubts, however, remain. US Department of State Background Information on Foreign Terrorist Organizations Accessed August 15, 2006 "Lebanese prime minister: There will be no coup." CNN.com. 30 November 2006. 30 November 2006 Since that time, Hezbollah has transformed from a revolutionary movement to a socio-political movement of Lebanese Shi'a and has accepted the multi-cultural situation of Lebanon. This transformation is known as "Lebanonization". Staying the Course: the "Lebanonization" of Hizbollah - the integration of an Faqihi Islamist movement into a pluralist political system However, Hezbollah is not satisfied with the multi-confessional quotas under the Ta'if Accord, under the pretext that the Shia's position in the state is lower than its proportion of population. Hezbollah favors a one-person-one-vote system, but does not intend to force it onto the other minorities. Cobban, Helena "Hizbullah’s New Face." Boston Review. Accessed February 2, 2007. Originally published in the April/May 2005 issue of Boston Review. Attitudes, statements, and actions concerning Israel From the inception of Hezbollah to the present, United Nations Document A/54/723 S/2000/55, citing Al Hayyat, 30 October 1999 Letter dated 25 January 2000 from the Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General Accessed August 17, 2006 (Student newspaper) Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada Listed Entities - Hizballah Accessed July 31, 2006 the elimination of the State of Israel has been one of Hezbollah's primary goals. Some translations of Hezbollah's 1985 Arabic-language manifesto state that "our struggle will end only when this entity [Israel] is obliterated". However neither the original publication of the manifesto, nor those found on Hezbollah's website, include the statement. In an interview with the Washington Post, Nasrallah said "I am against any reconciliation with Israel. I do not even recognize the presence of a state that is called 'Israel'". In March 2009, in a speech marking the birthday of Muhammad, Nasrallah said, "As long as Hezbollah exists, it will never recognize Israel." rejecting a US precondition for dialogue. "Hezbollah chief defiant on Israel." BBC NEWS. 14 March 2009. 14 March 2009. "Hezbollah will not recognise Israel." Al Jazeera English. 14 March 2009. 14 March 2009. "Nasrallah vows Hezbollah will never recognize Israel." Haaretz. 14 March 2009. 14 March 2009 In 1993, during the Oslo peace process, Nasrallah and several other top Hezbollah generals came out staunchly opposed to any final peace agreement between the Israelis and Palestinians to the point that they accused Palestinian National Authority President Yasser Arafat of blasphemy and treachery to the Muslim people. Saad-Ghrayeb, 2002, pp. 151-154 Israel's occupation of the Shebaa Farms, along with the presence of Lebanese prisoners in Israeli jails, is often cited as justification—and invoked as a pretext, according to many Joshua Mitnick. Behind the dispute over Shebaa Farms, Christian Science Monitor, August 22, 2006. Flashpoint farmland , The Guardian, May 10, 2006. "Central to this issue is Hizballah’s claim, which was also espoused by Lebanon’s former pro-Syrian government, that the disputed Shebaa Farms are Lebanese rather than Syrian territories and are occupied by Israel. Therefore, Hizballah maintains that it is a legitimate resistance movement fighting for the liberation of Lebanese territory. Under this pretext, Hizballah, supported by some Lebanese parties, could argue that it is not a militia and thus it is outside the jurisdiction of Resolution 1559." Robert Rabil. Reinforcing Lebanon’s Sovereignty, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, November 8, 2005. —for Hezbollah's continued hostilities against Israel even after Israel's verified withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000. Hezbollah's spokesperson Hassan Ezzedin, however, had this to say about an Israeli withdrawal from Shebaa Farms: "If they go from Shebaa, we won't stop fighting them. ... Our goal is to liberate the 1948 borders of Palestine, ... The Jews who survive this war of liberation can go back to Germany or wherever they came from. However, that the Jews who lived in Palestine before 1948 will be 'allowed to live as a minority and they will be cared for by the Muslim majority.'" On May 26, 2000, After the Israeli withdrawal from south Lebenon Hassan Nassrallah said: "I tell you: this "Israel" that owns nuclear weapons and the strongest air force in this region is more fragile than a spiderweb". "The Best American Magazine Writing 2003" By American Society of Magazine Editors, Contributor David Remnick, Published by HarperCollins, 2003, ISBN 0060567759, 9780060567750, 464 pages, Page 88 Arie W. Kruglanski, Moshe Ya'alon, Bruce Hoffman, Efraim Inbar, and YNET interpret the "spider web" theory as the notion, articulated by Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah, that Israel's reverence for human life, the hedonistic nature of the Israeli society, and its self-indulgent Western values make it weak, soft, and vulnurable. Such a society, though technologically advanced, will crumble under continued war and bloodshed. "Israel's National Security: Issues and Challenges Since the Yom Kippur War" By Efraim Inbar, Published by Routledge, 2008, ISBN 0415449553, 9780415449557, 281 pages, Page 229 Bruce Hoffman in "Homeland Security and Terrorism: Readings and Interpretations" By Russell D. Howard, James J. F. Forest, Joanne C. Moore, Published by McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006, ISBN 0071452826, 9780071452823, 400 pages, Page 64 (Chapter 5 "The logic of suicide terrorism") Arie W. Kruglanski in "Tangled Roots: Social and Psychological Factors in the Genesis of Terrorism" By Jeffrey Ivan Victoroff, NATO Public Diplomacy Division, Contributor Jeffrey Ivan Victoroff, Published by IOS Press, 2006, ISBN 158603670X, 9781586036706, 477 pages, Pages 68-69 (Chapter 4, "The psychology of terrorism: "Syndrom" versus "Tool" perspectives") According to Joseph Alagha, Hezbollah's Deputy-General Na'im Qasim said during an interview on October 28, 2002 for the Daily Star that the struggle against Israel is a "core belief" of Hezbollah and "the central rationale of Hizbullah's existence". "The Shifts in Hizbullah's Ideology: Religious Ideology, Political Ideology, and Political Program" By Joseph Elie Alagha, Published by Amsterdam University Press, 2006, ISBN 9053569103, 9789053569108, 380 pages, Page 53 In a 2003 interview, Nasrallah answered questions concerning the renewed peace talks between the Palestinians and the Israelis, stating that he would not interfere in what he regarded as "... primarily a Palestinian matter." However, in his speeches to his followers, he provides rationalizations for suicide bombings. Similarly, in 2004, when asked whether he was prepared to live with a two-state settlement between Israel and Palestine, Nasrallah said again that he would not sabotage what is finally a "... Palestinian matter." He also said that outside of Lebanon, Hezbollah would act only in a defensive manner towards Israeli forces, and that Hezbollah's missiles were acquired to deter attacks on Lebanon. Attitudes and actions concerning Jews and Judaism Hezbollah officials have claimed that the group distinguishes between Judaism and Zionism. However, various anti-Semitic statements have been attributed to them, and their Secretary General, Hassan Nasrallah. "JCPA Middle East Briefing: Hezbollah". United Jewish Communities. 14 February 2008. Hezbollah accused Jews of deliberately spreading H.I.V. and other diseases to Arabs throughout the Middle East. Sciolino, Elaine. "French Court Delays Decision on Hezbollah-Run TV Channel." The New York Times 12 December 2004. 14 February 2008. Carvajal, Doreen. "French Court Orders a Ban on hezbollah-Run TV Channel." The New York Times. 14 December 2004. 14 February 2008. Block, Melissa. "'New Yorker' Writer Warns of Hezbollah's Radicalism." National Public Radio. 16 August 2006. 16 February 2008. Al-Manar, the Hezbollah-owned and operated television station, was criticized for airing "anti-Semitic propaganda" in the form of a television drama depicting a Jewish world domination conspiracy. Sciolino, Elaine. " A New French Headache: When Is Hate on TV Illegal?" The New York Times. 9 December 2004. 16 February 2008. "Anti-Semitic Series Airs on Arab Television." ADL. 9 January 2004. 16 February 2008. "Urge President Chirac to Block Hezbollah's Antisemitic and Hate TV." Simon Wiesenthal Center. 21 May 2008. Hezbollah also used antisemitic educational materials designed for 5-year-old scouts. "UN Human Rights High Commissioner Admits to Wiesenthal Center Delegation ... 'Hezbollah Deliberately Targeted Israeli Civilians.'" Simon Wiesenthal Center. 19 September 2006. 22 May 2008. Brown, Roy. "Hezbollah attacks IHEU speaker." International Humanist and Ethical Union. 25 September 2006. 22 May 2008. Likewise, the group has been accused of engaging in Holocaust denial, and supporting Holocaust deniers. Satloff, Roger. "The Holocaust's Arab Heroes." The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 8 October 2006. 14 January 2009. Stalinsky, Steven. "Hezbollah's Nazi Tactics." The New York Sun. 26 July 2006. 14 January 2009. Organization Organizational chart of Hezbollah, by Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh. At the beginning many Hezbollah leaders have maintained that the movement was "not an organization, for its members carry no cards and bear no specific responsibilities," al-Nahar al-Arabi walduwali, 10-16 June 1985; and La Revue du Liban, 27 July-3 August 1985. quoted in Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon, (1997), p.41 and that the movement does not have "a clearly defined organizational structure." Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon, (1997), p. 64 Nowadays, as Hezbollah scholar Magnus Ranstorp reports, Hezbollah does indeed have a formal governing structure, and in keeping with the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (velayat-e faqih), it "concentrate[s] ... all authority and powers" in its religious leaders, whose decisions then "flow from the ulama down the entire community." The supreme decision-making bodies of the Hezbollah were divided between the Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Assembly) which was headed by 12 senior clerical members with responsibility for tactical decisions and supervision of overall Hizballah activity throughout Lebanon, and the Majlis al-Shura al-Karar (the Deciding Assembly), headed by Sheikh Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah and composed of eleven other clerics with responsibility for all strategic matters. Within the Majlis al-Shura, there existed seven specialized committees dealing with ideological, financial, military and political, judicial, informational and social affairs. In turn, the Majlis al-Shura and these seven committees were replicated in each of Hizballah's three main operational areas (the Beqaa, Beirut, and the South). Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon, (1997), p.45 Since the Supreme Leader of Iran is the ultimate clerical authority, Hezbollah's leaders have appealed to him "for guidance and directives in cases when Hezbollah's collective leadership [was] too divided over issues and fail[ed] to reach a consensus." After the death of Iran's first Supreme Leader, Khomeini, Hezbollah's governing bodies developed a more "independent role" and appealed to Iran less often. Structurally, Hezbollah does not distinguish between its political/social activities within Lebanon and its military/jihad activities against Israel. "Hezbollah has a single leadership," according to Naim Qassem, Hezbollah's second in command, "All political, social and jihad work is tied to the decisions of this leadership ... The same leadership that directs the parliamentary and government work also leads jihad actions in the struggle against Israel." Daragahi, Borzou. "Lebanon's Hezbollah savors increasing legitimacy." Los Angeles Times. 13 April 2009. 17 April 2009. Political activities Lebanon’s majority Shi’a areas, where Hezbollah is most prominent. December 10, 2006 pro-Hezbollah rally in Beirut Hezbollah alongside with Amal is one of two major political parties in Lebanon that represent the Shiite Muslims. It holds 14 of the 128 seats in Lebanon's Parliament and is a member of the Resistance and Development Bloc. According to Daniel L. Byman, it's "the most powerful single political movement in Lebanon." Hezbollah, along with the Amal Movement, represents most of Lebanese Shi'a. However, unlike Amal, Hezbollah has not disarmed. Hezbollah participates in the Parliament of Lebanon. In the general election of 2005, it won 10.9% of parliamentary seats. The Resistance and Development Bloc, of which Hezbollah is a member, won all 23 seats in Southern Lebanon, and in total, 35 seats, or 27.3% of parliamentary seats nationwide. Lebanon: Angus Reid Global Monitor When municipal elections were held in the first half of 2004, Hezbollah won control of 21% of the municipalities. Hezbollah has been one the main parties of March 8 Alliance since polarization of political atmosphere of Lebanon in March 2005. Although Hezbollah had joined the new government in 2005, it remained staunchly opposed to the March 14 Alliance. The Counter-revolution of the Cedars In November 2006, Hezbollah, the Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), and the Amal Movement jointly demanded the establishment of a "national unity government", "Nasrallah Warns of 'Street Demonstrations' if National Unity Government is not Formed" "Aoun calls for national unity government" in which they demanded early elections and one third of the Cabinet seats; effectively, veto power. San Francisco Chronicle (December 15, 2006). "In Lebanon, Saniora stiffens his resistance". Retrieved December 18, 2006. Reuters (December 18, 2006). "Lebanon opposition demands early elections". Retrieved December 18, 2006. When negotiations with the ruling coalition failed, five Cabinet Ministers from Hezbollah and Amal resigned their positions. On December 1, 2006, these groups began the 2006–2008 Lebanese political protests, an ongoing series of protests and sit-ins in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora. The full text of Nasrallah`s speech on the invitation to participate in an open sit-in in Beirut Finally, on May 7, 2008 Lebanon's 17-month long political crisis spiraled out of control. The fighting was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah's telecommunication network and remove Beirut Airport's security chief over alleged ties to Hezbollah. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah said the government's decision to declare the group's military telecommunications network illegal was a "declaration of war" on the organization, and demanded that the government revoke it. Hezbollah-led opposition fighters seized control of several West Beirut neighborhoods from Future Movement militiamen loyal to the American-backed government, in street battles that left 11 dead and 30 wounded. The opposition-seized areas were then handed over to the Lebanese Army. The army also pledged to resolve the dispute and has reversed the decisions of the government by letting Hezbollah preserve its telecoms network and re-instating the airport's security chief. At the end, rival Lebanese leaders reached consensus over Doha Agreement on May 21 2008, to end the 18-month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war. On the basis of this agreement, Hezbollah was granted veto power in Lebanon's parliament. At the end of the conflicts, National unity government was formed by Fouad Siniora on July 11, 2008 and Hezbollah has one minister and controls eleven of thirty seats in the cabinet. Military activities Hezbollah has a military branch known as Al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya ("The Islamic Resistance") and is the possible sponsor of a number of lesser-known militant groups, some of which may be little more than fronts for Hezbollah itself, including the Organization of the Oppressed, the Revolutionary Justice Organization, the Organization of Right Against Wrong, and Followers of the Prophet Muhammad. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 called for the disarmament of militia with the Taif agreement at the end of the Lebanese civil war. Hezbollah denounced, and protested against, the resolution. The 2006 military conflict with Israel has increased the controversy. Failure to disarm remains a violation of the resolution and agreement as well as subsequent UN Security Resolution 1701. "Hezbollah: Hezbollah and the Recent Conflict." ADL. 29 September 2006. 26 June 2007. Since then both Israel and Hezbollah have asserted that the organization has gained in military strength. A Lebanese public opinion poll taken in August 2006 shows that most of the Shia did not believe that Hezbollah should disarm after the 2006 Lebanon war, while the majority of Sunni, Druze and Christians believed that they should. The Lebanese cabinet, under president Michel Suleiman and Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, guidelines state that Hezbollah enjoys the right to "liberate occupied lands." Ha'aretz 14 August 2008, UN: We've cleared half the cluster bombs Israel dropped on Lebanon By Shlomo Shamir Suicide attacks and kidnappings Between 1982 and 1986, there were 36 suicide attacks in Lebanon directed against American, French and Israelis forces by 41 individuals with predominantly leftist political beliefs and of both major religions, "... eight were Islamic fundamentalists. Twenty-seven were Communists and Socialists. Three were Christians. The American Conservative, July 18, 2005. Verified 22nd June 2008. killing 659. Hezbollah has been accused of some or all of these attacks, but denies involvement in any. Sites, Kevin (Scripps Howard News Services). "Hezbollah denies terrorist ties, increases role in government" 2006-01-15 "Frontline: Target America: Terrorist attacks on Americans, 1979-1988", PBS News, 2001. Accessed 4 February 2007 Hezbollah again denies involvement in deadly Buenos Aires bombing BEIRUT, March 19 (AFP) These attacks included the April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing (by the Islamic Jihad Organization), "Timeline of Hezbollah Violence." CAMERA: Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America. 17 July 2006. 18 November 2006. Later reprinted in On Campus magazine's Fall 2006 issue and attributed the article to author Gilead Ini. the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing (by the Islamic Jihad Organization), Hezbollah CFR. org Staff, the US Council on Foreign Relations, 2006-07-17 Terrorism - In the Spotlight: Hezbollah (Party of God) Michael Donovan, Center for Defense Information cdi.org, 2002-02-25 "an official with the Iranian Intelligence Service in Tehran phoned the Iranian ambassador in Damascus and issued an order to have them killed...We know about the phone call because it was intercepted by the National Security Agency.....The Hezbollah operative in charge was Imad Fayez Mughniyeh" National Review Online, Clifford D. May, Iran’s War. and a spate of attacks on IDF troops and SLA militiamen in southern Lebanon. The period also saw the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985, and the Lebanon hostage crisis from 1982 to 1992. More recently, Hezbollah has been accused of the January 15, 2008, bombing of a U.S. Embassy vehicle in Beirut. Lebanon: Hezbollah and the Jan. 15 Bombing Stratfor, January 15, 2008 Outside of Lebanon, Hezbollah has been accused of the 1992 Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires, and the 1994 AMIA bombing of a Jewish cultural centre, both in Argentina. According to Nasrallah, however, Hezbollah refused any participation in operations outside Lebanese and Israeli lands before 2008. H.E. Sayyed Nasrallah Speech in Full: History will mark martyr Moghnieh blood as the start of the fall of "Israel" Conflict with Israel South Lebanon conflict Hezbollah has been involved in several cases of armed conflict with Israel: During the 1982–2000 South Lebanon conflict, Hezbollah waged a guerrilla campaign against Israeli forces occupying Southern Lebanon. Israel withdrew in 2000 in accordance with 1978's United Nations Security Council Resolution 425. With the collapse of their supposed allies, the SLA, and the rapid advance of Hezbollah forces, they withdrew suddenly on May 24, 2000 six weeks before the announced 7 July date." Hezbollah held a victory parade, and its popularity in Lebanon rose. See: Hezbollah and many analysts considered this a victory for the movement, and since then its popularity has been boosted in Lebanon. See: Ted Koppel on NPR report: Lebanon's Hezbollah Ties. All Things Considered, July 13, 2006. On July 25, 1993, following Hezbollah's killing of seven Israeli soldiers in southern Lebanon, Israel launched Operation Accountability (known in Lebanon as the Seven Day War), during which the IDF carried out their heaviest artillery and air attacks on targets in southern Lebanon since 1982. The aim of the operation was to eradicate the threat posed by Hezbollah and to force the civilian population north to Beirut so as to put pressure on the Lebanese Government to restrain Hezbollah. YNet Operation Accountability ""Increased Israeli casualties led to Operation Accountability in 1993" The fighting ended when an unwritten understanding was agreed to by the warring parties. Apparently, the 1993 understanding provided that Hezbollah combatants would not fire rockets at northern Israel, while Israel would not attack civilians or civilian targets in Lebanon. In April 1996, after continued Hezbollah rocket attacks on Israeli civilians, "The Grapes of Wrath Understanding" the Israeli armed forces launched Operation Grapes of Wrath, which was intended to wipe out Hezbollah's base in southern Lebanon. Over 100 Lebanese refugees were killed by the shelling of a UN base at Qana, in what the Israeli military said was a mistake. Finally, following several days of negotiations, the two sides signed the Grapes of Wrath Understandings on April 26, 1996. A cease-fire was agreed upon between Israel and Hezbollah, which would be effective on April 27, 1996. Both sides agreed that civilians should not be targeted, which meant that Hezbollah would be allowed to continue its military activities against IDF forces inside Lebanon. 2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid On October 7, 2000, three Israeli soldiers – Adi Avitan, Staff Sgt. Benyamin Avraham, and Staff Sgt. Omar Sawaidwere – were abducted by Hezbollah while patrolling the Israeli side of the Israeli-Lebanese border. The soldiers were killed either during the attack or in its immediate aftermath. Rothfeld, Michael. "War touches raw nerve for grieving parents." Newsday.com. 9 August 2006. 21 February 2008. Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz has, however, claimed that Hezbollah abducted the soldiers and then killed them. Gutman, Matthew. "Prisoner swap due to go ahead today." ProQuest Archiver. 21 February 2008 Stevn, Yoav and Eli Ashkenazi. "New film leaves parents in the dark on sons' fate during kidnap." Haaretz Daily Newspaper. 6 September 2006. 28 February 2008. The bodies of the slain soldiers were exchanged for Lebanese prisoners in 2004. "Israel, Hezbollah swap prisoners." CNN.com International. 29 January 2004. 20 February 2008. 2006 Lebanon War The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day in Lebanon and northern Israel. The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military. The conflict was precipitated by a cross-border raid by Hezbollah during which they kidnapped and killed Israeli soldiers. In a speech in July 2008, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah acknowledged that he had ordered the kidnapping of Israeli soldiers in order to free prisoners held in Israeli jails. The conflict began on July 12, 2006 when Hezbollah militants fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti-tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence, killing three, injuring two, and seizing two Israeli soldiers. New York Times via the International Herald Tribune (July 12, 2006). "Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel". Retrieved August 16, 2007. Israel responded with massive airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon that damaged Lebanese civilian infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport (which Israel alleged that Hezbollah used to import weapons and supplies), an air and naval blockade, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions. The war continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006. Hezbollah was responsible for thousands of Katyusha rocket attacks against Israeli civilian towns and cities in northern Israel, Hezbollah Attacks Since May 2000 Mitchell Bard, the Jewish AIJAC, 2006-07-24 which Hezbollah claimed were in retaliation for Israel's killing of civilians and targeting Lebanese infrastructure. The Independent - Israel widens bombing campaign as Lebanese militia groups retaliate According to The Guardian, "In the fighting 1,200 Lebanese and 158 Israelis were killed. Of the dead almost 1,000 Lebanese and 41 Israelis were civilians." Attacks against the Multinational force in Iraq In June 2006, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State David Satterfield disclosed that Hizbullah cadres had attacked U.S.-led coalition forces in Iraq. In his testimony before the Armed Services Committees of the Congress on April 8, 2008, General David Petraeus, the commander of the multinational forces in Iraq, reported that the Iranian Qods Force, with the assistance of Lebanese Hizbullah’s Department 2800, was training, arming and guiding the “Special Groups” in Iraq. Asharq Alawsat reported on August 18, 2008, that Iran denied that Hezbollah operatives were involved in attacks against U.S. and Iraqi forces in four Iraqi provinces. Armed strength Hezbollah has not revealed its armed strength. It has been estimated by Mustafa Alani, security director at the Dubai-based Gulf Research Centre, that Hezbollah's military force is made up of about 1,000 full-time Hezbollah members, along with a further 6,000-10,000 volunteers. July 18th - - Agence France Presse - Analysis: Hezbollah a force to be reckoned with Hezbollah possesses the Katyusha-122 rocket, which has a range of 29 km (18 mi) and carries a 15-kg (33-lb) warhead. Hezbollah also possesses about 100 long-range missiles. They include the Iranian-made Fajr-3 and Fajr-5, the latter with a range of , enabling it to strike the Israeli port of Haifa, and the Zelzal-1, with an estimated range, which can reach Tel Aviv. Fajr-3 missiles have a range of and a 45-kg (99-lb) warhead, and Fajr-5 missiles, which extend to , also hold 45-kg (99-lb) warheads. According to various reports, Hezbollah is armed with anti-tank guided missiles, namely, the Russian-made AT-3 Sagger, AT-4 Spigot, AT-5 Spandrel, AT-13 Saxhorn-2 'Metis-M', АТ-14 Spriggan 'Kornet'; Iranian-made Ra'ad (version of AT-3 Sagger), Towsan (version of AT-5 Spandrel), Toophan (version of BGM-71 TOW); and European-made MILAN missiles. These weapons have been used against IDF soldiers, causing many of the deaths during the 2006 Lebanon War. A small number of Saeghe-2s (Iranian-made version of M47 Dragon) were also used in the war. For air defense, Hezbollah has anti-aircraft weapons that include the ZU-23 artillery and the man-portable, shoulder-fired SA-7 and SA-18 surface-to-air missile (SAM). One of the most effective weapons deployed by Hezbollah has been the C-802 anti-ship missile. Hezbollah missile threat assessed Targeting policy Hezbollah has not been involved in any suicide bombing since Israel withdrew from Lebanon. Hezbollah Operations from the Israeli-Lebanese Border Since the Israeli Withdrawal from Lebanon Timeline of Hezbollah operations After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Hezbollah condemned Al Qaeda for targeting the civilian World Trade Center, but remained silent on the attack on the The Pentagon, neither favoring nor opposing the act. Hezbollah also denounced the Armed Islamic Group massacres in Algeria, Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya attacks on tourists in Egypt, Hezbollah's condemnation of murder of civilians in Egypt and Algeria is described in Saad-Ghorayeb, p. 101. and the murder of Nick Berg. In a 2006 interview with the Washington Post, Nasrallah condemned violence against American civilians. Although Hezbollah has denounced certain attacks on Western civilians, some people accuse the organization of the bombing of an Argentine synagogue in 1994. Argentine prosecutor Alberto Nisman, Marcelo Martinez Burgos, and their "staff of some 45 people" alleged that Hezbollah and their contacts in Iran were responsible for the 1994 bombing of a Jewish cultural center in Argentina, in which "[e]ighty-five people were killed and more than 200 others injured." "Argentine prosecutors: Arrest former Iranian president." Jerusalem Post, 2006-10-26, "Prosecutor Alberto Nisman told a news conference that the decision to attack the center 'was undertaken in 1993 by the highest authorities of the then-government of Iran.' He said the actual attack was entrusted to the Lebanon-based group Hezbollah." In June 2002, shortly after the Israeli government launched Operation Defensive Shield, Nasrallah gave a speech in which he defended and praised suicide bombings of Israeli targets by members of Palestinian groups for "creating a deterrence and equalizing fear." Nasrallah stated that "in occupied Palestine, there is no difference between a soldier and a civilian, for they are all invaders, occupiers and usurpers of the land." Attacks on Hezbollah leaders Hezbollah has also been the target of bomb attacks and kidnappings. These include: In the 1985 Beirut car bombing, Hezbollah leader Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah was targeted, but the assassination attempt failed. It has been alleged Did A Dead Man Tell No Tales? - Printout - TIME that the CIA was responsible for this attack. On July 28, 1989, Israeli commandos kidnapped Sheikh Abdul Karim Obeid, the leader of Hezbollah. Abduction of Sheikh Obeid, Security Council Resolution 638 This action led to the adoption of UN Security Council resolution 638, which condemned all hostage takings by all sides. In 1992, Israeli helicopters attacked a motorcade in southern Lebanon, killing the Hezbollah leader Abbas al-Musawi, his wife, son, and four others. On February 12, 2008, Imad Mughnieh was killed by a car bomb in Damascus, Syria. Media operations Hezbollah operates a satellite television station, Al-Manar TV ("the Lighthouse") and a radio station al-Nour ("the Light"). Al-Manar broadcasts from Beirut, Lebanon. The station was launched by Hezbollah in 1991 with the help of Iranian funds. Al-Manar, self-proclaimed "Station of the Resistance" (qanat al-muqawama), is a key player in what Hezbollah calls its "psychological warfare against the Zionist enemy" and an integral part of Hezbollah's plan to spread its message to the entire Arab world. Hezbollah's television station Al-Manar airs programming designed to inspire suicide attacks in Gaza, the West Bank, and Iraq. Al-Manar's transmission in France is prohibited due to promotion of Holocaust denial, a criminal offense in France. Full Text of the decision (in French) Press Release(in French) France pulls plug on Arab network The United States lists Al-Manar television network as a terrorist organization. Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State (December 14, 2004). "United States Adds Al-Manar TV Network to Terrorism List". Retrieved February 28, 2007. Materials aimed at instilling principles of nationalism and Islam in children are an aspect of Hezbollah's media operations. The Hezbollah Central Internet Bureau released a video game in 2003 entitled Special Force, in which players conduct war on Israeli invaders, wherein the winner becomes a national hero on Earth and a martyr in Heaven. Video Game at Social services Hezbollah also organizes extensive social development programs, running hospitals, news services, and educational facilities. Social services have a central role in the party's programs. Most experts believe that Hezbollah's social and health programs are worth hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Hezbollah organizes an extensive social development program and runs hospitals, news services, and educational facilities. Some of its established institutions are: Emdad committee for Islamic Charity, Emdad committee for Islamic Charity Hezbollah Central Press Office, Al Jarha Association, Al Jarha Association and Jihad Al Binaa Developmental Association. Jehad Al Benaa Developmental Association Jihad Al Binna's Reconstruction Campaign is responsible for numerous economic and infrastructure development projects in Lebanon. Sachs, Susan. The New York Times. Helping Hand of Hezbollah Emerging in South Lebanon. March 30, 2000. <ref>JoMarie Fecci, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs: [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0199/9901020.html Despite End of Lebanon’s Long Civil War, Low-Level Conflict Continues Around Israeli-Occupied Zone']</ref> Hezbollah has set up a Martyr's Institute (Al-Shahid Social Association), which guarantees to provide living and education expenses for the families of fighters who die in battle. In March 2006, an IRIN news report of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs noted: "Hezbollah not only has armed and political wings - it also boasts an extensive social development program. Hezbollah currently operates at least four hospitals, twelve clinics, twelve schools and two agricultural centres that provide farmers with technical assistance and training. It also has an environmental department and an extensive social assistance program. Medical care is also cheaper than in most of the country's private hospitals and free for Hezbollah members". According to CNN: "Hezbollah did everything that a government should do, from collecting the garbage to running hospitals and repairing schools." In July 2006, during the war with Israel, when there was no running water in Beirut, Hezbollah was arranging supplies around the city. "People here [in South Beirut] see Hezbollah as a political movement and a social service provider as much as it is a militia, in this traditionally poor and dispossessed Shiite community." Also, after the war it competed with the Lebanese government to reconstruct destroyed areas. According to analysts like American University Professor Judith Swain Harik, Jihad al-Binaa has won the initial battle of hearts and minds, in large part because they are the most experienced in Lebanon in the field of reconstruction. Funding Hezbollah's financial support is a matter of controversy. Critics argue that it is, or has been, massively supported with tens of millions of dollars annually from the Islamic Republic of Iran. Hezbollah maintains that the main source of its income comes from donations by Muslims. Washington Post, December 20, 2004 Lebanese Wary of a Rising Hezbollah Accessed August 8, 2006 Lebanese Shi’ites often make zakat contributions directly after prayers and an additional donation in a Hezbollah donation box. Hezbollah also receives financial and political assistance, as well as weapons and training, from the Islamic Republic of Iran. The US estimates that Iran has been giving Hezbollah about US$60-100 million per year in financial assistance. Hezbollah has relied extensively on funding from the Shi'ite Lebanese Diaspora in West Africa, the United States and, most importantly, the Triple Frontier, or tri-border area, along the junction of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. Hezbollah's Global Finance Network: The Triple Frontier U.S. law enforcement officials identified an illegal multimillion-dollar cigarette-smuggling fundraising operation Cigarette Smuggling Linked to Terrorism, The Washington Post and drug smuggling. Foreign relations Hezbollah has close relations with Iran. Halliday, Fred. "A Lebanese fragment: two days with Hizbollah." openDemocracy. 20 July 2006. 17 February 2007. It also has ties with the leadership in Syria, specifically with President Hafez al-Assad (until his death in 2000) and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad. Gambill, Gary. "Syria and Hezbollah: A Loveless Alliance." Mideast Monitor. 4 March 2005. 17 February 2007. Originally published in The National Post (Toronto). Although Hezbollah and Hamas are not organizationally linked, Hezbollah provides military training as well as financial and moral support to the Sunni Palestinian group. Furthermore, Hezbollah is a strong supporter of the ongoing Al-Aqsa Intifada. Whether there has been cooperation or any relationship between Hezbollah and al-Qaeda has been questioned. Tehran, Washington, And Terror: No Agreement To Differ by A. W. Samii, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Volume 6, No. 3, September 2002 - citing Al-Majallah, March 24-March 30, 2002 and Al-Watan March 19, 2002 Hezbollah's leaders deny links to al-Qaeda, present or past. Stinson, Jeffrey. "Minister: Hezbollah doesn't need al-Qaeda's help fighting Israel in Lebanon." USATODAY.com. 28 July 2006. 17 February 2006. Also, some al-Qaeda leaders, like Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and Wahhabi clerics, consider Hezbollah to be apostate. Jerusalem Post, August 5, 2006 Saudi religious leader blasts Hizbullah Accessed August 6, 2006 Nimir, Suleiman. "Middle East Online." 4 August 2006. 17 February 2007. But United States intelligence officials speculate that there has been contact between Hezbollah and low-level al-Qaeda figures who fled Afghanistan for Lebanon. Outside views Public opinion Velayat-e Faqih adherents rally on July 29, 2006, in support of Hezbollah in Toronto, Canada, during the 2006 Lebanon war In much of the Arab world, Hezbollah is seen as a legitimate resistance organization that has defended its land against an Israeli occupying force and has consistently stood up to the Israeli army. According to a poll released by the "Beirut Center for Research and Information" on 26 July during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, 87 percent of Lebanese support Hezbollah's fight with Israel, a rise of 29 percentage points from a similar poll conducted in February. More striking, however, was the level of support for Hezbollah's resistance from non-Shiite communities. Eighty percent of Christians polled supported Hezbollah, along with 80 percent of Druze and 89 percent of Sunnis. In a poll of Lebanese adults taken in 2004, 6% of respondents gave unqualified support to the statement "Hezbollah should be disarmed". 41% reported unqualified disagreement. A poll of Gaza Strip and West Bank residents indicated that 79.6% had "a very good view" of Hezbollah, and most of the remainder had a "good view". Polls of Jordanian adults in December 2005 and June 2006 showed that 63.9% and 63.3%, respectively, considered Hezbollah to be a legitimate resistance organization. In the December 2005 poll, only 6% of Jordanian adults considered Hezbollah to be terrorist. A July 2006 USA Today/Gallup poll found that 83% of the 1,005 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah, at least in part, for the 2006 Lebanon War, compared to 66% who blamed Israel to some degree. Additionally, 76% disapproved of the military action Hezbollah took in Israel, compared to 38% who disapproved of Israel's military action in Lebanon. A poll in August 2006 by ABC News and the Washington Post found that 68% of the 1,002 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah, at least in part, for the civilian casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 Lebanon War, compared to 31% who blamed Israel to some degree. "Israel/Palestinians." PollingReport.com. 10 December 2006. Another August 2006 poll by CNN showed that 69% of the 1,047 Americans polled believed that Hezbollah is unfriendly towards, or an enemy of, the United States. Designation as a terrorist organization or resistance movement Governments disagree on Hezbollah’s status as a legitimate political entity, a terrorist group, or both. Throughout most of the Arab and Muslim worlds, Hezbollah is referred to as a resistance movement. Hezbollah's violent acts are considered by some countries as terrorist attacks; other governments regard Hezbollah as resistance and engaged in national defense." Hizbullah: Views and Concepts Statement of purpose Countries below have officially listed Hezbollah in at least some part as a terrorist organization. The Hezbollah External Security Organization The entire organization Hezbollah See: The entire organization Hezbollah The entire organization Hezbollah Hezbollah's military wing only British Home office official listing of Proscribed terrorist groups The entire organization Hezbollah "Current List of Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations ... 14. Hizballah (Party of God)". In 1999, Hezbollah was placed on the US State Department terrorism list. After Hezbollah's condemnation of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the USA, it was removed from the list, but it was later returned to the list. In 2002, US State Department official Christopher Ross was cited as explaining that while "the Hezbollah party and some of its members carried out terrorist acts in the past", "the acts that it carried out against the Israeli forces in South Lebanon were not terrorist acts." The European Union does not list Hezbollah as a "terrorist organization", redirect but does list the late Imad Mugniyah, a senior member and founder of Hezbollah, as a terrorist. In addition, on March 10, 2005, the European Parliament passed a non-binding resolution recognizing "clear evidence" of "terrorist activities by Hezbollah" ISN Security Watch (March 11, 2005). "EU lawmakers label Hezbollah 'terrorist’ group". Retrieved March 3, 2007. and urging the EU Council to brand Hezbollah a terrorist organization and EU governments to place Hezbollah on their terrorist blacklists, as the bloc did with the Palestinian Hamas group in 2003. The Council, however, has been reluctant to do this, because France, Spain, and Britain fear that such a move would further damage the prospects for Middle East peace talks. In the midst of the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel, Russia’s government declined to include Hezbollah in a newly released list of terrorist organizations, with Yuri Sapunov, the head of anti-terrorism for the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, saying that they list only organizations which represent "the greatest threat to the security of our country". Prior to the release of the list, Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov called "on Hezbollah to stop resorting to any terrorist methods, including attacking neighboring states." The Quartet’s fourth member, the United Nations, does not maintain such a list. United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Portal Accessed 7 August 2006 Human rights organizations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused Hezbollah of committing war crimes against Israeli civilians, in which in the same article, they also accused Israel of war crimes but against Lebanese civilians. Some other countries have criticized Hezbollah, citing terrorist activities, without maintaining such a list. Argentine prosecutors hold Hezbollah and their financial supporters in Iran responsible for the 1994 bombing of a Jewish cultural center, described by the Associated Press as "the worst terrorist attack on Argentine soil", in which "[e]ighty-five people were killed and more than 200 others injured." On 24 February 2000, French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin condemned attacks by Hezbollah fighters on Israeli forces in south Lebanon, saying they are "terrorism" and not acts of resistance. "France condemns Hezbollah's attacks, and all types of terrorist attacks which may be carried out against soldiers, or possibly Israel's civilian population." French PM lashes Hezbollah 'terrorism' On August 29, 2006, Italian Foreign Minister Massimo D'Alema differentiated the wings of Hezbollah: "Apart from their well-known terrorist activities, they also have political standing and are socially engaged." D'Alema: The end of unilateralism, UN back in the lead Italian FM: Hezbollah, Hamas are not al-Qaida Germany does not maintain an independent national list of terrorist organizations, choosing instead to adopt the common EU list; however, German officials indicate that they would likely support a designation of Hezbollah as a terrorist organization. Germany’s Relations with Israel: Background and Implications for German Middle East Policy Congressional Research Service (January 19, 2007) In contrast, supporters of Hezbollah justify Hezbollah's attacks against Israel on several grounds. Firstly, Hezbollah justifies its operations against Israel as reciprocal to Israeli operations against Lebanese civilians and as retaliation for Israel's occupation of Lebanese territory. CIVILIAN PAWNS, Laws of War Violations and the Use of Weapons on the Israel-Lebanon Border ISRAEL/LEBANON "OPERATION GRAPES OF WRATH" Many of these attacks took place while Israel occupied the southern part of Lebanon and held it as a security zone in spite of United Nations Security Council Resolution 425. Although Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, and their complete withdrawal was verified by the United Nations, Lebanon now considers the Shebaa farms—a 26-km² (10-mi²) piece of land captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 war and considered by the UN to be disputed territory between Syria and Israel—to be Lebanese territory. Additionally, Hezbollah has identified three Lebanese prisoners held in Israeli jails who it wants released. Hezbollah's Apocalypse Now Finally, Hezbollah and others among the Muslim world consider Israel to be an illegitimate state. For these reasons, many in the Arab world consider acts performed by Hezbollah against Israel to be justified as acts of defensive Jihad. Thisreen (Syrian newspaper) June 21, 1999, reprinted by MEMRI Secretary General of Hizbullah Discusses the New Israeli Government and Hizbullah’s Struggle Against Israel Accessed July 30, 2006 Although some Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia) have condemned Hezbollah's actions, saying that "the Arabs and Muslims can't afford to allow an irresponsible and adventurous organization like Hezbollah to drag the region to war" and calling it "dangerous adventurism," Hezbollah is regarded as a legitimate resistance movement throughout much of Lebanese society and the Arab and Muslim world. In August 2008, Lebanon's cabinet completed a policy statement which recognized "the right of Lebanon's people, army, and resistance to liberate the Israeli-occupied Shebaa Farms, Kafar Shuba Hills, and the Lebanese section of Ghajar village, and defend the country using all legal and possible means." Nafez Qawas, The Daily Star (August 6, 2008). "Berri summons Parliament to vote on policy statement" Retrieved August 6, 2008. See also Hamas Fatah Israel-Lebanon conflict 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict 2006–2007 Lebanese political protests 2008 conflict in Lebanon History of Lebanon Foreign relations of Lebanon Politics of Lebanon AMIA bombing United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 Al-Mahdi Scouts Operation Kept Promise Jihad Construction History of Terrorism Footnotes ReferencesBooks </div>Articles (copy) (full election results report) External links Official sites Islamic Resistance in Lebanon Promise For the Resistance Movement Support Hizbullah - the Party of God - List of links to official websites and documents UN resolutions regarding Hezbollah UN Press Release SC/8181 UN, September 2, 2004 Lebanon: Close Security Council vote backs free elections, urges foreign troop pullout UN, September 2, 2004 Other links Hezbollah: Financing Terror through Criminal Enterprise, Testimony of Matthew Levitt, Hearing of the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, United States Senate Hizbullah's two republics by Mohammed Ben Jelloun, Al-Ahram, February 15-21, 2007 Inside Hezbollah, short documentary and extensive information from Frontline/World'' on PBS. An Open Letter: The Hezbollah Program - Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto translated into English. 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