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[ "The flag of Greece features stripes of blue and white, and a blue and white cross in the canton.", "The Flag of Greece changed many times throughout Greek history . It is today recognized by the blue and white colours on it. Often referred to as the \"blue-white\", the present flag is based on nine horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white. On the top left, there is a blue square canton with a white cross, symbol of the Greek Orthodoxy , the established religion of the Greeks. But the flag changed few times during the Greek history.", "The Flag of Greece consists of nine blue and white alternating horizontal stripes with a blue square on the top left that contains a white cross.", "The flag of Greece (Greek: Σημαία της Ελλάδος, popularly referred to as the Γαλανόλευκη or the Κυανόλευκη, the \"blue-white\") is based on nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white. There is a blue canton in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolises Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the people of Greece. According to popular tradition, the nine stripes represent the nine syllables of the phrase \"Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος\" (\"Freedom or Death\", \" E-lef-the-ri-a i Tha-na-tos\"), the five blue stripes for the syllables \"Έλευθερία\" and the four white stripes \"ή Θάνατος\". There is also a different theory, that the nine stripes symbolize the nine Muses, the goddesses of art and civilization (nine has traditionally been one of the numbers of reference for the Greeks). The official flag ratio is 2:3.", "Blue and white on the Greek flag represent the sky and the sea. The sea is critical to Greek livelihood. Much of Greece's industry is related to the sea, hence the importance of the color blue to the Greeks. Scholars also believe that the blue and white of the Greek flag may also be associated with Greek gods or goddesses.", "The flag of Greece (popularly referred to as the \"sky-blue-white\" or the \"blue-white\" and in Greek: \"Γαλανόλευκη\" or \"Κυανόλευκη\"), officially recognised by Greece as one of its national symbols, is based on nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white. There is a blue canton in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolises Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the established religion of the Greek people of Greece and Cyprus. According to popular tradition, the nine stripes represent the nine syllables of the phrase \"Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος\" (\"Freedom or Death\"), the five blue stripes for the syllables \"Έλευθερία\" and the four white stripes \"ή Θάνατος\". The nine stripes are also said to represent the letters of the word \"freedom\" (Greek: Ελευθερία). There is also a different theory, that the nine stripes symbolise the nine Muses, the goddesses of art and civilisation (nine has traditionally been one of the numbers of reference for the Greeks). The official flag ratio is 2:3.[http://www.presidency.gr/index.php?option", "Unlike most national flags, there is no \"official\" shade of color required. Any blue may be used for the flag, so you will see them ranging from a relatively pale \"baby\" blue to a deep navy blue. Most flags tend to use a dark blue or royal blue but you'll see them in all shades around Greece. The nickname of the Greek flag is \"Galanolefci\", or the \"blue and white\", similar to the way that the American flag is sometimes just called the \"red, white and blue\".", "The blue and white cross represents the Greek Orthodox religion. Formerly, the national flag of Greece was simply a blue and white cross. The flag in its current incarnation has been used symbolically since 1828, but it did not become the national flag of Greece until December 22, 1978.", "As in Greek mythology , there are always other versions and explanations. Some say the nine stripes on the Greek flag represent the Nine Muses of Greek myth, and that the colors of blue and white represent Aphrodite rising up from the sea foam.", "The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence. The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority – see flag of Cyprus).", "The nine stripes are said to stand for the nine syllables of the Greek patriots' motto: 'Eleutheria e Thanatos' meaning 'Freedom or Death'. but another theory states that they also symbolize the nine Muses, the goddesses of art and civilization. The blue and white colors represent the Greek sea and sky combined with white clouds and waves. The white also represents the purity of the country's struggle for independence and for freedom. The cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy which the established religion of the country.", "The above patterns were officially adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus on 13 January 1822. Blue and white have many interpretations, symbolizing the colors of the famed Greek sky and sea (combined with the white clouds and waves), traditional colors of Greek clothes in the islands and the mainland, etc.", "3. What colour is the cross on the Greek flag? White N Blue T Black I 4.", "It has been suggested by some Greek historians that the current flag derived from an older design, the virtually identical flag of the powerful Cretan Kallergis family. This flag was based on their coat of arms, whose pattern is supposed to be derived from the standards of their claimed ancestor, Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963–969 AD). This pattern (according to not easily verifiable descriptions) included nine stripes of alternating blue and white, as well as a cross, assumed to be placed on the upper left N. Zapheiriou, Η Ελληνική Σημαία από τους αρχαίους χρόνους μέχρι σήμερα (The Greek Flag from Antiquity to Present), Eleftheri Skepsis, Athens 1995 (reprint of original 1947 publication) ISBN 960-7199-60-X", "Because of the use of the word 'cyan' (Greek: Κυανός, Kyanos), which can also mean 'blue' in Greek, the exact shade of blue remains ambiguous. Although it implies the use of a light shade of blue, such as on the flag of the United Nations, the colours of the Greek flag tend to be darker, especially during the dictatorship and in recent years, with the exception of the years of the rule of King Otto, when a very light shade of blue was used. Consequently, the shade of blue is largely left to the flagmakers to decide, as shown in the table below. ", "The flag of Macedonia (Greece) , adopted in 1980s, is a blue banner featuring the Vergina Sun , the emblem of the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon .", "The flag of the island of the Mani Peninsula , adopted in 1821 during the Greek Revolution , features a white field with a blue Greek cross and the phrases «ΝΙΚΗ Ή ΘΑΝΑΤΟΣ» (\"VICTORY OR DEATH\", a traditional Greek battle cry) and «ΤΑΝ Ή ΕΠΙ ΤΑΣ» (a Laconic phrase said by Spartan mothers to their sons when they left for war; lit. \"IT OR ON IT\" meaning that if the Spartan is to return alive he should return with his shield [so as to have not dropped it and fled the battle] or be returned on it by his comrades, dead).", "The main color of the flag is dark blue (Reflex Blue, a mixture of cyan and magenta), while stars are represented in yellow gold.", "However, before the creation of this flag in the early 1820s, there were other flags to symbolize the Greek nation. Particularly popular was the flag of the 1769 uprising, with a blue cross in a white background. This design was widely used in battles in the Greek Revolution of 1821. It was in this flag that the leaders of 1821, such as Theodoros Kolokotronis and Andreas Miaoulis, took the vow to fight for liberation.", "Flag description: Two equal width horizontal bands of red (top) and blue separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal Y, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side; the Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes", "The flag of Spetses , adopted in early 1821 during the Greek Revolution , features an azure field surrounded by a thick red border, defaced with a Cross on an overturned Crescent (symbolizing the Christian Greek victory over the Muslim Ottoman Empire ), a spear (symbolizing the armed struggle for freedom), an anchor (symbolizing the maritime tradition and merchant wealth of the island as well as most of Greece), a snake around the anchor (symbolizing the Goddess Athena, wisdom and the island's ancient Greek heritage), a dove (symbolizing peace, justice and prosperity) and the words «ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΑ Ή ΘΑΝΑΤΟΣ», meaning \"FREEDOM OR DEATH\", Greece's National Motto.", "Left: The flag used on the ships of the colonial English Honourable East India Company established in 1600; Right: The modern Greek flag initialy adopted in 1822. So, Greece nicked a foreign flag, changed the colors.. and Voila! We have a flag! Before you disagree, count the number of the stripes, both flags have 9. The Greeks claim that they represent the 9 sylables of their Independence War motto: “Elefteria i Thanatos!” (“Freedom or Death!”). Why should a 17 century English flag also have exactly 9 stripes then?  The Greek cross in the canton is evidently stolen from the red English St. George’s cross and re-painted in white. Shame…", "The three national colours – white, green and red – are linked to those used by the Old Bulgarian Army. The left wing of the army was distinguished by white strips on its spears, the right being marked with red ones. The elite troops, arranged in the middle, had a green strip, which was the traditional colour of the ruler at the time. The three-coloured flag had first been used by the First Bulgarian Legion of Georgi Rakovski (1861) and then confirmed as Bulgaria’s national flag in the Turnovo Constitution (1879).", "The flag of Bulgaria (Bulgarian: знаме на България, zname na Balgariya) is a tricolour consisting of three equal-sized horizontal bands of (from top to bottom) white, green, and red. The flag was first adopted after the Russo-Turkish War (1877�1878), where Bulgaria gained independence. The national flag at times was charged with the state emblem, especially during the People's Republic of Bulgaria. The current flag was re-established with the 1991 Constitution of Bulgaria and was confirmed in a 1998 law.", "Unlike Army, Police and Air Force, the Hellenic Navy uses the Flag of Greece as both the naval ensign and national colour.", "The tricolour design is modelled after that of the flag of France . The colors are derived from the historical Hungarian coat of arms . Red is said to symbolise strength, white faithfulness, and green hope.", "After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the new king, Otto, added the royal Coat of Arms (a shield in his ancestral Bavarian pattern topped by a crown) in the centre of the cross for military flags (both land and sea versions). Additionally, the ratios of the country's flags were set to 7:10 for the state flag and 18:25 for the state and naval ensign by a decree dated 3 June 1833. After Otto's abdication in 1862, the royal coat of arms was removed, only to be replaced by a simple royal crown in 1863 when the new king, George I, arrived in Greece. A square version of the land flag with St. George in the centre was adopted on 9 April 1864 as the Army's colours. Similar arrangements were made for the royal flags, which featured the coat of arms of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg on a square version of the national flag. The exact shape and usage of the flags was determined by Royal Decree on 26 September 1867. By a new Royal Decree, on 31 May 1914, the flag with the crown was adopted for use as a state flag by ministries, embassies and civil services, while the sea flag was allowed for use by private citizens.", "Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and, later, Eastern Europe. It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926. ", "An earlier version of the Greek flag had a diagonal cross in the corner instead of the square one now used. This version of the flag dates back to 1822, just after Greece declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821.", "Flag of Greece.svg|National flag for use abroad and as the civil ensign. Since 1978 the sole national flag of Greece", "Information about the National flag of Greece, the flag of revolution and the flag of the Greek church.", "The use of the Greek flag is regulated by Law 851. More specifically, the law states that:" ]

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[ "Corsica (; ; Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to France. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the Italian island of Sardinia. Mountains make up two-thirds of the island, forming a single chain.", "Sardinia is the Mediterranean’s second-largest island, right behind its Italian sister Sicily to the south. As with Corsica to the north, Sardinia is replete with natural beauty including beaches that have long drawn tourists from mainland Europe each summer. Sardinia has also historically been something of a hotspot destination for top-dollar megayachts whose charter guests want to enjoy more pristine natural scenery than mainland France and Italy can offer. Hence the upscale restaurants and shops you will find in many of Sardinia’s towns, which flourish continually with an ambience that appeals to everyday visitors and millionaires alike.", "Corsica Island is a French Island located in the Mediterranean Sea. This island is surrounded by the border of Italy and France. Sardinia Island is located at the north side of Corsica Island. Generally, most of the land is occupied by the mountains. There are 27 regions of France and Corsica is one of them. Interestingly, the French emperor Napolean Bonaparte was born in the capital city of the Corsica Island. Corsica Island is also known as “Island of Beauty”. This is because of the diversified nature and preservation of natural locations from the aggressive development. This natural island is considered as the pearl of the Mediterranean Sea.", "Sardinia is a large island west of Italy and south of the island of Corisca .", "Sardinia (in Italian: Sardegna) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily), with an area of 24,090 square kilometres (9,301 sq mi).", "Corsica is much smaller, in parts wilder and more mountainous than Sardinia. It has comparatively few beaches as against the 600 plus recognised beaches on Sardinia however there are a few gems notably in the South West & S.East of the island.", "Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24100 km2. It is situated between 38° 51' and 41° 18' latitude north (respectively Isola del Toro and Isola La Presa) and 8° 8' and 9° 50' east longitude (respectively Capo dell'Argentiera and Capo Comino). To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea; to Sardinia's east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, which is also an element of the Mediterranean Sea. ", ", Ital. Sardegna, region (1991 pop. 1,648,248), 9,302 sq mi (24,092 sq km), W Italy, mostly on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, which is separated in the north from Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio.", "Sardinia was mainly of strategic importance. It�s grain harvest no doubt proved useful, but else the island was of little value to Rome. Corsica meanwhile was merely a derelict territory with some timber and limited mineral wealth.", "* Corsican is spoken on the French island of Corsica and in the extreme north of Sardinia. Traditionally split up into three different dialects pertaining to the northern and southern halves of Corsica, in addition to the Sardinian subregion of Gallura, the origins of the language date back to the Middle Ages and are closely related to Tuscan. Its prospects of survival are better than most other French minority languages, but it still suffers from the lack of promotion.", "Sardinia island and regione (region) of Italy, second in size only to Sicily among the islands of the western Mediterranean. It lies 120 miles (200 km) west of the mainland of Italy, 7.5 miles (12 km) south of the neighbouring French island of Corsica, and 120...", "This island, located in the Mediterranean to Italy’s west and just south of Corsica, is a long-time favorite summer destination of Italians… with reason! The beaches are stunning, and the resort towns of Costa Smerelda, in the island’s north, buzz with nightlife. Visit the interior of Sardinia, though, and it’s a different picture, a rural, agricultural area with lots of tiny towns. And by visiting even Sardinia’s most popular coastal areas outside of July or August, you’ll find it’s surprisingly tranquil.", "Corsica is slightly more expensive than Sardinia, both islands really are Italianate in flavour. (Corsica is not really French at heart but a very individual island with an Italian feel). The traditional food in Corsica is very hearty, wild boar stews, etc.whilst the Italian cuisine on Sardinia is well more Italian, pasta, fish, pizza etc.", "These two Western Mediterranean islands are often included on the same yacht charter itineraries even though one is part of France and the other is part of Italy. That’s because French Corsica sits just above Italian Sardinia on a map, much like buttons on a shirt. Their proximity to each other, though, has not diminished the unique culture that each of these islands offers to charter guests who enter their many picturesque harbors. You simply can’t visit one of these two islands without wanting to visit the other.", "I have never been to Sardinia , but I can strongly vouch for Corsica for the reason villafanny mentions.", "French Corsica  (together with Italian Sardinia) offers some of the most pleasant cruising grounds in the western Mediterranean, especially with nearby Elba (see W Italy section), and the straits of Bonifacio. There are hundreds of coves with brilliant white beaches, little intrusive development, plenty of anchorages and good marinas. The island can be circumnavigated day sailing. Allow two weeks for only the highlights; but you can easily fill four weeks or more. Some older town centres are very attractive. Some of the most dramatic coastal scenery of the Mediterranean can be seen along the west coast. Periods of brisk westerly winds add excitement, some swell on  the west coasts, and strong winds between the islands and past the north cape (Cape Corse).  The whole area is very busy in peak season.  Corsican separatists have been active in recent years.", "After exploring a few beaches and coves on the north end of Sardinia, we sailed northwest across the Strait of Bonifacio t o the French island of Corsica. The 7-mile wide strait separates Corsica from Sardinia and divides the Mediterranean Sea on the west from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the east. The strait is notorious among sailors for its weather, currents, shoals and other obstacles. For Golden Glow, the winds brought us excellent sailing conditions.", "At the end of May, a college friend and I spent 11 days traveling through Sardinia and Corsica, Italian and French islands (respectively) off the western coast of Italy. Admittedly, we ran into a few shoulder-season logistical snags, but nothing we couldn't handle. Here's what it was like:", "Coasts are generally rocky and tall, especially along the Eastern half; large beaches are found however on the North and Northeast (Logudoro and Gallura), the South (from Teulada to Pula) and the Southwest (Sulcis-Iglesiente). Apart from the Strait of Bonifacio (famed for its often rough sea) which divides Corsica from Sardinia, the surrounding sea is quite deep at short distances from the shore.", "At that time, the city was a very important commercial centre and controlled a significant Mediterranean merchant fleet and navy. It expanded its powers in 1005 through the sack of in the south of Italy. Pisa was in continuous conflict with the Saracens, who had their bases in Corsica, for control of the Mediterranean. In 1017 Sardinian Giudicati were militarily supported by Pisa, in alliance with Genoa, to defeat the Saracen King Mugahid who had settled a logistic base in the north of Sardinia the year before. This victory gave Pisa supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea. When the Pisans subsequently ousted the Genoese from Sardinia, a new conflict and rivalry was born between these mighty marine republics. Between 1030 and 1035, Pisa went on to defeat several rival towns in Sicily and conquer Carthage in North Africa. In 1051–1052 the admiral Jacopo Ciurini conquered Corsica, provoking more resentment from the Genoese. In 1063 admiral Giovanni Orlando, coming to the aid of the Norman Roger I, took Palermo from the Saracen pirates. The gold treasure taken from the Saracens in Palermo allowed the Pisans to start the building of their cathedral and the other monuments which constitute the famous .", "Both Olbia and Cagliari have airports, as does the vibrant resort of Alghero  in the northwest of the island, which retains its distinctive Catalan flavour and a friendly, unspoiled air despite its healthy tourist industry. Sardinia’s biggest interior town, Nuoro , makes a useful stopover for visiting some of the remoter mountain areas. Of these, the Gennargentu range, covering the heart of the island, holds the highest peaks and provides rich evidence of the island’s traditional culture, in particular the numerous village festivals.", "This is a very difficult one to answer. I have visited Corsica approximately 10 times between 1966 when I first visited with my parents as a child and the last time in September 2009. I have only visited Sardinia 3 times, the last time in June 2009.", "Which sea is bounded by Corsica and Sardinia (to the west), the Italian peninsula (regions of Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria) to the east, and Sicily (to the south)?", "In the first quarter of the 11th century, Pisa and Genoa together freed the island from the Arab danger. After that, the island came under the influence of the republic of Pisa. To this period belong the many polychrome churches which adorn the island, and in that time Corsica experienced a massive immigration from Tuscany, which gave to the island its present toponymy and rendered the language spoken in the northern two-thirds of the island very close to the Tuscan Language. Due to that, then began also the traditional division of Corsica in two parts, along the main chain of mountains roughly going from Calvi to Porto Vecchio: the eastern Banda di dentro, or Cismonte, more populated, evolved and open to the commerce with Italy, and the western Banda di fuori, or Pomonte, almost deserted, wild and remote.", "Before 1975, Corsica was a départment of the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. In 1975 two new départements, Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud, were created by splitting the hitherto united departement of Corsica.", "In the French County of Nice, autochthonous speakers of regional languages of Italy (Ligurian and Piedmontese), are natives in the region since before annexation to France in 1860. The number of inhabitants with Italian ancestry is generally indeterminable, and the use of French language is now ubiquitous. In addition, Corsica was a part of the Republic of Genoa until 1768 and most of the islanders still have a certain level of proficiency of Corsican, a language of the Italo-Dalmatian family closely related to Tuscan. The Italian language ceased to have official status in Corsica in 1859 when it was supplanted by French and a process of de-Italianization was started by the French government in Corsica (and in 1861 the Nizzardo area).", "I've been to Sardinia a few times and always in Gallura (the northernmost portion). Santa Teresa is nice.", "Getting there: There are no direct flights from North America to Sardinia but many European and Italian cities have nonstop routes. Or, take a ferry from a coastal city like Genoa or Naples in Italy, or Marseille in France.", "The \"giudicato\" of Karalis comprised a large area of the Campidano plain, the mineral resources of the Sulcis region and the mountain region of Ogliastra. In the 11th century, the Pisan republic, one of the four Italian \"maritime republics\" of the Middle Ages, conquered the kingdom of Karalis and re-built the town of Cagliari. Pisa had a keen interest in Sardinia because it was a perfect strategic base for controlling the commercial routes between Italy and North Africa.", "Despite all the development in the northeast, most of the island is unspoiled. Farmers still work vineyards and tend hillsides where cork and almond trees grow. Religious processions file through every town, with musicians singing a cappella and playing wooden flutes called solitti. For these traditional experiences, Angela recommends several specific areas in the Gallura region. The Maddalena archipelago, for instance, is easily accessible (ferries run regularly from Palau) and thus, says Angela, better to visit during the off-season. But it is a low-key change from the Costa Smeralda, with its own remote beaches and a thriving old port city. The place also has some history: Napoleon came through and Garibaldi retired here; old buildings, inhabited by non-jet-setting Sardinians, line the streets.", "In 1729 the Corsican Revolution for independence began, first led by Luigi Giafferi and Giacinto Paoli, and later by Paoli's son, Pasquale Paoli. After 26 years of struggle against the Republic of Genoa (plus an ephemeral attempt to proclaim in 1736 an independent Kingdom of Corsica under the German adventurer Theodor von Neuhoff), the independent Corsican Republic was proclaimed in 1755 under the leadership of Pasquale Paoli and remained sovereign until 1769, when the island was conquered by France. The first Corsican Constitution was written in Italian (the language of culture in Corsica until the middle of the 19th century) by Paoli.", "Porto-Vecchio is a very popular town on the south-east coast of Corsica about 25 kilometres north-east of Bonifacio. The town also has easy access to both beautiful beaches and high mountain scenery, which explains its popularity with visitors to Corsica." ]

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[ "Ireland was declared a Republic on 18 April 1949 by Taoiseach , John A. Costello . The state adopted an official description, the Republic of Ireland while keeping its name, Ireland. [21] In doing so Ireland left the Commonwealth . The last constitutional links to the United Kingdom had finally been cut, ironically not by the revolutionary de Valera.", "The adoption of the Statute of Westminster was soon followed by the debate on the future of the British Commonwealth in its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. In April 1949 Ireland, formerly the Irish Free State, declared itself a republic and ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth. Fraser's government reacted by passing the Republic of Ireland Act 1949, which treated Ireland as if it were still a member of the Commonwealth. Meanwhile, newly independent India would have to leave the Commonwealth on becoming a republic also, although it was the Indian Prime Minister's view that India should remain a member of the Commonwealth as a republic. Fraser believed that the Commonwealth could as a group address the evils of colonialism and maintain the solidarity of common defence. ", "In 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or \"Ireland\") in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became \"of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India\".", "1949 The Republic of Ireland Act came into force as Eire (Southern Ireland) became a Republic and left the British Commonwealth.", "Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to \"Commonwealth countries and Ireland\". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom.", "On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948. Because it did this, it was automatically excluded from the Commonwealth. While Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s and was content to leave the Commonwealth, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would accept the British Sovereign as a \"symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth\". Upon hearing this, King George VI told the Indian politician Krishna Menon: \"So, I've become 'as such'\". The other Commonwealth countries recognised India's continuing membership of the association. At Pakistan's insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.", "After World War II the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then subject territories (most importantly in India under the influence of the pacifist Mohandas Gandhi ), and partly owing to the British Government's straitened circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. Burma (now Myanmar ) ( 1948 ) and South Yemen ( 1967 ) are among the only former colonies that did not join the Commonwealth on independence. Ireland was a member but left the Commonwealth upon becoming a republic in 1949 .", "Eventually a somewhat stable situation emerged with the self government of 26 of Ireland's counties known as the Irish Free State; the remaining six, located in the north of the country comprising two-thirds of the ancient province of Ulster, remained part of the United Kingdom — a status that has continued to the present day. In 1949 the Irish Free State became \"Ireland\" (a.k.a. the Republic of Ireland) and withdrew from the British Commonwealth of Nations.", "Through the London declaration of 1949, India was allowed to remain in the Commonwealth after declaring itself a republic (without the British monarch as its head of state).", "The major decline of the British Empire began almost immediately after the Second World War when India was partitioned into two new Dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947. Ceylon became a Dominion in 1948 and Burma broke away from the British Commonwealth to become an independent republic. In 1948, the United Nations terminated Britain’s mandate in Palestine and partitioned it into a Jewish state and Arab lands. The independent State of Israel was born in 1949. To this day, it has an uneasy relationship with its Arab neighbours. Libya gained independence in 1952, Eritrea joined Ethiopia in 1951 and Somalia reverted to Italian control as a Trust Territory on 1 April 1950, gaining independence in 1960.", "Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita, [175] [176] [177] became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary , became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.", "The Commonwealth evolved in 1949 after the dependence of India, which was partitioned into two wholly independent nations: Pakistan and India. The latter wished to remain in the Commonwealth despite owing no “allegiance to the Crown”. The problem was solved by a conference of Commonwealth ministers that same year, which concluded that sovereign nations could still be a part of the Commonwealth with no implied allegiance to Britain as long as they saw the Crown as “the symbol of the free association” of the Commonwealth. The name ‘British’ was also dropped from the title to better reflect the new arrangement. Many other colonies soon developed into their own republics, joining the Commonwealth as they did so, especially during the second half of the twentieth century as African and Asian nations became independent. New ground was broken in 1995, when Mozambique joined, despite never having been a British colony.", "Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.", "In the 1950s, British governments struggled to achieve this post-war imperial vision. They had already reinvented the Commonwealth in 1949 in order to let India remain a republic, overturning the old rule that the British monarch must be head of state in a Commonwealth country.", "The Republic of Ireland Act (1948) came into force on Easter Monday, April 1949, ending vestigial British authority in Eire. Under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, the British crown had retained some authority in the Irish Free State, although this was limited by the 1937 constitution. The 1948 Act repealed the External Relations Act and took Eire out of the Commonwealth.", "1 Technically, on becoming a republic, states formally leave the Commonwealth. They have to re-apply for admittance, which is nowadays normally granted automatically. The Republic of Ireland did not apply for re-admittance as the Commonwealth at the time as the Commonwealth did not allow republican membership. However then Leader of the Opposition Eamon de Valera believed Ireland's decision not to apply to stay was a mistake. He and his successor as taoiseach , Sean Lemass both considered re-applying. Eamon � Cuiv, a minister in the present Irish Government (and himself de Valera's grandson) raised the issue of Ireland re-applying a number of times in the 1990s. However, the issue arouses hostility in Ireland, as the Commonwealth is still associated with British imperialism, even though the majority of member states are now republics.", "• Find out which members of the Commonwealth became republics and when; e.g. India in 1950, South Africa in 1961 and Fiji in 1970, and which members of the Commonwealth have remained constitutional monarchies; e.g. New Zealand, Canada, United Kingdom, Tonga and New Guinea.", "At various times, some countries of the Commonwealth retained the title until they formally became republics, e.g. South Africa from 29 May 1953. Others dropped it even sooner, e.g. in 1953, while still a dominion of the Commonwealth (until 1956), Pakistan dropped the title in recognition of the contradiction between its overwhelmingly Muslim population and having a monarch as the defender of the Christian faith.", "Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games. On 3 October 2013, after 48 years of membership, The Gambia became the most recent nation to withdraw from the Commonwealth. ", "midnight, on 15 August 1947, India also became a sovereign and democratic nation. Eventually, 15 August became the Independence Day for India, due to the ending of British rule over India. On that 15 August, both Pakistan and India had the right to remain in or remove themselves from the British Commonwealth. In 1949, India decided to remain in the commonwealth.", "On 4 February 1948, Ceylon, as the nation was then known, became politically independent of Great Britain , though it remained part of the Commonwealth.", "The Commonwealth of Nations , usually known as the Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which are former British colonies, or dependencies of these colonies (the exceptions being the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique).", "Following the Allied victory in the Second World War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain with Germany being split into East and West. The Central-East was dominated by the Soviet Union, and the countries in that region became communist states. The rest was dominated by capitalist countries under the economic and military leadership of the United States. Both of the leading countries were superpowers. Most non-communist European countries joined a US-led military alliance (NATO) and formed the European Economic Community amongst themselves. The countries in the Soviet sphere of influence joined the military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact and the economic bloc called Comecon. A few small countries were neutral. Germany and Italy became two major industrialized countries again, due their post-war economic miracle, and joined the 1st G6 summit with the UK and France. The European Union involved the division of powers, with taxation, health and education handled by the nation states, while the EU had charge of market rules, competition, legal standards and environmentalism. Defense policy was handled by the nations through NATO, but the EU did have a role in setting foreign policies. The Soviet economic and political system collapsed in 1989-91, leading first to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989, and then to the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in 1991. As a consequence, Germany was reunited, Europe's integration deepened, the continent became depolarised, and the European Union expanded to include many of the formerly communist European countries.", "What was left of the British Empire disintegrated following World War Two (1939-1945). England had been ravaged financially and as a population by the war ( including 450,000 war dead ) and could no longer maintain the colonial possessions it had. The forces for independence had gained considerable ground in India and Australia had turned to the USA in its hour of need following the threat from Imperial Japan in 1941. South Africa was assembling the legal, political and social framework for Apartheid. The Commonwealth of Nations had emerged as a functioning international body by 1947, the same year India gained self government.", "Britain has voted to leave the European Union to take greater control of its economy and its borders, shattering the stability of the continental unity forged after World War II.", "The Commonwealth, or The Commonwealth of Nations, is a group of 53 states, all of which (except for two) were formerly part of the British Empire. As nations began the process of succeeding from the British Empire in the early part of the 1900s, it was created, largely, to ease the process of British decolonization. It was seen as a way of maintaining global unity through shared language, history, and culture despite growing independence and self-governance of former British colonies.", "The Commonwealth of Nations, often called just the Commonwealth, is an association of 53 independent nations, all but one of which are former British colonies or related dependencies. Although the British empire is mostly no more, these nations grouped together to use their history to promote peace, democracy and development. There are substantial economic ties and a shared history.", "Formerly known as the British Commonwealth, the Commonwealth of Nations is a loose association of former British colonies and current dependencies, along with some countries that have no historical ties to Britain.", "1949 - Commonwealth prime ministers issue the London Declaration, which changes membership from one based on common allegiance to the British Crown to one in which members agree to recognise the British monarch as head of the Commonwealth, rather than as their head of state.", "The 1950s was a period of shifting dynamics between England and Australia. Ties of Empire were still strong but Australia increasingly saw itself as an independent, modern nation developing its own strategic relationships within the Asia Pacific region.", "Through a process of decolonisation following the second world war, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean gained independence. Some colonies became Commonwealth realms, retaining the British monarch as their own head of state. Most former colonies and protectorates became member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. ", "In the wake of World War II nationalism is out of favour in large parts of continental Europe and support for federalism is high. The European Union of Federalists organises a Congress at The Hague in 1948 in the hope of drawing up a European constitution. But the UK rejects the federal approach and the result is the Council of Europe a loose grouping that becomes a guardian of Europe's human rights." ]

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[ "Shamrock (type of clover) is the national symbol of Ireland and along with the harp it is a registered trademark of the country.", "The state shares many symbols with the island of Ireland. These include the colours green and blue, animals such as the Irish wolfhound and stags, structures such as round towers and celtic crosses, and designs such as Celtic knots and spirals. The shamrock, a type of clover, has been a national symbol of Ireland since the 17th century when it became customary to wear it as a symbol on St. Patrick's Day. These symbols are used by state institutions as well as private bodies in the Republic of Ireland.", "Several types of plants are called shamrocks. Each of them is trifoliate-that is, each of their leaves has three leaflets. According to legend, in the 5th century St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, chose the shamrock as a symbol of the Trinity (three persons in one God) of the Christian church. He is said to have used the plant to illustrate the Trinity to a skeptic, saying, \"Do you not see how in this wildflower three leaves are united on one stalk, and will you not then believe that there are indeed three persons and yet one God?\" The shamrock remains the national emblem of Ireland and is worn proudly by Irish people the world over on St. Patrick’s Day (March 17).", "After all, the shamrock is without a doubt the most universally recognized symbol of Ireland. It has such power to define Ireland in the minds of people that it is used in the official logos of many major Irish organizations, like Fáilte Ireland, the Irish Tourist Board, for example.", "Symbol for luck and the unofficial, yet most recognizable, symbol of Ireland. The shamrock is a single-stemmed plant with three leaves and grows on the hills of Ireland. The shamrock is everywhere: postcards, t-shirts, cereal boxes, you name it – if it’s “Irish,” there’s typically a shamrock involved. The shamrock was made famous by St. Patrick, the Patron Saint of Ireland. Legend tells that he used the shamrock’s three leaves to help explain the Holy Trinity to the pagans during his mission to bring Christianity Ireland.", "It is thought that the shift happened for several reasons - Ireland's nickname is the 'Emerald Isle', there is green in the Irish flag and the shamrock, Ireland's national symbol, is also green.", "As St. Patrick is Ireland’s patron saint, shamrock has been used as a symbol of Ireland since the 18th century, in a similar way to how a rose is used for England, thistle for Scotland and leek for Wales. The shamrock first began to change from a symbol purely associated with St. Patrick to an Irish national symbol when it was taken up as an emblem by rival militias, during the turbulent politics of the late eighteenth century. [ 57 ]", "On the subject of green plants, it should be said that the colour of St. Patrick was not actually green, but blue. In the 19th century, however, green came to be used as a symbol of Ireland. Thanks to plentiful rain and mists, the \"Emerald Isle\" is indeed green all the year 'round, which is probably the inspiration for the national colour. Although many people would presume that the shamrock is also the national emblem of Ireland, this is not so. The national symbol of Ireland is the harp.", "Ireland does not have a national flower. However, the shamrock is a registered trademark of the Republic of Ireland and is also the unofficial national flower of both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Despite its unofficial status, and the fact that many people do not consider the clover a flower, the floral industry usually designates it as the Republic of Ireland's national flower while the British government also calls it the national flower for their Northern Ireland territory on British prime minister's website.", "The shamrock has been a symbol of Irish identity for centuries and has played significant roles in both the legends and history of the Emerald Isle. According to some Irish legends, the Druids of the country's Celtic past believed the shamrock was sacred because of its three leaves, three being an important number in the Druidic religion. Another legend, this time about St. Patrick, states that Ireland's patron saint used the leaves of the shamrock on his travels to explain the Holy Trinity.", "Throughout the 19th century, the shamrock was used as a decorative symbol on everything Irish from churches and other public buildings, to clothing and household furniture. It wasn't long before anything connected with Ireland at all displayed shamrocks in some way. So the shamrock legend had taken on new meaning to Irish people. It went beyond being a spiritual symbol and became a source of empowerment and national pride.", " On seeing a Shamrock you almost always think of Ireland, so famous now is the association between the two. But what actually is a Shamrock and how did it become the National Flower of Ireland?", "The shamrock is a symbol both for the Holy Trinity and St. Patrick (389-461). The shamrock is a clover plant with a yellow flower and leaflets made up of a stem with three small green leaves. The plant is very common and widely distributed throughout Ireland.", "Shamrock, Seamóg or Seamair Óg, the Irish for a young clover can be found growing wild throughout Ireland. It is worn on the feast day of St. Patrick, 17th March, to represent a link with Saint Patrick, the Bishop who spread the Christian message in Ireland. It is said Saint Patrick used the three leaved Shamrock to explain the concept of the Holy Trinity, (the Father, Son and Holy Spirit), to the pagan Irish during the 5th Century. The tradition of wearing Shamrock on Saint Patrick’s Day can be traced back to the early 1700’s.", "The colour green has been associated with Ireland since at least the 1640s, when the green harp flag was used by the Irish Catholic Confederation. Green ribbons and shamrocks have been worn on St Patrick's Day since at least the 1680s.[19] The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick, an Irish fraternity founded in about 1750,[20] adopted green as its colour.[21] However, when the Order of St. Patrick—an Anglo-Irish chivalric order—was founded in 1783 it adopted blue as its colour, which led to blue being associated with St Patrick. During the 1790s, green would become associated with Irish nationalism, due to its use by the United Irishmen. This was a republican organisation—led mostly by Protestants but with many Catholic members—who launched a rebellion in 1798 against British rule. The phrase \"wearing of the green\" comes from a song of the same name, which laments United Irishmen supporters being persecuted for wearing green. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the colour green and its association with St Patrick's Day grew.[22]", "Ireland's traditional strip consists of a green jersey, white shorts, and green socks. Their emblem consists of a shamrock and rugby ball; a shamrock has been incorporated into the emblem since the side first played in 1874.", "Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. It is also widely celebrated by the Irish diaspora around the world, especially in Great Britain, Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival. Modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. In recent years, there has been criticism of Saint Patrick's Day celebrations for having become too commercialized and for fostering negative stereotypes of the Irish.", "The Irish people ( or Na hÉireannaigh) are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies (see Prehistoric Ireland). For most of Ireland's recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people (see Gaelic Ireland). Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland in the 12th century, while England's 16th/17th century (re)conquest and colonization of Ireland brought a large number of English and Lowland Scots to parts of the island, especially the north. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland (an independent state), and the smaller Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kingdom). The people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities; including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof.", "Green is the color associated worldwide with Irishness, but within Ireland, and especially in Northern Ireland, it is more closely associated with being both Irish and Roman Catholic, whereas orange is the color associated with Protestantism, and more especially with Northern Irish people who support Loyalism to the British crown and continued union with Great Britain. The colors of red, white, and blue, those of the British Union Jack, are often used to mark the territory of Loyalist communities in Northern Ireland, just as orange, white, and green mark Irish Nationalist territory there. Sports, especially the national ones organized by the Gaelic Athletic Association such as hurling, camogie, and Gaelic football, also serve as central symbols of the nation.", "England and Scotland remained independent countries with separate parliaments, royal courts, and flags until they fully merged under the Act of Union in 1707. Queen Anne then adopted James I's symbolic flag as the national banner of Great Britain. When Ireland merged with Britain in 1801 to form the modern United Kingdom, the British flag incorporated Ireland's cross of Saint Patrick to create the modern Union Jack . The flag's design did not change after Irish independence in the mid-20th century because Saint Patrick's cross still represents Northern Ireland, which remained part of the U.K.", "Ireland is one of the few countries to have achieved consecutive wins (along with Spain, Luxembourg and Israel) and the only country to win consecutively 3 times, and winning a year later in 1996.", "It is worth noting that blue, not green, is the colour originally associated with St Patrick. “St Patrick’s Blue” is used on Ireland's Presidential Standard or flag (left), while the Irish Guards sport a plume of St Patrick’s blue in their bearskins.", "Green is a symbol of Ireland; green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St. Patrick’s Day.", "Although Ireland had had the same monarch as England and Wales since Henry VIII, it had remained a separate country. In 1801, Ireland became unified with England, Scotland and Wales after the Act of Union of 1800. This created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. One symbol of this union between England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland was a new version of the official flag, the Union Flag. This is often called the Union Jack. The flag combined crosses associated with England, Scotland and Ireland. It is still used today as the official flag of the UK.", "Shamrock, the emblem synonymous with Saint Patrick, has a very long and colourful tradition. It means many things to different people and can evoke messages relating to national pride, religion, history, celebration etc. In horticultural terms what is Shamrock and why do we wear it on St. Patrick’s Day?", "All Irish euro coins share single national design. They show the Celtic harp, a traditional symbol of Ireland, decorated with the year of issue and the word “Eire” – the Irish word for Ireland. The harp shown was designed by Jarlath Hayes.", "    The National Flag of Ireland is based on the French Tricolore. It has three equal sized vertical sections. The green left stripe represents the Catholics; the orange right stripe represents the Protestants; and the center white stripe is symbolic of peace between the two.", "The facts are clear, though, that it wasn't until 1571 that anyone made written reference to shamrocks, some 1000 years after St. Patrick. In 1681 it is first mentioned as the badge to be worn on St. Patrick's Feast Day.", "* The badge was pinned to the riband at the left hip. Made of gold, it depicted a shamrock bearing three crowns, on top of a cross of St Patrick and surrounded by a blue circle bearing the motto in majuscules, as well as the date of the Order's foundation in Roman numerals (\"MDCCLXXXIII\").", "Green stands for the predominantly Irish nationalist movement and orange (the colour of the House of Orange) for the Protestant community. White, in the middle, symbolises peace between the two communities.", "The Irish tricolour, which was adopted in 1830, is based on the French flag. The disposition of the colours (green, white and orange) was altered several times and a final decision was not taken until the 1920s. The flag was formally adopted in 1937.", "It was formerly a common custom to wear a cross made of paper or ribbon on St Patrick's Day. Surviving examples of such badges come in many colours and they were worn upright rather than as saltires. " ]

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[ "The Treaty of Rome, also known as the Treaty of the European Community (TEC), established the European Economic Community (EEC), the precursor to the European Union (EU). It was signed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Capitoline Hill, Rome on 25th March 1957 by the leaders of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, the Netherlands and Italy. The Treaty was subsequently approved by the countries’ national parliaments and came into force on 1st January 1958.", "The Treaty of Rome, officially the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (TEEC), is an international agreement that led to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC). It was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany and came into force on 1 January 1958. It remains one of the two most important treaties in the modern-day European Union (EU).", "The Treaty of Rome, officially the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (TEEC), is an international agreement that led to the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) on 1 January 1958. It was signed on 25 March 1957 by  Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The word Economic was deleted from the treaty's name by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, and the treaty was repackaged as the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union on the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009.", "The European Economic Commmunity Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Rome, was signed on March 25, 1957. The EU states that it \"brings together France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries in a community whose aim is to achieve integration via trade with a view to economic expansion. After the Treaty of Maastricht, the EEC became the European Community, reflecting the determination of the Member States to expand the Community's powers to non-economic domains.\"", "European Economic Community (EEC), organization established (1958) by a treaty signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany (now Germany); it was known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in 1967 to form the European Community (EC; known since the ratification [1993] of the Maastricht treaty as the European Union). The EEC had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It worked for the free movement of labor and capital, the abolition of trusts and cartels, and the development of joint and reciprocal policies on labor, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade.", "In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.", "In 1956, Paul Henri Spaak led the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse castle, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, of the Treaty of Rome establishing a European Economic Community.", "The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organisation which aimed to bring about economic integration among its member states. It was created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957. Upon the formation of the European Union (EU) in 1993, the EEC was incorporated and renamed as the European Community (EC). In 2009 the EC's institutions were absorbed into the EU's wider framework and the community ceased to exist.", "Europe, prior to the conclusion of World War II, was a region ravaged by large-scale \"total war\". National leaders realized after World War II that closer socio-economic and political integration was needed to ensure that such tragedies never happened again. Starting with humble beginnings, the EU's first inception was the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. The founding group of nations were Belgium , West Germany , Luxembourg , France , Italy and the Netherlands . Impressed with the results of the union, the six countries pressed on and in 1956 signed the Treaty of Rome, with the ultimate goal of creating a common market — the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1967, the union was formalised further with a the creation of a single European Commission, as well as a Council of Ministers and the European Parliament.", "7. In 1957, six Western European countries signed the Rome Treaty and created the European Economic Community", "The Founding Treaties [the European Coal and Steel Community (Paris, 1951), European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community (Rome, 1957), Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 1992]", "On March 25, 1957, representatives of six European nations signed two treaties in Rome. One created the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for the common and peaceful development of Europe’s nuclear resources. The other created the EEC. In the Common Market, trade barriers between member nations were gradually eliminated, and common policies regarding transportation, agriculture, and economic relations with nonmember countries were implemented. Eventually, labor and capital were permitted to move freely within the boundaries of the community. The EEC, the ECSC, and Euratom were served by a single council of ministers, representative assembly, and court of justice. In 1967, the three organizations were fully merged as the European Community (EC).", "With this newfound success, the European Coal and Steel Community evolved in 1958 to become the European Economic Community. This was an attempt to integrate further other parts of these varied economies in order to remove other trade barriers. The Treaty of Maastricht in 1992 continued the evolution by introducing new areas of cooperation including defense, justice, and home affairs. These combined areas created the \"community\" relationship that exists today. Also in 1992, twelve of the fifteen nations agreed to a single European currency, called the euro, which was to have been managed by the new European Central Bank.", "An economic association of European countries founded by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 as a common market for six nations. It was known as the European Community until January 1, 1994 and currently comprises 15 European countries. Its goals are a single market for goods and services without any economic barriers, and a common currency with one monetary authority.", "However, the success of the ECSC led to the member nations signing two new treaties in 1957, both called the treaty of Rome. This created two new bodies: the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) which was to pool knowledge of atomic energy, and the European Economic Community. This EEC created a common market among the member nations, with no tariffs or impediments to the flow of labour and goods. It aimed to continue economic growth and avoid the protectionist policies of pre-war Europe. By 1970 trade within the common market had increased fivefold. There was also the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to boost member’s farming and an end to monopolies. The CAP, which wasn’t based on a common market, but on government subsidies to support local farmers, has become one of most controversial EU policies.", "The creation of the EEC was in the interests of the monopolies of the six Western European countries, since it helped to strengthen their position within the community and to expand the markets for their commodities. By early 1970 trade within the community had grown 6.3 times over the 1958 level. During the same period EEC trade with third countries increased only 2.8 times. On July 1, 1968, the last (20 percent) reduction in customs duties on mutual trade of the member countries was implemented. This marked the beginning of the functioning of a customs union within the structure of the EEC. Goals set for the EEC in other areas by the Treaty of Rome were only partially implemented by the end of 1969, as a result of continual disagreements between the partner countries, especially between France and West Germany, which were attempting to establish their hegemony in the association. Two areas of especially sharp conflict were the introduction of free movement of capital between the six countries and the execution of a common policy in the area of transport.", "Maastricht Treaty (1992). The treaty which is named after the place it was signed – Maastricht, the Netherlands was signed between 12 members of the EEC on 7 February 1992. It is one of the most important EU treaties not only because it formally created the EU but also because it laid the foundation for formation of the eurozone.", "the Single European Act (1987), the Treaty on European Union 'The Maastricht Treaty' (1992), the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) , the Treaty of Nice (2001).", "Began as European Economic Community (or Common Market), an alliance of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, to create a single economic entity across national boundaries in 1958; later joined by Britain, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Austria, Finland, and other nations for further European economic integration.", "In the wake of the Second World War , which devastated the European infrastructure and economies, efforts began to forge political union through increasing economic interdependence. In 1951 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed to coordinate the production and trading of coal and steel within Europe. In 1957 the member states of the ECSC ratified two treaties creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for the collaborative development of commercial nuclear power and the European Economic Community (EEC), an international trade body whose role was to gradually eliminate national tariffs and other barriers to international trade involving member countries. Initially the EEC, or, as it was more frequently referred to at the time, the Common Market, called for a twelve- to fifteen-year period for the institution of a common external tariff among its members, but the timetable was accelerated and a common tariff was instituted in 1967.", "The EU can trace its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), formed in 1951 and 1958 respectively by the Inner Six countries of Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. ", "January 1, 1958 - The EEC (European Economic Community) known as the Common Market was formed by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and The Netherlands in order to remove trade barriers and coordinate trade policies.", "Established in 1957 as the European Community, it deals with economic cooperation and elaborates a common foreign and security policy for EU member-states.", "The European Economic Community (EEC) was formed by the “inner six” European countries that formed the ECSC six years earlier; the EEC is a forerunner for the present-day European Union", "In 1951 Belgium, West Germany , Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Netherlands established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) empowered to make decisions about these industries for the group as a whole. Jean Monnet, who had given an influential speech about this subject in 1950 was named as the ECSC president. ECSC was a great success. In 1957 the same six countries created the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) and the European Economic Community (EEC) to handle atomics and economic development in the same way, principally by removing trade barriers and creating a \"common market.\" These \"communities,\" focused on specific areas, were a step toward a greater union.", "The founding document of the EU, signed in 1957 by France, West Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries. It adds Euratom and the EEC to the ECSC.", "The EEC joins with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Community, to form the European Communities (from the 1980s usually known as European Community [EC]).", "The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of , and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.", "** The EEC joins with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Community, to form the European Communities (from the 1980s usually known as European Community [EC]).", "European Economic Community, by Barry Eichengreen: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty", "In 1967, the member nations brought the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) into the fold of the EEC. The new unified organization was officially named the European Community (EC), though many continued to use to older designation, EEC, to refer to the new union.", "an association of European nations formed in 1993 for the purpose of achieving political and economic integration." ]

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[ "[ɐ̃ˈtɔniu dɨ oliˈvɐjɾɐ sɐlɐˈzaɾ] ; 28 April 1889 – 27 July 1970) was a Portuguese professor and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. His Council of Ministers briefly served as acting President of the Republic in 1951; he was never President of the Republic, but was the virtual dictator of the country in the manner of Franco and Mussolini. He founded and led the Estado Novo (New State), the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal from 1932 to 1974. In 1940, Life magazine called Salazar \"the greatest Portuguese since Prince Henry the Navigator \". [1]", "António de Oliveira Salazar was the corporatist , fundamentalist Catholic dictator of Portugal from 1932 to 1968.", "Salazar had demanded and received virtual control of the Portuguese government through his finance ministership. He balanced the budget and brought financial propriety to the Portuguese government. In 1932 Salazar became president of the Council of Ministries which ruled Portugal. In 1933 Salazar formally created the Estado Novo, a corporatist state adhering to a system of social justice promulgated in the papal encyclical Rerum Novarum which had been issued in 1915. Salazar continued to rule Portugal through the next three and half decades. The corporatist regime continued to rule after Salazar suffered a stroke in 1968 until it was overthrown by a military coup d'etat in 1974. Salazar died in 1970. The military junta after it came to power in 1974 carried out a socialist revolution.", "The Estado Novo (, \"New State\"), or the Second Republic, was the corporatist authoritarian regime installed in Portugal in 1933, often considered to be a dictatorship. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional formed after the coup d'état of 28 May 1926 against the democratic and unstable First Republic. Together, the Ditadura Nacional and Estado Novo are recognised as the Second Portuguese Republic. The Estado Novo, greatly inspired by conservative and authoritarian ideologies, was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar, ruler of Portugal from 1932 to 1968, when he fell ill and was replaced by Marcelo Caetano.", "During the next 16 years, intense political rivalries and economic instability undermined newly established democratic institutions. Responding to pressing economic problems, a military government, which had taken power in 1926, named a prominent university economist, Antonio Salazar, as finance minister in 1928 and prime minister in 1932. For the next 42 years, Salazar and his successor, Marcelo Caetano (appointed prime minister in 1968), ruled Portugal as an authoritarian \"corporate\" state. Unlike most other European countries, Portugal remained neutral in World War II. It was a charter member of NATO, joining in 1949.", "During the next 16 years, intense political rivalries and economic instability undermined newly established democratic institutions. Responding to pressing economic problems, a military government, which had taken power in 1926, named a prominent university economist, Dr. Antonio Salazar, as finance minister in 1928 and prime minister in 1932. For the next 42 years, Salazar and his successor, Marcelo Caetano (appointed prime minister in 1968), ruled Portugal as an authoritarian \"corporate\" state. Unlike most other European countries, Portugal remained neutral in World War II. It was a charter member of NATO, joining in 1949.", "Historian Neill Lochery claims Salazar was one of the most gifted men of his generation and hugely dedicated to his job and country. According to American scholar J. Wiarda, despite certain problems and continued poverty in many sectors, the consensus among historians and economists is that Salazar in the 1930s brought remarkable improvements in the economic sphere, public works, social services and governmental honesty, efficiency and stability. In July 1940, Life magazine called Salazar \"a benevolent ruler\", described him as \"by far the world's best dictator, he [Salazar] is also the greatest Portuguese since Prince Henry the Navigator\", and added that \"the dictator has built the nation\". Life declared that \"most of what is good in modern Portugal can be credited to Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (...) The dictator is everything that most Portuguese are not – calm, silent, ascetic, Puritanical, a glutton for work, cool to women. He found a country in chaos and poverty. He has balanced the budget, built roads and schools, torn down slums, cut the death rate and enormously raised Portuguese self-esteem.\" ", "In this photo taken Friday, Oct. 9 2015, a statue of Antonio Salazar, a Portuguese dictator in colonial times, faces a wall in a courtyard of the national library in Maputo, the capital of Mozambique. Mozambique got rid of many statues, street names and other symbols of colonial rule after independence from Portugal in 1975. (AP Photo/Christopher Torchia)  (The Associated Press)", "Opposed to democracy, communism, socialism, anarchism and liberalism, the ideology of Portugal was conservative and nationalist in nature under his rule. Salazar also promoted Catholicism, but argued that the role of the Church was social, not political, and negotiated the Concordat of 1940.<br /><br /> With the Estado Novo enabling him to exercise vast political powers, Salazar used heavy-handed censorship and a ubiquitous secret police to quell opposition, especially that related to the Communist movement. He supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War, and, like Franco, kept his nation neutral during World War II. The doctrine of Pluricontinentalism was the basis of his territorial policy, a conception of the Portuguese Empire as a unified state that spanned multiple continents. During his rule, Portugal joined the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) and began the Portuguese Colonial War. The Estado Novo would collapse during the Carnation Revolution of 1974, four years after Salazar's death. Read Less", "A revolution overthrew the monarchy in 1910 and King Manuel fled into exile. The fledgling republic's early years were marred by 45 changes of government and military uprisings in its first 16 years. Antonio de Oliveria Salazar became prime minister in 1932 and ran Portugal as a police state until 1968. Today, Portugal is a republic with a parliamentary form of government.", "Only relatively recently has the nation - still the poorest in Western Europe - begun to recover from the repression and stagnation of the 40-year rule of the dictator Salazar that began in 1928. Not as notorious as Franco, the strongman next door, Salazar also persecuted socialists, communists and other undesirables and forged strong links with a hidebound, ultraconservative church hierarchy. It was for those reasons that the waggish journalist Bernard Levin, writing in the early 1960s, dubbed Portugal Britain's oldest and dirtiest ally.", "Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism and liberalism, Salazar's rule was corporatist , conservative , and nationalistic in nature. Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental nation under the doctrine of lusotropicalism , with Angola, Mozambique, and other Portuguese territories as extensions of Portugal itself, with Portugal being a source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions.", "Salazar used heavy-handed censorship and an ubiquitous secret police to quell opposition, especially that related to the Communist movement. He supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War, and like Franco kept his nation neutral during World War II. The doctrine of Pluricontinentalism was the basis of his territorial policy, conceiving of the Portuguese Empire as a unified state that spanned multiple continents. During his rule, Portugal joined the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO), and began the Portuguese Colonial War. The Estado Novo would eventually collapse during the Carnation Revolution, four years after Salazar's death.", "Portuguese right-leaning or conservative scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto and Rui Ramos, claim Salazar's early reforms and policies allowed political and financial stability and therefore social order and economic growth. On the other hand, historians like leftist politician Fernando Rosas, claim that Salazar's policies from the 1930s to the 1950s led to economic and social stagnation and rampant emigration, turning Portugal into one of the poorest countries in Europe, one that was also thwarted by scoring lower on literacy than its peers of the Northern Hemisphere.", "His rise to power was due to the image he was able to build as an honest and effective Finance Minister, President Carmona 's strong support, and political positioning. The authoritarian government consisted of a right-wing coalition, and Salazar was able to co-opt the moderates of each political current while fighting the extremists, using censorship and repression. The conservative Catholics were his earliest and most loyal supporters. The conservative republicans who could not be co-opted became his most dangerous opponents during the early period. They attempted several coups, but never presented a united front, so these coups were easily repressed. Never a true monarchist, Salazar nevertheless gained most of the monarchists' support, as the exiled deposed king was given a state funeral at the time of his death. The National Syndicalists were torn between supporting the regime and denouncing it as bourgeois. They were given enough symbolic concessions to win over the moderates, and the rest were repressed by the political police. They were to be silenced shortly after 1933, as Salazar attempted to prevent the rise of National Socialism in Portugal. Salazar also supported Francisco Franco and the Nationalists in their fight against the left-wing groups of the Spanish Republic. The Nationalists lacked ports early on, and Salazar's Portugal helped receive armaments shipments from abroad – including ammunition early on when certain Nationalist forces were virtually out. Because of this, \"the Nationalists referred to Lisbon as 'the port of Castile.'\" [8]", "This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique , as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as a pluricontinental nation and not as a colonial empire.", "This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II . From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO , OECD and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique , as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as a pluricontinental nation and not as a colonial empire.", "In March 1935, Time Magazine asserted that \"it is impossible to deny that the economic improvement recorded in Portugal since 1928 is not only without parallel anywhere else in the world, but is an achievement for which history can show but few precedents\". In July 1940, Life magazine featured an article on Salazar's tenure manifesting praise and referring how he had \"balanced the budget\", among other aspects.", "Throughout the colonial war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. However, the authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, first installed and governed by António de Oliveira Salazar and from 1968 onwards led by Marcelo Caetano, tried to preserve a vast centuries-long intercontinental empire with a total area of 2,168,071 km2. ", "The Estado Novo (New State), also known as the Second Republic , was a dictatorial regime which differed from the fascist regime of Italy by its more moderate use of state violence. Salazar was a Catholic traditionalist who believed in the necessity of control over the forces of economic modernization in order to defend the religious and rural values of the country, which he perceived as being threatened. One of the pillars of the regime was the PIDE, the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the Tarrafal prison in the African archipelago of Cape Verde , on the capital island of Santiago, or in local jails. Strict state censorship was in place.", "In 1910 a republican revolution deposed the Portuguese monarchy, starting the First Republic. Political chaos, strikes, a deteriorated relationship with the Catholic Church, and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous military intervention in the First World War led to a military coup d'état on May 28 of 1926, later, the military administration gave way to the New State in 1933, led by António de Oliveira Salazar. This New State was a right-wing, Catholic dictatorship. The regime dominated the country during the following decades, helped by a strong political police, the PIDE. In the early 1960s, independence movements became active in the colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, starting the colonial wars.", "After the Portuguese coup d'état of 28 May 1926, Salazar entered public life with the support of President Ãscar Carmona, initially as finance minister and later as prime minister. … Read More", "At home, Salazar's regime remained unmistakably authoritarian. He was able to hold onto power with reminders of the instability that had characterized Portuguese political life before 1926. However, these tactics were decreasingly successful from the 1950s onward, as a new generation emerged which had no collective memory of this instability. The clearest sign of this came in the 1958 presidential election . Most neutral observers believed the democratic opposition's candidate, Humberto Delgado , would have defeated the regime's candidate, Americo Thomaz , had the election been conducted fairly. Delgado had let it be known that if elected, he would dismiss Salazar; the president's power to dismiss the prime minister was theoretically the only check on Salazar's power. Salazar was frightened enough to transfer election of the president to the legislature, which was firmly under his control. In the 1960s, Salazar's opposition to decolonization and gradual freedom of the press created friction with the Franco dictatorship.", "In August 1968, at 79, Salazar suddenly suffered a stroke after a fall in his home, and after 36 years as prime minister of the Estado Novo regime, a personal creation, he was removed from power. President Américo Tomás , after weighing a number of choices, appointed Caetano to replace Salazar on 27 September 1968. [3] Tomás never consulted Salazar about this decision. By some accounts, when Salazar died in July 1970, he still believed he was prime minister.", "By the early 1970’s, Salazar had died. He’d suffered a stroke in 1968 and was replace by Marcelo Caetano. The regime continued as lead by Salazar. The colonial war continued unabated. The military budget was increasing, the army was over-extended. The global community was putting pressure on Novo Estados to find a resolution – and heavily criticising the handling of its affairs. The ruling administration was finding itself progressively more cut off from the rest of the world.", "In August 1968, at 79, Salazar suddenly suffered a stroke after a fall in his home. After 36 years as prime minister of the Estado Novo, he was removed from power by President Américo Tomás. After weighing a number of choices, Tomás appointed Caetano to replace Salazar on 27 September 1968. However, no one informed Salazar that he had been removed as leader of the regime he had largely created. By some accounts, when Salazar died in July 1970, he still believed he was prime minister.", "In the 1960s, Salazar's opposition to decolonisation and gradual freedom of the press created friction with the Franco dictatorship.", "^ Nicolau Andresen, \"The Salazar Regime and European Integration, 1947-1972,\" European Review of History (2007) 14#2 pp 195-214.", "Salazar suffered a stroke in 1968 and was replaced as prime minister by Marcelo Caetano. He remained unaware of his removal from office, and his staff still brought him fake government \"papers\" for his signature until his death.", "The period of transition to the authoritarian republic promised after the military takeover in 1926 ended in 1933 with the adoption of a new constitution. The 1933 constitution, dictated by Salazar, created the New State, in theory a corporate state representing interest groups rather than individuals. The constitution provided for a president directly elected for a seven-year term and a prime minister appointed by and responsible to the president. The relationship of the office of prime minister to the presidency was an ambiguous one. Salazar, continuing as prime minister, was head of government. He exercised executive and legislative functions, controlled local administration, police, and patronage, and was leader of the National Union (Uni�o Nacional--UN), an umbrella group for supporters of the regime and the only legal political organization.", "Portuguese were losing their lives in the war of 1968 in the African colonies. At a meeting of the Cabinet Salazar literally fell off his chair. The resulting injury developed into a hematoma of the brain. He was immediately taken in a hospital where he died of a stroke at the age of 81. When in a coma he was removed from all positions, but he never found out about it.", "^    In 1968 Salazar suffered a stroke; his ministers tried to continue the dictatorship but in 1974 a" ]

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[ "Luís Vaz de Camões (; sometimes rendered in English as Camoens or Camoëns (e.g. by Byron in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers),; c. 1524 or 1525 – ), is considered Portugal's and the Portuguese language's greatest poet. His mastery of verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, Vondel, Homer, Virgil and Dante. He wrote a considerable amount of lyrical poetry and drama but is best remembered for his epic work Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads). His collection of poetry The Parnasum of Luís de Camões was lost in his lifetime. The influence of his masterpiece Os Lusíadas is so profound that Portuguese is sometimes called the \"language of Camões\". ", "Luís de Camões, in full Luís Vaz de Camões, English Luis Vaz de Camoëns or Camoens (born c. 1524/25, Lisbon , Port.—died June 10, 1580, Lisbon), Portugal’s great national poet, author of the epic poem Os Lusíadas (1572; The Lusiads), which describes Vasco da Gama’s discovery of the sea route to India. Camões had a permanent and unparalleled impact on Portuguese and Brazilian literature alike, due not only to his epic but also to his posthumously published lyric poetry .", "The amphiptère is a winged serpent. Azure, an amphiptère or, rising between two mountains argent, are the arms of Camoens, the Portuguese poet.", "Torquato Tasso, a contemporary of Camoens, and the greatest Italian poet of the late Renaissance wrote: \"It may be that the Empire of the Indies be lost from the hands of the successors of Manuel, and the superb Lisbon may not see arriving in its port the treasures of Africa and Asia; but the first glory of its immense conquests will live forever shining in the Poem of Camoens; the most remote nations will admire in the LUSIADAS the incredible valour of a handful of men, who facing terrible dangers, enormous and never seen before, and subduing populous nations, took to the extremities of the universe their virtues and the religion of their fathers\".", "Camões died in Lisbon in 1580, at the age of 56. The day of his death, 10 June OS, is Portugal's national day. ", "Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c. 1524–1580) wrote the epic poem \"Os Lusíadas\" (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, as exemplified by Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queiroz, Fernando Pessoa, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, António Lobo Antunes and Miguel Torga. Particularly popular and distinguished is José Saramago, recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c.1524 - 1580) wrote the epic poem The Lusiads, a work that he developed during his journeys in Africa and Asia and that has Virgil's Aeneid as main model. According to his own account, he was shipwrecked in Cambodia, and saved himself and his work by floating on a board. Modern Portuguese poetry, since the 19th century, is essentially rooted in a handful of relevant poets, ranging from neo-classicism to contemporary styles. One such famous poet is Fernando Pessoa (1888 – 1935), who wrote poetry in the voice, style and manner of many fictional poets under a large number of heteronyms. Modern literature also became internationally known, mostly through the works of Almeida Garrett, Alexandre Herculano, Camilo Castelo Branco, Manuel Maria Barbosa de Bocage, Eça de Queirós, Fernando Pessoa, Ferreira de Castro, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, Herberto Helder, António Lobo Antunes, Alexandre O'Neill and the 1998 Nobel Prize for literature winner, José Saramago.", "Renaissance literature emerged in the late 15th century against a background of economic prosperity, incipient bourgeois relations, and increasing political vigor. G. Vincente (c. 1470-c. 1536), an early Renaissance writer and the founder of the Portuguese theater, attacked social evils and criticized the church in his plays. Most Portuguese Renaissance writers drew their inspiration from Italian models: B. Ribeiro (c. 1482–1552) wrote pastoral poetry, and the poet F. Sá de Miranda (1481–1558), who also wrote comedies of manners, was influenced by Petrarch. A. Ferreira (1528–69) is noted for his “comedies of character” and his tragedy Inês de Castro (1558). The plays of L. de Camões (born 1524 or 1525, died 1580), the greatest Portuguese Renaissance writer, belong to the genre of learned classical comedy. Camões also wrote poems in which sincere love is mingled with a sense of the disharmony of the world. His narrative poem Os Lusíadas (1572) describes Vasco da Gama’s voyage, but the main protagonist is the Portuguese people, whose courage and heroism are extolled in this national epic.", "Generally regarded as the greatest poet of the Portuguese language, at least until Fernando Pessoa came along, Camões led a rambunctious but uncertain life, much of his biography being based on conjecture and what we can extract, or extrapolate, from his poems. He was probably born in Lisbon, the son of minor, impoverished aristocrats, and definitely died there in 1580. In between, he lived or sojourned in many places: Coimbra, where he is assumed to have studied at the university; Morocco, where he lost an eye during combat as a soldier for the Portuguese army; India, where he served as a soldier for three years, after which he probably held administrative posts; Arabia and the East African coasts, on military expeditions launched from western, Portuguese-ruled India; Macao, in the employ of the Portuguese government; and Mozambique, without funds enough to continue the journey back home. Some friends came to his aid, sharing the cost of his passage to Lisbon, where he arrived in 1570, after 17 years abroad.", "Luis de Camoëns (1524?-1580), The Lusiad; or, Portugals Historicall Poem. Trans. Sir Richard Fanshawe (b. 1608) (poetry)", "Sir Walter Raleigh or Ralegh[1] (c. 1552 – 29 October 1618), was a famed English writer, poet, soldier, courtier and explorer.", "It is, of course, The Lusiads that is regarded as Camões' greatest achievement. The epic takes as its theme the heroism and patriotism of the Portuguese (or Lusitanian) people, embodied in the exploits of the explorer Vasco da Gama, the discoverer of a sea route to India and the first European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope at Africa's southern tip. The Lusiads is divided into ten sections, or cantos, comprised of 1102 ottava rima (eight-line) stanzas. The use of this form reflects the influence of such Renaissance epics as Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. However, as Camões repeatedly acknowledges throughout the poem, his direct models were the Greek and Roman epics—Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and particularly Virgil's Aeneid. The classical influence is also apparent in Camões' introduction of elements of mythology into the events of Portuguese history. His inclusion of Greek gods, who become directly involved in the progress of da Gama's voyage, invests his tale with a heroic dimension. Camões subsumes the pagan elements, however, within the poem's overall Christian ethos, in which the hand of God guides the destiny of the Portuguese people. Camões also departs from his classical models by introducing several striking innovations into the epic form, most notably the use of actual historical events as the basis of his story.", "Two years later Camões published The Lusiads, one of the last great historical epics, in certain respects modeled after the Aeneid and taking Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India as its immediate theme. Although the poem was well received, earning its author a small pension from the crown, Camões died in poverty and was buried in a collective pit for plague victims. That same year – two years after a disastrous expedition to North Africa in which the heirless King Sebastião and thousands of Portugal’s most able-bodied men were slaughtered – the country fell under Spanish rule, which would last until 1640.", "Camoens's rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for the authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composition of the play El Rei Seleuco would aggravate his offence in the eyes of John III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch, the plot was calculated to draw attention to the relations between the king and his stepmother, and to recall the action of D. Manoel in robbing his son John III. of his intended bride. Camoens composed it for a wedding festivity in the house of Estacio da Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to his passion, that if, as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing them with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have rendered his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however, is that the court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he had to leave Lisbon, the abode of his love and the scene of his triumph. Tradition says that he went to the Ribatejo and spent seven or eight months with his mother's relatives in or near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of his finest poems, including his Elegy of Exile and some magnificent sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression, exceeded anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live on bays, however, and pressed by necessity he determined to become a soldier.", "Giovanni Boccaccio, (born 1313, Paris , Fr.—died Dec. 21, 1375, Certaldo, Tuscany [Italy]), Italian poet and scholar, best remembered as the author of the earthy tales in the Decameron. With Petrarch he laid the foundations for the humanism of the Renaissance and raised vernacular literature to the level and status of the classics of antiquity.", "The battle has also appeared in literature and poetry. Spanish poet Fernando de Herrera wrote the poem \"Canción en alabanza de la divina majestad por la victoria del Señor Don Juan\" in 1572. The English author G. K. Chesterton wrote a poem Lepanto , first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provides a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria ( John of Austria ). It closes with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes , who fought in the battle, with the \"lean and foolish knight\" he would later immortalize in Don Quixote . Miguel de Cervantes lost the use of an arm in this battle and therefore he is known as el manco de Lepanto in the Hispanic world.", ", d. 1595, Scottish nobleman. He spent his early years as a soldier of fortune fighting in the Dutch revolt against Spain, returned to Scotland in 1597, and ingratiated himself at", "Poetry in the first years of the 16th century is characterised by the elaborate sonorous and graphic experimentation and skillful word games of a number of Northern poets (such as Jean Lemaire de Belges and Jean Molinet), generally called “les Grands Rhétoriqueurs” who continued to develop poetic techniques from the previous century. Soon however, the impact of Petrarch (the sonnet cycle addressed to an idealised lover, the use of amorous pardoxes), Italian poets in the French court (like Luigi Alamanni), Italian Neoplatonism and humanism, and the rediscovery of certain Greek poets (such as Pindar and Anacreon) would profoundly modify the French tradition. In this respect, the French poets Clément Marot and Mellin de Saint-Gelais are transitional figures: they are credited with some of the first sonnets in French, but their poems continue to employ many of the traditional forms.", "French soldier, author: The States and Empires of the Sun; subject of famous play whose title bears his name; died July 28, 1655", "Saint Teresa of Ávila, also called Saint Teresa of Jesus, baptized as Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada, (March 28, 1515 – October 4, 1582) was a prominent Spanish mystic, Roman Catholic saint, Carmelite nun, and writer of the Counter Reformation, and theologian of contemplative life through mental prayer. She was a reformer of the Carmelite Order and is considered to be, along with John of the Cross, a founder of the Discalced Carmelites. In 1622, forty years after her death, she was canonized by Pope Gregory XV, and in 1970 named a Doctor of the Church by Pope Paul VI. Her books, which include her autobiography, The Life of Teresa of Jesus, and her seminal work, El Castillo Interior (The Interior Castle), are an integral part of the Spanish Renaissance literature as well as Christian mysticism and Christian meditation practices as she entails in her other important work Camino de Perfección (The Way of Perfection)", "Geoffrey Chaucer 1343�1400 middle english language, the Father of English literature, first poet to have been buried in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey. Troilus and Criseyde, he is best known today for The Canterbury Tales. wife of bath, knight, miller, The travellers in Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\" are on a pilgrimage to shrine of Thomas a Becket 12th c. martyr, The pilgrims in this poetic work include a knight, a cook, a squire, a miller & a merchant. \"The Knight's Tale\" by this 14th century author is based on Boccaccio's poem \"Teseida\"", "English poet. Obsessed by the medieval period, he is chiefly remembered for his fabricated poems purporting to be those of a fifteenth century monk. He died from arsenic poisoning, a likely suicide, at the age of 17.", "He enlisted in the overseas militia, and traveled to Ceuta in the fall of 1549. During a battle with the Moors, he lost the sight in his right eye. He eventually returned to Lisbon in 1551, a changed man, living a bohemian lifestyle. In 1552, during the religious festival of Corpus Christi, in the Largo do Rossio, he injured Gonçalo Borges, a member of the Royal Stables. Camões was imprisoned. His mother pleaded for his release, visiting royal ministers and the Borges family for a pardon. Released, Camões was ordered to pay 4,000 réis and serve three years in the militia in the Orient.", "Lovelace, Richard, English cavalier and poet, born at Woolwich, heir of great wealth, but lost his all in supporting the royal cause, and died a ruined man; was the handsomest man of his time, and the author of a collection of poems entitled “Lucasta” (1618-1658).", "In the later 16th century, English poetry was characterised by elaboration of language and extensive allusion to classical myths. Sir Edmund Spenser (1555–99) was the author of The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. The works of Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) a poet, courtier and soldier, include Astrophel and Stella, The Defence of Poetry, and Arcadia. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as by Thomas Campion, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households (see English Madrigal School).", "Morris began publishing poetry and short stories in 1856 through the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine which he founded with his friends and financed while at university. His first volume, The Defence of Guenevere and Other Poems (1858), was the first book of Pre-Raphaelite poetry to be published. The dark poems, set in a sombre world of violence, were coolly received by the critics, and he was discouraged from publishing more for a number of years. \"The Haystack in the Floods\", one of the poems in that collection, is probably now one of his better-known poems. It is a grimly realistic piece set during the Hundred Years War in which the doomed lovers Jehane and Robert have a last parting in a convincingly portrayed rain-swept countryside. One early minor poem was \"Masters in this Hall\" (1860), a Christmas carol written to an old French tune. Another Christmas-themed poem is \"The Snow in the Street\", adapted from \"The Land East of the Sun and West of the Moon\" in The Earthly Paradise.", "Unexcelled in the sorcery of crystalline singing prose, and supreme in the creation of a gorgeous and languorous world of iridescently exotic vision, is Edward John Moreton Drax Plunkett, Eighteenth Baron Dunsany, whose tales and short plays form an almost unique element in our literature. Inventor of a new mythology and weaver of surprising folklore, Lord Dunsany stands dedicated to a strange world of fantastic beauty, and pledged to eternal warfare against the coarseness and ugliness of diurnal reality. His point of view is the most truly cosmic of any held in the literature of any period. As sensitive as Poe to dramatic values and the significance of isolated words and details, and far better equipped rhetorically through a simple lyric style based on the prose of the King James Bible, this author draws with tremendous effectiveness on nearly every body of myth and legend within the circle of European culture; producing a composite or eclectic cycle of phantasy in which Eastern colour, Hellenic form, Teutonic sombreness, and Celtic wistfulness are so superbly blended that each sustains and supplements the rest without sacrifice of perfect congruity and homogeneity. In most cases Dunsany’s lands are fabulous—“beyond the East”, or “at the edge of the world”. His system of original personal and place names, with roots drawn from classical, Oriental, and other sources, is a marvel of versatile inventiveness and poetic discrimination; as one may see from such specimens as “Argimēnēs”, “Bethmoora”, “Poltarnees”, “Camorak”, “Illuriel”, or “Sardathrion”.", "Although the royal court was the center of much of the century's poetry, Lyon — the second largest city in France in the Renaissance — also had its poets and humanists, most notably Maurice Scève, Louise Labé, Olivier de Magny and Pontus de Tyard. Scève's Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu — composed of 449 ten syllable ten line poems (dizains) and published with numerous engraved emblems — is exemplary in its use of amorous paradoxes and (often obscur) allegory to describe the suffering of a lover.", "Edmund Spenser 1552� 1599 poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I.  \"The Faerie Queene\" the stanza named for him, Queen Elizabeth I gave him a pension for life after he dedicated \"The Faerie Queen\" to her", "This early expression of hostility to war sounds a theme that recurs often in Erasmus' writings, sometimes only in passing but also in two works that came to be inspirations for later Western critics of war. One of his most ambitious works, revised and expanded throughout his career, was his collection of wise sayings culled from his mastery of ancient literature, the Adagia. In the expanded edition of 1515, where for the first time he added to certain adages his own essays, some of them of considerable length, on issues that concerned him, one of these additions was Dulce bellum inexpertis (“War Is Sweet to Those Who Know It Not”), which was also printed as a separate pamphlet in 1517 and then was reprinted many times in Latin, twice in German translation, and once (1533 or 1534) in English during the sixteenth century.", "THE LAST WORK OF 15TH-C. POET CHRISTINE DE PISAN CELEBRATES THE MILITARY VICTORIES OF THIS WOMAN", "The poem describes the trials of a lone survivor of a family who has been martyred. The character's father was burnt at the stake, and out of six brothers, two fell at the battlefield while one was burnt to death. The remaining three were sent to the castle of Chillon as prisoners, out of which two more died due to pining away. In time only the narrator lived." ]

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[ "Across the board, the centre-right European People's Party was set to win 214 out of the 751 seats, with 28.5% across the bloc, according to estimated results issued by the European Parliament. That would make it the biggest group - but with more than 60 seats fewer than before.", "In the the USA, the Republicans are the Right of Centre party and the Democrats are the Left of Centre party. In the UK, the Conservatives are the Right of Centre party and Labour is the Left of Centre party. However, the 'centre' in American political is markedly to the Right of the 'centre' in British or most of European politics. This means that the policies espoused by Tea Party candidates would not be supported by any political party in Britain, while the policies supported by an American politician like Bernie Sanders, the Independent senator from Vermont, would be mainstream in the British Labour Party.", "it, so that now the center remained the center, but the left was the right and", "The two largest parties are centre right CDU ('Christlich Demokratische Union', Christian Democratic Party) and centre-left SPD ('Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands', Social Democratic Party). Due to the proportional voting system, smaller parties are also represented in parliament. Medium-sized parties of importance are centre-right CSU ('Christlich Soziale Union', Christian Social Party, the most important party in Bavaria which collaborates at the federal level with the CDU), liberal FDP ('Freie Demokratische Partei', Free Democratic Party; currently not represented in the Bundestag), the Green party ('Bündnis 90/Die Grünen'), the Left Party ('Die Linke', a socialist party with significant strength in East Germany), and the Alternative for Germany ('Alternative für Deutschland', AfD; not represented in the Bundestag). There have been some attempts by right-wing parties (NPD - National Democratic Party / REP - Republicans) to get into parliament, but so far they have failed the 5% requirement (except in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania); other extreme left-wing parties (MLPD - Marxist-Leninist Party / DKP - German Communist Party) virtually only have minimal influence on administrative levels below state parliaments.", "The ECR is dominated mostly by the centre right British Conservatives and the Polish Law and Justice party. Despite rumours before the elections that the group would struggle to meet the requirements to form, the ECR will in fact be the third largest group in the European Parliament: new allies include the Flemish regionalist N-VA, Bulgaria without Censorship, Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania, two small conservative Slovakian parties, the Independent Greeks – and, more controversially, the Finns Party and the Danish People’s Party. In short, plenty of MEPs from plenty of different member states.", "The center-left Liberal Democrats are one of the three major British political parties. The party was founded in 1988 when the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party merged. Since the Liberal Democrats share some of the beliefs of both the Labour Party and the Conservative Party, they are roughly seen as a middle ground between the other two parties. The Liberal Democrats believe in constitutional reform, including electoral reform, reform of the House of Lords, and the need for a bill of rights. They strongly support the rights of individuals and believe in lessening the power of the central government and spreading it among local governments.", "Center-left Social Democrat navigated the economic turbulence and Cold War tension in the 1970s, early 1980s", "Before World War I, liberal parties dominated the European political scene, but they were gradually displaced by socialists and social democrats in the early 20th century. The fortunes of liberal parties since World War II have been mixed, with some gaining strength while others suffered from continuous declines. The fall of the Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia at the end of the 20th century, however, allowed the formation of many liberal parties throughout Eastern Europe. These parties developed varying ideological characters. Some, such as the Slovenian Liberal Democrats or the Lithuanian Social Liberals, have been characterised as centre-left. Others, such as the Romanian National Liberal Party, have been classified as centre-right. ", "In western Europe, social-democratic parties have been the dominant centre-left force since the dawn of modern European cooperation. The Socialist Group was one of the first Groups to be founded when it was created on 23 June 1953 in the European Parliament's predecessor, the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community, and continued through the creation of the appointed Parliament in 1958 and the elected Parliament in 1979. Meanwhile, the national parties making up the Group were also organising themselves on a European level outside the Parliament, with the parties creating the \"Confederation of Socialist Parties of the European Community\" in 1974 and its successor, the \"Party of European Socialists\", in 1992. As a result, the Group (which had kept its \"Socialist Group\" name all along) was renamed to the \"Group of the Party of European Socialists\" on 21 April 1993 and it became difficult to distinguish between the Party of European Socialists party and the parliamentary group. The Group reverted to (approximately) its former name of the \"Socialist Group in the European Parliament\". on 20 July 2004 Despite all this, the Group was still universally referred to as \"PES\", notwithstanding the 2009 name change to the \"Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats\" to accommodate the Democratic Party of Italy. ", "There existed during the Weimar Republic (and again after the Nazi period) a Zentrum, a party of German Catholics founded in 1870. It was called Centre Party not for being a proper centrist party, but because it united left-wing and right-wing Catholics, because it was the first German party to be a Volkspartei (catch-all party), and because his elected representatives sat between the liberals (the left of the time) and the conservatives (the right of the time). It was, though, distinctly right-wing conservative in that it was not neutral on religious issues (such as on secular education), being markedly against more liberal and modernist positions. The main successor of Zentrum after the return of democracy to West Germany in 1945, the Christian Democratic Union, has throughout its history alternated between describing itself as right-wing or centrist, and sitting on the right-wing (with the Free Democratic Party in its social liberal moments sitting at its left, in the centre, and themselves sitting at the centre, with the FDP in its classical liberal moments sitting at its right, in the right-wing). The representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, although they have, since the 1990s, many times referred to themselves as \"the new middle\" (under influence of the Third way of the time), feel less at ease in describing their party as centrist due to their history and socialist identity.", "      The elections to the European Parliament confirmed the disaffection of the public toward the four government parties. Most pronounced was that of the French Socialists, with 30.4% of the vote, as against 38.5% in 1989. This was in spite of the huge personal score of their top candidate, José Happart, who captured 265,376 votes. The Flemish Liberal breakthrough did not materialize, despite the \"enlargement\" operation launched by the young party leader, Guy Verhofstadt. The Socialists were also the big losers in the local elections in October, in this case ceding seats to the far-right parties. The anti-immigrant Vlaams Blok, for example, took 18 of the 55 seats in Antwerp's city council, making it the largest party in that port city.", "In the late 1980s came three pivotal developments that changed the debate dramatically. Until then, the main hostility to Europe had been on the Left, and the main support for it on the Right. On the tenth anniversary of Britain’s accession, in 1983, Thatcher wrote that “the unity of Europe is a goal for which I pledge my government to work”. Labour, meanwhile, fought the election that year on a platform of withdrawal from the EEC.", "The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from center-left to far left (or ultra-left). The term center left describes a position within the political mainstream. The terms far left and ultra-left refer to positions that are more radical. The center-left includes social democrats, social liberals, progressives and also some democratic socialists and greens (in particular the eco-socialists). Center-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with a significant public sector and a thriving private sector. Center-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in matters pertaining to the public interest.", "MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality political groups, except the 15 non-attached members known as non-inscrits. The two largest groups are the European People's Party (EPP) and the Socialists & Democrats (S&D). These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats together. No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament. As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European groups parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in federal states like Germany or the United States than unitary states like the majority of the EU states. Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were actually more cohesive than their US counterparts. ", "In Western Europe and Japan, organizations such as those present at May 1968, the Red Army Faction, and the Zengakuren tested liberal democracy's ability to satisfy its marginalized or alienated citizenry amidst post-industrial age hybrid capitalist economies. In Britain, the Labour Party gained power in 1964. In France, the protests of 1968 led to President Charles de Gaulle temporarily fleeing the country. For some, May 1968 meant the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of a new era to be dominated mainly by the so-called new social movements. Italy formed its first left-of-center government in March 1962 with a coalition of Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, and moderate Republicans. Socialists joined the ruling block in December 1963. In Brazil, João Goulart became president after Jânio Quadros resigned. In Africa the 1960s was a period of radical political change as 32 countries gained independence from their European colonial rulers.", "In the following European election of 2004, the CDU managed to keep its two MEPs, after claiming 9.1% of the vote. The two members of the European Parliament, Ilda Figueiredo and Pedro Guerreiro sit in the European United Left - Nordic Green Left group.", "As a result of such debates and structural changes, the political arena has become much more polarized between advocates and opponents of a quick integration into supranational structures, especially the EU. After years of spectacular growth, the Swiss People�s Party, which since the 1990s had adopted policies that were perceived as antiforeigner and anti-European, became the largest party in the Federal Assembly following the federal elections in 2003 and subsequently was awarded an additional seat on the Federal Council, signaling a significant alteration in the balance of political power. In 2007 the Swiss People�s Party became the first opposition party in nearly 50 years when it withdrew from the country�s long-standing governing coalition. The departure of the far-right party shifted the government toward the political centre. In December 2008, however, the legislature chose Ueli Maurer of the Swiss People�s Party to replace an outgoing member of the Federal Council, thereby returning the far right to the country�s traditional coalition government.", "The revisionist KKE joined Synaspismo, which contested three national elections (June 1989, November 1989, 1990). For a period they joined in Government alliances with mainstream centre-right New Democracy, ND under the premiership of Tzannis Tzannetakis. This collaboration was not viewed kindly by the increasingly politicised Greek working class and petit-bourgeois:", "In June 1987, Mrs Thatcher called a third General Election. In spite of a good campaign, the Labour Party gained only 20 additional seats. In the light of this, Neil Kinnock set up policy reviews. The Party was already moving towards more moderate policies, which included making no high-spending commitments and stressing limited taxation. Even nuclear disarmament was abandoned. At the 1985 annual conference, Kinnock had made a powerful speech against the Trotskyist Militant Tendency, which controlled the youth section of the Party. Steps were taken to expel these members, including its four MPs. The concept of �New Realism� emerged. The Left tried to make a fight back. In 1988 Tony Benn made a bid for the leadership, with Eric Heffer as his deputy. They were soundly beaten.", "The Labour Party elected left-winger Michael Foot as their leader after their 1979 election defeat, and he responded to dissatisfaction with the Labour Party by pursuing a number of radical policies developed by its grass-roots members. In 1981 several right-wing Labour MPs formed a breakaway group called the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a move which split Labour and is widely believed to have made Labour unelectable for a decade. The SDP formed an alliance with the Liberal Party which contested the 1983 and 1987 general elections as a centrist alternative to Labour and the Conservatives. After some initial success, the SDP did not prosper (partly due to its unfavourable distribution of votes in the FPTP electoral system), and was accused by some of splitting the anti-Conservative vote.", "The Round Table agreement of 18 September encompassed six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the Constitution , establishment of a Constitutional Court , the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus). [16] [17] The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system. [18] A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but no consensus was attained on who should elect the president (parliament or the people) and when this election should occur (before or after parliamentary elections). On 7 October 1989, the Communist Party at its last congress re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party . In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election, which took place on March 24, 1990. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary , guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government. The Soviet military occupation of Hungary , which had persisted since World War II, ended on 19 June 1991.", "There have been other parties represented in the House of Commons. Late in the 19th century and early in the 20th, the Irish Home Rule or Nationalist Party, which demanded the establishment of a devolved legislature for Ireland, held at times the balance of power between Liberals and Conservatives. In the second half of the 20th century, the Liberal Party, which had retained a handful of seats in the House of Commons, scored significant popular vote increases (but few seat gains) on a number of occasions, most notably in February 1974, and again in 1983, when it formed the Alliance with the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a breakaway from the Labour Party. However, in 1997 the Liberal Democrats - the successors of the Alliance - finally achieved a significant breakthrough in terms of parliamentary representation, and in the 2001 and 2005 general elections the party scored further gains both in terms of votes and seats.", "Fundamental democratic and free-market reforms were introduced between 1989 and 1991, and additional changes came as Poland prepared its bid for membership in the European Union (EU). In the 1990s, power alternated between political parties with a background in Solidarity and those with communist origins. Former communist Alexander Kwasniewski of the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) replaced Solidarity’s Lech Walesa as president in 1995 and was subsequently reelected by a large margin in 2000. A government led by the SLD oversaw Poland’s final reforms ahead of EU accession, which took place in May 2004.", "The Liberal Democrats (often referred to as the Lib Dems) are a liberal political party in the United Kingdom with representation in England, Wales and Scotland. The party was formed in 1988 from a merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP), which had formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance for the previous seven years.", "In Europe, the party sits with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) political group, which favours further strengthening the EU. The group's leader for seven and a half years was the South West England MEP Graham Watson, who was also the first Liberal Democrat to be elected to the European Parliament when he won the old Somerset and North Devon constituency in 1994. The group's current leader is the former Prime Minister of Belgium Guy Verhofstadt. ", "1989 (15 Jun.) - European Elections. 8 candidates (25.6%) and 1 MEP, WINIFRED EWING (Highlands & Islands).", "In September 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and unsealed its border and more than 13,000 people fled East Germany by crossing the \"green\" border via Czechoslovakia into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany. [1] Many others peacefully demonstrated against the ruling party, especially in the city of Leipzig. These demonstrations eventually forced the resignation of Honecker; in October he was replaced, albeit briefly, by Egon Krenz .", "In 1979, the party carried out its ninth congress, which analyzed the state of the post-revolutionary Portugal, right-wing politics and the party's struggles to keep the nationalized economy. In December 1979, an extra legislative election took place after a wave of political turmoil caused the fall of the government. The party formed the United People Alliance, in coalition with the Portuguese Democratic Movement and increased its vote to 18.96% and 47 MPs. The election was won by a right-wing coalition, led by Francisco Sá Carneiro, which immediately started a policy that the party considered to be contrary to working-class interests. In the same year, local elections were held and the party gathered 20.5% of the vote and elected 50 mayors, also as part of the United People Alliance. In November 1979, the Communist Students League merged with the Young Communist League to form the Portuguese Communist Youth, which is still the party's youth organization.", "On 19 August 1989, more than 600 East Germans attending the \"Pan-European Picnic\" on the Hungarian border broke through the Iron Curtain and fled into Austria. Hungarian border guards had threatened to shoot anyone crossing the border, but when the time came, they did not intervene and allowed the people to cross. In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the Hungarian parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election. ", "In 1945, the British Labour Party led by Clement Attlee was swept to power on a radical programme. Socialist (and in some places Communist) parties also dominated postwar governments in France , Italy , Czechoslovakia , Belgium , Norway and other European countries. The Social Democratic Party had been in power in Sweden since 1932, and Labour parties also held power in Australia and New Zealand . In Germany , on the other hand, the Social Democrats were defeated in Germany's first democratic elections in 1949. The unity of the democrats and the Communist parties which had been established in the wartime resistance movements continued in the immediate postwar years. The democratic socialist parties of Eastern Europe, however, were destroyed when Stalin imposed so-called \"Communist\" regimes in these countries.", "Europe has many different political parties, each with very different ideologies. People all over the spectrum have a political party to represent them.", "In August 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and many people fled East Germany by crossing the \"green\" border into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany. Many others peacefully demonstrated against the ruling party. These demonstrations eventually forced the resignation of Honecker; in October he was replaced, albeit briefly, by Egon Krenz ." ]

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[ "Valletta (;) is the capital city of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt (; ) in Maltese. Geographically, it is located in the South Eastern Region, in the central-eastern portion of the main island of Malta having its western coast with access to the Marsamxett Harbour and its eastern coast in the Grand Harbour. The historical city has a population of 6,444 as of March 2014, while the metropolitan area around it has a population of 393,938. Valletta is the southernmost capital of Europe and the second southernmost capital of the European Union after Nicosia.", "Valletta (/ v ə ˈ l ɛ t ə /; Maltese pronunciation: [ˈvɐlɛ.tɐ]) is the capital city of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt (IPA: ; lit. \"The City\") in Maltese   Ago Cached", "Valletta, also spelled Valetta, seaport and capital of Malta , on the northeast coast of the island of Malta. The nucleus of the city is built on the promontory of Mount Sceberras that runs like a tongue into the middle of a bay, which it thus divides into two harbours, Grand Harbour to the east and Marsamxett Harbour to the west.", "About Valletta Satellite view is showing Valletta, the capital city of Malta. Valletta is located on a peninsula in the central-eastern portion of the island of Malta ...   Ago Cached", "Valletta, the capital of Malta, is the smallest capital in the European Union, with a city population of about 6,400. (The whole country is only twice the physical size of the US capital city of Washington, D.C.). It was founded by Jean de Valette, Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, in 1566, because of its strategic location between two deep harbors, one of them the deepest in Europe.", "Today the capital of Malta, Valletta is still the island’s richest repository of art, architecture, history and culture. It is also the main shopping and business center. Sightseeing could occupy two or three days, but equally rewarding are the streets, many of which are still flanked by handsome balconied houses.", "Malta is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea, south of the island of Sicily, Italy. Maltese archipelago consists of three islands: Malta, Gozo and Comino. The largest island is Malta. Malta covers just over 316 km2, making it one of the world’s smallest and most densely populated countries. The capital of Malta is Valletta. Malta boasts of picturesque beaches ideal for all types of swimmer, as well as sunbathers. Golden sand, red sand, rocks, inlets, blue lagoons and even inland seas are some of the beaches from which the travelling tourist can choose.", "Malta is an island nation that consists of three islands: main island Malta , Gozo and Comino . The country’s official languages are Maltese and English. Malta’s capital city is Valletta, which is centrally located on the island’s North coast and has the island’s largest harbour.", "Valletta Malta’s Capital city, was built by Jean de Valette, French Grand Master of the Order of the Knights of St John after the Great Siege of 1565.  The capital has a wide variety of historic events and this also reflects some of the Islands rich heritage of archaeology, history, architecture, art and culture.  A walk around the straight and narrow streets of Valletta the visitor would encounter a variety of Chapels, Cathedrals, Museums, galleries, public gardens, Palaces and massive fortifications.  These are all evidence of Malta’s rich history and heritage Valletta is considered as our splendid capital and has been listed by UNESCO as a world heritage site. Malta became Independent in 1964 and a decade later Malta became a Republic.  On the 1st of May 2004 Malta joined the European Union.", "To visit the island state of Malta, leave your ship and board a modern motorboat to embark on a relaxing sail along the scenic Maltese coastline, along the way passing by the lovely Cottonera area made up of Senglea, Cospicua and Vittoriosa, which are collectively known as The Three Cities. Nearly opposite Cottonera lies the Maltese capital, Valletta, whose harbour you will approach via the water route. The city has retained much of its architectural heritage and one of its most iconic sights is Valletta waterfront, a marvel of 18th-century Baroque architecture that has been extensively restored. Do take your camera to capture awe-inspiring views of the waterfront, while also enjoying a wine-tasting session at this unique location. Before returning to the port, you will stop at a renowned jewellery for shopping. Please note: the feasibility of the excursion is subject to wind / sea conditions on the day of call. This tour is not suitable for guests using a wheelchair; there is a flight of stairs to have access to the boat.", "Malta: Malta is a southern European country in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies 50 miles south of Sicily, 176 miles east of Tunisia and 207 milies north of Libya. The country covers just over 122 sq miles, making it one of the world's smallest and most densely populated countries. The capital of Malta is Valletta which is also the smallest capital in the EU. Malta has two official languages: Maltese and English.", "important naval base until independence in 1964; an island country in the central Mediterranean Sea, about 60 miles south of Sicily; capital, Valletta; official languages, Maltese and English; historically of great strategic importance", "Valletta itself has many other churches which the Knights built. Behind the cathedral lies the Grand Master's Palace, which has a huge armory and museum. Each of the hallways is lined with suits of armor that were donated when the knight passed away. This is now the seat of the president of Malta. It is well worth a visit for the history buff or the curious traveler. I also highly recommend visiting the cathedral's website for pictures of the various tombs and chapels.", "The capital of Malta is inextricably linked to the history of the military and charitable Order of St John of Jerusalem. It was ruled successively by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs and the Order of the Knights of St John. Valletta’s 320 monuments, all within an area of 55 ha, make it one of the most concentrated historic areas in the world.", "The narrow win on the Ottoman Empire in the Great Siege of 1565 proved that it would take a concerted effort to keep the strategic stronghold of Malta from falling into enemy hands. Built by the Knights of Malta, led by Jean Parisot de Valette, the foundation stone of Valletta was laid in 1566 by de Valette himself. With strong support from Pope Pius IV (who saw the importance of maintaining the island as a stronghold to defend Christendom), the city’s planning was based on a then-modern grid system of streets which would be easier to defend than traditional town planning.", "Malta, one of the many Mediterranean islands, is a very popular tourist destination for wealthy Europeans. Other industries in this country include a budding electronics industry and a prosperous ship building industry. The capital and main city is Valletta, located on the eastern coast of the island (CIA, 2003).", "Valletta, along with all the localities of Malta and Gozo, was awarded the prestigious title of European Capital of Culture 2018 on 13th October 2012. The nomination presented by the Valletta Local Council, on behalf of all the localities of Malta and Gozo, was confirmed by an evaluation panel today, during a meeting in Valletta, where our country was awarded the title of European Capital of Culture 2018. This announcement was made during a press conference by Manfred Gaulhofer, Chairperson of the Evaluation Board. Mr. Gaulhofer said the board was convinced there was the necessary will, motivation and ambition in order to award the title to Valletta. ", "Auberge de Castille, one of the seven auberges (‘inn’) built in the 16th century in Valletta. It now houses the office of the Prime Minister of Malta.", "Valletta, the smallest capital of the European Union, is now the islandâs major commercial and financial centre and is visited daily by throngs of tourists eager to experience the cityâs rich history.", "Buildings of historic importance include St John's Co-Cathedral, formerly the Conventual Church of the Knights of Malta. It has the only signed work and largest painting by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. The Auberge de Castille et Leon, formerly the official seat of the Knights of Malta of the Langue of Castille, Léon and Portugal, is now the office of the Prime Minister of Malta. The Magisterial Palace, built between 1571 and 1574 and formerly the seat of the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, used to house the Maltese Parliament, now situated in a purpose built structure at the entrance to the city. The Magisterial Palace still houses the offices of the President of Malta.", "Malta Map, capital Valletta, European country, bordered by Italy, Tunisia, Sicily, Mediterranean Sea, Africa, printable, royalty free, jpg format", "Malta is an archipelago in the central Mediterranean (in its eastern basin), some 80 km south of the Italian island of Sicily across the Malta Channel. Only the three largest islands – Malta (Malta), Gozo (Għawdex) and Comino (Kemmuna) – are inhabited. The smaller islands (see below) are uninhabited. The islands of the archipelago lie on the Malta plateau, a shallow shelf formed from the high points of a land bridge between Sicily and North Africa that became isolated as sea levels rose after the last Ice Age. The archipelago is therefore situated in the zone between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates. ", "Mdina — Malta's well-preserved quiet old capital (pronounced 'im-dina'). Called the Silent City, Mdina sits in the center of the main island Malta and offers amazing views across the plans to the coast line.", "Until the sixteenth century, Malta was part of the Kingdom of Sicily, and the capital Mdina housed many palaces for the nobility, such as Palazzo Falson and Palazzo Santa Sofia. After the arrival of the Order of Saint John in 1530, the knights settled in Birgu, where part of Fort St Angelo was used as a palace for the Grand Master. The knights themselves lived in auberges, but these were more large houses rather than palaces.", "The architecture of Valletta's streets and piazzas ranges from mid-16th century Baroque to Modernism. The city is the island's principal cultural centre and has a unique collection of churches, palaces and museums and act as one of the city's main visitor attractions. When Benjamin Disraeli, future British Prime Minister, visited the city in 1830, he described it as \"a city of palaces built by gentlemen for gentlemen,\" and remarked that \"Valletta equals in its noble architecture, if it does not excel, any capital in Europe,\" and in other letters called it \"comparable to Venice and Cádiz\" and \"full of palaces worthy of Palladio.\" ", "Malta: Mdina .  Malta finally received a Maltese-language edition in 2008.  The historic old capital of Mdina , from where the Knights Hospitaller ruled the islands for centuries, was chosen to be the most expensive property.", "Valletta was one of the earliest sites inscribed by UNESCO on the World Heritage list. Referred to colloquially as Il-Belt (\"The City\"), it takes its name from its founder, Grandmaster Jean Parisot de la Valette.", "The official name given by the Order of Saint John was Humilissima Civitas Valletta—The Most Humble City of Valletta, or Città Umilissima in Italian. The city's fortifications, consisting of bastions, curtains and cavaliers, along with the beauty of its Baroque palaces, gardens and churches, led the ruling houses of Europe to give the city its nickname Superbissima—Most Proud.", "Valletta contains buildings from the 16th century onwards, built during the rule of the Order of St. John also known as Knights Hospitaller. The city is essentially Baroque in character, with elements of Mannerist, Neo-Classical and Modern architecture in selected areas, though the Second World War left major scars on the city, particularly the destruction of the Royal Opera House. The City of Valletta was officially recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980.", "The town began to develop rapidly in the second half of the 19th century becoming popular as a summer resort for wealthier Valletta residents. Their elegant villas and town houses lined the quiet, inland streets. Various Victorian buildings graced its three kilometre sea promenade which overlooked rugged rocks, farms and even a small sandy beach. In 1990 one of these farms which had been abandoned, was transformed into a coastline garden known as Ġnien Indipendenza (Independence Garden).", "The following people have served as Mayor of Valletta. All were elected on the Nationalist Party (PN) ticket, an affiliate of the European People's Party, which holds the majority of the Council.", "All roads in Gozo lead to Victoria, also known as Rabat, which is where the fortified citadel sits atop a summit. Victoria is not just the geographic heart of Gozo, but also the centre of everyday activity. It manages to combine the bustle of its market and shops with a relaxed and sociable atmosphere. It is a great place to watch the islanders go about their day, especially when the main market square, It-Tokk, comes to life. The town also has a thriving cultural life all its own, with some surprising attractions ranging from opera to horse races in the main street on festa day." ]

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[ "Hardanger is a traditional district in the western part of Norway, dominated by the Hardangerfjord and its inner branches of the Sørfjorden and Eidfjorden. It consists of the municipalities of Odda, Ullensvang, Eidfjord, Ulvik, Granvin, Kvam, and Jondal, and is located inside the county of Hordaland.", "This signature tour only has room for 32 travelers and three departures, so book early to ensure your spot! Experience the grandeur of the three major Norwegian fjords: Sogne, Hardanger and Geiranger, coupled with historic sites of Oslo, Bergen, mountains, canyons and glorious countryside. Discover how geography dealt a good hand to this spectacular country and marvel at how it remains environmentally unspoiled!", "In Norway, Gravensteins are grown particularly in the provinces of Telemark and Hardanger. In Hardanger a memorial has been erected for Johannes Pedersen Aga who planted the first Gravenstein tree in Norway in 1792. The city of Sogndal, home to numerous orchards, has named one of its streets Gravenstein Street.", "My wife and I will be in Bergen for three days. We will take the Norway in a Nutshell from Oslo to Bergen with the side trip through Myrdal-Flam-boat-Gudvangen so we will see the Naeroyfjord. We are trying to decide on another fjord tour between Hardangerfjord (stops in Ulvik and Eidfjord) and Sognefjord (brief stops in Balestrand and Fjaerland). The Hardangerfjord advantage seems extra time to walk around Eidfjord, with a disadvantage of more time on bus/train transport. The Sognefjord tour has a chance to enter a fjord from the ocean side, more time on the water rather than on land, and a visit to the glacier museum in Fjaerland, with the disadvantage of many hours in the boat traveling into and out of Sognefjord. If anyone has any comment we would appreciate it.", " Norway has a strong folk music tradition which remains popular to this day. Among the most prominent folk musicians are Hardanger fiddlers Andrea Een, Olav Jørgen Hegge and Annbjørg Lien, and the vocalists Agnes Buen Garnås, Kirsten Bråten Berg and Odd Nordstoga.", "The region is one of Norway's most important sources of fruit and constitutes approximately 40% of the national fruit production, including apple, plum, pear, cherry and redcurrant. Apples have been cultivated in Hardanger since the 14th century, the agricultural experience brought by English monks who first arrived at Lyse Abbey in 1146. The climate, soil and seasonal conditions of the region are believed to be particularly beneficial to the growth of apples. In 2005, juice produced from Hardanger apples became Norway's third product to be granted protection of origin name, with applications pending for other regional produce.", "The iExplore Travel Guide cites the Sognefjord as Norway's best-known fjord. It lies in the northwest reaches of Norway and runs for 127 miles through the wilderness, occupying large sections in the national parks of Jotunheimen and Jostedalsbreen. According to FjordNorway.com, this is the longest and deepest fjord in the country, and the second longest in the world.", "The Fjaerlandsfjord, an arm of the mighty Sognefjord, slices into the Langfjellene. The farm of Berge enjoys a privileged view down the length of the fjord. The rocky range known as Kj�len (\"the keel\") forms the spine of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Part of the Caledonian Mountain Group (which includes the Scottish Highlands), Kj�len includes the mountainous uplift known as Langfjellene (\"Long Mountains\"). Norway's spectacular glacier-carved fjords (including the Sognefjord�one of the world's longest) slice deeply into the Langfjellene to create the filigreed coastline of western Norway. The peak of Galdhopiggen (8,100 feet) in the Jotunheimen range of the Langfjellene is the crown of northern Europe.", "While Norway is famous the world over for its beautiful scenery, no one element is more prominent than the fjords. These long and narrow bodies of water are framed by high rock cliffs. They are best viewed by cruise ship, or even after a hike to the top. The Geirangerfjord is one of the most visited spots in the country, and features great lookout sites. Meanwhile the Sognefjord is the country’s largest fjord, and is nearby to some of Norway’s remaining stave churches. The Lysefjord is a beautiful light-colored fjord, and is overlooked by the massive Pulpit Rock. In this video, WatchMojo.com learns more about the fjords of Norway.", "The Jostedalsbreen glacier inches imperceptibly down from the mountain passes of Sogn og Fjordane towards the Nærøyfjord, a fjord so beautiful that National Geographic Magazine has dubbed it the world's number one natural heritage site and UNESCO has chosen it as a World Heritage Site. The Nærøyfjord is a branch of the 127-mile Sognefjord fjord that bisects Norway neatly into southern and northern halves. The Sognefjord fjord is surrounded throughout its length by dramatic cliffs 3,000-feet high and is scattered with cascading waterfalls.", "Norway is situated in the western and northern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. It is bordered on the north by the Barents Sea (an arm of the Arctic Ocean), on the northeast by Finland and Russia, on the east by Sweden, on the south by Skagerrak Strait and the North Sea, and on the west by the Norwegian Sea. The Norwegian coastline extends for about 2,740 kilometers (1,700 miles) and with all its deeply cut fjords and islands it totals about 21,930 kilometers (13,620 miles) in length. These islands form an internal waterway protected from the ocean, and Norway's name, meaning \"northern way,\" reflects the importance of that route for linking the country's large number of small isolated fjord and valley settlements separated by icy rugged mountains. Norway has a land area of 324,220 square kilometers (125,182 square miles), making it slightly larger than New Mexico. Located in the south, Oslo is Norway's capital and largest city; Bergen is the cultural center of western Norway and the second-largest city with a population of 225,439. Other important urban centers include Trondheim and Stavanger.", "UNESCO has Norway’s Geirangerfjord on its prestigious World Heritage List. Known for its snow-covered mountain peaks, twin waterfalls and lush green vegetation, the Geirangerfjord is located in southwestern Norway. About 100 kilometers from the town of Alesund in the county of More og Romsdal, the world-famous fjord is 15 kilometers long and 600 meters deep. According to the Norway Official Travel Guide, more than 700,000 tourists and nearly 200 cruise ships visit Geirangerfjord each year, making it the most popular of Norway’s seven main fjords. Most people kayak or take a sightseeing cruise to enjoy views of Geirangerfjord. There are two ferries; one travels between Geiranger and Hellesylt, and the other between Geiranger and Valldal. Other visitors hike the mountain trails of the Norway fjord, with Dalsnibba and Flydalsjuvet the best viewing points. You can also take Omevegen, known as Eagle Road, up the mountain, but the drive is steep and the road has 11 hairpin bends.", "A rugged landscape shaped by the Ice Age, shows forested hills and valleys, mountains, waterfalls, and a long coastline with fjords, islands, and mountains growing directly up from the sea. Norway's highest point is Galdhøpiggen, 2,469m (8,100 ft) in the Jotunheimen region that lies midway between Oslo and Trondheim , but away from the coast. In the far north ( Finnmark ), you will find flatter open spaces. Several of the world's greatest waterfalls are in Norway, particularly in the western fjords and the mountain region.", "Norway is high mountains and deep fjords . It is wide open spaces and rocky coastlines. It is islands and archipelagos. It is lush farmland and rolling moors.", "The wooden church of Urnes (the stavkirke) stands in the natural setting of Sogn og Fjordane. It was built in the 12th and 13th centuries and is an outstanding example of traditional Scandinavian wooden architecture. It brings together traces of Celtic art, Viking traditions and Romanesque spatial structures.", ">> Approaching Aurland by the ferry, the Sognefjord stretches out in glassy beauty to a bend where it meets a back wall of huge mountains. We normally stay in a nice and friendly hotel just a street back from the waterfront.", "Norway is well known for its amazing and varied scenery. The fjords in the west of the country are long narrow inlets, flanked on either side by tall mountains where the sea penetrates far inland. By far the major part of the land is a rocky wilderness, and thus Norway has large, completely unpopulated areas, many of which have been converted to national parks. Even outside the national parks, much of the land is unspoiled nature.", "The Kingdom of Norway, mostly located in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and inclusive of the Jan Mayen island and the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, has a total coastline of 15,626 miles. The mainland of the country faces the North Atlantic Ocean towards the east, and the Barents Sea towards the north.The coastline of Norway is highly irregular, and ruggedly indented with numerous fjords and islands all along its coast. A large section of the Norwegian population lives along the coast. The capital of the country, Oslo, is also based towards the top of the Oslo Fjord. The Norwegian coastline is also a popular tourist destination, and one attracting visitors from all over the world to watch the majestic landscape along the coastline, and also catch a glimpse of the Northern Lights along the northern coasts of the country.", "For a very long time, the reality of Norway’s intricate geography meant a life of isolation for so many Norwegians — during the long winter months, farmers and fisherman were cut off from the world by snow and ice. Neighbors may live less than a mile from one another, but on opposite sides of the fjord or mountain, that’s a world apart. In some ways, before Norway’s extensive network of roads, bridges, and tunnels was completed, the west coast of Norway (namely Bergen ) had closer ties with the outside world than their own capital, Oslo.", "Norway’s west coast is heavily indented with long, deep inlets called fjords. These were carved out by glaciers during past ice ages. Today, the fjords shelter villages and towns and make perfect natural harbors.", "In its northern reaches, Norway stretches into the Arctic Circle. It's a cold place, but brilliantly varied and interesting. Perhaps contrary to popular beliefs, polar bears and walruses can not be seen in their natural environment atop ice floes on the coast of mainland Norway ( Svalbard is another matter). Seals, however, can be seen many places along the coast. Nevertheless naturally treeless areas create a haunting and mysterious sense of desolation; and majestic peaks jut above the coast.", "Bergen (in Hordaland) is Norway's second largest city and has over a quarter of a million people. It is located in southwestern Norway and another important port. Bryggen, the older part of Bergen, is placed on the Unesco World Heritage List .", "While Norway’s natural wonders - the fjords, waterfalls and snowy peaks - might be its most obviously beautiful trait, there’s plenty more beauty to be found in the Scandinavian cultural landscape. ", "In this year, the Kvens and Norse cooperate in battles against the invading Karelians, again according to Egil's Saga. Thorolf Kveldulfsson, head of taxes for the king of Norway from 872 (and later the tax agent in the Finnmark), enters Kvenland, going 'up on the fell with a hundred men; he passed on at once eastwards to Kvenland and met King Faravid.' Based on medieval documents, this meeting takes place during the winter of 873-874.", "Set in Norway's fjord country where an official of the English jockey club is sent to investigate the disappearance of steeplechase jockey.", "Denmark–Norway (Danish and Norwegian: ') was a political entity consisting of the united kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including overseas Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands.", "Edvard Hagerup Grieg (; 15 June 1843 - 4 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist. He is widely considered one of the leading Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide. His use and development of Norwegian folk music in his own compositions put the music of Norway in the international spectrum, as well as helping to develop a national identity, much as Jean Sibelius and Antonín Dvořák did in Finland and Bohemia, respectively. Grieg is regarded as simultaneously nationalistic and cosmopolitan in his orientation, for although born in Bergen and buried there, he traveled widely throughout Europe, and considered his music to express both the beauty of Norwegian rural life and the culture of Europe as a whole. He is the most celebrated person from the city of Bergen, with numerous statues depicting his image, and many cultural entities named after him: the city's largest building (Grieg Hall), its most advanced music school (Grieg Academy), its professional choir (Edvard Grieg Kor), and even some private companies that include its largest hotel (Quality Hotel Edvard Grieg), and a music technology developer (Grieg Music). The Edvard Grieg Museum in Troldhaugen (Grieg's former home in Bergen) is dedicated to his legacy.", "The 11 Most Famous Things about Norway, from Fjords to Skiing to the Midnight Sun (1 of 11)", "Meaning \"great thing\" or \"great council\" what is the name of the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway?", "The Norwegians began exploring Queen Maud Land intensively in 1930, and using planes for the first time they photographed and sketched the area. In subsequent flights in 1931 and 1936, they uncovered areas unknown and identified anomalies that would attract worldwide interest.", "De holdt stille ved et lille Huus; det var saa ynkeligt; Taget gik ned til Jorden, og Døren var saa lav, at Familien maatte krybe paa Maven, naar den vilde ud eller ind. Her var Ingen hjemme uden en gammel Lappekone, der stod og stegte Fisk ved en Tranlampe; og Rensdyret fortalte hele Gerdas Historie, men først sin egen, for det syntes, at den var meget vigtigere, og Gerda var saa forkommet af Kulde, at hun ikke kunde tale.", "2. Verden deltes i tre Dele; en gik fra Syd mod Vest og ind til Midtjordssøen (Middelhavet); den Del kaldtes Afrika; den sydlige Del af den er ophedet af Solen, saa at alt svides dér. Den anden Del gaar fra Vest mod Nord og ind til Havet; den hedder Evropa eller Ænea; den nordlige Del af den er saa kold, at dér vokser intet Græs og dér bor intet Menneske. Fra Nord og over hele den østrè Del og helt op imod Syd kaldes Asia; i den Verdensdel er al Herlighed og Pryd og Overflod af Frugter, Guld og Ædelstene. Og dér er Jordens Midte. Og saaledes som Jorden dér er skønnere og i alle Henseender rigere og bedre end andre Steder, saaledes blev Befolkningen der ogsaa mest udmærket ved alle Goder, Visdom og Styrke, Skønhed og alslags Færdigheder." ]

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[ "A pro-Solidarity march in Poland, September 1988. Solidarity ('Solidarnosc' in Polish) is a non-communist trade union federation that was formed in the shipyards of Gdansk in 1980. After first suppressing the movement, the Polish government eventually allowed Solidarity to stand in elections. In 1989 the group won a resounding victory in legislative elections, precipitating the fall of communism in Poland and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Today, Solidarity represents 722,000 workers in Poland.", "On February 6, 1989, negotiations between the Polish Government and members of the underground labor union Solidarity opened officially in Warsaw. Solidarity was formed in August 1980 following a series of strikes that paralyzed the Polish economy. The 1981 Soviet-inspired imposition of martial law drove the organization underground, where it survived due to support from Western labor organizations and Polish émigré groups. The results of the “Round Table Talks,” signed by government and Solidarity representatives on April 4, included free elections for 35% of the Parliament (Sejm), free elections for the newly created Senate, a new office of the President, and the recognition of Solidarity as a political party. On June 4, as Chinese tanks crushed student-led protests in Beijing, Solidarity delivered a crushing electoral victory. By August 24, ten years after Solidarity emerged on the scene, Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the first non-communist Prime Minister in Eastern Europe.", "Solidarity was founded in Gdansk in September 1980 at the Lenin Shipyards , where Lech Wałęsa and others formed a broad anti-Soviet social movement ranging from people associated with the Catholic Church [2] to members of the anti-Soviet Left . Solidarity advocated non-violence in its members' activities. [3] [4] In September 1981 Solidarity's first national congress elected Lech Wałęsa as a president [5] and adopted a republican program, the \"Self-governing Republic\" [6] . The government attempted to destroy the union with the martial law of 1981 and several years of repression, but in the end it had to start negotiating with the union.", "[ɲezaˈlɛʐnɨ samɔːˈʐɔndnɨ ˈzvjɔ̃zɛk zavɔːˈdɔvɨ sɔliˈdarnɔɕt͡ɕ] ) is a Polish trade union federation that emerged on August 31, 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of by Lech Wałęsa . It was the first non- communist party -controlled trade union in a Warsaw Pact country. Solidarity reached 9.5 million members before its September 1981 congress that constituted 1/3 of the total working age population of Poland. [3]", "Solidarity (Solidarność, pronounced ; full name: Independent Self-governing Trade Union \"Solidarity\" — Niezależny Samorządny Związek Zawodowy \"Solidarność\") is a Polish trade union federation founded in September 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard, and originally led by Lech Wałęsa.", "Poland’s Solidarity Movement is founded on 22 September, with Gdansk shipyard worker, Lech Walesa, its Chairman. Solidarity seeks to coordinate the various workers' protests, against such things as rising food prices, around the country. Within a year, it has 10 million members and is banned by the Polish communist government. The movement, however, cannot be stopped and in June 1989, candidates endorsed by Solidarity sweep the parliamentary elections. In December, Walesa becomes President of Poland.", "Under communism, Gdańsk became a major shipbuilding centre and port for the Eastern Bloc. Dissatisfaction with the regime was particularly strong in the city and elsewhere in Pomerania , manifesting itself visibly with popular protests against severe price hikes in 1970. In Gdańsk, shipyard workers were gunned down by police and army units. Despite the clampdown, mass protests against price spikes surfaced again in 1976. In 1980, responding to the Lenin Shipyard's firing of worker Anna Walentynowicz for participating in a non-governmental worker's union, Solidarity (Solidarność) was organized to protest the regime. Led by electrician Lech Wałęsa, the Catholic-inspired labour union quickly spread across the country, forcing the Polish government to enact martial law in 1981. Despite efforts to contain the movement through police and military means, Solidarity grew only more emboldened by the draconian response, forcing the government into negotiations by 1989 which eventually led to the peaceful downfall of the regime later that year.", "Lech Walesa, a Polish labor leader and social activist, became the first democratically elected president of Poland, serving from 1990 to 1995. Prior to his presidency, Walesa, an electrician at the Lenin Shipyards in Gdansk, helped to form Solidarity, Poland's first independent trade union.", "Solidarity emerged on 31 August 1980 in Gdańsk at the Lenin Shipyards when the communist government of Poland signed the agreement allowing for its existence. On 17 September 1980, over 20 Inter-factory Founding Committees of free trade unions merged at the congress into one national organization NSZZ Solidarity. It officially registered on 10 November 1980. ", "Lech Wałęsa, (born September 29, 1943, Popowo, near Włocławek, Poland), labour activist who helped form and led (1980–90) communist Poland’s first independent trade union, Solidarity . The charismatic leader of millions of Polish workers, he went on to become the president of Poland (1990–95). He received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1983.", "In the late 1980’s, Poland was nearing the end of almost 40 years of postwar communism as part of the Soviet Eastern Bloc. Out of labor organizing earlier in the decade emerged Solidarność (Solidarity), the first non-communist party-controlled trade union federation in a Warsaw Pact country (see Polish workers general strike for economic rights, 1980 ). Shortly after the rise of Solidarity, the organization expanded into a larger social movement, appealing for economic reforms, free elections, and increased political participation of trade unions.", "Solidarity was an anti-communist trade union in a Warsaw Pact country. In the 1980s, it constituted a broad anti-communist movement. The government attempted to destroy the union during the period of martial law in the early 1980s, and several years of repression, however, in the end, it had to start negotiating with the union. The Round Table Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989. By the end of August, a Solidarity-led coalition government was formed, and in December 1990, Wałęsa was elected President of Poland. Since then, it has become a more traditional trade union.", "In Poland, Solidarity (Solidarnosc) trade union was founded in Poland after weeks of strikes at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdañsk. The electrician, Lech Walesa, became the leader of the Solidarity (Solidarnosc) trade union. Strikers opposed the Soviet backed Polish communist government.", "is a Polish trade union federation that emerged on 31 August 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa. It was the first non-Communist Party-controlled trade union in a Warsaw Pact country. Solidarity reached 9.5 million members before its September 1981 Congress.", "Through the mid-1980s, Wałęsa continued underground Solidarity-related activities. Every issue of the leading underground weekly publication Tygodnik Mazowsze bore his motto, \"Solidarity will not be divided or destroyed\".Timothy Garton Ash, [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/3224 \"Poland After Solidarity],\" The New York Review of Books, vol. 38, no. 11 (13 June 1991). Following a 1986 amnesty for Solidarity activists, Wałęsa co-founded the Provisional Council of NSZZ Solidarity (Tymczasowa Rada NSZZ Solidarność), the first overt legal Solidarity entity since the declaration of martial law. From 1987 to 1990, he organized and led the semi-illegal Provisional Executive Committee of the Solidarity Trade Union. In mid-1988 he instigated work-stoppage strikes at the Gdańsk Shipyard. [http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/19303,,,,walesa_lech,haslo.html Wałęsa Lech], Encyklopedia WIEM", "In December 1990, Walesa was elected president. It was the end of the communist governmental system in Poland. Into the 1990s, Solidarity gradually lost its influence as a political party, but did become one of the largest trade unions in Poland. Solidarity’s example in 1989 influenced the spread of anti-communist ideas and organizing throughout the Eastern Bloc, weakening communist governments and ultimately causing them to fall.", "The Round Table Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989 . By the end of August a Solidarity-led coalition government was formed and in December 1990 Wałęsa was elected President of Poland . Since then it has become a more traditional, liberal trade union. 30 years after emerging its membership dropped to over 400,000. [1]", "October 24, 1980 - Communist authorities in Poland granted recognition to the trade union \"Solidarity.\" It was subsequently outlawed in 1981 after the government imposed martial law. In 1989, it was re-legalized.", "The Solidarity movement in Poland is arguably one of the most unique and inspiring movements in modern European history. Between 1980-1989, Solidarity led what has often been described as a “10 year revolution”, which ultimately resulted in the collapse of communism in Poland, a key turning point which triggered wider reform and revolution across the Eastern bloc. During this turbulent decade, Solidarity evolved from a legal trade union into an underground social network and protest movement, ultimately emerging as a revolutionary force, capable of toppling and replacing the communist system in Poland. (Bloom, 2013, pp374-375). Mark Kramer has argued that while Solidarity may have started out as a free trade union, it “quickly became far more: a social movement, a symbol of hope and an embodiment of the struggle against communism and Soviet domination” (Kramer, 2011).", "In Poland, the largest Communist country apart from the Soviet Union , the free trade union Solidarity got more and more support from the population. In the June 1989 national elections Solidarity won the majority of seats in the Senate. As a result, Poland became the first Soviet satellite state to have a non-communist Prime Minister. A year later Solidarity leader Lech Walesa was elected Poland's first democratic President.", "Lech Wałęsa ( or;; born 29 September 1943) is a retired Polish politician and labor activist. He co-founded and headed Solidarity (Solidarność), the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.", "The first action came, not surprisingly, from the Poles. The Polish labor union, Solidarity, was made legal again in April 1989. New elections were held right away, with stunning results: the Communist Party tried rigging the elections to make sure that it would win 65 of the 100 contested seats in the Polish Senate, but pro-Solidarity candidates got so many of the votes that they won 99 seats anyway. A transitional government was set up; Jaruzelski stepped down from running the government, though he kept control over the army, and Solidarity's newspaper editor, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, became the new president. A year and a half later presidential elections were held, and this time Lech Walesa replaced Mazowiecki. The Polish break with Russia was now complete.", "In Poland, the Roundtable Talks between the government and Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989 . By the end of August a Solidarity-led coalition government was formed and in December Tadeusz Mazowiecki was elected Prime Minister . Since 1989 Solidarity has become a more traditional trade union, and had relatively little impact on the political scene of Poland in the early 1990s. A political arm founded in 1996 as Solidarity Electoral Action ( AWS ) won the parliamentary election in 1997 , but lost the following 2001 election . Currently, as a political party Solidarity has little influence on modern Polish politics.", "Poland's communist government attempted to destroy the union by instituting martial law in 1981, followed by several years of political repression, but in the end was forced into negotiation. The Roundtable Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition resulted in semi-free elections in 1989. By the end of August 1989, a Solidarity-led coalition government had been formed, and, in December 1990, Wałęsa was elected president. This was soon followed by the dismantling of the communist governmental system and by Poland's transformation into a modern democratic state. Solidarity's early survival represented a break in the hard-line stance of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), and was an unprecedented event; not only for the People's Republic of Poland—a satellite of the USSR ruled by a one-party communist regime—but for the whole of the Eastern bloc. Solidarity's example led to the spread of anti-communist ideas and movements throughout the Eastern Bloc, weakening communist governments. This process later culminated in the Revolutions of 1989.", "With the fall of Communism in 1989, the Solidarity Movement splintered. Lech Walesa , the former Solidarity Leader was elected President, while Tusk went on to co-found the KLD (Liberal and Democratic Congress Party) with other well-known figures. The Party stood for among other things: free market economy, privatization, individual freedom of Polish citizens and Polish accession to the EU.", "A new wave of strikes undermined Gierek's government, and in September Gierek, who was in poor health, was finally removed from office and replaced as Party leader by Stanisław Kania. However, Kania was unable to find an answer for the fast-eroding support of communism in Poland. Labour turmoil led to the formation of the independent trade union Solidarity (Solidarność) in September 1980, originally led by Lech Wałęsa. In fact, Solidarity became a broad anti-communist social movement ranging from people associated with the Roman Catholic Church, to members of the anti-socialist left. By the end of 1981, Solidarity had nine million members—a quarter of Poland's population and three times as many as the PUWP had. Kania resigned under Soviet pressure in October and was succeeded by Wojciech Jaruzelski, who had been Defence minister since 1968 and Premier since February.", "On later trips to Poland, he gave tacit support to the Solidarity organisation. These visits reinforced this message and contributed to the collapse of East European Communism that took place between 1989/1990 with the reintroduction of democracy in Poland, and which then spread through Eastern Europe (1990–1991) and South-Eastern Europe (1990–1992).", "European Solidarity Centre (Europejskie Centrum Solidarności), plac Solidarności 1, ☎ +48 50 619 56 73, ( zwiedzanie@ecs.gda.pl ), [26] . M-F 08:00-16:00. Opening in 2014, the impressive European Solidarity Center is a modern five-storey structure detailing the history of the anti-communist Solidarity movement, along with resistance movements to the other communist regimes throughout the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Aside from acting as a museum, the center also includes a research library and a conference center.   edit", "polish leader who organized solidarity; elected president of poland in the first free election in 50 years", "In August of 88, Jaruzelski invited Walesa and other Solidarity leaders to \"round table\" meetings to consider possible reforms. Solidarity demanded legalization. In Febuary of 1989, the official round table discussions began, and the government was basically forced to meet the opposition's requests. The Round Table agreement was finished on April 5. Solidarity was legalized, an independent students association was created, partially free parliamentary elections were set up, free elections were planned for 1994, the Communists's party \"leading role\" was abandoned and the presidency was to be established according to the French model.", "an independent trade union in Poland, the creation of which was one of the conditions resulting in the withdrawal of Soviet control in Poland in 1989 ", "Polish trade union created in 1980 to protest working conditions and political repression. It began the nationalist opposition to communist rule that led in 1989 to the fall of communism in eastern Europe." ]

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[ "The Loire River, France's longest waterway, rises in the uplands of Massif Central in the country's central southern region and flows 629 miles northwest into the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic coast at St. Nazaire. It is variously known as the 'royal river', due to the number of kings and aristocrats who lived in the hundreds of beautiful castles and chateaux that line its banks, and the country's last 'wild river' because of its unpredictable currents and shallow water.", "It rises in the highlands of the southeastern quarter of the Massif Central in the Cévennes range (in the department of Ardèche) at 1350 m near Mont Gerbier de Jonc; it flows north for over 1000 km through Nevers to Orléans, then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches the Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) at St Nazaire. Its main tributaries include the rivers Nièvre, Maine and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the Sèvre Nantaise to the left bank.", "The Loire flows roughly northward through Roanne and Nevers to Orléans and thereafter westward through Tours to Nantes, where it forms an estuary. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean at between Saint-Nazaire and Saint-Brevin-les-Pins, connected by a bridge over the river near its mouth. Several départements of France were named after the Loire. The Loire flows through the following départements and towns: Ardèche, Haute-Loire: Le Puy-en-Velay, Loire: Feurs, Roanne, Saône-et-Loire: Digoin, Allier, Nièvre: Decize, Nevers, La Charité-sur-Loire, Cosne-Cours-sur-Loire, Cher: Sancerre, Loiret: Briare, Gien, Orléans, Loir-et-Cher: Blois, Indre-et-Loire: Amboise, Tours, Maine-et-Loire: Saumur, Loire-Atlantique: Ancenis, Nantes, Saint-Nazaire.", "Where to go France's capital, Paris, is ideal for a short break, with plenty of sightseeing opportunities. For beach holidays, Brittany has a particular appeal for families, with plenty of wide sandy bays. The other major beach area is the south coast, where the COte d'Azur offers a touch of glamour, usually at premium prices, while the LanguedocRoussillon coast, with its purpose-built holiday complexes, provides lots of entertainment. For sightseeing holidays, the Lower Provence cities have a wealth of historic monuments. The Loire Valley, on the other hand, is famous for its scores of Renaissance chateaux. Normandy is better for sightseeing than beaches, despite a few smart resorts. Burgundy and Alsace, both famous for their food and wine, offer enjoyable scenery and fine historic towns. The pretty countryside of the Dordogne area is a long-standing British favourite and many British-owned cottages and farmhouses are rented for self-catering holidays. If you're looking for dramatic mountain", "The town has a major harbour, on the right bank of the Loire River estuary, near the Atlantic Ocean. The town is at the south of the second-largest swamp in France, called \"la Brière\". Given its location, Saint-Nazaire has a long tradition of fishing and shipbuilding.", ", city (1990 pop. 252,029), capital of Loire-Atlantique dept., W France, on the Loire River. It is an important industrial and shipping center with its ocean port at Saint-Nazaire.", "The river is geographically divided into three sections, the Upper Loire, located between it’s source and it’s confluence with the River Allier at Nevers, the Middle Loire, located between it’s confluence with the River Allier and it’s confluence with the River Maine just outside Angers and the Lower Loire, located between it’s confluence with the River Maine and it’s estuary at Saint Nazaire.", "largest West European nation; most major French rivers - the Meuse, Seine, Loire, Charente, Dordogne, and Garonne - flow northward or westward into the Atlantic Ocean, only the Rhone flows southward into the Mediterranean Sea", "At the beginning of the 19th century, the port only consisted of one simple harbor. As the town was so far inland, its main economy was not based on commercial fishing, but its strategic location as the lowest possible navigation point for large ships, and the supply of pilots for navigation further up the Loire. In 1800, the parish of Saint-Nazaire had around 3216 inhabitants.", "While cruising, you'll visit prestigious chateaux, charming towns and notable wineries. Stops along the Garonne River usually include Cadillac's ancient harbor and 16th-century chateau, as well as the nearby vineyards of Sauternes where you can sample dessert wines and learn how they are made. Highlights on the Dordogne include Saint-Emilion, the oldest wine-making area of the Bordeaux region, and the citadel of Blaye, an imposing fortress and UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "The river Loire flows for about six hundred miles through a valley constellated by numerous vineyards and beautiful, enchanting castles. The valley is known as Chateau country", "The Garonne River originates in the Pyrenees and flows northwestward to Bordeaux in the French region of Aquitaine. Along the way, it joins with the Dordogne, which flows southwestward from Auvergne in the Massif Central. These two rivers become the Gironde, the river with the biggest estuary, not just in France but in all of Europe. The Gironde exits France by way of the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic Ocean. Bordeaux, which sits near the confluence, is a major wine-producing region. Any wine labeled as a Bordeaux must come from the vineyards in this area. Top-notch wine choices from Bordeaux include the very elite and expensive Chateau Lafite-Rothschild.", "1-4 One of the prettiest of all French ports, Honfleur’s Vieux Bassin was the birthplace of Boudin, who left 53 of his works to a museum which bears his name and the workplace of other famous French impressionists such as Renoir, Cézanne and Pissarro. 5 The River Seine, France’s longest inland navigation. Totalling 486 miles in length from the sea at Le Havre, it is navigable by ocean-going vessels only the 75 miles as far as Rouen. The tranquil green fields of the river valley, some of France’s most mellow countryside of farmland and meadows, historic towns and sleepy picture postcard villages, such as Villequier and Duclair, adorn the riverside along its length. 6 Approaching the small attractive town of Duclair. The area around Duclair is famous for its orchards, its microclimate particularly suited to the production of different kinds of fruit including apples, pears and red fruits, all predominant on the banks of the river on the “Orchard Trail”. 7 The Seine’s infamous tidal bore known as Le Mascaret, was responsible for drowning Leopoldine, daughter of Victor Hugo and her husband Charles Vacquerie in 1843, just six months after their marriage. Dredging in 1965 mostly eliminated tidal bores on the river. Hebridean Princess is seen here cruising in the vicinity of this tragic accident. 6 7", "Lyon, France’s third largest city, situated on the confluence of the Rhone and Saone rivers, is not only a UNESCO World Heritage Site replete with Roman ruins, Renaissance palaces, a bustling Old City and a newly developed waterfront, but it is also considered the gastronomic center of France. It has more Michelin-starred restaurants than any other city in Europe, with the exception of Paris, London and Brussels; fine patisseries, chocolatiers and traiteurs; and perhaps the grandest food hall in all of France: Les Halles de Lyon - Paul Bocuse.", "Loire, the largest river in France, 630 m., rises in the Cévennes, flows northwards to Orleans and westward to the Bay of Biscay, through a very fertile valley which it often inundates. It is navigable for 550 m., but its lower waters are obstructed by islands and shoals; it is connected by canals with the Seine, Saône, and Brest Harbour.", "From the mouth of the Seine between Honfleur and Le Havre, and after passing under the Normandy Bridge and the Tancarville Bridge, you sail up the beautiful meanders of the Seine through the heart of a bucolic landscape, interspersed with cliffs, towns and villages like Caudebec-en-Caux, Duclair or La Bouille , and castles and abbeys like Jumièges or Saint Martin de Boscherville: a valley that navigators have followed since time immemorial and where they have left their mark.", "Béziers, one of the oldest cities in France, is a great base to explore the national park, haute Languedoc. Wander the walking trails through the wooded hillsides and be sure to visit the Châteaux de Lastours, four picturesque so-called Cathar castles , perched high on a rocky spur above the village of Lastours. ", "Towering: A cruise along the River Seine will take you past landmarks such as Notre Dame", "The Loire Valley (,), spanning 280 km, is located in the middle stretch of the Loire River in central France, primarily within the administrative region named Centre-Val de Loire. The area of the Loire Valley comprises about 800 km2. It is referred to as the Cradle of the French and the Garden of France due to the abundance of vineyards, fruit orchards (such as cherries), and artichoke, and asparagus fields, which line the banks of the river. Notable for its historic towns, architecture, and wines, the valley has been inhabited since the Middle Palaeolithic period. In 2000, UNESCO added the central part of the Loire River valley to its list of World Heritage Sites.", "The Right Bank lies to the east of the city. Its artery is the Dordogne river and its trading heart the town of Libourne. It is home to the wines of St Emilion and Pomerol. It’s prettier and hillier than the Médoc, and the wines are more amenable and less straightlaced. The town of St Emilion is quaintly medieval – cobblestoned streets from the merlot-addled brain of an ancient town planner.", "Wine tasting at a Sauternes chateau is an included excursion on the Viking River Cruise Chateaux, Rivers & Wine .", "Located along the Somme River, the historical city center’s buildings, which date from the Middle Ages, are dominated by one of the world’s largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals. Home to Jules Verne, supports over 35 miles of canals and is the region’s educational and commercial center.", "The Bordeaux vineyard is centered round the port city of Bordeaux , along the estuary of the Gironde, and the rivers Garonne and Dordogne. It is a large vineyard, and the geo-specific appellation \"Bordeaux\" covers an area stretching some 100 km both north-south and east-west.", "The most famous spot in western Normandy is the offshore shrine of Mont-Saint-Michel . Normandy's principal cities are Caen , Cherbourg , Le Havre , and Rouen . The Seine River is the region's major waterway.", "Tourism is widespread, particularly along the coasts. The Basque coast in Pyrénées-Atlantique has experienced a major development of leisure activity, centred on the towns of Saint-Jean-de-Luz and, especially, Biarritz . A number of small winter-sports resorts have developed in the Pyrenees. In Dordogne many visitors travel to the valley of Vézère, one of the earliest known cradles of human habitation. Caves at Les Eyzies-de-Tayac and Lascaux contain some of the world’s best prehistoric drawings and paintings. Dordogne also has about 1,000 châteaus and a number of picturesque medieval towns.", "Dramatic chalk cliffs mark the northern coastline, dropping abruptly to sandy beaches that border the English Channel. There is a deep coastal indentation north of Bordeaux where the Garonne River and its tributary, the Dordogne, empty into the Bay of Biscay. Fine sand lines the beaches along this coast, and there are dunes in the southern area known as the Landes.", "Throughout France it flows through and past a number of large towns and cities, the most important of which are Lyon, Avignon and Arles. A large number of tributaries also join the river as it passes through France. All this together means that by the time it reaches the sea this river is very large indeed.", "A blessed basilica and a castle There’s no question of merely strolling the lanes and enjoying the famous home cooked cassoulet that helped to bring fame to the city. As the Saint-Nazaire basilica, whose stones were blessed by Pope Urbain II in 1096, has everything it takes to fascinate the curious beginning with its stained glass windows. Its magnificent “Tree of Jesse”, that adorns the Virgin’s chapel in the northern wings of the basilica, probably dates back to the end of the 13th century. It represents an allegory of the Christian people, depicted by the ancestors of Jesus Christ. We can also admire the organ dating SUDDEFRANCE - 6 -", "1,500 moorings, is among the largest in Europe, a perfect point of departure for Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, and Africa. No surprise, then, that Henry de Monfreid, Roussillon-born navigator and writer, had a house at La Franqui, the promontory bearing the remains of the three forts that once guarded the coast and the community of Leucate. From the ruins of its mediaeval castle, the village fans out in colourful fishermen's and vineyard workers' cottages. Ocean sports are, of course, a feature here, kitesurfing and windsurfing especially. Take the cliffside path leading to Cap Leucate for seascapes, garrigue, and vines. From there, two themed walks, the vineyard workers' path and the shepherds' path, wind through the listed and protected Leucate plateau. www.argeles-sur-mer.com Tel. 00 33 (0)4 68 81 15 85 www.tourisme-leucate.fr Tel. 00 33 (0)4 68 40 91 31 www.gruissan-mediterranee.com Tel. 00 33(0)4 68 49 09 00", "The town has two churches, the 16th century Eglise Saint-Léonard, which is off the Place aux Arbres, behing the Château.  The Eglise St-Sulpice is in the Flamboyant Gothic style, with an 18th century wood-paneled interior.  There are a number of picturesque old houses, located along the river, just off the Place du Marchix, dating from the 15th to the 17th century.  The town has often appeared in French literature, having been host to such writers as Gustave Flaubert and Victor Hugo.", "Our starting point is the military harbor, which is spanned by the Pont de la Recouvrance. It is the second largest vertical lift bridge in Europe, after the Pont Gustave Flaubert in Rouen. Two pontoon bridges next to it alleviate traffic. Right next we find the Chateau, the old fort, which now houses the Musée national de la Marine.", "A visit to the coastal town of Honfleur is also highly recommended, with its harbour surrounded by historic buildings surely one of the most attractive in France." ]

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[ "The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France. First meetings were held in Strasbourg's University Palace in 1949, but the Council of Europe soon moved into its own buildings. The Council of Europe's eight main buildings are situated in the Quartier européen, an area in the northeast of Strasbourg spread over the three districts of Le Wacken, La Robertsau and Quartier de l'Orangerie, where are also located the four buildings of the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the Arte headquarters and the seat of the International Institute of Human Rights.", "The headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages. The Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work.", "Based in the beautiful city of Strasbourg, France, right next to the European Parliament, the Council of Europe headquarters forms the hub of our operations. In the heart of the European Quarter of Strasbourg, the headquarters is in fact a complex of 6 main buildings, with over 2000 staff.", "The Council of Europe, a seat and symbol of international democracy, is part of Strasbourg’s rich artistic and architectural landscape. Its buildings and artwork contribute to a fascinating and inspiring history of craftsmanship and design that dates from medieval times to the present day.", "            In the new era that soon dawned of seeking reconcilation in Europe, Alace-Lorraine's position within France and on the borders of Germany gave it a new importance.  The Council of Europe, founded in 1949, on which many European states are represented, has its headquarters in Strasbourg.   Its most important institution, the European Court of Human Rights, established in 1959, sits there.   When the Coal and Steel Community was established in 1951 its Common Assembly held sessions in Strasbourg;  the European Parliament, its successor in the European Union, continues to hold plenary sessions there.   In the 1990s successive French governments strenuously resisted the concentration of the Parliament upon Brussels, favoured by many members of the Parliament itself, and had the support of many Germans in this.", "Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights. ", "In 2002, it was also decided that the European Council would be based in Brussels. The Council was established in the 1960s as an informal gathering of national leaders and did not have a fixed location, being held, instead, in the state which held the EU Presidency each time. However, with impending enlargement, the Treaty of Nice established that one Council meeting per presidency would be held in Brussels. After enlargement to 18 members (reached in May 2004), all business would be held there with the exception of some extraordinary meetings that are still held elsewhere. In Brussels, the European Council shares the same building as the Council of the European Union. ", "Separately, the Treaty of Nice establishes Brussels as the venue for all formal summits of the European Council after 2004. However some extraordinary sessions are sometimes held outside the city. The European Council's seat is however fixed by a declaration rather than a protocol, meaning it is less binding than the other seats.", "European Union summits take place in a large, charmless pink granite building in Brussels, headquarters of the European Council, representing the 28 member states – and home to the office of Donald Tusk, the council president, who convenes and chairs the summits.", "Brussels began to host EU institutions in the 1950s. With the Treaty of Amsterdam that was signed in 1997 and entered into force two years later, the city was made the official seat of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament. But it shares the title of the official seat of the European Parliament with the French city of Strasbourg where voting takes place. Plenary sessions and meetings of the political and committee groups take place in the city of Strasbourg.", "Brussels in Belgium is considered the de facto capital of the European Union, having a long history of hosting the institutions of the European Union within its European Quarter. The EU has no official capital, and no plans to declare one, but Brussels hosts the official seats of the European Commission, Council of the European Union, and European Council, as well as a seat (officially the second seat but de facto the most important one) of the European Parliament.", "The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London. The Treaty of London or the Statute of the Council of Europe was signed in London on that day by ten states: Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Many other states followed, especially after the democratic transitions in central and eastern Europe during the early 1990s, and the Council of Europe now includes all European states except Belarus, Kazakhstan, Vatican City and the European states with limited recognition such as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Transnistria, and Kosovo.", "In response, the European Council adopted on 12 December 1992 in Edinburgh a final agreement on the seats. The Decision on the location of the seats of the institutions and of certain bodies and departments of the European Communities outlined that the Parliament would be based in Strasbourg, where it would be obliged to hold \"twelve periods of monthly plenary sessions, including the budget session\". However, additional sessions could be held in Brussels, which is where committees also should have met while the secretariat had to remain in Luxembourg. ", "Although the EU has no single seat of government, many of its most important offices are in Brussels, Belgium. The European Commission, which has executive and some legislative functions, is headquartered there, as is the Council of the European Union; it is also where the various committees of the European Parliament generally meet to prepare for the monthly sessions in Strasbourg, France. In addition to the four main branches of the EU's governing body, there are the Court of Auditors, which oversees EU expenditures; the Economic and Social Committee, a consultative body representing the interests of labor, employers, farmers, consumers, and other groups; and the European Council, a consultative but highly influential body composed primarily of the president of the Commission and the heads of government of the EU nations and their foreign ministers.", "Strasbourg remains a hub of modern day activity. Located on the banks of the Rhine, it is home to the European Parliament, the European Court of Human Rights and the European Council all of which befit its political past. The city is also listed as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.", "The European Council, charged with defining the EU's overall political direction and priorities, is the institution of the European Union (EU) that comprises the heads of state or government of the member states, along with President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy also takes part in its meetings. Established as an informal summit in 1975, the European Council was formalised as an institution in 2009 upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. Its current President is Donald Tusk.", "The European Parliament is based in Strasbourg, Luxembourg and Brussels. Most of the plenary sessions are held in Strasbourg, although the Members of the European Parliament have their main offices in Brussels, while Luxembourg hosts parts of the administration.", "The European Council consists of the heads of state or government of the member states, alongside its own President and the Commission President (both non-voting). The meetings used to be regularly attended by the national foreign minister as well, and the Commission President likewise accompanied by another member of the Commission. However, since the Treaty of Lisbon, this has been discontinued, as the size of the body had become somewhat large following successive accessions of new Member States to the Union.", "There are two further cities hosting major institutions, Luxembourg (judicial and second seats) and Strasbourg (Parliament's main seat). Authorities in Strasbourg and organisations based there also refer to Strasbourg as the \"capital\" of Europe and Brussels, Strasbourg and Luxembourg are also referred to as the joint capitals of Europe. In 2010, Vice President of the United States Joe Biden, while speaking to the European Parliament, stated that Brussels, like Washington D.C. had its own claim to be capital of the free world. ", "Luxembourg is the site of the European Court of Justice, the European Court of Auditors, the Statistical Office of the European Communities (\"Eurostat\") and other vital EU organs. The Secretariat of the European Parliament is located in Luxembourg, but the Parliament usually meets in Brussels and sometimes in Strasbourg.", "The city of The Hague contributes substantially to international politics: The Hague is home to over 150 international organisations. These include the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the International Criminal Court (ICC), the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). The Hague is the fourth major centre for the United Nations, after New York, Geneva and Vienna. In line with the city's history as an important convention center and the current presence of institutions such as the ICJ, The Hague's city council employs a city branding strategy that aims to establish The Hague as the Legal Capital of the World and the International City of Peace and Justice. ", "Madrid (,,) is the capital of Spain, and the largest municipality of the Community of Madrid. The population of the city is almost 3.2 million with a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan area is the third-largest in the European Union after London and Paris. Located in south-western Europe, the city spans a total of . ", "Across the Rue de la Loi from the Berlayont is the Justus Lipsius building which houses the Council of the European Union and the European Council. The Council's secretariat had originally been based in the city centre, and then in the Charlemagne building joining the other European buildings centred on the Schuman roundabout. The European Council will move info Résidence Palace next door once it has been renovated and the Lex building beyond that was occupied by the Council in 2007. The renovation and construction of the new Council building was intended to change the image the European quarter, and is designed by the architect Philippe Samyn to be a \"feminine\" and \"jazzy\" building to contrast with the hard, more \"masculine\" architecture of other EU buildings. The building features a \"lantern shaped\" structure surrounded by a glass atrium made up of recycled windows from across Europe, intended to appear \"united from afar but showing their diversity up close.\"", "Berlin is the national capital of the Federal Republic of Germany and is the seat of the President of Germany, whose official residence is Schloss Bellevue. Since German reunification on 3 October 1990 it has been one of the three city states, together with Hamburg and Bremen, among the present sixteen states of Germany. The Bundesrat (\"federal council\") is the representation of the Federal States (Bundesländer) of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian Herrenhaus (House of Lords). Though most of the ministries are seated in Berlin, some of them, as well as some minor departments, are seated in Bonn, the former capital of West Germany.", "The Council of Europe has offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, and Ukraine; information offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Republic of Macedonia, and Ukraine; and a projects office in Turkey. All these offices are establishments of the Council of Europe and they share its juridical personality with privileges and immunities.", "Designed by French architect Henry Bernard and inaugurated in 1977, the Palais de l’Europe is the Council of Europe’s principal building. With its entrance flanked by the flags of all the Council’s member states, the structure of the Palais – a solid, fortress-like exterior which contrasts with its gentler and more fluid curved interior – reflects the values of strength in unity, trust, and cordiality that define the work carried out within its walls.", "The national capital of Belgium , sometimes called the European capital because the city houses main institutions of the European Union and is also the political seat of the NATO.", "Since the institution is composed of national leaders, it gathers the executive power of the member states and has thus a great influence in high-profile policy areas as for example foreign policy. It also exercises powers of appointment, such as appointment of its own President, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the President of the European Central Bank. It proposes, to the European Parliament, a candidate for President of the European Commission. Moreover, the European Council influences police and justice planning, the composition of the Commission, matters relating to the organisation of the rotating Council presidency, the suspension of membership rights, and changing the voting systems through the Passerelle Clause. Although the European Council has no direct legislative power, under the \"emergency brake\" procedure, a state outvoted in the Council of Ministers may refer contentious legislation to the European Council. However, the state may still be outvoted in the European Council. Hence with powers over the supranational executive of the EU, in addition to its other powers, the European Council has been described by some as the Union's \"supreme political authority\". ", "Shortly after its election, Parliament became the first Community institution to propose that the Community adopt the flag of Europe. The European Council agreed to this and adopted the Symbols of Europe as those of the Community in 1984. The European Council, or European summit, had developed since the 1960s as an informal meeting of the Council at the level of heads of state. It had originated from then-French President Charles de Gaulle's resentment at the domination of supranational institutions (e.g. the Commission) over the integration process. It was mentioned in the treaties for the first time in the Single European Act (see below). ", "The Council of the European Communities was a body holding legislative and executive powers and was thus the main decision making body of the Community. Its Presidency rotated between the member states every six months and it is related to the European Council, which was an informal gathering of national leaders (started in 1961) on the same basis as the Council. ", "1) The Council, also called the Council of Ministers designates a meeting that gathers representatives of EU member states at the ministerial level.", "This map shows some of the locations of claimants to the title of Centre of Europe" ]

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[ "As a modern nation-state, the country was first unified amidst the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. In 1949, after World War II, Germany was divided into two separate states—East Germany and West Germany—along the lines of Allied occupation. The two states were unified in 1990. West Germany was a founding member of the European Community (EC) in 1957, which became the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen zone and adopted the European currency, the euro, in 1999.", "Thus, the reunification was not a merger that created a third state out of the two, but an incorporation, by which West Germany absorbed East Germany. Thus, on Unification Day, 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, giving way to five new Federal States, and East and West Berlin were also unified as a single city-state, forming a sixth new Federal State. The new Federal States immediately became parts of the Federal Republic of Germany, so that it was enlarged to include the whole territory of the former East Germany and Berlin.", "In 1989 mass demonstrations led to a collapse of the Berlin Wall . A year later, on October 3, 1990, East and West Germany were reunited, after being separate states for forty years. 20 years ago German Chancellor Helmut Kohl pushed unification forward and served as the architect of a united Germany. He promised East Germans blooming landscapes and a new western-style life. Not everyone in the western world wanted a united Germany. Great Britain and France were opposed because they thought Germany would become too powerful.", "The Soviet powers began to dwindle in the late 1980s, and the Communist Party in East Germany began to lose its grip on power. On 18 March 1990, the first and only free elections in the history of East Germany were held, producing a government whose major mandate was to negotiate an end to itself and its state. The German \"Einigungsvertrag\" (Unification Treaty) was signed on 31 August 1990 by representatives of West Germany and East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the areas of the former East Germany ceased to exist, having been incorporated into The Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany.", "The reunification was not a merger that created a third state out of the two. Rather, West Germany effectively absorbed East Germany. Accordingly, on Unification Day, 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, and five new Federal States on its former territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany. East and West Berlin were reunited, and joined the Federal Republic as a full-fledged Federal City-State. Under this model, the Federal Republic of Germany, now enlarged to include the five states of the former German Democratic Republic plus the reunified Berlin, continued legally to exist under the same legal personality that was founded in May 1949.", "In July, 1990, Kohl and Gorbachev agreed that the USSR would withdraw its forces from East German soil within four years (between then and Aug., 1994, when the withdrawal was completed, more than a half million troops were pulled out); it was also agreed that the united Germany would reduce its armed force strength to 370,000 within the same period. Also in July, East Germany reestablished five states in place of its 15 districts. In August, East and West Berlin were joined to form the state of Berlin. On Oct. 3, 1990, the two German states were formally unified, and it was officially declared that the united Germany would be a full member of NATO. In November, Germany signed a treaty with Poland recognizing Poland's western boundary and renouncing German claims to territory lost because of World War II.", "German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) took place twice after 1945: first in 1957, when the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany and again on October 3, 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (GDR / East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG / West Germany). Berlin was also united into a single city-state. It was at this point that the unification process was commonly referred to as die Wende (The Turning Point) by citizens of the GDR. Die Wende marks the change from socialism to democracy and capitalism in East Germany around the years 1989 and 1990. The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German Unity (Deutsche Einheit). There is some debate as to whether the events of 1990 should be properly referred to as a “reunification” or a “unification”.", "1990 - Reunification / Germany - October 3rd, 1990: \"West Germany and East Germany ended 45 years of postwar division, declaring the creation of a new unified country. The Berlin Wall came down.\"", "On 9 November 1989, the Wall was opened, and the two parts of the city were once again physically — though at this point not legally — united. The Two Plus Four Treaty, signed by the two German states and the four wartime allies, paved the way for German reunification and an end to the Western Allies' occupation of West Berlin. On 3 October 1990 — the day Germany was officially reunified — East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin, which then joined the enlarged Federal Republic as a city-state along the lines of the existing West German city-states of Bremen and Hamburg. Walter Momper, the mayor of West Berlin, became the first mayor of the reunified city. ", "1990/--/-- 32 - East and West Germany are reunited; Helmut Kohl becomes chancellor of a united Germany.", "Less than one year after the destruction of the Berlin Wall, East and West Germany come together on what is known as “Unity Day.” Since 1945, when Soviet forces occupied eastern Germany, and the United States and other Allied forces occupied the western half of the nation at the close of World War II, divided Germany had come to serve as one of the most enduring symbols of the Cold War. Some of the most dramatic episodes of the Cold War took place there. The Berlin Blockade (June 1948–May 1949), during which the Soviet Union blocked all ground travel into West Berlin, and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were perhaps the most famous. With the gradual waning of Soviet power in the late 1980s, the Communist Party in East Germany began to lose its grip on power. Tens of thousands of East Germans began to flee the nation, and by late 1989 the Berlin Wall started to come down. Shortly thereafter, talks between East and West German officials, joined by officials from the United States, Great Britain, France, and the USSR, began to explore the possibility of reunification. Two months following reunification, all-German elections took place and Helmut Kohl became the first chancellor of the reunified Germany. Although this action came more than a year before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, for many observers the reunification of Germany effectively marked the end of the Cold War.", "The fall of the Wall marked the first critical step towards German reunification, which formally concluded a mere 339 days later on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of East Germany and the official reunification of the German state along the democratic lines of the West German government.", "Unable to stop the growing civil unrest, Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990. ", "In 1989, a radical series of political changes occurred in the Eastern Bloc, associated with the liberalization of the Eastern Bloc's authoritarian systems and the erosion of political power in the pro-Soviet governments in nearby Poland and Hungary. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, a euphoric public and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of the rest. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which was formally concluded on 3 October 1990. [Wikipedia]", "These events lead to political change. Democratic elections paved the way for unity in the German Democratic Republic on March 18, 1990. The \"Treaty of Unification\" was signed by both countries' leaders in August that year. Finally, Germany's unification became official on October 3, 1990.", "A reunification treaty between West Germany and the GDR was negotiated in mid-1990, signed Aug. 31 that year and finally approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of both countries on Sept. 20. After that last step, Germany was officially united when the clock struck midnight on Oct. 3.", "As a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 and the onset of the Cold War in 1947, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West, a period known as the division of Germany. Millions of refugees from Central and Eastern Europe moved west, most of them to West Germany. Two states emerged: West Germany was a parliamentary democracy, a NATO member, a founding member of what since became the European Union and one of the world's largest economies, while East Germany was a totalitarian Communist dictatorship that was a satellite of Moscow. With the collapse of Communism in 1989, reunion on West Germany's terms followed.", "After the democratic revolution of 1989 in Eastern Germany, and the fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, the first freely elected East German parliament decided in June 1990 to join the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the (West-)German Basic Law. This made a quick unification possible. The two German states entered into a currency and customs union in July 1990. In July/August 1990 the East German parliament enacted a law for the establishment of federal states on the territory of the German Democratic Republic. This East German constitutional law converted the former centralized socialist structure of East Germany into a federal structure equal to that of Western Germany.", "** the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in 1990 joined the Federal Republic of Germany (until then known as West Germany), but not as a whole, divided in five newly recreated states (Bundesländer).", "With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, there was a rapid move towards German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states (') were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin, which ended its special status and formed an additional '. They formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany. The expanded Federal Republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances like NATO and the European Union.", "In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the destruction of the Berlin Wall and the emergence of a government committed to liberalization. The following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990.", "The official German reunification ceremony on 3 October 1990, was held at the Reichstag building, including Chancellor Helmut Kohl, President Richard von Weizsäcker, former Chancellor Willy Brandt and many others. The event included huge firework displays . One day later, the parliament of the united Germany would assemble in an act of symbolism in the Reichstag building.", "The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German : Deutsche Demokratische Republik, or DDR; known in English as East Germany) was a communist state which existed from 1949 to 1990. The German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany on October 7 , 1949 , following the creation in May 1949 of the Federal Republic of Germany (\"West Germany\") in the zones occupied by the United States, Britain and France. Berlin (in practice, East Berlin ) was claimed as its capital .", "In 1990, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic unified and became one country under the name and constitution of the former. The Government of Chancellor Helmut Kohl remained in place with some additions from the former GDR.", "The integration of the GDR into the Federal Republic is practically completed following the creation of an economic, currency and social union in May. In foreign policy terms, the road to German unification requires the consent of the four victorious powers of the Second World War: the United States , the Soviet Union [today Russian Federation ], France and the United Kingdom consult with the two German states on the arrangements in the Two Plus Four talks. The Two Plus Four Agreement is signed in Moscow on 12 September 1990. United Germany gains full sovereignty and the Allies territorial rights end on 3 October 1990. Germany’s unity is achieved on the same day following the accession of the GDR in accordance with Article 23 of the Basic Law. The first all-German Bundestag elections are held in December 1990: Helmut Kohl (CDU) is the first Federal Chancellor of reunified Germany. The foreign policy of the Federal Republic strongly supports the deepening of the European community: in 1995, Germany is among the first countries of the Schengen Agreement, which abolishes border controls between its members.", "Allied control in Berlin has been governing relations between the occupying powers and West Germany since 1949. This control, along with Berlin’s special status, comes to an end in early October 1990, when the GDR becomes part of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Two plus Four treaty is signed on 12 September 1990. It returns full sovereignty to Germany, giving the country sole control over its domestic and foreign affairs.", "Reunification was the method in which East Germany's German Democratic Republic and Berlin, reunited into a single city, joined West Germany's Federal Republic of Germany, as provided by its then-Grundgesetz constitution Article 23. Germans commonly refer to the start of this process as \"die Wende,\" or \"The Turning Point.\" The end of unification is officially called German unity.", "The Federal Republic of Germany (popularly known as West Germany) is formally established as a separate and independent nation. This action marked the effective end to any discussion of reuniting East and West Germany.", "In response to the formation of a united West Germany, the Soviets created this territory, also known as East Germany.", "German reunification 25 years on: how different are east and west really | World news | The Guardian", "The Federal Republic and the GDR signed a treaty agreeing to an economic, currency and social union between the two states. Kohl labeled this the “hour of birth for a free and united Germany.” As part of the treaty, plans began to separate East Germany into its five former states: Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia and Mecklenburg Western Pomerania. These states had been abolished during the GDR era, in favour of a centralised East German administration.", "Q3. Who was Chancellor of West Germany at the time of its reunification with East Germany?" ]

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[ "Ariadne (Greek Αριάδνη), in Greek mythology (Latin Arianna), was daughter of King Minos of Crete and his queen, Pasiphaë, daughter of Helios, the Sun-titan. She aided Theseus in overcoming the Minotaur and escaping from the labyrinth using a ball of red fleece thread to guide him. According to legend Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the Island of Naxos. There is a famous painting by Titian in which the Greek god Bacchus falls in love with Ariadne (he raises her into heaven and turns her into a constellation).", "Bacchus , god of wine, emerges with his followers from the landscape to the right. Falling in love with Ariadne on sight, he leaps from his chariot, drawn by two cheetahs, towards her. Ariadne had been abandoned on the Greek island of Naxos by Theseus, whose ship is shown in the distance. The picture shows her initial fear of Bacchus, but he raised her to heaven and turned her into a constellation, represented by the stars above her head.", "Ariadne In Greek mythology Ariadne was the daughter of King Minos. She helped Theseus out of the labyrinth with a thread. She was abandoned by Theseus on the Isle of Naxos where she subsequently met and married Bacchus.", "There is however another much more cheerful picture Graves (1958, Willis 150). Ariadne, who is deserted at the island of Naxos and follows her faithless lover with sorrowing eyes as she stands deserted on the reedy shore is discovered by Dionysus with his full retinue. He marries her amid great celebrations by the gods. She bears him six children. Later he placed her bridal chaplet among the stars and turned her into the Corona.", "This poem by Catullus, describes a covering on the royal marriage bed, embroidered with scenes from the legend. The King of Crete had a daughter named Ariadne. She is one of the main characters depicted in this painting on the left. She abandoned her home to follow the Athenian Theseus, with who she was in love. Although she had helped Theseus escape Crete and the ferocious wrath of the Minotaur, Theseus abandons Ariadne on this island of Naxons. His ship is still visible in the distance as he sails off. The ship acts as a symbol to the viewer of lost love. Naxos is where the painting is set and captures the moment that a new lover in the form of Bacchus the God of Intoxication enters her life. It is clear from the expression on Ariadne's face that she is still grieving for Theseus but is also startled by the God of Inspiration and Intoxication accompanied by his Satyrs.", "One legend has it that in the Heroic Age before the Trojan War, Theseus abandoned the princess Ariadne of Crete on this island after she helped him kill the Minotaur and escape from the Labyrinth. Dionysus (god of wine, festivities, and the primal energy of life) who was the protector of the island, met Ariadne and fell in love with her. But eventually Ariadne, unable to bear her separation from Theseus, either killed herself (according to the Athenians), or ascended to heaven (as the older versions had it). The Naxos portion of the Ariadne myth is also told in the Richard Strauss opera Ariadne auf Naxos.", "Theseus now eloped with Ariadne, pausing only long enough to put holes in the bottom of her father's ships so that he could not pursue. But Theseus soon abandoned the princess, either because he was bewitched by a god or because he had fallen in love with her sister Phaedra. Some say that he left Ariadne on the island of Naxos, but others maintain that such was his haste that he left her on the small island of Dia, within sight of the harbor from which they had sailed. The deserted and pining Ariadne has been a favorite theme of artists down through the ages.", "Another totally different version of this myth about Ariadne and Theseus is known to be originating from Cyprus. According to this story, the Cretans and the Athenians made an agreement about their friendship, which was ratified with the union of their crowns -- which means with the marriage of Ariadne and Theseus. After the long celebrations in Crete, the married couple sailed to Athens, but a storm pushed them to the shores of Cyprus. Ariadne was already in a high stage of pregnancy, so she stayed in Amathus on the island of Cyprus, but unfortunately she died on this place during her childbirth. She was buried there in a small grove called in her honour Aridela. It is also said that Ariadne never married Dionysus, on the contrary that he was angry with her and with Theseus, because they desecrated his cave in Naxos. Due to this reason the goddess Artemis killed Ariadne during her childbirth by her arrows.", "According to the Greek myths Ariadne was the daughter of the Cretan king Minos and his wife Pasiphae . The story about her life and death was narrated by many ways in the different regions, but in all of her legends she left Crete and she suffered terrible sorrow.", "The figure of Ariadne originates from the Greek Island of Crete. The story of Ariadne and Theseus may symbolically represent the overthrow of the Minoan empire by Greece. The Minoans had a Goddess based culture and it could be that Ariadne is a representation of a Minoan Goddess. In Minoan culture acrobats leapt over bulls during major festivities, it is possible that the Minotaur is derived from the Minoan bulls. Sir Arthur Evans suggested that the labyrinth was in fact the royal palace of Knosos in Crete which he excavated. Knosos had over 1300 rooms and so was indeed like a labyrinth.", "Theseus , Ariadne , and the rest of the tributes boarded the black-sailed ship and set sail for Athens . One night, the god Dionysus came to Theseus and said, \"You mustn't marry Princess Ariadne , for I have chosen her as my own bride. Leave her on the island of Naxos.\" Theseus did as the god told him, but he was so sad that he forgot to change the sails. As the ship approached Athens , Aegeus sat on a cliff watching and waiting for Theseus to come; when he saw the black sails, he jumped into the sea. As a result, that fatal stretch of water was named after him and became the Aegean.", "Ariadne is the daughter of the mythical King Minos of Crete. She is known as the wife of both Dionysus and Theseus, the first ruler of Attica. The most common explanation for this claims Theseus abandoned her on Naxos, where Dionysus later found and married her. Other accounts claim Theseus had to give Ariadne to Dionysus either completely, as the God's wife, or conditionally, during each night. This generally follows suit with the Archon's surrender of his wife to the God during the Anthesteria.", "As promised, she left Crete with Theseus and with the Athenian youth and they stopped on the island of Naxos. While Ariadne was asleep, in her dream (or in Theseus' dream?) the god Dionysus appeared on her and gave her a divine command to stay in Naxos, because he wanted to marry her. Interestingly, we know also some other versions, why Theseus deserted his sleeping Ariadne in Naxos: maybe he had already a new lover or he was afraid to bring Ariadne with him to Athens? So, Theseus with the rescued Athenian youth, but without Ariadne, sailed to Attica over Delos (a small island near Mykonos), where they performed some rites (a special dance) and dedicated the old statue of the goddess from Crete to the local sanctuary.", "Ariadnes: In Greek mythology, Ariadnes, daughter of King Minos of Crete, gave the Athenian king’s son, Theseus, a spool of thread that enabled him to get through the labyrinth to kill the Minotaur. She sailed away with Theseus, but he left her stranded on the island of Naxos.", "The daughter of King Minos of Crete and Queen Pasiphaë of Colchis, Princess Ariadne of Crete became infatuated with the hero Theseus who was about to put an end to the yearly sacrifices of Athenian boys and girls to the Minotaur. Minos tasked her to control the labyrinth where the sacrifices would be put in; she thus helped Theseus by giving him directions inside the maze. Because of this, Ariadne is associated with labyrinths and mazes. She eloped with Theseus after he slayed Minotaur, but the latter left her in Naxos island. Dionysus took pity and made her immortal, then wed her. Of course, there are versions where Dionysus forced Theseus to abandon her in the first place.", "Ariadne: Cretan and Greek. The daughter of King Minos of Crete, who with her her cunning thread helped Theseus find his way into the labyrinth to kill the Minotaur, and out again. She eloped with him, but he abandoned her on the island of Naxos. She was consoled by Dionysus, who in her Naxos cult was regarded as her consort.", "The daughter of King Minos of Crete and his wife Pasiphae, Ariadne played a crucial role in the slaying of the Minotaur by the Athenian hero Theseus. However, despite promising to marry her, Theseus later abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos.", "There are also different versions about why Ariadne did not get to Athens with Theseus. Some say that after Theseus deliberately abandoned her on the island of Naxos, Ariadne was comforted by Dionysus, the god of wine, who later married her.", "Naxos's history is long and detailed. In mythology, the island was the site where Theseus abandoned Ariadne, who then went on to meet Dionysus, the protector of the island. There are two stories as to how this meeting ended; one stating that Ariadne fell in love with the vivacious god, the other claiming that she threw herself off the cliffs behind the Portara. Historically, the island has been an important trading island, the green hills producing many crops.", "his is the northernmost island of the Small Eastern Cyclades group of islands. It is located east of Naxos and north of Amorgos. The island’s area is 13.5 sq. km and there are many bays with gorgeous sandy beaches nestled among them. This is the place to be if you’re looking for a quiet holiday. According to mythology, Dionysus hid Ariadne in Donousa, so that Theseus would not find her. A settlement dating to the geometric period as well as remains of Bronze Age dwellings have been excavated on the island. There are 140 inhabitants in four beautiful villages: Donousa or Stavros (the biggest village being also the island’s port), Mersini, Charavgi (or Mesaria) and Kalotaritissa.", "According to legend, Dionysus (aka Bacchus) was the God who brought pleasure to mankind, and wine to Sicily.", "181. The Godsof the Earth169or Asia Minor, met with bitter opposition in some But the promise they offered parts of Greece.of raising the worshiper above the bounds of the natural, plodding human life and giving a high and divine power through mystic union with the god, overrode all opposition, and the Bacchicmysteries were received and practised with immense enthusiasm.Bacchus and his travels, and of how he punished his enemies and rewarded his friends. On one occasion, as he wasManystories are told oflying asleep on the shore of an island, some pirates came upon him, and thinking that the beautifulyouth might be held for a large ransom, they The helmsman, carried him off to their ship. recognizing the god in his divine grace and beauty, implored his companions to set him free, but theywere deaf to his words.Whenthegod awokehe tearfully besought his captors to take him to the island of Naxos. Pretending to consent they steered the other way. Suddenly the ship stood rooted in the sea; ivy trailed up the mast, and vines wreathed the sails; a sweet odor filled the air,and wine flowed about the deck. The capbonds dropped from him, and in his placetive'scrouched alion.In their terror the sailors leapedoverboard and were instantly transformed intowhombutgod-fearing helmsman, Bacchus saved and made his follower.dolphinsalltheThe good", "The Fortunate Isles, or the Isles of the Blessed, were thought to be locations where heroes of Greek mythology entered a divine paradise. The islands were supposedly located in the Atlantic Ocean, near the Canary Islands. It is stated that Macaronesia may be what is left of these islands today.", "Most accounts agree that she found the barren floating island of Delos, still bearing its archaic name of Asterios, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there, promising the island wealth from the worshippers who would flock to the obscure birthplace of the splendid god who was to come. The island was surrounded by swans. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars and later became sacred to Apollo.", "The earliest reference to Corfu is the Mycenaean Greek word ko-ro-ku-ra-i-jo (\"man from Kerkyra\") written in Linear B syllabic script, c. 1300 BC. According to Strabo Corcyra (Κόρκυρα) was the Homeric island of Scheria (Σχερία),Strab. vi. p. 407 and its earliest inhabitants were the Phaeacians (Φαίακες). The island has indeed been identified by some scholars with Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians described in Homer's Odyssey, though conclusive and irrefutable evidence for this theory or for Ithaca's location have not been found. Apollonius of Rhodes depicts the island in Argonautica as a place visited by the Argonauts. Jason and Medea were married there in 'Medea's Cave'. Apollonius named the island Drepane, Greek for \"sickle\", since it was thought to hide the sickle that Cronus used to castrate his father Uranus, from whose blood the Phaeacians were descended. In an alternative account, Apollonius identifies the buried sickle as a scythe belonging to Demeter, yet the name Drepane probably originated in the sickle-shape of the island. According to a scholiast, commenting on the passage in Argonautica, the island was first of all called Macris after the nurse of Dionysus who fled there from Euboea. ", "� The famous Greek philosopher mathematician Pythagoras was born circa 570 B.C. on Samos an island lying off the western coast of Asia Minor. Samos was at this time one of the colonies that had been developed by the city states of ancient Greece centred upon Asia Minor and the islands lying off its coasts. Such colonisation had been encouraged moreso by population pressures and political turmoils in ancient Greece rather than by the prospect of trading opportunities.", "Pygmalion (; , gen.: Πυγμαλίωνος) is a legendary figure of Cyprus. Though Pygmalion is the Greek version of the Phoenician royal name Pumayyaton, he is most familiar from Ovid's narrative poem Metamorphoses, in which Pygmalion was a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved.", "An imaginary island in the Indian Ocean which was \"discovered\" by the Sicilian Greek mythographer, Euhemerus; Panchaea was reputed to be the \"real\" home of the Immortals and heroes of ancient myth.", "Bacchus was the god of wine and civilization, law and calm. Read the story of King Midas and the Golden Touch . Learn how Bacchus escaped from the pirates and met his true love.", "She had been deserted by Theseus, the king of Athens. The islet hosted the first ancient Dionysian festivities.", "Fact 1 about Bacchus: He was the son of Jupiter and Semele and the husband of Ariadne", "The island was also the home of the philosopher Pherecydes, the teacher of Pythagoras. It possessed two leading cities, Syros (now the modern Ermoupoli) and another city on the western coast where stands to-day Galissas." ]

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[ "The Storting (, \"the great thing\" or \"the great council\") is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies.", "The Storting is the Norwegian Parliament. It is the supreme arena for political debate and decision-making in the Kingdom of Norway.", "The presidium is chaired by the President of the Parliament, in Norway called the Storting, consists of the president and the five vice presidents of the Storting. ", "* Norway is unique among parliamentary systems in that the Storting always serves the whole of its four-year term.", "As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as a geopolitical entity in the 10th century, the lagtings (\"law things\") were established as superior regional assemblies. During the mid-13th century, the by then archaic regional assemblies, the Frostating, the Gulating, the Eidsivating and the Borgarting were amalgamated and the corpus of law was set down under the command of King Magnus Lagabøte. This jurisdiction remained significant until King Frederick III proclaimed absolute monarchy in 1660; this was ratified by the passage of the King Act of 1665, and this became the constitution of the Union of Denmark and Norway and remained so until 1814 and the foundation of the Storting.", "In Norway , the term Members of Parliament refers to the elected members of the Norwegian parliament, Stortinget. These members are called stortingsrepresentanter. Norway has a two-chamber parliament, consisting of Odelstinget and Lagtinget. Odelstinget contains the majority of the parliament members (three fourths, or 127 of the total 169 members). Lagtinget contains the last fourth of the members, and is chosen by popular vote in the parliament at the beginning of each parliament period (the members of parliament are elected for four years at a time). The dividing of the parliament into chambers is only used when it is dealing with passing regular laws and in cases of prosecution by national court (riksrett). In other matters, such as passing the national budget or changing the constitution (the latter requiring a majority of two-thirds), the chambers are united.", "Constituting both a municipality and a county of Norway, the city of Oslo is represented in the Storting by seventeen Members of Parliament . Six MPs are from the Labour Party ; the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have three each; the Socialist Left Party and the Liberals have two each; and one is from the Christian Democrats .", "The Icelandic Althing electoral system shares strong similarities with the systems used in Norway and (to a lesser degree) Sweden to choose members of their respective national legislatures, the Storting and the Riksdag.", "Stortinget (The Norwegian parliament) is located on the main street, Karl Johans gate, in the city center (T-Bane, any line, Stortinget station, exit Egertorget). It has free guided tours in English and Norwegian lasting about 45 minutes, which assemble outside the back door of the Parliament (on Akersgata). There is a limit of 30 people per tour, so it is advisable to be there at least 10 minutes prior to the start of a tour.", "The Alþingi, Anglicised variously as Althing or Althingi, is the national parliament —literally, \"(the) all- thing \" (= general assembly)—of Iceland . It was founded in 930 at Þingvellir , (the \"assembly fields\" or \"Parliament Plains\"), situated approximately 45 km east of what would later become the country's capital , Reykjavík , and this event marked the beginning of the Icelandic Commonwealth . Even after Iceland's union with Norway , the Althing still held its sessions at Þingvellir until 1799, when it was discontinued for some decades. It was restored in 1844 and moved to Reykjavík, where it has resided ever since. The present parliament building, the Alþingishús , was built in 1881, of hewn Icelandic stone.", "Norway had a kind of semi-bicameral legislature with two chambers, or departments, within the same elected body, the Storting. These were called the Odelsting and Lagting and were abolished after the general election of 2009. According to Morten Søberg, there was a related system in the 1798 constitution of the Batavian Republic. ", "The Nordic Council consists of 87 representatives, elected from its members' parliaments and reflecting the relative representation of the political parties in those parliaments. It holds its main session in the autumn, while a so-called \"theme session\" is arranged in the spring. Each of the national delegations has its own secretariat in the national parliament. The autonomous territories - Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Åland - also have Nordic secretariats. The Council does not have any formal power on its own, but each government has to implement any decisions through its country's legislative assembly. With Denmark, Iceland and Norway being members of NATO and Finland and Sweden being neutral, the Nordic Council has not been involved in any military cooperation. However the Nordic foreign and security policy cooperation has become closer and, over the past few years, expanded its scope. ", "(fôl`kətĭng), national parliament of Denmark. Formerly the lower house of the bicameral Rigsdag, it became the sole parliamentary body in 1953. It shares legislative power with the monarch, who can dissolve the body but cannot assume major international obligations without its consent. It is elected by universal suffrage, and its term is four years. Ministers can vote in the Folketing only if they are members.", "The Althing was founded in 930 at , the \"assembly fields\" or \"Parliament Plains\", situated approximately 45 km east of what later became the country's capital, Reykjavík. This event marked the beginning of the Icelandic Commonwealth. Even after Iceland's union with Norway in 1262, the Althing still held its sessions at until 1799, when it was discontinued for 45 years. It was restored in 1844 and moved to Reykjavík, where it has resided ever since. The present parliament building, the , was built in 1881, of hewn Icelandic stone.", "Members of the Storting are directly elected from party-lists proportional representation in nineteen plural-member constituencies in a national multi-party system. Historically, both the Norwegian Labour Party and Conservative Party have played leading political roles. In the early 21st century, the Labour Party has been in power since the 2005 election, in a Red-Green Coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party. ", "Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. Consequently, \"it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy.\" It currently has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years. The president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. The elections for president, the Althing and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years. ", "Iceland is a  representative democracy  and a  parliamentary republic . The modern parliament, called \"Alþingi\" ( English :  Althing ), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the  Danish   king . It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the  Commonwealth  period and suspended in 1799. It currently has sixty-three members, each of whom is elected every four years.", "In practice, the Prime Minister exercises the executive powers. Constitutionally, legislative power is vested with both the government and the Parliament of Norway, but the latter is the supreme legislature and a unicameral body. Norway is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. The Parliament can pass a law by simple majority of the 169 representatives, who are elected on the basis of proportional representation from 19 constituencies for four-year terms.", "Oslo is the capital of Norway. The population is 4.4 million and the currency is Norwegian Krone. Monarchy is the political system followed. Norwegian is the language spoken.", "There are 169 elected Members of the Storting. Parliamentary elections take place every four years. There are no by-elections, nor is there any constitutional provision to dissolve the Storting between elections.", "Norway is considered to be one of the most developed democracies and states of justice in the world. From 1814, c. 45% of men (25 years and older) had the right to vote, whereas the United Kingdom had c. 20% (1832), Sweden c. 5% (1866), and Belgium c. 1.15% (1840). Since 2010, Norway has been classified as the world's most democratic country by the Democracy Index. ", "Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the island Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard.", "Meaning \"great thing\" or \"great council\" what is the name of the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway?", "Iceland is a republic with a parliamentary democracy and a president elected for a four-year term by popular vote. The president functions as head of state but remains apolitical except when the two political parties fail to solve governmental crises. The Althing is a legislative body of 63 members elected by popular vote for a term of four years. With authority over finances, the Althing exercises considerable power over the executive branch of the government. The Althing also elects members of key committees and councils within state institutions. Local government is exercised by 162 separate municipalities.", "The Parliament, or Folketing, is unicameral. Its 179 members are popularly elected by universal suffrage. The usual term for the Folketing is 4 years, but the Prime Minister may call for national elections at any time. Eight parties are represented in Parliament, but none has enough seats to form a majority government alone.", "through the Elverum Authorization . The Norwegian government's claim was upheld both by parliament and the Norwegian Supreme Court after the war, which in turn led to an extensive set of indictments and convictions against Norwegian citizens for treason, and German citizens for war crimes .", "The parliament in its present form was first constituted at Eidsvoll in 1814, although its origins can be traced back as early as the 9th century to the allting, a type of thing, or common assembly of free men in Germanic societies that would gather at a place called a thingstead and were presided by lawspeakers. The alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. These gradually were formalised so that the things grew into regional meetings and acquired backing and authority from the crown, even to the extent that on occasions they were instrumental in effecting change in the monarchy itself.", "The combined municipality and county of Oslo has had a parliamentary system of government since 1986. The supreme authority of the city is the City Council (Bystyret), which currently has 59 seats. Representatives are popularly elected every four years. The City Council has five standing committees , each having its own areas of responsibility. These are: Health and Social Welfare; Education and Cultural Affairs; Urban Development ; Transport and Environmental Affairs; and Finance. The council's executive branch (Byrådet) consists of a head of government (byrådsleder) and six commissioners (byråder, sing. byråd) holding ministerial positions. Each of the commissioners needs the confidence of the City Council and each of them can be voted out of office.", "Following the 2013 election, eight parties are represented in parliament: the Labour Party (55 representatives), Conservative Party (48), the Progress Party (29), the Centre Party (10), the Christian Democratic Party (10), the Liberal Party (9), the Socialist Left Party (7), and the Green Party (1). Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president.", "The combined municipality and county of Oslo has had a parliamentary system of government since 1986. The supreme authority of the city is the City Council (Bystyret), which currently has 59 seats. Representatives are popularly elected every four years. The City Council has five standing committees, each having its own areas of responsibility. The largest parties in the City Council after the 2015-elections are the Labour Party and the Conservatives, with 20 and 19 representatives respectively.", "Since 2005, both the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have won numerous seats in the Parliament, but not sufficient in the 2009 general election to overthrow the coalition. Commentators have pointed to the poor co-operation between the opposition parties, including the Liberals and the Christian Democrats. Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Labour Party, continues to have the necessary majority through his multi-party alliance to continue as PM. ", "In a plebiscite of the Norwegian people on 13 August, there were an overwhelming 368,208 votes (99.95%) in favor of dissolution of the Union, against 184 (0.05%) opposed, with 85% of Norwegian men voting. No women voted, as universal suffrage was not granted until 1913; however Norwegian feminists collected more than 200,000 signatures in favor of dissolution." ]

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[ "; French , and, historically, English : Aix-la-Chapelle, Latin Aquisgranum, Ripuarian : Oche, Dutch : Aken) is a historic spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany . It was a favoured residence of Charlemagne , and the place of coronation of the Kings of Germany . It is the westernmost city of Germany, located along its borders with Belgium and the Netherlands , 65 km (40 mi) west of Cologne . [1]", "Aachen, sometimes called Bad Aachen, and traditionally known in France and the United Kingdom as Aix-la-Chapelle, is a spa and border town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Aachen was a residence of Charlemagne, and later the coronation place for German kings.", "Actually in many cases it is what is easier to pronounce, for instance for a long time the West German city of Aachen was called Aix-la-Chapelle and Köln still is called Cologne in English, even though the only time these cities belonged to France was from 1796 to 1814, i. e. when Britain was at war with France (to complicate the issue further, said cities are known in Spanish as, respectively, Aquisgrán and Colonia; in both cases, these modern names derive from independent evolution of the original Latin names: \"Aquis-granum\" and \"Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium\"; this happens in other languages as well: \"Aquisgrana\" in Italian, \"Akwizgran\" in Polish, etc.). München and Venezia, which never were part of France, are also called by their French names Munich and Venice (Venise) in English. And there is the Tuscan port of Livorno which for some reason is called \"Leghorn\" in English.", "(Placename) a city and spa in W Germany, in North Rhine-Westphalia: the northern capital of Charlemagne's empire. Pop: 256 605 (2003 est). French name: Aix-la-Chapelle", "Aachen/Aix-la-Chapelle was, rightly, one of the first batch of World Heritage Sites recognised by Unesco. But it doesn't feel like a World Heritage Site – that is, you don't have to fend off thousands of other tourists as you head for the city centre. As I sip a Glühwein in a café in the main square, the only accents around me are German. I can tell I am going to enjoy myself.", "• The economic powerhouse of Europe, Germany’s fascinating history can be explored in many of its major towns and cities, while Berlin – the capital since 1994, shortly after the reunification of East and West Germany – has emerged as one of world’s most vibrant urban centres. • Cities visited: Trier, Koblenz, Frankfurt, Bonn, Cologne", "Between the Rhine and the Nahe river, you can delve into the origins of the German Michael (Deutscher Michel), the national personification of Germany, or discover how many grains of truth are contained in the Trübenbach saga at Kirn. However without doubt, the most memorable and famous tale is that of the blonde and alluring Lorelei who lived on the Lorelei rock near St. Goarshausen. The Eberbach Abbey and the spring waters at Wiesbaden offer a rich source of discovery in Rheingau, whilst in Mainz you can explore the legend behind the city's coat of arms.", "In the 4th century AD it became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied by the Visigoths in 477. In the succeeding century, the town was repeatedly plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the Saracens in 731 and by Charles Martel in 737. Aix, which during the Middle Ages was the capital of Provence, did not reach its zenith until after the 12th century, when, under the houses of Barcelona/Aragon and Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning.", "Cologne (; ,, ) is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany (after Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich). It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan regions and the largest in Germany with more than ten million inhabitants.", "TRIER (French treves), an ancient city of Germany , formerly the capital of an archbishopric and electorate of the empire, and now the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and the chief town of a governrnental department in the Prussian province of the Rhine . Pop. (1885) 33,019, (1905) 46,709 (86% Roman Catholics). It is situated on the right bank of the Moselle, about 6 m. from the frontier of Luxemburg and 69 m. S.W. of Coblenz , on the main lines of railway from Coblenz to Metz and from Cologne to Saarbriicken. The city lies in a fertile valley shut in by vine -clad hills, and the picturesque red sandstone buildings of the old town are interspersed with orchards and gardens. On the north, east and south boulevards with gardens follow the line of the medieval walls, which have mostly disappeared. The Roman city extended much farther south and east.", "The city of Hamburg dates from the early 9th century ad. Together with Lübeck, Hamburg established the Hanseatic League in 1241. Today it is Germany’s second largest city, surpassed only by Berlin. Another ancient city on the Elbe is Magdeburg , which in the early 9th century was a trading post on the border between the Germans and the Slavs. In the 13th century it was a flourishing commercial city and an important member of the Hanseatic League. Today it is the largest inland harbour of eastern Germany. The other chief city of the Elbe is Dresden, founded about 1200. During the 18th century Dresden developed into a great centre of the fine arts, known as “Florence on the Elbe.” Its beautiful architecture, almost completely destroyed during World War II, has been partially rebuilt. Other towns of historical interest along the Elbe include Wittenberg, the birthplace of the Protestant Reformation, and Meissen , which became famous for the manufacture of porcelain.", "In spite of its dismembered condition, and the sufferings it underwent at the hands of its French neighbours in various periods of warfare, the Rhenish territory prospered greatly and stood in the foremost rank of German culture and progress. Aachen was the place of coronation of the German emperors, and the ecclesiastical principalities of the Rhine bulked largely in German history.", "The prosperous past of Obernai is linked to the Decapole, an alliance of 10 free Alsatian cities, recognised in 1354 by Emperor Charles IV: Obernai, Kaysersberg, Haguenau, Colmar, Wissembourg, Turckheim, Rosheim, Munster, Sélestat, Mulhouse (replaced by Landau from 1515) and Seltz (from 1358 to 1414). The Decapole was defined by a military alliance and, something particularly rare at the time, a financial aid in case of bankruptcy. After Alsace was joined to France, Louis XIV ordered its dissolution in 1674.", "century Niederwald monument. Perched on a hill high above the town, this stop also offers a spectacular photo opportunity of the surrounding Rhine Valley. Then it’s on to Frankfurt am Main, where you’ll discover the delights of Römerberg, a charming plaza with a distinctive medieval town hall as its centrepiece. (B) Note: The Rhine boat cruise is only operational from 3rd April to 31st October. Hotel: 3* in or outside Frankfurt", "Meissen is sometimes known as the “cradle of Saxony”. The city grew out of the early Slavic settlement of Mis(s)ni, named for the small river Mis(s)na today Meis(s)abach (see Miesbach/Musbach/Mosbach), inhabited by the Slavic Glomacze tribe and was founded as a German town by King Henry the Fowler in 929. In 968, the Diocese of Meissen was founded, and Meissen became the episcopal see of a bishop. The Catholic bishopric was suppressed in 1581 after the diocese accepted the Protestant Reformation (1559), but re-created in 1921 with its seat first at Bautzen and now at the Katholische Hofkirche in Dresden. Meissen is the literal plural form of the modern English word “moss” – translating literally as mosses or simply as marsh. Hence Meissner or Meisner – one who works the marsh – porcelain maker.", "Aachen's name in French and the loan translation in German evolved in parallel. The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages:", "As in many other French cities, a short-term bicycle hire scheme nicknamed V'Hello, free for trips of less than half an hour, has recently been put in place by the town council: and has been popular with tourists.[http://www.mairie-aixenprovence.fr/article.php3?id_article=3565 Ville d'Aix-en-Provence: V'Hello...Bougez dans Aix en toute liberté !] As well as overland routes, two \"rivers\" flow through Aix, the Arc and the Torse, but neither of which can remotely be described as navigable.", "The most attractive part of the the city is Saint-Leu, which lies next to the cathedral and thanks to its canals is considered to be “Little Venice of the North.” Once you get tired of sightseeing, sit on the boat and admire gardens all around you in the canal networks known as The Hortillonages. You should also visit a house of Jules Verne who lived in Amiens until his death.", "      La vieille ville de Strasbourg, bien que tr�s endommag�e par la guerre (40 � 45) conserve encore de tr�s beaux monuments, vestiges des �poques r�volues. Le plus beau est sans conteste la Cath�drale Notre-Dame des Vosges, construite en gr�s rose, du XI�me au XV�me si�cle. Toutes les Cath�drales de France ou d�ailleurs n�ont pu �tre �difi�e que sur des si�cles, non seulement pour des raisons �conomiques, mais aussi parce que les moyens mis en �uvre, sans motorisation, ni m�canisation, finement ouvr�s, prenaient des vies enti�res. Elles sont donc bien des �uvres collectives. Mais pourtant, celle de Strasbourg est attribu�e � Erwin de Steinbach ! En 1770, Goethe, en s�jour � Strasbourg, est rempli d�admiration pour la cath�drale et croit qu�Erwin de Steinbach est l�auteur de son architecture. Il est ainsi � l�origine de la gloire l�gendaire de ma�tre Erwin. En fait, Erwin n�est responsable que d�une partie de l��glise.", ", city (1994 pop. 185,487), capital of Rhineland-Palatinate, W Germany, a port on the E bank of the Rhine River opposite the mouth of the Main River. Its French name, also sometimes used in English, is Mayence.", "The old University town of Aix is a wonderful place to spend time in. Perhaps the most recognisable part of Aix is the Cours Mirabeau, the wide avenue with rows of plane-trees that follows the line of the old city wall and divides the town into two halves. Along this avenue, you will find plenty of cafés, including the Deux Garçons, which has been frequented by the likes of Paul Cézanne, Émile Zola and Ernest Hemingway. Aix has a lovely old Cathedral and the impressive looking Hôtel de Ville, which looks onto a picturesque square (place de l'Hôtel de Ville). Aix is often referred to as the city of a thousand fountains and they are everywhere. The most prominent is Fontaine des Quatre Dauphins (Fountain of the Four Dolphins) in the Quartier Mazarin.", "* The historical novel series Romanike (2006–2014) by Codex Regius features Wiesbaden in the Roman age, or Aquae Mattiacorum, as one of its main locations.", "Mulhouse (; Alsatian: Milhüsa or Milhüse,; ; i.e. mill house) is a city and commune in eastern France, close to the Swiss and German borders.", "It is also the oldest city in France, tracing its roots back 30,000 years. Marseille has also won the honor of being the European Capital of Culture in 2013.", "      n   a city in W Germany, capital of Hesse state: a spa resort since Roman times. Pop.: 267122 (1996 est.),   (Latin name)    Aquae Mattiacorum         ", "a city-state and port in NW Germany, on the River Elbe: the largest port in Germany; a founder member of the Hanseatic League; became a free imperial city in 1510 and a state of the German empire in 1871; university (1919); extensive shipyards. Pop: 1 734 083 (2003 est)", "Limoges (; ; Occitan: Lemòtges or Limòtges) is a city and commune, the capital of the Haute-Vienne department and the administrative capital of the Limousin in west-central France.", "Internationally, Haussmann is celebrated for much that is loved about the French capital. He is responsible, most notably, for the wide avenues flanked with buildings of neatly cut stone and intricate wrought iron balconies.", "Marseilles is the oldest city in France. It was settled in about 6,000 B.C. by Ionian Greeks, who called it Massilia.", ", city (1990 pop. 28,773), Manche dept., NW France, in Normandy, on the English Channel, at the tip of the Cotentin peninsula. It is a naval base and seaport, and a major industrial center where submarines, oil tankers and platforms, electronics, and metals are", "Toponyms as well as local family names often trace back to the Frankish heritage. The lands on the western shore of the Rhine are strongly characterised by Roman influence, including viticulture. In the core territories, large parts of the population are members of the Catholic Church.", "There was a very beautiful residential district that surrounded the market square.  It was very colorful and had restaurants, cafes, and shops that were less expensive than the marina, just without the outdoor atmosphere.  This was also where one would find ethnic food if one didn't want Bavarian fare." ]

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[ "The Flag of Albania (Albanian: Flamuri i Shqipërisë) is a red flag, with a silhouetted black double-headed eagle in the centre, that represents the sovereign state of Albania located in the Balkans.", "The Flag of Albania (Albanian: Flamuri i Shqipërisë) is a red flag with a silhouetted black double-headed eagle in the center. The red stands for bravery, strength and valor, while the double-headed eagle represents the sovereign state of Albania located in the Balkans.", "The flag of Albania , adopted in April 1992, is a red flag with a black two-headed eagle in the centre. It is derived from the seal of Gjergj Kastriot Skanderbeg , a 15th century Albanian who led the revolt against the Ottoman Empire that resulted in brief independence for Albania from 1443 to 1478.", "The floral emblem of Albania is the red and black poppy. The poppy can be found everywhere in the country, though they originate from Anatolia. Poppies are recognized for their beauty, medicinal value, and seeds. Its colors are red and black, just as in the flag of Albania.", "This is the most recent version of the Albanian flag out of a long history of the similar  Albanian flags used. The flag features a double-headed eagle in black, on a red background. This design is traced back to the royal seal of the noble house of George Castrioti  Skanderbeg, an Albanian King, and a 15th century Turkish general. The symbol represented the supreme deity  and has its roots deep into the Albanian culture and traces its origin from the Ilirio-Pelasgian antiquity and it is part of the Albanian cultural heritage, hence the Albanian flag. The symbol was also adopted by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (Saint Constantine The Great), being of Illyrian origin, this is said to be also the symbol of his family which he turn into into the symbol of the Byzantine Empire with the capital city named after him, Constantinople. ", "The current version of the Albania flag was adopted on April 7th 1992. The coat of arms was adopted May 22nd, 1993. Some modern versions of the Albania flag have a helmet or star above the eagle. A version of the Albanian flag with a red star and a yellow border dates back to the Communist takeover in 1946 and has recently been removed. The eagle dates back to George Castriota, an Albanian Christian who became a Turkish general in the 15th century under the name of Iskander Bey, or Skanderberg. Castriota used the double-headed eagle on his seals and this has led it to being on the modern flag. Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. All versions of the Albanian flag since then have featured an eagle, even during the Italian occupation of World War II, and its communist regime after the war. Albania became a republic again in 1992.", "Meanwhile Enver Hoxha, whose communist partizans had been fighting the fascists, constituted a provisional autonomous government for the liberated zones and adopted the flag used before the Italian occupation, with a yellow star placed in the canton. The Germans withdrew from Albania in the fall of 1944 and on 10 October 1944 Enver Hoxha proclaimed the constitution of the Democratic Government of Albania as a provisional government. Although the flags with the yellow star continued to be used, other flags emerged with a hammer and sickle, the emblem of the Albanian Communist Party that had led the liberation struggle. In the liberation festivities held in Tirana on 29 November 1944, the national flag with the black eagle was used, but without the star or the hammer and sickle.", "The symbol of the double-headed eagle was re-used by Albanian nationalists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a symbol of their campaign for their country's independence from the Ottoman Empire. On November 28, 1912, the Albanian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed, and the flag was officially adopted.", "- 1939: Italian occupation . Officially, Albania continued to be an \"independent\" Kingdom ruled by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. The flag was changed to plain red with the new arms of the \"Kingdom\", a red shield charged with the black eagle surmounted by the helmet of Skanderbeg in black, the whole surrounded by two black fasces . Beneath the shield a black scroll is charged with the motto FERT in red letters.", "The eagle has been used for heraldic at the end of the Middle Ages by a number of noble families in Albania and became the symbol of the Albanians. Kastrioti's coat of arms, representing a two-headed eagle on a red background, became famous when he led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire that resulted in brief independence of certain regions of Albania from 1443 to 1478 the two-headed eagle on the flag is taken from the flag of the Byzantine Empire.", "The helmet of Skanderbeg already appeared on Albanian flags during the monarchic period. The current seal is very close to the former Royal standard .", "On 7 April 1939 Albania was invaded by the Italians, who had King Zogu I deposed and replaced by the Italian king, Vittorio Emmanuele III. The flag now had Fascist symbols added: two black fasces, two Savoy ribbons (symbolising the rule of the House of Savoia to which Vittorio Emmanuele belonged) and a black scroll, with three times the Savoia Latin motto FERT (Foedere Et Religione Tenemur, We are held together by Pact and Religion). After Italy surrendered to the Allies in 1943, German troops occupied the country. On 20 October 1943, the monarchical Constitution of 1 October 1928 was re-established by the National Assembly. Though militarily controlled by the Germans, the Albanians retained autonomy in internal affairs and on such basis refused to hand over the Jewish residents and refugees.", "The former flag of the President of Albania was a square version of the national flag. The flag used during the Communist period was similar, with a red star with a yellow border placed above the eagle.", "Since early in the fight for Albanian independence, the two-headed eagle was used on various flag designs over the years. Several versions of the flag were created by modifying the eagle's design, sometimes adding white or gold accents. When the region was kept under Italian rule, the eagle was flanked by two Roman styled pillars.", "Beginning in 1969, the flag of Albania was widely unofficially flown in Kosovo by the country's ethnic Albanian population. It was the symbol of the unrecognized Republic of Kosova during the 1990s. The current independent state of Kosovo uses a different flag that was designed to avoid any symbols associated with a particular ethnic group.", "There is an incorrect version of the flag still commonly used by Albanians and officials, most notably used in 100th Anniversary of the Independence of Albania. The flags had deformed eagles, a detail which didn't go without notice. The flags were ordered from a Chinese company that didn't get all details right. These flags were quickly removed after Independence day, but few specimens are still active around the World. ", "From 1969, the flag of Albania was largely driven informally in Kosovo by ethnic Albanians in the country. He was the symbol of the unrecognized Republic of Kosovo in the 1990s. The current state of independent Kosovo uses a different indicator that is designed to avoid the symbols associated with a particular ethnic group.", "The flag of Albania may be the inspiration for the flag of the fictional nation of Syldavia in Herg�'s Tintin comics. It also influenced the revival of the Navarrese arrano beltza.", "When the anthem was first adopted in 1912, the title was Betimi mi flamur (Pledge [to] the flag). In the Albanian constitution the national anthem is now called Rreth Flamurit t� P�rbashkuar (United Around the Flag; sometimes translated as United Around Our Flag), which is also the first verse of the poem. Sometimes people just use the name Himni Komb�tar (National Anthem).", "The flag is dominated by a red triangle extending from the hoist to the fly with complementary green and blue triangles above and below. Green stands for the fertility of the country respectively for agriculture; blue stands for the ocean and red for the blood lost in the fight for freedom. In the red triangle a yellow wreath symbol with 14 leaves on each side derived from the 1952 flag replaces the yellow star of the EPLF flag. The use of triangles is also important, because reading the flag from left to right it is important to note that the red shrinks which represents that in the end Eritrea will see peace and blood will no longer be spilled for the nation.", "The newest flag of CIMESA, which began to appear in 2010 is light blue with stylized map of Africa and its abbreviation next to it. All elements are white. The emblem is placed inside a white circle on the flag.", "File:Flag of luogotenente generale in Albania of the Kingdom of Italy.svg|Flag of the Lieutenant General of Albania.", "Stamp-issuing status: active; Population: 3,249,136 (1996). A republic in southeast Europe, bordering on the Adriatic Sea. Under Turkish rule from 1478-1912, Albania became independent after the first Balkan War. Overrun by German, Serbian, Montenegrin, Greek, Bulgarian, Italian, French and Austrian troops during World War I, foreign forces remained in Albania until 1921. An Albanian state was established in 1920, existing first as a republic and, after 1928, as a monarchy. In 1939, the country was occupied by Italy and, later, Germany. In 1944, British-supported communist guerrillas, led by Enver Hoxha, drove the Germans from the country and established a provisional government. In 1946, a communist people's republic was proclaimed. At first it appeared that Albania would become a satellite of Yugoslavia, but it maintained its independence, under Hoxha's repressive regime. In 1960, because of the Soviet Union's de-Stalinization campaign, Albania broke with the Soviet Union and aligned its foreign policy with that of the People's Republic of China. In 1978 China's liberalization brought a break between that country and Albania. From 1978 to 1991, Albania was one of the most economically undeveloped nations in Europe and one of the most isolated nations in the world. Since 1991, with the collapse of communism in Europe, Albania has instituted a democratic republican government. Economic reverses in 1997 threatened the country with a return to the anarchy that has characterized so much of its history.", "The national flag of Man is a plain red field with the \"trinacria\" emblem in the centre. This is a banner of the arms which date back to the 13th century and are believed to be connected with Sicily, where a similar device was used in the Norman period. Traditionally, the symbol is associated with the Legend of the Three Magic Legs.", "Albania was one of the first countries occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II. Mussolini invaded and occupied Albania, while the world was focused on German military actions in Czechoslovakia and Poland. As Hitler began his aggressions, the Italian dictator set his eyes on Albania across the Adriatic from Italy. Despite some resistance, especially at Durrës, Italy invaded Albania on April 7, 1939 and took control of the country. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic institutions. Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece. During WWII, Albanian nationalist groups, including communist partisans, fought against the Italians and subsequently the Germans. By October 1944 they had thrown the Germans out, the only East European nation to do so without the assistance of Soviet troops. The partially French-educated Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as secretary general of the Party of Labor (the Albanian Communist Party). The Communist Party was created on November 8, 1941 with the help of other Bolshevik Communist Parties.", "Albania won independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. Its present-day boundaries were confirmed following World War I (1914–18) at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.", "Symbols for the new country were adopted by the Parliament of Kosovo on 17 February 2008. The flag of Kosovo is blue with a yellow geographical map of Kosovo and six white five-pointed stars forming an arch above it. The coat of arms follows the same pattern on a yellow-bordered shield.", "Motto: \"Ti, Shqiperi, me jep nder, me jep emrin Shqiptar\" \"You Albania give me honor, give me the name Albanian\"", "The modern 28,748 km2 territory of Albania was part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe following the Balkan Wars, Albania declared independence in 1912 and was recognized the following year. The Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist People's Republic was established under the leadership of Enver Hoxha and the Party of Labour. Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the Republic of Albania was established.", "Albania: Italian occupied territory. The Ottoman Empire gained control of Albania in the 15th Century but never fully subjugated the highland regions. In the 19th Century, Albanians increasingly became nationalistic, as the Ottoman Empire weakened and lost control of nearby areas like Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria. Albania proclaimed independence in the First Balkan War of 1912, was occupied by Serbia in the Second Balkan War of 1913, and was then recognized as an independent monarchy in the post-war settlement engineered by the European great powers. However, several Albanian majority- and minority-inhabited regions were incorporated in Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece. Soon after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the weak Albanian state collapsed, and the country became a battleground for the warring powers.", "The flag of Epirus , adopted in the early 2000s, is a white field featuring various symbols from different periods of Epirus ' history and the Greek words «ΠΕΡΙΦΕΡΕΙΑ ΗΠΕΙΡΟΥ», meaning \"PREFECTURE OF EPIRUS\". The symbols include an Ancient Greek Column of the Doric Order symbolizing the region's Ancient Greek heritage, a Roman road symbolizing its Ancient Roman period, the Castle of Ioannina symbolizing the Byzantine Empire 's rule of Epirus as well as the Medieval period in general, the Bridge of Arta symbolizing the Ottoman Empire 's rule over the region, Stars in a semi-circle symbolizing modern Epirus and the European Union of which Greece is a member state and a river and a hill symbolizing the landscape of Epirus.", "During the fifteenth century Albania enjoyed a brief period of independence under the legendary hero, Skanderbeg . Aside from this exception, the country did not enjoy independence until the twentieth century. After five hundred years of Ottoman domination, an independent Albania was proclaimed on the 28 November 1912." ]

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[ "On 3 February 1945, Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt arrived at Yalta, a resort on the southern coast of the Crimea on the Black Sea. They were there to meet with Stalin to discuss the final attack on the Germans and Japanese and the future of the post-war world.", "In 1945 at Yalta, a resort on the Crimean Peninsula, the Allied leaders Churchill (UK), Roosevelt (US), and Stalin (USSR) completed plans for the defeat of Germany in World War II.", "In 1945 President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin began a wartime conference in the Soviet city of Yalta.", "The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. It was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, the Crimea. It was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S. Truman in place of the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, with Churchill replaced mid-point by the newly elected Prime Minister Clement Attlee. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed August 23, 2011.)", "In 1945, during World War II, President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill departed Malta for the summit in Yalta with Soviet leader Josef Stalin.", "Winston Churchill held important meetings with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin at Teheran (November, 1943) and Yalta (February, 1945). Although Churchill's relationship with Stalin was always difficult he managed to successfully develop a united strategy against the Axis powers.", "The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, was the wartime meeting from February 4 to 11, 1945 between the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. The delegations were headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, respectively.", "1940s: President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met at Tehran, Iran, and other locations to discuss war strategy.", "Prior to his death Roosevelt met with Churchill and Stalin in February 1945, at the Yalta Conference, where the three leaders agreed to separate postwar Germany into four zones that would be occupied by the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. During the period of occupation Germany would be disarmed and its economy rebuilt. The Red Army's occupation of its postwar zone, however, gave way to the creation of Communist governments in Eastern Europe under Soviet control. The Yalta Conference also established the groundwork for an international war crimes tribunal at Nuremberg for the prosecution of Nazi leaders. Finally, the Yalta Conference finalized details for the creation of the United Nations.", "The last meeting of the Big Three -- Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin -- takes place in the Soviet city of Yalta. Roosevelt and Churchill agree to allow Stalin to control the governments of Eastern Europe at war's end, thereby setting the stage for the future Cold War .", "From 28 November to 1 December Stalin meets with Churchill and US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in Tehran, the capital of Iran . The three leaders discuss the details of their joint campaign against Hitler and reaffirm their joint policy of accepting nothing less than an unconditional surrender from Germany.", "The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Atlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in in Moscow in 1942|, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in Moscow. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.", "The leaders of the major Allied powers met at the Potsdam Conference from July 16 to August 2, 1945. The participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, represented by Josef Stalin, Winston Churchill (who was later replaced by Clement Attlee when the Labor Party won the British elections), and Harry S. Truman, respectively.", "1945 - U.S. President Truman, Soviet leader Josef Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill began meeting at Potsdam in the final Allied summit of World War II. During the meeting Stalin made the comment that \"Hitler had escaped.\"", "1946--Pres. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Josef Stalin began a wartime conference at Yalta.", "German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [188] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo [189] and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [190] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, [189] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [190]", "German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [208] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo [209] and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [210] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, [209] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [210]", "At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan. Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon–the atomic bomb–on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 10, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.", "Conference between Stalin, Churchill, and FDR to plan the final defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany", "Towards the end of the war, Stalin was about to meet with Roosevelt and Churchill. Stalin decided the conquest of Budapest would increase both his stature and bargaining position, so he ordered his commander to conquer Budapest at all costs.", "January 14-23, 1943 - President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met at Casablanca in Morocco to work on strategy during World War II. At the conclusion of the conference, Roosevelt and Churchill held a joint news conference at which Roosevelt surprisingly announced that peace would come \"by the total elimination of German and Japanese war power. That means the unconditional surrender of Germany, Italy and Japan.\"", "French operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied countermeasures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizable French submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the French Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade France in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would allow American forces into Siberia to fight alongside the Soviets against the Japanese.", "The start of the Casablanca Conference. Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to increase American bombing of Germany, and to transfer of British military resources to the Far East once Italy had been defeated. Stalin, not invited, was left out in the cold!", "A series of discussions concerning the conduct of the war against Germany and Japan was held at Quebec beginning on September 10 and continuing for a week. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill are shown in the top photograph and, below, Canada's Premier, Mr. Mackenzie King, is shown with Churchill. Marshal Stalin was also invited but was unable to leave the Soviet Union at that time. The Combined Chiefs of Staff were present for the Conference which ended on September 17 when a joint statement said that \"all aspects of the war against Germany and Japan\" had been discussed.", "Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin talk with an American general at the Potsdam Conference ©", "ww2dbaseThe last of the major conferences during WW2 was held at Potsdam, code named Terminal. Immediately west of Berlin, President Truman was given a chance to tour the ravaged German capital while he waited for Stalin's arrival (the Russian leader was a day late). The meeting was held at the undamaged Cecilienhof Palace. Stalin's late arrival gave Truman's scientists one extra day to work on the Manhattan Project, and that one extra day seemed to be just enough for Oppenheimer's team to give Truman the resulted he wanted: On the same day that the leaders met at Potsdam, a successful atomic detonation was achieved at New Mexico's desert of Alamogordo under the code name Operation Trinity. By this point, the Americans had learned that Japan wished to end the war, partly by Japan's unrealistic pleas for Moscow to mediate a peace settlement between Japan and the Allied powers. However, the Americans also understood that, if war could not be stopped, many in Japan were prepared to fight to the bitter end, and the losses on both side would be tremendous should landings on the home islands become necessary. Understanding this about Japan, at Potsdam Truman made sure that Stalin would hold true to his promise that Russia would declare war on Japan three months after the surrender of Germany despite the news of the successful test atomic explosion; Truman was keeping his options open.", "Britain, the USSR and the US, were in frequent contact through ambassadors, top generals, foreign ministers and special emissaries such as the American Harry Hopkins . There were numerous high-level conferences; in total Churchill attended 14 meetings, Roosevelt 12, and Stalin 5. Most visible were the three summit conferences that brought together the three top leaders. [2] [3]", "88. In which city, in late November, 1943, did the three Allied war leaders, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin meet for the first time?", "was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's postwar reorganization", "1943 conference between Roosevelt, Chamberlain, and Stalin. D-Day preparations made, and the decision of wanting complete surrender from Germany/Japan", "Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in 1943", "conference between Churchill, FDR, and Stalin; results in Germany split into four zones that would be united later on, also results in Stalin agreeing to help US in war against Japan" ]

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[ "The Panama Canal is an international waterway that links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. After France unsuccessfully attempted to build a canal through the Isthmus of Panama in the 1800s, the United States began building the canal in 1904. At the height of the canal's construction, more than one million cubic yards of earth was moved by approximately 25,000 workers each day. (Reference 2) The canal was completed in 1914.", "By the late nineteenth century, technological advances and commercial pressure allowed construction to begin in earnest. An initial attempt by France to build a sea-level canal failed after a great deal of excavation. This enabled the United States to complete the present canal in 1913 and open it to shipping the following year. The state of Panama was created with its 1903 emancipation from Colombia due to a US-backed revolt, so the US could control the canal-project area.", "The possibility of building a canal across the isthmus of Central America had been the topic of serious discussion since the 1820s, and Nicaragua was long a favored location. When the United States shifted its interests to Panama, Zelaya negotiated with Germany (who happened to be in the middle of a cold war with the U.S over Caribbean ports) and Japan in an unsuccessful effort to have a canal constructed in his state. Fearful that president Zelaya might generate an alternative foreign alignment in the region, the U.S. labeled him a tyrant in opposition to U.S. planned hegemony.", "The building of the Panama Canal was achieved in several stages. Although Charles V, king of Spain, floated the idea of a canal in Panama as early as 1534, the first serious attempt was carried out by the French in 1880. The French had previously built a railroad through Panama, linking the Atlantic to the Pacific, an undertaking that relied heavily on slave labour. However, the French never finished the canal, and for a number of reasons, this enterprise was abandoned in 1893. The main factor was the extremely high death toll of workers. Exact numbers are unavailable since no detailed records of workers were kept, but it is estimated that a total of 22,000 people died, a large number of whom were descendants of Africans.", "Through the remainder of the 19th century, the United States landed troops several times to preserve the railway connection. At the same time, it pursued a canal treaty with Colombia (as New Granada was renamed). One treaty, signed in 1868, was rejected by the Colombian Senate, which hoped for better terms from the incoming Grant administration. Under this treaty, the canal would have been in the middle of a 20-mile zone, under American management but Colombian sovereignty, and the canal would revert to Colombia in 99 years. The Grant administration did little to pursue a treaty, and in 1878, the concession to build the canal fell to a French firm. The French efforts eventually failed, but with Panama apparently unavailable, the United States considered possible canal sites in Mexico and Nicaragua. ", "The first attempt to construct a canal through what was then Colombia's province of Panama began on 1 January 1881. The project was inspired by the diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was able to raise considerable finance in France as a result of the huge profits generated by his successful construction of the Suez Canal.", "In 1534, Charles I of Spain ordered the first survey of a proposed canal route through the Isthmus of Panama. More than three centuries passed before the first construction was started. The French labored 20 years, beginning in 1880, but disease and financial problems defeated them.", "Crucial for American economic growth, the building of this canal was begun by American builders in 1904 and completed in 1914; the United States had to first engineer a Panamanian revolt against Colombia to guarantee a friendly government in Panama that would support the building of the canal. In 1978 the U.S. Senate voted to return the Panama Canal to Panamanian control.", "In 1878 Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer who built the Suez Canal, began to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, which was then part of Colombia. Tropical disease and engineering problems halted construction on the canal, but a French business (the New Panama Canal Company) still held the rights to the project. Roosevelt agreed to pay $40 million for the rights, and he began to negotiate with Colombia for control of the land. He offered $10 million for a fifty-mile strip across the isthmus. Colombia refused.", "Theodore Roosevelt was interested in building a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans before the Spanish-American war in 1898. He became more interested in the canal after the U.S. won the war and acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. He wanted a shorter route for naval ships needing to pass between the two oceans. Failed negotiations with Colombia, which owned Panama, led to the U.S. providing funds and a naval blockade in support of Panama's revolution. In 1903, the newly-independent Panama sold the rights to the canal to the U.S. for $10 million. The U.S. military had a strong presence in the Panama Canal Zone until 1999, when all U.S. military bases were closed. The canal is still used for the transportation of military water vessels.", "When Colombia refused to allow the United States  to build a canal across the Panama isthmus, in 1903,  the US intervened to dissect Panama from the rest of Columbia, set up the Republic of Panama, and established the following convention.For the Construction of a Ship Canal to Connect the Waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Signed at Washington, November 18, 1903.", "The Sooner Act of 1902 was drafted to gain the right to build a canal to create a shipping route through what is now Panama, but what then was part of Columbia. Columbia refused to ratify The Sooner Act, but a new Panamanian government was established in 1903, which did pass it. Having gained the right to build the Panama Canal, The United States began construction immediately. Also in 1903, the United States won a dispute with Great Britain over the boundary between lower Alaska and Canada. Teddy Roosevelt was able to keep the Germans from interfering with Venezuela in 1902, and he declared that only the U. S. had the right to intervene in South American affairs.", "The construction of the Panama Canal completed the transformation of the United States into a Pacific power. The first Spanish explorers had searched eagerly for a way around America and had found the westward passage far to the south. But this route was a long one, and Americans during the California gold rush had as often gone overland across the disease-ridden Isthmus of Panama to save time. A water route across the isthmus from the Atlantic to the Pacific would cut off almost 10,000 miles from the journey, and the French began work on a canal in 1880. This effort failed, but American engineers took up the task in 1902 and when the canal opened in 1914 the United States gained control of the eastern gateway to the Pacific.", "The rush of settlers to California and Oregon in the mid 19th century was the initial impetus of the U.S. desire to build an artificial waterway across Central America. In 1855, the United States completed a railroad across the Isthmus of Panama (then part of Colombia), prompting various parties to propose canal-building plans. Ultimately, Colombia awarded the rights to build the canal to Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French entrepreneur who had completed the Suez Canal in 1869. Construction on a sea-level canal began in 1881, but inadequate planning, disease among the workers, and financial problems drove Lesseps’ company into bankruptcy in 1889. Three years later, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, a former chief engineer of the canal works and a French citizen, acquired the assets of the defunct French company.", "The rush of settlers to California and Oregon in the mid 19th century was the initial impetus of the U.S. desire to build an artificial waterway across Central America. In 1855, the United States completed a railroad across the Isthmus of Panama (then part of Colombia), prompting various parties to propose canal-building plans. Ultimately, Colombia awarded rights to build the canal to Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French entrepreneur who had completed the Suez Canal in 1869. Construction on a sea-level canal began in 1881, but inadequate planning, disease among the workers, and financial problems drove Lesseps' company into bankruptcy in 1889. Three years later, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, a former chief engineer of the canal works and a French citizen, acquired the assets of the defunct French company.", "The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a number of canals built. The success of the Erie Canal in the United States and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America led to a surge of American interest in building an interoceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama), hoping to gain a concession for the building of a canal. Jealous of their newly obtained independence and fearing that they would be dominated by an American presence, New Granadan officials declined American offers. The new nation was politically unstable, and Panama rebelled several times during the 19th century. ", "The next question was where to build. Ferdinand de Lessups, the same engineer who designed the Suez Canal, had organized a French attempt in Panama in the 1870s. Disease and financial problems left a partially built canal behind. While it made sense that the United States should buy the rights to complete the effort, Panama posed other problems. Despite being the most narrow nation in the region, Panama was very mountainous, and a complex series of locks was necessary to move ships across the isthmus. Nicaragua was another possibility. The canal would be situated closer to the United States. The terrain was flatter, and despite Nicaragua's width, there were numerous lakes that could be connected. Volcanic activity in Nicaragua prompted the United States to try to buy the territory in Panama.", "In 1880 a French company run by the builder of the Suez Canal started digging a canal across the Isthmus of Panama (then a part of Colombia). More than 22,000 workers died from tropical diseases such as yellow fever during this early phase of construction and the company eventually went bankrupt, selling its project rights to the United States in 1902 for $40 million. President Theodore Roosevelt championed the canal, viewing it as important to America’s economic and military interests. In 1903, Panama declared its independence from Colombia in a U.S.-backed revolution and the U.S. and Panama signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, in which the U.S. agreed to pay Panama $10 million for a perpetual lease on land for the canal, plus $250,000 annually in rent.", "In 1903, the United States entered into the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with Panama for the perpetual use, occupation, and control of a 10-mile-wide piece of land across Panama from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans to construct and defend a canal. The United States purchased the rights to construct a canal through Panama for $40 million from the French Canal Company (FCC), which had attempted to construct and finance a sea-level canal, only to fail two decades after starting construction in 1880. The United States paid the Republic of Panama $10 million and an annual annuity of $250,000 to build and use the land on which the canal was constructed. The annuity gave the United States the rights to operate the canal in perpetuity.", "He attempted to repeat this success with an effort to build a Panama Canal at sea level during the 1880s, but the project was devastated by epidemics of malaria and yellow fever in the area, as well as beset by financial problems, and the planned de Lesseps Panama Canal was never completed. Eventually, the project was bought out by the United States, which solved the medical problems and changed the design to a non-sea level canal with locks. It was completed in 1914.", "Once Colombia won independence from Spain, European and American interest in the canal began in earnest as Panama remained a province of Colombia. In 1829, Simón Bolívar commissioned a British engineer, John Lloyd, to study building a canal across Panama. With a positive report, the Colombians threw open the bidding in 1834, promising 100,000 acres of land and revenues for fifty years.", "Modern Panamanian history has been shaped by the possibility of a canal to replace the difficult overland route. In the 1520s , the Spanish crown ordered surveys of the isthmus to determine the feasibility of such a canal, but never progressed the idea. . From 1880 to 1889, the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal, attempted to construct a sea-level canal. Eventually yellow fever and malaria as well as engineering problems caused this project to be abandoned.", "Long before the U.S. attempt at building the Panama Canal began in 1904, workers from around the world had been coming to the isthmus. In the early 1850s, the Panama Railroad Company imported thousands of African and Chinese workers to lay the tracks for the railway lines that would make the construction of the Panama Canal possible. Most would die from malaria or suicide.", "Charles' survey was probably the first serious look at building a ship route across what we now call the Isthmus of Panama, but it would not be the last. When Ulysses S. Grant led a group of soldiers across the isthmus, part of the country of Columbia in those days, while traveling to a post in California in 1852, he became interested in the project. Later he sent several expeditions to the area to look at the possibility of a canal after he became the 18th President in the late 1860's. The first serious attempt to build a canal, however, wasn't made by the Americans, but by the French in 1880.", "The Panama Canal occupies a special place in the American imagination. President Ulysses S. Grant sent a 100-person scouting party, which recommended against it. A 20-year French effort, led by the engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, was abandoned after thousands of workers were stricken with yellow fever, malaria and dysentery.", "In 1906, American engineers decided on the construction of a lock canal, and the next three years were spent developing construction facilities and eradicating tropical diseases in the area. In 1909, construction proper began. In one of the largest construction projects of all time, U.S. engineers moved nearly 240 million cubic yards of earth and spent close to $400 million in constructing the 40-mile-long canal (or 51 miles long, if the deepened seabed on both ends of the canal is taken into account). On August 15, 1914, the Panama Canal was opened to traffic.", "1881: Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had directed the engineering of the Suez Canal, begins a $70 million project to build a canal through Panama. Limited funds and epidemics of yellow fever and malaria thwart his efforts.", "1904, the Americans' first year in Panama, mirrored the French disaster. The chief engineer, John Findlay Wallace , neglected to organize the effort or to develop an action plan. The food was putrid, the living conditions abysmal. Political red tape put a stranglehold on appropriations. Disease struck, and three out of four Americans booked passage home. Engineer Wallace soon followed. The Americans had poured $128 million into the swamps of Panama, to damned little effect.", "The Panama Canal opened in 1914 after a 30-year effort that dwarfed the building of the pyramids. Historian David McCullough navigates through the canal and tells the story of the human drama behind the engineering feat.", "The Panama Canal opened 100 years ago this month , one of the greatest engineering achievements in history. It was also one of the greatest sacrifices of human life in the name of construction, but tragically, it was far from the most deadly project in modern history.", "Founded in 1519 by the conquistador Pedrarías Dávila, Panamá Viejo is the oldest European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas. It was laid out on a rectilinear grid and marks the transference from Europe of the idea of a planned town. Abandoned in the mid-17th century, it was replaced by a ‘new town’ (the ‘Historic District’), which has also preserved its original street plan, its architecture and an unusual mixture of Spanish, French and early American styles. The Salón Bolívar was the venue for the unsuccessful attempt made by El Libertador in 1826 to establish a multinational continental congress.", "The group of engineers who initiated the Panama Canal work under Count Ferdinand de Lesseps. Among the members of the" ]

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[ "The Medici were an Italian family that ruled Florence and later Tuscany for more than three centuries (1434-1737), and they were known as patrons of the arts, giving commissions and friendship to artistic geniuses of the Renaissance. At the Medici Awards of the Los Angeles Area Chamber of Commerce 450 black-tie guests dined beneath the moon and stars the other evening in the balm of the Huntington Library Art Gallery terrace and paid tribute to modern-day Medici in Los Angeles.", "The Medici family, also known as the House of Medici, first attained wealth and political power in Florence in the 13th century through its success in commerce and banking. Beginning in 1434 with the rise to power of Cosimo de’ Medici (or Cosimo the Elder), the family’s support of the arts and humanities made Florence into the cradle of the Renaissance, a cultural flowering rivaled only by that of ancient Greece. The Medicis produced four popes (Leo X, Clement VII, Pius IV and Leon XI), and their genes have been mixed into many of Europe’s royal families. The last Medici ruler died without a male heir in 1737, ending the family dynasty after almost three centuries.", "1434 - Cosimo de Medici becomes ruler of Florence. The Medici banking family dominates the government of Florence.", "Bust of Lorenzo de' Medici by Verrocchio Lorenzo, like his grandfather, father and son ruled Florence indirectly, through surrogates in the city councils, through threats, payoffs, and strategic marriages.[2] Although Florence flourished under Lorenzo's rule, he effectively ruled as a despot and people had little political freedom.[3] It was inevitable that rival Florentine families should harbor resentments over the Medici's dominance, and enemies of the Medici remained a factor in Florentine life long after Lorenzo's passing.[2] On Easter Sunday, April 26, 1478, in an incident called the Pazzi Conspiracy, a group including members of the Pazzi family, backed by the Archbishop of Pisa and his patron Pope Sixtus IV, attacked Lorenzo and his brother and co-ruler Giuliano in the Cathedral of Florence. Lorenzo was stabbed but escaped; however the attackers managed to kill Giuliano. The conspiracy was brutally put down by such measures as the lynching of the Archbishop of Pisa and the death of most of the Pazzi family. In the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and the punishment of Pope Sixtus IV's supporters, the Medici and Florence suffered from the wrath of the Vatican. The Papacy seized all the Medici assets Sixtus IV could find, excommunicated Lorenzo and the entire government of Florence, and ultimately put the entire Florentine city-state under interdict. When that had little effect, Sixtus IV formed a military alliance with King Ferdinand I of Naples, whose son, Alfonso, Duke of Calabria led an invasion of the Florentine Republic.", "Florentine mercantile and banking family, prominent from the 13th to the mid-16th centuries. By the early 15th century the wealth and political standing of the family made them the principal rivals of the Medici family. The humanist Palla Strozzi was one of those banished by Cosimo de' Medici ‘Il Vecchio’ in 1434. Palla played an important part in the public life of Florence, and founded the first public library in Florence in the monastery of Santa Trinita. Filippo Strozzi (1428 -91) returned from banishment in 1466 and became an adviser to Lorenzo de' Medici; in 1489 Filippo commissioned the family's Florentine palace, the Palazzo Strozzi, which was the work of Benedetto da Maiano and Il Cronaca.", "The main challengers of the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici and grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, a pro-Medici Signoria was elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the city's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.", "The main challengers of the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.", "The rise of the Medici in Florence coincided with the triumph of the capitalist class over the guild merchants and artisans. Until 1532 the democratic constitution of Florence was outwardly upheld, but the Medici exerted actual control over the government without holding any permanent official position. They were driven from power and expelled from Florence in 1433–34, from 1494 to 1512, and from 1527 to 1530. However, the attempts (such as the Pazzi conspiracy Pazzi conspiracy", "The scion of a wealthy family of bankers, he was the grandson of Cosimo de' Medici, the first of the Medici to rule Florence. Lorenzo's father Piero de' Medici il Gottoso (the Gouty) was a collector of ancient works and contemporary art; his mother Lucrezi Tornabuoni was an amateur poet. His parents gave Lorenzo a thorough education in ancient Greek and Latin, and the classical authors. At the age of seventeen he married Clarice Orsini, a member of a wealthy and influential Roman family. On the death of Piero de' Medici in 1469, Lorenzo became head of the family and, with his brother Giuliano serving as his co ruler, the leading citizen of Florence.", "The powerful Medici family, who came into power in the 1430s and became rulers of Florence for several hundred years, greatly influenced the appearance of this city. They commissioned some particularly grand buildings, town squares and gardens that are still standing today, exuding opulence and character. Many of Italy's most famous artists have also had a hand in designing and creating some of the majestic artwork and interiors to be found in Florence, including the likes of Michelangelo, Donatello and Leonardo Da Vinci.", "At the time of the dominance of the Pazzi and the Medici, Florence is the pioneering centre of the Italian Renaissance. Both families are directly involved as patrons. In about 1430 Donatello produces the nude bronze of David for a Medici palace. In the same year Brunelleschi is starting work on the Pazzi chapel .", "The family members were wealthy politicians, businessmen, and patrons of the arts who influenced both individuals and the bigger picture, in Florence and all of Europe. Cosimo de Medici ruled Florence for five years after strategically getting himself elected, used his grandson Lorenzo as a diplomat to get aquainted with other leaders of Europe, and became a great patron of the arts, like other members of his family, and helped many artists such as Michelangelo Used diplomatic prowess to end a war against Naples and the Papacy in 1479, but shortly after his death, wars tore apart Italy and lowered it from its status of the center of European civilization.", "Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, the leading family of Florence was the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted, which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted, so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking center of Europe to Florence. ", "Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking center of Europe to Florence. ", "Ruling family of Florence throughout the most of the Renaissance. Cosimo de' Medici and grandson Lorenzo de' Medici were the most successful heads of the family. Were great patrons of all things Renaissance.", "The Medici family were at the time the de facto rulers of Florence. Originally bankers, they came to great wealth and power by bankrolling the monarchies of Europe. Catherine's father, Lorenzo II de' Medici, was made Duke of Urbino by his uncle Pope Leo X, and the title reverted to Francesco Maria I della Rovere after Lorenzo's death. Thus, even though her father was a duke, Catherine was of relatively low birth. However her mother, Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, the Countess of Boulogne, was from one of the most prominent and ancient French noble families; this prestigious maternal heritage was of benefit to her future marriage to a fils de France.", "Lorenzo, like his grandfather, father, and son, ruled Florence indirectly through surrogates in the city councils, threats, payoffs and strategic marriages. Although Florence flourished under Lorenzo's rule, he effectively reigned as a despot, and people had little political freedom. Rival Florentine families inevitably harboured resentments over the Medicis' dominance, and enemies of the Medici remained a factor in Florentine life long after Lorenzo's passing. The most notable of the rival families was the Pazzi, who nearly brought Lorenzo's reign to an end right after it began.", "The exile of the Medici lasted until 1512, and the \"senior\" branch of the family — those descended from Cosimo the Elder — were then able to rule on and off until the assassination of Alessandro de' Medici, first Duke of Florence, in 1537. This century-long rule was only interrupted on two occasions (between 1494–1512 and 1527–1530), when popular revolts sent the Medici into exile. Power then passed to the \"junior\" Medici branch — those descended from Lorenzo the Elder, younger son of Giovanni di Bicci, starting with his great-great-grandson Cosimo I the Great. The Medici's rise to power was chronicled in detail by Benedetto Dei. Cosimo and his father started the Medici foundations in banking, manufacturing - including a form of franchises - wealth, art, cultural patronage, and in the Papacy that ensured their success for generations. At least half, probably more, of Florence's people were employed by them and their foundational branches in business.", "The House of Medici was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (1360-1429) was an Italian banker, the first historically relevant member of Medici family of Florence, and the founder of the Medici bank. He was the father of Cosimo de' Medici (Pater Patriae), and great-grandfather of Lorenzo de Medici (the Magnificent). The bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century, seeing the Medici gain political power in Florence though officially they remained simply citizens, rather than monarchs. The Medici produced four Popes of the Catholic Church and in 1531 the family became hereditary Dukes of Florence.", "The Medici family sell their palace on the Via Larga to the Ricciardi, who enlarge it over the next decades. The splendid structure, begun in 1444 by Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (1396–1472) was once emblematic of the enormous wealth and power wielded by the Medici in Florence and throughout Italy; its sale is emblematic of the family’s financial and political decline.", "The House of Medici [Occult Family] was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of the Tuscan countryside, gradually rising until they were able to fund the Medici Bank. The bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century, seeing the Medici gain political power in Florence - though officially they remained citizens rather than monarchs.", "Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici was the first of the Medici political dynasty, de facto rulers of Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance; also known as \"Cosimo 'the Elder'\" and \"Cosimo Pater Patriae\".", "From the cadet branch of the family  after the senior branch had failed, Cosimo I was plucked in 1537 from country obscurity by Emperor Charles V at the age of 18  to rule Florence in a compliant way.  Cosimo I proved to be a very competent detailed administrator at a time when being a dull pompous control freak did not seem to matter.  This was the Cinquecento - the swash buckling visionary Renaissance glory days of the Quattrocento were over - bit like a cold dose of economic rationalism today but with more support for the arts thrown in!  During his 37 year rule he  managed the growth of Florence into the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, finally defeating and absorbing the Republic of Siena in 1557 and reducing the influence of the Emperor and of the French King Francis 1 ( link to Insight Page ) by playing them off against each other (though it was to be another 300 years before Italians finally got rid of foreign rulers). ", "In 1337, the rule of the noble Pepoli family, nicknamed by some scholars as the \"underground nobles\" as they governed as \"the first among equals\" rather than as true nobles of the city. This noble family's rule was in many ways an extension of past rules, and resisted until March 28, 1401 when the Bentivoglio family took over.", "The Guelfs abandoned towns in Tuscany to the Ghibellines, and Manfred’s vicar-general, Count Guido Novello, became podesta of Florence. The Ghibellines took revenge against the Guelfs, ruining more buildings in Florence as the Guelfs fled to Lucca, which was forced to banish the Guelf refugees in 1264. The French Pope Urban IV (1261-64) countered by putting Siena and Florence under interdict, for their merchants were the papal bankers and helped collect Church revenues.", "The Sforza dynasty was founded by Muzio Attendolo (1369-1424), called Sforza (from sforzare, to exert or force), a condottiero from Romagna serving the Angevin kings of Naples. He was the most successful dynast of the condottieri. His son Francesco I Sforza ruled Milan for the first half of the Renaissance era, acquiring the title of Duke of Milan from the extinct Visconti family in 1447. Rising from peasant origins, the Sforzas became condottieri and used this military position to become rulers in Milan. The family governed by force, ruse, and power politics. Under their rule the city-state flourished and expanded. Similar to the Medici in their use of personal power, the Sforzas differed in that they were warriors, not bankers. The family also held the seigniory of Pesaro, starting from Muzio Attendolo's second son, Alessandro (1409-1473). The Sforza held Pesaro until 1519, with the death of Galeazzo. Muzio's third son, Bosio (1411-1476), founded the branch of Santa Fiora, who held the title of count of Cotignola; the Sforza ruled the small county of Santa Fiora in southern Tuscany until 1624.", "a Florentine family that played an important role in the political and economic life of medieval Italy.", "15th/16th century Italian (originally Spanish) noble family who had great political power in Renaissance Italy, and whose lifestyles were anything but sedate. The better-known members were the corrupt Pope, Alexander VI, and his two illegitimate children -- Cesare (cardinal and general) and Lucrezia (Duchess of Ferrara and political intriguer, and alleged to have had incestuous relationships with both her brother and father).", "Margrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. The Golden Age of Florentine art began around this time. In 1013, construction began on the Basilica di San Miniato al Monte. The exterior of the baptistery was reworked in Romanesque style between 1059, and 1128. This period also saw the eclipse of Florence's formerly powerful rival Pisa (defeated by Genoa in 1284 and subjugated by Florence in 1406), and the exercise of power by the mercantile elite following an anti-aristocratic movement, led by Giano della Bella, that resulted in a set of laws called the Ordinances of Justice (1293).", "Ferdinando's marriage to Vittoria della Rovere produced two children: Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. Upon Vittoria's death in 1694, her allodial possessions, the Duchies of Rovere and Montefeltro, passed to her younger son.", "It is believed that the family prospered in Florence. The social class system was strictly the wealthy merchant class, known as the popolo grasso...", "Cosimo had done a lot for the city of Florence. He had spent lots of his money on his city and supported artists and sculptors. Churches were built and many large libraries were produced with the books he collected. After Cosimo had died he won the title of Pater Palrige (father of his country)." ]

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[ "In the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their ancestors were Celts who came from Central Europe in the 7th century BCE (and even before, according to new research ), and dominated native peoples which can't be clearly identified except the Ligures (Alps and Provence), the Iberians at the eastern bottom of the Pyrenees (south of Agde according to Avenius) and Aquitanic people (among them, the Basques) in Aquitaine. Some, particularly in the northern and eastern areas, had Germanic admixture (the Belgae); many of these peoples had already spoken Celtic by the time of the Roman conquest, but others seem to have spoken a Celto-Germanic creole.", "Gaul (Latin Gallia , French Gaule) is the name given by the Romans to the territories where the Celtic Gauls (Latin Galli, French Gaulois) lived, including present France, Belgium, Luxemburg and parts of the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany on the west bank of the Rhine, and the Po Valley, in present Italy . The ancient limits of Gaul were the Rhine River and the Alps on the east, the Mare Nostrum (Mediterranean Sea), the Po Valley and the Pyrenees on the south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west and North. Before the Roman conquest by Julius Caesar (58-51 BC), the name “Gaul” corresponded to a cultural and military area founded on a common religion and federations of peoples who though that they had a common origin. This common origin probably dates back to 8th century, when migrants groups of the Bronze Age Urnfield culture spread slowly across the area of the future territory of Gaul. About 390 BC, the Gauls invaded and sacked Rome . In 222 BC, Cisalpine Gaul (the region between the Alps and the Po Valley) was conquered by the Romans. The best description we know about the pre-Roman Gaul is in the first chapter of the Commentarii de Bello Gallico, of Caius Julius Caesar . It is clearly a Roman point of view of the Gallic realities:", "When Julius Caesar arrived in the area, as recorded in his De Bello Gallico , the inhabitants of Belgium and northwestern France were known as the Belgae (after whom modern Belgium is named), and they were considered to be the northern part of Gaul . The distinction between the Belgae to the North and the Gauls to the south of them, whom Caesar called Celts, is disputed. Caesar says that the Belgae were separated from the rest of Gaul by language, law and custom, but does not go into detail. It seems clear that Gaulish culture was very influential upon the Belgae. On the other hand, linguists have proposed that there is evidence that at least part of the Belgic population had previously spoken an Indo European language related to, but distinct from, Celtic and Germanic , and amongst the northern Belgae, Celtic may never have been the language of the majority. (See Belgian language and Nordwestblock .) [8]", "Covering large parts of modern day France, Belgium, and northwest Germany, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language. On the lower Garonne the people spoke an archaic language related to Basque, the Aquitanian language. The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse).", "Originally, the area of Belgium was a part of Gaul in Roman times and was inhabited by Romanized Celts . Gradually the land was infiltrated by groups of Gothic Germans, until finally in the 3rd and 4th centuries ce a new wave of Germans, the Salic Franks , began pressing down from the northeast. Eventually they pushed back the Romans and took up a line generally corresponding to the present north-south division between Flemings and Walloons, a natural line of formerly dense forests. Only later, in the 5th century, after the withdrawal of the Roman frontier garrisons, did many Franks push on southward and settle much of Gaul proper. The northern Franks retained their Germanic language (which became modern Dutch), whereas the Franks moving south rapidly adopted the language of the culturally dominant Romanized Gauls, the language that would become French . The language frontier between northern Flemings and southern Walloons has remained virtually unchanged ever since, although there are Dutch speakers in the south and French speakers in the north.", "The region inhabited by the ancient Gauls, (Galli, the Roman name for the Celtic people there) comprised modern-day France and parts of Belgium, western Germany, and northern Italy. By the 5th century BCE the Gauls had migrated south from the Rhine River valley to the Mediterranean coast. Between 600-400 BCE growing populations of Gauls began to spread over the Alps into northern Italy, drawn by abundant food resources. The region of Italy occupied by the Gauls was called Cisalpine Gaul (\"Gaul this side of the Alps\") by the Romans.", "French is spoken in France, Switzerland, and Belgium, in Europe. The Romans in the Gallic Wars , under Julius Caesar , brought Latin to Gaul in the 1st century B.C. At the time they were speaking a Celtic language known as Gaulish. Germanic Franks invaded in the early 5th century. By the time of Charlemagne (d. A.D. 814), the language of the French was already sufficiently removed from Vulgar Latin to be called Old French.", "Celtic: The language of the Celts, an ancient people who in Roman times lived in parts of France, Portugal, Spain, and what are now Bulgaria, Greece, and the United Kingdom and Ireland.", "Between 57 and 50 B.C. Julius Cesar conquered the northern part of Gaul, the area lying roughly in the basins of the Scheldt and the Meuse. The land was inhabited then by Gallo-Celtic tribes, including the BELGAE. Between 15 B.C. and the fifth century it was under Roman occupation as Gallia Belgica until Rome weakened and the Francs began to penetrate the region.", "Early Celtic tribes (from Gomer) settled much of the European theater, including present-day Spain, France, England and Germany, prior to contact with Scythians.  For many centuries France was called Gaul, after the Celtic descendants of Gomer, whom ceded the territory to Romans and Germanic/Teutonic Franks (whence France) in the 4th century A.D.  Northwest Spain is called Galicia to this day.  Some of the Gomerites migrated further to what is now called Wales.  The Welsh claim their ancestors \"first landed on the Isle of Britain from France, about three hundred years after the flood.\"  The Celtic language survives intact today mainly in the two variants of Welsh and Irish/Scottish Gaelic.  The Welsh call their language Gomeraeg (after Gomer).  The Celts of today are descendants of Gomer, and of the blended tribes of Magog and Gomer.", "CELTS. Among the ancient European peoples were the warlike Celts--muscular, red-haired wanderers who probably came from the distant steppes beyond the Caspian Sea. By 500 BC they were living in northeastern France, southwestern Germany, and Bohemia. The Celts, who were also called Gauls, continued to migrate in all directions.", "Name: Belgium's name comes from the Celtic tribe Belgae, which is derived from a Roman province called Gallia Belgica", "etymology: the Gauls (Celts) of Western Europe may have referred to the newly arriving Germanic tribes who settled in neighboring areas east of the Rhine during the first centuries B.C. as \"Germani,\" a term the Romans adopted as \"Germania\"; the native designation \"Deutsch\" comes from the Old High German \"diutisc\" meaning \"of the people\"", "There were three peoples, said Caesar, inhabiting Gaul when his conquest began; \"they differ from each other in language, in customs, and in laws.\" These people he named respectively the Belgae, the Celtae and the Aquitani. He locates them roughly, the Belgae in the north and east, the Celtae in the middle, and the Aquitani in the west and south. The BeIgae are the Galatae of Bertrand, the Celtae are the Celts, and the Aquitani are the Megalithic People. They had, of course, all been more or less brought under Celtic influences, and the differences of language which Caesar noticed need not have been great; still it is noteworthy, and quite in accordance with Bertrand's views, that Strabo speaks of the Aquitani as differing markedly from the rest of the inhabitants, and as", "The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata (\"free Gaul\" or \"long haired Gaul\"). Caesar divided the people of Gallia Comata into three broad groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish peoples are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements.", "The original occupants of Britain were the Celts who descended from the Gauls. The Gauls were first acknowledged from what is now the area of the Middle East known as Turkey. Paul writes a letter found in the New Testament to the Church in Gaul known as Galatians. The Gauls migrated across central and western Europe. In the western regions they became known as the Celts. The Gauls were a warrior culture respected by the Greeks and Romans. Eventually the empire of the Gauls was incorporated into the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar first sent armies from Rome to Britain in 55 and 54 B.C. to determine if the Celts were aiding the Gallic resistance in what is now France.", "Gaul (Latin: Gallia) was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age that was inhabited by Celtic tribes, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine.", "Julius Caesar took official command of his provinces in 59 B.C. In Gallia Narbonensis, the stretch of southern France connecting Spain to Italy, the Gallic people had largely been assimilated into Roman culture over the course of the past century. Beyond this territory to the north was a vast land comprising modern France, called Gallia Comata (long-haired Gaul), where loose confederations of Celtic tribes maintained varying relationships with Rome. These Celtic tribes, while primitive compared to Roman standards, had had an active trade with the Roman frontiers. For the most part, a general peace had reigned for the better part of the last century, but external pressures from Germanic tribes started unsettling the relative calm.", "So who were the Britons inhabiting England at the time of the Roman invasion? The history of pre-Roman coins in southern Britain reveals an influence from Belgic Gaul. The tribes of England south of the Thames and along the south coast during Caesar's time all had Belgic names or affiliations. Caesar tells us that these large intrusive settlements had replaced an earlier British population, which had retreated to the hinterland of southeast England. The latter may have been the large Celtic tribe, the Catuvellauni, situated in the home counties north of the Thames. Tacitus reported that between Britain and Gaul \"the language differs but little.\"", "As the Romans started to withdraw they were defeated, at first, by the Scotti and the Picts and then joined by some of the formerly defeated Breton tribes. They crossed the Channel and set up colonies in Brittany (Little Britain) and Galicia (mostly Northern Spain but spread sporadically along the coast to Southern France). All these Bretons and Galicians spoke a mixture of British Celtic languages (all of which were similar to Gaelic).", "\"Gaul is divided into three parts, each inhabited by people of different language, laws, and customs, the Belgae, Acquitains, and Celtae, as they call themselves, but we the Gauls; the last of these are divided from the Acquitains by the river Garonne, and by the Maern and Seine from the Belgae, the most warlike people of the three, because they are the greatest strangers to the politeness of the province, hold no commerce with merchants, who import such wares as serve to nourish luxury, and are situated next the Germans beyond the Rhine, with whom they wage perpetual war;\"", "Following the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne. The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighboring provinces Belgica and Aquitania, particularly under Augustus.", "The La Tène period was when the Celts were at the height of their political power and it was during this period that they came to the note of the Classical Greeks and Romans particularly during their invasions of the Etruscan city of Clusium and Rome in 390 BC where Brennus', their leader or the title of their leader, demanded his weight in gold to leave the city alone. Throughout the next 200 years there are constant movement of Celtic tribes from the Atlantic to Asia Minor. This also coincides with Greek expansion under Alexander the Great and Roman expansion. When the German tribes start their migrations into Transalpine Gaul circa 100 BC this causes the last of the great Celtic migrations from the East of the Rhine to the West of the Rhine which in turn enabled Julius Caesar to conquer the now divided Gaul. All the Gaulish tribes and their lands had been conquered - Transalpine, Cisalpine and Gaul itself. However many of the German tribes adopted Celtic culture and religious practice.", "The first signs of activity in the region of Mons are found at Spiennes, where some of the best flint tools in Europe were found dating from the Neolithic period. When Julius Caesar arrived in the region in the 1st century BC, the region was settled by the Nervii, a Belgian tribe. A castrum was built in Roman (Belgica) times, giving the settlement its Latin name Castrilocus; the name was later changed into Montes for the mountain on which the castrum was built. In the 7th century, Saint Ghislain and two of his disciples built an oratory or chapel dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul near the Mons hill, at a place called Ursidongus, now known as Saint-Ghislain. Soon after, Saint Waltrude (in French Sainte Waudru), daughter of one of Clotaire II’s intendants, came to the oratory and was proclaimed a saint upon her death in 688. She was canonized in 1039.", "Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin. It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman culture.", "Scholars debate the actual extent of the Celtic influence. The Celtic influence and contacts between Gaulish and early Germanic culture along the Rhine is assumed to be the source of a number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic. But according to Belgian linguist Luc van Durme, toponymic evidence of a former Celtic presence in the Low Countries is near to utterly absent. Although there were Celts in the Netherlands, Iron Age innovations did not involve substantial Celtic intrusions and featured a local development from Bronze Age culture.", "About 400 A.D. several germanic tribes overran the roman fortifications and set an end to the western part of the Roman empire. While the Francs settled in what is know northern France, the Burgundians settled in what is know western Switzerland and Burgundy (southeastern France). Both of these tribes, originally speaking some sort of ancient German, were keen to assimilate the Roman culture, so they learnt Latin. In the course of centuries, the French language developed out of this.", "After 400 A.D. Germanic tribes wandered southwards and westwards. The Burgundians settled in western Switzerland and western France (today known as Burgundy). Like the Francs in northern France they assimilated to the gallo-roman culture, so Latin became the base for the French language. In contrast, the Alamannen infiltrated northern Switzerland and built small villages outside the Roman cities, stuck to the German language and customs while the Romans retreated. This is the origin of the border between German and French languages in Switzerland.", "�The Celtic tribes were among the first to break away from the Indo-European homeland when the retreating Ice Age was followed by a population explosion and at one time they occupied all of Europe west off the Rhine and", "a member of a European people who once occupied Britain and Spain and Gaul prior to Roman times", "one of a people inhabiting chiefly the southern and southeastern parts of Belgium and adjacent regions in France.", "Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers of the La Tène culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as well as east to Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia and southwestern Germania during the 5th to 1st centuries BC." ]

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[ "* Then, Mary Queen of Scots's son, James VI and I was chosen by Elizabeth I to be the next king of England regardless of the fact that it is she  who had  ordered that his mother be beheaded.", "On February 8, 1587, Mary Queen of Scots was beheaded for treason at Fotheringhay Castle in England. Her son, King James VI of Scotland, calmly accepted his mother’s execution, and upon Queen Elizabeth’s death in 1603, he became James I, king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.", "On February 8, 1587, Mary Queen of Scots was beheaded for treason. Her son, King James VI of Scotland, calmly accepted his mother’s execution, and upon Queen Elizabeth’s death in 1603 he became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.", "Elizabeth I, perhaps England's most famous monarch, grew up in complex and sometimes difficult circumstances. The daughter of King Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn , she was only two years old when she lost her mother. Anne Boleyn was beheaded on the orders of her husband, based on questionable charges of adultery and conspiracy. Before long, Elizabeth and her older half-sister Mary were declared to be illegitimate as her father sought to pave the way for a male heir. The two were later reinstated as potential heirs. Their half-brother Edward was born in 1537 by Henry VIII's third wife, Jane Seymour.", "John was Richard III�s illegitimate son. His mother is unknown. He was also called John of Pomfret, his father appointed him Captain of Calais in 1485, calling him �our dear son�. After his father�s death, during the reign of Henry VII, John was beheaded on the pretext of treasonable activities in Ireland.", "Edward II, (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327), of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until deposed in January, 1327. His tendency to ignore his nobility, in favour of low-born favourites, led to constant political unrest and eventually to his deposition. He is today perhaps best remembered for a story about his alleged murder, which was linked to his reliance on the corrupt family of Hugh le Despenser , which has been seen by some as evidence of his homosexuality.", "\"Cecily Neville, Duchess of York (3 May 1415 – 31 May 1495) was the wife of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and the mother of two Kings of England, Edward IV and Richard III. Lady Cecily Neville was a daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland. Her maternal grandparents were John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and Katherine Swynford. John of Gaunt was the third surviving son of Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault.", "   • King James King James I’s mother, Mary Queen of Scots, was executed in 1587 for involving herself in Catholic plots against Elizabeth.", "On this date in 1510, the new king Henry VIII had his dad’s most hated tax collectors beheaded on Tower Hill.", "Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413 and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III, to the Kingdom of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry of Bolingbroke /ˈbɒlɪŋbrʊk/. His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of Edward III, and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Henry's cousin Richard II, whom Henry eventually deposed. Henry's mother was Blanche, heiress to the considerable Lancaster estates, and thus he became the first King of England from the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenets.", "Æthelred the Unready, or Æthelred II (c. 968 – 23 April 1016), was King of England (978–1013 and 1014–1016). He was the son of King Edgar and Queen Ælfthryth and was only about ten years old (no more than thirteen) when his half-brother Edward was murdered. Æthelred was not personally suspected of participation, but as the murder was committed at Corfe Castle by the attendants of Ælfthryth, it made it more difficult for the new king to rally the nation against the military raids by Danes, especially as the legend of St Edward the Martyr grew.", "Edward III assumes the throne of England. He sends his mother into a convent and has her lover Roger Mortimer killed.", "Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland (1399–1413). He was the tenth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry (of) Bolingbroke. His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of Edward III, and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Henry's cousin Richard II, whom Henry eventually deposed. Henry's mother was Blanche, heiress to the considerable Lancaster estates, and thus he became the first King of England from the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenets.", "In what must be one of the most gruesome botched executions in recorded history, poor Margaret de la Pole, Countess of Salisbury, was imprisoned in the Tower as an enemy of the state after her son, a Cardinal, denounced Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England. Unfortunately for Margaret, her son was in France, so Henry took out his rage on his mother.", "Henry's only son Edward VI became the next king but he was only nine and preferred to run around the playground slapping girls. He allowed the Duke of Somerset as Regent to run the country and then when he died tripping over an executioner's block, the Duke of Northumberland took over. When Edward VI was finally killed by a girl whose bottom he had tried to pinch, Northumberland made Lady Jane Grey Queen (as Lady Queen) with his own son Guildford Dudley (named after shopping centres in Guildford and Dudley) as her consort. However Henry VIII's daughter Mary claimed it 'was about bloody time I became Queen' and she led an army that overthrew Northumberland, sacked Guildford and imprisoned Lady Queen in the Tower of London. Once they had all confessed to being a 'bunch of Protestant Shits', Mary signed their death warrants, revoking her earlier guarantees of 'forgiveness'. For this she got her name 'Bloody Mary' and in taverns, a revolting drink of tinned tomatoes, pepper and dog vomit was whisked together and offered to unwary tourists in her name.", "Anne Boleyn (c.1501/1507 - 19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of Elizabeth I. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation. The daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Boleyn (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), Anne was of nobler birth than Jane Seymour, Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired, with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe, largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France.", "In 1189, all of Henry's territory went to his oldest son, Richard I, better known as Richard the Lionheart. In 1199, Richard was killed in France and John became the king of England. His reign started in an unfortunate way. In 1202, John's nephew, Arthur of Brittany, was murdered. Many in Brittany believed that John was responsible for his murder and they rebelled against John.", "Charles was beheaded on 30 January, 1649. One of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver Cromwell, allowed the King's head to be sewn back on his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at night on 7 February 1649, in the Henry VIII vault inside St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle. Charles was father to a total of nine legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. Several other children died in childhood.", "In 1452, York marched on London in an attempt to force Henry to dismiss Somerset from the government, but at this stage he lacked support and was forced to swear not to take arms against the King at Old St Paul's Cathedral. Then in 1453, Henry VI suffered a complete mental breakdown. The Great Council of peers appointed York Lord Protector and he governed the country responsibly, but Henry recovered his sanity after eighteen months and restored Somerset to favour. During Henry's madness his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, had given birth to a son, which dashed York's hopes of becoming king on Henry's death.", "After the election of her step-son as regent in early 1036, it was recognised that she would continue to live there to look after the interests of her son Harthacnut who had nominally succeeded his father as King of England and Denmark but was still absent in Denmark. It is likely that she encouraged her sons by her first husband, Edward and Alfred, to join her, Alfred being captured and murdered during the visit.", "In September 1533 Anne gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth (the future Queen Elizabeth I). Henry had grown tired of her, and after two further pregnancies ended in miscarriages, she was arrested in 1536 on trumped up charges of adultery and publicly beheaded at the Tower of London.", " The son of Edward II and Isabella of France, Edward III came to the throne in his mid-teens when his mother—with the assistance of her lover, Roger Mortimer—deposed his father. During Edward's first few years as king, Queen Isabella and Moritmer ruled in his name; in 1330, when he was eighteen, however, Edward came into his power and ruled in his own name. Soon afterwards, the King had Mortimer executed; while Isabella's life was spared, the Queen Mother faced enforced banishment at her son's command.", "** 18 March - King Edward is murdered by the servants of his stepmother Queen Ælfthryth at Corfe Castle. He is succeeded by his stepbrother Æthelred the Unready.", "Effigy of Henry III, son of King John. He was nine when he assumed the throne after his father's death. He would gone on to rule England for over 50 years, thus becoming one of the nation's longest reigning monarchs. He could not, however, regain the French lands lost by his father. For \"Braveheart\" fans, he is the father of King Edward, \"The Longshanks\". First Plantagenet king given an English name.", "However, Edward’s reign would not last very long. Three years later, on 18 March 978, young King Edward was murdered at Corfe Castle, and would become known as King Edward the Martyr. There is some confusion over his death, but it is generally accepted that while Edward visited his step-mother Elfryda and his half-brother Aelthelred at Corfe Castle, Elfryda arranged for his murder.", "Richard probably spent his childhood mainly at Fotheringhay with his mother. When he was seven, in 1459, his father was driven out of England and proclaimed a traitor and outlaw. Richard and George and their mother were handed over by the triumphant Lancastrians to Cecily’s sister Anne, Duchess of Buckingham. They were probably decently treated and within a year Warwick and Richard’s brother Edward won a battle at Northampton and took the King prisoner. Richard’s father returned to England to claim the throne, but the wheel turned again and in December 1460 he was defeated and killed at Wakefield. His severed head was stuck up on the wall of York adorned with a paper crown. Richard’s brother Edmund was caught and killed, too.", "In 1042, Hardicanute died of convulsions at a drinking party. Edward now became king and one of his first acts was to deprive his mother, Emma of Normandy , of all her estates. Anglo-Saxon chroniclers claimed that Edward had done this because he felt he had been neglected by his mother as a child.", "In Lady Antonia Fraser's biography, Mary Queen of Scots, the author writes that it took two strikes to decapitate Mary: The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head, at which point the Queen's lips moved. (Her servants reported they thought she had whispered the words \"Sweet Jesus.\") The second blow severed the neck, except for a small bit of sinew that the executioner severed by using the axe as a saw. Robert Wynkfield recorded a detailed account of the moments leading up to Mary's execution, also describing that it took two strikes to behead the Queen. Afterward, the executioner held her head aloft and declared, \"God save the Queen.\" At that moment, the auburn tresses in his hand came apart and the head fell to the ground, revealing that Mary had had very short, grey hair.[45] The chemise that Mary wore at her execution is displayed at Coughton Court near Alcester in Warwickshire, which was a Catholic household at that time.", "mass, screaming and pleading for her life to be spared. The king chose to ignore her pleas, and she was beheaded at the Tower of London in February, 1542. Her ghostly screams are heard by some visitors to the palace, and some have seen a shadowy figure run through the Haunted Gallery.", "..... Click the link for more information. , was born. In this year the king executed a coup and seized the reins of government, putting Mortimer to death and forcing his mother into retirement.", "Henry Grey, the Duke of Suffolk was the father of Lady Jane Grey ( 1537 - 1554) who became known as the Nine Day Queen. He was beheaded in 1554 and his mummified head can still be seen in a glass-topped box in the vestry of St. Botolph Aldgate in London.", "The king went hunting on 2 August 1100 in the New Forest, likely near Brockenhurst. He was killed by an arrow through the lung, but the circumstances remain unclear. The arrow was shot by a nobleman named Walter Tirel, and, although the description of events was later embroidered with more information,Barlow William Rufus pp. 420–423 the earliest statement of the event was in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which noted that the king was \"shot by an arrow by one of his own men\".Quoted in Barlow William Rufus p. 421 Later chroniclers added the name of the killer – Walter Tirel, and a number of other details which may or may not be true. The first mention of any location more exact than the New Forest comes from John Leland writing in 1530 who stated that the king died at Thorougham, a placename which has since fallen into disuse but was probably located at what is now Park Farm on the Beaulieu estates." ]

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[ "The Battle of Culloden (Scottish Gaelic language: Blàr Chùil LodairScript error) was the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite Rising . On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. The Hanoverian victory at Culloden decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil. [1]", "The Battle of Culloden ( Scottish Gaelic : Blàr Chùil Lodair) was the final confrontation of the Jacobite rising of 1745 . On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands . The Hanoverian victory at Culloden decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never again mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain . The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil. [4]", "The Battle of Culloden was a defeat in 1746 of the Jacobite rebel army of the British prince Charles Edward Stuart (the 'Young Pretender') by the Duke of Cumberland on a stretch of moorland in Inverness‑shire, Scotland. This battle effectively ended the military challenge of the Jacobite rebellion.", "In Inverness we boarded our bus to visit Culloden Battlefield, where the Jacobite Rebellion was crushed on April 16, 1746. This was the last battle to be fought on British soil.", "In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.", "The Battle of Culloden was the final confrontation of the Jacobite rising of 1745 and part of a religious civil war in Britain. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. Queen Anne had died in 1714 without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, she was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, a daughter of James VI and I. The Hanoverian victory at Culloden halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never again mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.", "The Battle of Culloden was a defeat in 1746 of the Jacobite rebel army of the British prince Charles Edward Stuart (the 'Young Pretender') by the Duke of Cumberland on a stretch of moorland in Inverness-shire, Scotland.", "As the Jacobite army moved south into England, Charles kept assuring his troops that aid and reinforcements from English Jacobites would be arriving at any time. This aide and reinforcements were desperately needed as the Jacobites were badly outnumbered by the three British armies already in the field. Finally on 6 December 1745, at Derby in northern England, Charles was reluctantly persuaded by his senior officers to turn back to Scotland. Upon hearing about the turnabout in Derby, the French gave up on their plans for an invasion of England. The Jacobites felt they could more securely fight the British in a defensive battle on Scottish soil rather than fighting the British in England. On 17 January 1746, at the Battle of Falkirk Muir, 8,000 Scots, the largest amount of troops gathered by the Jacobite cause during the uprising defeated 7,000 of British troops. Ultimately, however, Charles Stuart and his uprising were defeated on 27 April 1746 at the Battle of Culloden. ", "Bonnie Prince Charlie landed in Scotland in July 1745. Many Scotsmen were loyal to his cause, and he defeated British forces in September. He then tried to enter England, where even Roman Catholics seemed hostile to the invasion. The French king, Louis XV, had promised to send twelve thousand soldiers to aid the rebellion, but did not deliver. A British army under the Duke of Cumberland, meanwhile, drove the Jacobites back into Scotland. On 16 April 1746, Bonnie Prince Charlie faced the Duke of Cumberland in the Battle of Culloden, the last battle ever fought in Great Britain. The Jacobites were beaten heavily. Bonnie Prince Charlie escaped to France, but many of his Scottish supporters were caught and executed. The War of the Austrian Succession finally ended in 1748, with Maria Theresa being recognised as Archduchess of Austria.", "*The Battle of Falkirk Muir took place on 17 January 1746, the Jacobites under Charles Edward Stuart defeated a government army commanded by Lieutenant General Henry Hawley.", "The final Jacobite rebellion came to a bloody end at the Battle of Culloden. Having successfully advanced as far south as Derby, Prince Charles Stuart had been pursued north by the forces of the Duke of Cumberland. Resolved to fight, the Prince overruled his Council of War but saw his army butchered when the terrain defused the Highland charge.", "Thomson, p. 101, notes that \"by every standard the Jacobite generals made a mess of Culloden when battle came on 16 April 1746. They chose unsuitable terrain, tired out their troops by ill-thought-out manouevres and vacillation, and failed totally to make proper use of their greatest asset, the Highland charge.\"", "The Highland Attack: Battle of Culloden 16th April 1746 in the Jacobite Rebellion: picture by John Mackenzie", "* Augustin Heckel's The Battle of Culloden (1746; reprinted 1797) is held by the National Galleries of Scotland. ", "Apr 16: Battle of Culloden � last battle fought in Britain � 5,000 Highlanders routed by the Duke of Cumberland and 9,000 loyalists Scots � Young Pretender Charles flees to Continent, ending Jacobite hopes forever � the wearing of the kilt prohibited", "In the Jacobite rising known as the Forty-Five, Fort William was besieged for two weeks by the Jacobites, from 20 March to 3 April 1746. However, although the Jacobites had captured both of the other forts in the chain of three Great Glen fortifications (Fort Augustus and the original Fort George) they failed to take Fort William.", "In 1745, Bonnie Prince Charlie lands at Eriskay in the Hebrides, Scotland , to lay claim to the British throne. He is backed by the French , who are at present heavily embroiled in the Austrian War of Succession against Britain. Fighting in his still-living father's name, he raises his standard at Glenfinnan, Scotland on 19 August, igniting the Second Jacobite Rebellion. On 21 September, his Jacobite forces defeat English forces at the Battle of Prestonpans but in December the future Landgrave Frederick II of Hessen-Kassel lands on the Scottish coast with 6,000 troops to support his father-in-law, George II.", "Charles Stewart�s Jacobite army consisted largely of Scottish Highlanders, as well as a number of Lowland Scots and a small detachment of Englishmen from the Manchester Regiment. The Jacobites were supported and supplied by the Kingdom of France and French and Irish units loyal to France were part of the Jacobite army. The government force was mostly English, along with a significant number of Scottish Lowlanders and Highlanders, a battalion of Ulster men from Ireland, and a small number of Hessians from Germany. The battle on Culloden Moor was both quick and bloody, all taking place within an hour. Following an unsuccessful Highland charge against the government lines, the Jacobites were routed and driven from the field.", "* The Jacobite army which fought at the Battle of Culloden included men from: Clan Stuart (Stewart), Clan MacNeil of Barra, Clan Donnachaidh, Clan MacDonald of Keppoch, Clan MacDonnell of Glengarry, Clan MacDonald of Clan Ranald, Clan Mackinnon, Clan Cameron, Clan Gordon, Clan Fraser, Clan MacGregor, Clan MacLean, Clan MacLeod, Clan MacIntyre, Clan Ogilvy, Clan Chisholm, Clan MacLaren, Clan MacLea, Clan MacBain, Clan Maclachlan, Clan Macnaghten, and Clan Chattan, composed of Clan Davidson, Clan MacGillivray, Clan Macpherson, Clan MacKintosh, Clan MacDuff, and Clan Farquharson.", "Culloden Moor, known then as Drummossie Muir, was the site of the last pitched battle on the British mainland on 16 April 1746.", "The following year, in the last battle fought on British soil, the Jacobites are routed by the duke of Cumberland at Culloden. The Jacobite cause effective dies, but Charles Edward's claim is passed on, first through his brother, Henry, in 1788, and then the Savoyard kings of Sardinia from 1807.", "The only pitched fight of the 1719 Jacobite Rebellion, the Battle of Glenshiel was fought on 10 June 1719. The rebels, who were aided by a Spanish Regiment, took up a formidable defensive position guarding a narrow mountain pass but were nevertheless attacked, dislodged and defeated effectively ending the rebellion.", "Following the battle, the Jacobites' Lowland units headed south, towards Corrybrough and made their way to Ruthven Barracks, while their Highland units headed north, towards Inverness and on through to Fort Augustus. There they were joined by Barisdale's Macdonalds and a small battalion of MacGregors. [44] The roughly 1,500 men who assembled at Ruthven Barracks received orders from Charles Edward Stuart to the effect that all was lost and to \"shift for himself as best he could\". [45] Similar orders must have been received by the Highland units at Fort Augustus. By 18 April the Jacobite army was disbanded. Officers and men of the units in the French service made for Inverness, where they surrendered as prisoners of war on 19 April. The rest of the army broke up, with men heading for home or attempting to escape abroad. [44]", "Following the battle, the Jacobites' Lowland units headed south, towards Corrybrough and made their way to Ruthven Barracks, while their Highland units headed north, towards Inverness and on through to Fort Augustus. There they were joined by Barisdale's Macdonalds and a small battalion of MacGregors. The roughly 1,500 men who assembled at Ruthven Barracks received orders from Charles Edward Stuart to the effect that all was lost and to \"shift for himself as best he could\". Similar orders must have been received by the Highland units at Fort Augustus. By 18 April the Jacobite army was disbanded. Officers and men of the units in the French service made for Inverness, where they surrendered as prisoners of war on 19 April. The rest of the army broke up, with men heading for home or attempting to escape abroad.", "The Duke stopped his army for a day of celebration and rest in honor of his birthday at the town of Nairn a few miles east of Inverness. This development prompted the Jacobites to devise a concept of attack that might have succeeded it they had had professional logistics support and discipline among the clans. The idea was to march to Nairn in the night and catch the Duke�s army recovering in the morning from a day and night of celebration. (George Washington used this idea at Trenton about 1777.) Unfortunately for the Jacobites, the decision to march at night to the camp of the Duke was not made until about 3 in the afternoon on 15 April 1746. The plan called for the army to move at dusk, but the army could not be assembled (much less fed) in that length of time. Thus, it assembled late and piecemeal.", "After the abortive Jacobite Uprising of 1715, the \"Old Pretender\" returned to France and then Italy. However, in 1719 he became involved in an armada from Spain which was to invade England. The main fleet was wrecked by storms and only a small force arrived at Eilean Donan Castle at Loch Duich on the west coast of Scotland. The mixed force of Spaniards and clansmen marched to Glenshiel and were met by government forces and defeated.", "While the attack was still in progress, a small number of the Government forces had breached the park wall and the Campbell militia advanced unseen to fire at the right flank of the Jacobite lines. This added to all the other brutal gunfire, and threatened by cavalry the Jacobites were forced to retreat. The Duke ordered in his dragoons to rout the Jacobite forces, but the small contingent of Irish and other regular regiments covered the retreat as the Jacobites withdrew.", "The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness , leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, [23] around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan , who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, [24] a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden [25] enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. [26] Lord George Murray \"did not like the ground\" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.", "Despite this many Jacobites reached the government lines and, for the first time, a battle was decided by a direct clash between charging highlanders and formed redcoats equipped with muskets and socket bayonets. The brunt of the Jacobite impact was taken by just two government regiments—Barrell's 4th Foot and Dejean's 37th Foot. Barrell's regiment lost 17 and suffered 108 wounded, out of a total of 373 officers and men. Dejean's lost 14 and had 68 wounded, with this unit's left wing taking a disproportionately higher number of casualties. Barrell's regiment temporarily lost one of its two colours. Major-General Huske, who was in command of the government's second line, quickly organised the counter attack. Huske ordered forward all of Lord Sempill's Fourth Brigade which had a combined total of 1,078 men (Sempill's 25th Foot, Conway's 59th Foot, and Wolfe's 8th Foot). Also sent forward to plug the gap was Bligh's 20th Foot, which took up position between Sempill's 25th and Dejean's 37th. Huske's counter formed a five battalion strong horseshoe-shaped formation which trapped the Jacobite right wing on three sides. ", "Early on a rainy 16 April, the well rested Government army struck camp and at about 05:00 set off towards the moorland around Culloden and Drummossie. Jacobite pickets first sighted the Government advance guard at about 08:00, when the advancing army came within Script error of Drummossie. Cumberland's informers alerted him that the Jacobite army was forming up about Script error from Culloden House—upon Culloden Moor . [1] [2] At about 11:00 the two armies were within sight of one another with about Script error of open moorland between them. [1] As the Government forces steadily advanced across the moor, the driving rain and sleet blew from the north-east into the faces of the exhausted Jacobite army.", "The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness, leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan, who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. Lord George Murray \"did not like the ground\" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.", "After raising his standard at Glenfinnan on August 19, Prince Charles Edward Stewart marched south to Edinburgh, reaching there by September 14. The Hanoverian army under Sir John Cope gathered near the hamlet of Prestonpans to the east of the city. A local force of Jacobite sympathisers surprised the Government forces by picking their way across a marsh during the night and attacking at dawn. They soon put the redcoats to flight. Casualties on both side were relatively light but 1600 government soldiers and their supplies were captured." ]

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[ "This Soviet \"man of steel\" was educated for the priesthood but was expelled from the seminary.", "His birth name was Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, but to the world he will always be known simply as Stalin (\"man of steel\" in Russian). Stalin was born in 1878 to a poor Georgian family. His father was a cobbler who often beat his wife and young son. At the age of eight, Stalin began his education in the Gori Church School, where instruction was conducted in Russian and he was mocked for his Georgian accent. Stalin graduated first in his class at the age of fourteen and began attending school next at the Tiflis Theological Seminary. Stalin had no interest in becoming a priest, but the seminary was one of the few institutions of higher learning permitted in Georgia by the repressive tsarist government.", "Joseph Stalin (a code name meaning \"Man of Steel\") was born Iosif (Joseph) Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in 1879 in Gori, Georgia, the Transcaucasian part of the Russian Empire. His father was a cobbler named Vissarion Dzhugashvili, a drunkard who beat him badly and frequently and left the family when Joseph was young. His mother, Ekaterina Gheladze, supported herself and her son (her other three children died young and Jopseph was effectively an only child) by taking in washing. She managed, despite great hardship, to send Joseph to school and then on to Tiflis Orthodox Theological Seminary in Tbilisi, hoping he would become a priest. However, after three years of studies he was expelled in 1899, for not attending an exam and for propagating communist ideas and the books of Karl Marx .", "Stalin's beliefs are complicated and sometimes contradictory. He received his education at the Theological Seminary at Tbilisi, where his mother sent him to become a priest, but he became a closet atheist.[312]", "According to Vasilevsky, his family was extremely poor. His father spent most of his time working to earn money, while the children assisted by working in the fields. In 1897, the family moved to Novopokrovskoe, where his father became a priest to the newly built Ascension Church, and where Aleksandr began his education in the church school. In 1909, he entered Kostroma seminary, which required considerable financial sacrifice on the part of his parents. The same year, a ministerial directive preventing former seminarists from starting university studies initiated a nationwide seminarist movement, with classes stopping in most Russian seminaries. Vasilevsky, among others, was expelled from Kostroma, and only returned several months later, after the seminarists' demands had been satisfied. ", "However Joseph rebels and instead of studying scripture he reads the secret writings of Karl Marx and joins a local socialist group. He devotes much of his time to the revolutionary movement against the Russian monarchy and loses interest in his studies. Going against his mother’s wishes, Joseph becomes an atheist and frequently argues with the priests. In 1899 he is finally thrown out of the seminary after failing to turn up to his exams.", "After his stay at the monastery of just three months Rasputin felt his mission in life was to teach the Khlysty doctrines to the Russian people. Before leaving the monastery Rasputin visited its holy starets. When arriving at the man's abode within a distant forest the Orthodox priest Father Makari told Rasputin that he had much yet to learn of the earth. He should leave his family, wife, children and possessions. God had called him.", "The Soviet occupiers proved slightly more tolerant of religion than the Nazis had been. The cathedral reopened and Archbishop Sapieha ordained Father Wojtyla on Nov. 1, 1946. Eager to rebuild the church intellectually, the archbishop sent this promising young priest to the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Thomas Aquinas, known as the Angelicum, in Rome.", "The government concessions for the sake of national defense reinvigorated the Russian Orthodox Church. Thousands of churches reopened during the war. But the Khrushchev regime (1953-64) reversed the policy that had made such a revival possible, pursuing a violent six-year campaign against all forms of religious practice. Although the church retained its official sanction throughout that period, Khrushchev's campaign was continued less stringently by his successor, Leonid I. Brezhnev (in office 1964-82). By 1975 the number of operating Russian Orthodox churches had been reduced to about 7,000. Some of the most prominent members of the Russian Orthodox hierarchy and religious activists were jailed or forced to leave the church. Their place was taken by a docile clergy whose ranks were sometimes infiltrated by agents of the Committee for State Security (Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti--KGB; see Glossary). Under these circumstances, the church espoused and propagated Soviet foreign policy and furthered the Russification of non-Russian believers, such as Orthodox Ukrainians and Belorussians.", "Under the state atheism espoused by the USSR, many \"church institution[s] at [the] local, diocesan or national level were systematically destroyed\" in the 1921-1928 anti-religious campaign. After the Revolution and, more specifically, the death of Vladimir Lenin, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin chose the prominent site of the cathedral as the proposed site for a monument to socialism known as the Palace of the Soviets. It was to have modernistic, buttressed tiers to support a gigantic statue of Lenin perched on top of a dome with his arm raised in the air.", "Told that he should be ready to leave for Soviet Ukraine in two hours, Bishop Kocylovsky maintained the dignity and prestige of a prelate. He replied simply: \"Rome has given me my diocese, and Rome alone can remove me from my city.\" This, of course, was hardly a serious argument for the communist storm troopers. Bishop Kocylovsky was seized bodily by soldiers and agents and, with a total disregard of his advanced age (he was 76), literally flung into a military truck. Under a strong armed convoy he was taken to the frontier village of Medyka and handed over to the Soviets. He was reportedly taken to a Kiev prison, but an unconfirmed report released in 1947 stated that the venerable prelate had died in a Soviet dungeon. With him was also taken his Auxiliary Bishop Lakota Very Rev. Ivan Krych and others. All were abused and beaten by the MO troopers.* (*The New York Times of July 1, 1948, reports that the Vatican received news that Bishop Josaphat Kocylovsky died in a Russian prison after having been tortured.) In his recently published book, I Saw Poland Betrayed (p. 205), Arthur Bliss Lane, who resigned as U.S. Ambassador to Poland, gives more details as to the function of these para-military organizations used for the \"repatriation action\" of the Ukrainians:", "This rougher sphere of his upbringing manifested itself in Dostoyevsky's early adulthood. He became involved in a group known as the \"Russian Utopian Socialists,\" influenced by Belinsky, a well known literary critic. The partnership formed by the two presumably shook Dostoyevsky's faith, as his revered mentor found that \"as a socialist, he had to destroy Christianity in the first place. He knew that the revolution must necessarily begin with atheism.\"7 Later, though, Dostoyevsky broke off from the specific branch of the movement, forming the Durov circle. He was arrested for \"the circulation of a private letter full of insolent expressions against the Orthodox Church.\"8 Evidently, he had forgotten his mother's teachings.", "After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB.", "He returned home in 1902 to start a church, but his teachings were so radical they kicked him out. Rasputin believed that the only way to purge sin was to commit sin, then wholeheartedly confess. After inviting many women to sin with him, he quickly fled to Kiev in 1903.", "Despite official repression in the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years, religious activity persisted. Although regular church attendance was common mainly among women and the elderly, special occasions such as baptisms and Easter brought many more Russians into the churches. An increase in church weddings in the 1950s and 1960s stimulated the establishment of secular \"marriage palaces\" offering the ceremonial trappings of marriage devoid of religious rites. When applications for seminary study increased significantly in the 1950s, the Communist Youth League (Komsomol) forced aspiring seminarians to endure interrogations that discouraged many and that succeeded, by 1960, in sharply reducing the number of candidates.", "Gleb Yakunin, a critic of the Moscow Patriarchate who was one of those who briefly gained access to the KGB archive documents in the early 1990s, argued that the Moscow Patriarchate was \"practically a subsidiary, a sister company of the KGB\". Critics charge that the archives showed the extent of active participation of the top ROC hierarchs in the KGB efforts overseas. George Trofimoff, the highest-ranking US military officer ever indicted for, and convicted of, espionage by the United States and sentenced to life imprisonment on September 27, 2001, had been \"recruited into the service of the KGB\" by Igor Susemihl (a.k.a. Zuzemihl), a bishop in the Russian Orthodox Church (subsequently, a high-ranking hierarch—the ROC Metropolitan Iriney of Vienna, who died in July 1999 ).", "But as the Soviet Union fell apart, Ukraine proved a tough battleground. Stalin had abolished the 4m-strong Ukrainian Catholic Church in 1946. Gorbachev legalised it after visiting John Paul in December 1989. In western Ukraine, the result was unseemly fighting over the possession of churches, and the Russian Orthodox lost out to Ukrainian nationalism, inevitably.", "It wasn't until 1942, after the death of his father, that Karol felt called to the priesthood. He then began studying theology in secret. However, after the liberation of Poland by the Russian forces in January 1945, he was able to openly attend Jagiellonian University once again.", "A new and widespread persecution of the church was subsequently instituted under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. A second round of repression, harassment and church closures took place between 1959 and 1964 when Nikita Khrushchev was in office.", "On 19 March 2008, during a surprise visit to pray at the tomb of Saint Francis in Assisi, Italy, Gorbachev made an announcement which has been interpreted to the effect that he was a Christian. Gorbachev stated: \"St Francis is, for me, the alter Christus, another Christ. His story fascinates me and has played a fundamental role in my life\". He added: \"It was through St Francis that I arrived at the Church, so it was important that I came to visit his tomb\". However, a few days later, he reportedly told the Russian news agency Interfax: \"Over the last few days some media have been disseminating fantasies—I can't use any other word—about my secret Catholicism, [...] To sum up and avoid any misunderstandings, let me say that I have been and remain an atheist\".", "Rasputin became fascinated by a renegade sect within the Russian Orthodox faith, who believed that the only way to reach God was through sinful actions. Soon, he adopted the robes of a monk, and travelled the country, sinning to his heart's content.", "The Soviet establishment under General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev's leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.", "THE AUTHOR of this article, who has worked all his life in Central Europe as a Civil Engineer and industrial leader, obtained his degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. His position and personal connections afforded him an excellent opportunity to follow closely the events of the past twenty-five years. This article was cabled to Moscow and reproduced in the newspapers there on February 8, 1944, to substantiate Soviet Russia's accusation of the pro-Fascism of the Vatican. It was also published in pamphlet form under the title: \"Vatican Power Politics in Europe,\" and received wide publicity in the press of the United States and England.", "Relations with the Russian Orthodox church reached a new low despite John Paul's natural sympathy for eastern Christianity. So long as the Soviet Union lasted, theological dialogue was pursued in accordance with the Pope's theory that Europe should \"breathe with two lungs\".", "Three years after the Russian Revolution of 1917, a great anti-God rally was arranged in Kiev. The powerful orator Bukharin was sent from Moscow, and for an hour he demolished the Christian faith with argument, abuse and ridicule. At the end there was silence.", "Russian Church was disbanded by the Communists. Many priests were exiled, jailed, or executed. Later, when", "  Then, the Polish Pope, John Paul II, made a nine day visit to Poland - during which it became clear that the Polish people - especially the youth - preferred God to atheistic Marxism-Leninism. The cavernous gap between the promises and realities of the Soviet system had become too obvious for even the Soviet propaganda apparatus to obscure. The mass of the Polish people turned instead back to God.", "The cathedral is the tallest Orthodox Christian church in the world and suitably so due to the city's religious importance. Stalin ordered the church demolished when the Soviet government issued state atheism. It was rebuilt in 2000, nearly 70 years later.", "Many religions popular in the ethnic regions of the Soviet Union including the Roman Catholic Church, Uniats, Baptists, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, etc. underwent ordeals similar to the Orthodox churches in other parts: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, sacred monuments, monasteries and other religious buildings were razed.", "In May 1931, the authorities arrested seventeen nuns and novices who had settled near the closed Monastery of the Exaltation of the Cross. Sister Tatiana found herself in prison. She spent the period from 1931 to 1934 in a labor camp. When she was freed, Tatiana settled in the village of Sheludkovo in the Volokolamsk region, where she helped Archpriest Vladimir of the Holy Trinity Church, with whom she was arrested in 1937. She categorically refused to confirm the investigators’ charges and declined to negotiate. Fr. Vladimir was shot, while Sister Tatiana was sentenced to ten years in a forced labor camp. It was there that she ended her earthly life.", "He was himself such a believer. Born into the Russian Orthodox Church, he left it in 1910. Later he discovered \"the necessity of religious belief\" and was a regular communicant from 1926 to 1939.", "The religious movements in the USSR included Russian Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant movements. They focused on the freedom to practice their faith and resistance to interference by the state in their internal affairs." ]

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[ "What country sold land including the present-day states of Louisiana,Arkansas, and Oklahoma to the USA in 1803?", "This country sold land including the present-day states of Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma to the USA in 1803?", "On April 30, 1803 the nation of France sold 828,000 square miles (2,144,510 square km) of land west of the Mississippi River to the young United States of America in a treaty commonly known as the Louisiana Purchase. President Thomas Jefferson, in one of his greatest achievements, more than doubled the size of the United States at a time when the young nation's population growth was beginning to quicken.", "The Louisiana Purchase refers to the 530,000,000 acres of territory in North America that the United States purchased from France in 1803 for US $15 million.", "The territory was acquired in 1803 by the United States by the Louisiana Purchase from France.", "The Louisiana Purchase (1803) was a land deal between the United States and France, in which the U.S. acquired approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River for $15 million.", "The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane \"Louisiana Sale\") was the acquisition by the United States of America of 828,800 square miles (2,147,000 km2) of the French territory Louisiane in 1803 . The U.S. paid 60 million francs ( $ 11,250,000) plus cancellation of debts worth 18 million francs ($3,750,000), a total cost of $15,000,000 for the Louisiana territory. [1] [2] [3]", "Louisiana Purchase –(1803) when the U.S. government purchased the area between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains from France. This doubled the size of the United States.", "In the second Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolution, Britain ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain The Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Spain then had control over the river south of 32°30′ north latitude, and, in what is known as the Spanish Conspiracy, hoped to gain greater control of Louisiana and all of the west. These hopes ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney’s Treaty in 1795. France reacquired ‘Louisiana’ from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States bought the territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.", "Napoleon Bonaparte sold French Louisiana to the United States in 1803, including all of Arkansas, in a transaction known today as the Louisiana Purchase. French soldiers remained as a garrison at Arkansas Post. Following the purchase, the balanced give-and-take relationship between settlers and Native Americans began to change all along the frontier, including in Arkansas. Following a controversy over allowing slavery in the territory, the Territory of Arkansas was organized on July 4, 1819. Gradual emancipation in Arkansas was struck down by one vote, the Speaker of the House Henry Clay, allowing Arkansas to organize as a slave territory. ", "1803: Ohio is the 17th state admitted to the Union . Ohio became the first state west of the Alleghenies on March 1, 1803 and was part of the Northwest Territory until statehood. The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory for $15 million , containing what is now Arkansas, part of Colorado, Iowa, Louisiana, part of Minnesota, Missouri, part of Montana, part of North Dakota, part of Oklahoma, South Dakota, and part of Wyoming. [7] The War between France and England interrupted trade and emigration from Europe. The British Passenger Vessels Act limited the numbers of Irish emigrant ships.", "happened in 1803 Napolean Bonaparte sold the territory to the us for 15 million. Claiborne and Wilkinson were sent by jefferson to nola to represent us in transfer of territory. caliborne soon after became gov of new orleans territory. ", "With the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the United States acquired a large area of land from the French . It was the single largest purchase of land ever by the United States and doubled the size of the country.", "On October 20, 1803, the Senate ratified the Louisiana Purchase Treaty by a vote of twenty-four to seven. The agreement, which provided for the purchase of the western half of the Mississippi River basin from France at a price of $15 million, or approximately four cents per acre, doubled the size of the country and paved the way for westward expansion beyond the Mississippi.", "In 1682, Robert La Salle's lieutenant, Henri de Tonti , established Arkansas Post , the first white settlement in the Arkansas area. La Salle claimed the Mississippi valley for France, and the region became part of the French territory of Louisiana. The French ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain in 1762 but regained it before it passed to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase (1803).", "1803 purchase of Louisiana Territory from French for $15 million US Dollars, encompassing modern day. The land purchased contained all of present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; parts of Minnesota that were west of the Mississippi River; most of North Dakota; most of South Dakota; northeastern New Mexico; northern Texas; the portions of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, including the city of New Orleans; and small portions of land that would eventually become part of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.", "By: joe The Louisiana Purchase was the purchase of the French province of Louisiana by the United... States in 1803. The province stretched from the Mississippi River westward to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf of Mexico northward to Canada, covering an area equal to that of the United States, prior to the purchase. Except for the Mississippi River on the east and Canada on the north, the boundaries were indefinite. The United States also claimed West Florida between the Mississippi and Perdido...", "As the United States spread across the Appalachians, the Mississippi River became an increasingly important conduit for the produce of America’s West (which at that time referred to the land between the Appalachians and the Mississippi). Since 1762, Spain had owned the territory of Louisiana, which included 828,000 square miles. The territory made up all or part of fifteen modern U.S. states between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. The Pinckney treaty of 1795 had resolved friction between Spain and the United States over the right to navigate the Mississippi and the right for Americans to transfer their goods to ocean-going vessels at New Orleans. With the Pinckney treaty in place and the weak Spanish empire in control of Louisiana, American statesmen felt comfortable that the United States’ westward expansion would not be restricted in the future.", "France’s Louisiana Territory stretched from New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico northward through the plains into what is today part of Canada, and from the Mississippi River west to the Rocky Mountains—encompassing all or part of 15 states and two Canadian provinces. To secure New Orleans and the trade route to the western territories, Thomas Jefferson sent envoys to purchase New Orleans from France, authorizing them to pay up to $10 million. Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte offered them the entire territory for $15 million. ", "The Louisiana Purchase encompassed all or part of 14 current U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The land purchased contained all of present-day Arkansas", "The Louisiana territory encompassed all or part of 15 current US states and two Canadian provinces. The land purchased contained all of present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; parts of Minnesota that were west of the Mississippi River; most of North Dakota; most of South Dakota; north-eastern New Mexico; northern Texas; the portions of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana West of the Mississippi River, including the city of New Orleans; and small portions of land that would eventually become part of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.", "For most of the 18th century, the Oklahoma region was under nominal French control as Louisiana. The limited interaction between the peoples was based on fur trading. In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase by Thomas Jefferson brought the area under United States control. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which removed American Indian tribes from the Southeast and relocated them to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. The southern part of this territory was originally assigned to the Choctaw and Chickasaw. In 1867, the United States used the Medicine Lodge Treaty to allot the southwest portion of the Choctaw and Chickasaw’s lands to the Comanche, Kiowa, and Apache tribes. ", "The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane \"Sale of Louisiana\") was the acquisition by the United States of America of of the French", "1803: The Louisiana Purchase extends the western boundary of the United States to the Rocky Mountains, occupying the drainage area of the Mississippi River, as estimated by the French explorer Robert La Salle. The Purchase doubled the territory of the United States.", "Which French colony was purchased by the USA in 1803 at a cost of four cents per acre?", "The U.S. purchased the land from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains from Napoleon for $15 million. Jefferson was interested in the territory because it would give the U.S. the Mississippi River and New Orleans (both were valuable for trade and shipping) and also room to expand.", "Some 80 years later, in 1803, shrewd American diplomats negotiating the Louisiana Purchase in Paris invoked this informal 1719 agreement as the precedent for setting the Perdido River as the eastern limit of the Louisiana Purchase. Because all of Florida east of the Perdido River remained in Spanish hands until 1819, Florida's panhandle region did not become part of Alabama. After Louisiana achieved statehood in 1812, Congress added the last eastern remnant of the Louisiana Purchase, between the Pearl River in present-day Mississippi and the Perdido rivers, to the Mississippi Territory. This \"Addition of 1812\" ultimately became the Gulf \"foot\" portions of Mississippi and Alabama.", "11. Taking place from 1795 to 1803, the Yazoo Land Scandal is the name given to the massive fraud perpetrated by several governors of which state by selling large tracts of land to insiders at ridiculously low prices?", "1803–6, U.S. expedition that explored the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and the country beyond as far as the Pacific Ocean. Purpose", "1809A band of Cherokee Indians made agreement with President Jefferson to move beyond the Mississippi River to what is now the state of Arkansas. These lands were ceded to them by treaty in 1817.", "1723New Orleans was proclaimed as the seat of government for the territory of Louisiana. Etienne Venyard du Bourgmount crossed Oklahoma, visiting the Pawnee, Kaw, Osage, Missouri, and then the Comanche on the Arkansas River in what is now Central Kansas. He loaded the Indians with presents in an effort to win their attachment to the French, thus beginning the rivalry with the Spanish for the Great Plains region.", "Congress passes the Louisiana Territory Act, dividing the Louisiana Purchase into the Territory of Orleans in the south and the district of Louisiana in the north. March 26, 1804" ]

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[ "Anne of Denmark (; 12 December 1574 – 2 March 1619) was Queen consort of Scotland, England, and Ireland as the wife of King James VI and I. ", "Princess Anne of Denmark, second daughter of King Frederik II of Denmark, married King James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) in 1589. King James succeeded to the British throne as King James I upon the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603. Among Anne and James’ children are King Charles I of Great Britain, who was beheaded during the British Civil War and Princess Elizabeth from whom today’s present British Royal Family is descended.", "�����Anne of Denmark was born in 1574. She married James I of England , son of Henry Darnley and Mary of Scots , in 1589. Anne of Denmark died in 1619.", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, second daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James II , and of Anne Hyde, daughter of the 1st earl of Clarendon, was born on the 6th of February 1665. She suffered as a child from an affliction of the eyes, and was sent to France for medical treatment, residing with her grandmother, Henrietta Maria, and on the latter's death with her aunt, the duchess of Orleans, and returning to England in 1670. She was brought up, together with her sister Mary , by the direction of Charles II, as a strict Protestant, and as a child she made the friendship of Sarah Jennings (afterwards duchess of Marlborough), thus beginning life under the two influences which were to prove the most powerful in her future career. In 1678 she accompanied Mary of Modena to Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents abroad and afterwards in Scotland. On the 28th of July 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark, brother of King Christian V, an unpopular union because of the French proclivities of the bridegroom's country, but one of great domestic happiness, the prince and princess being conformable in temper and both preferring retirement and quiet to life in the great world. Sarah Churchill became Anne's lady of the bedchamber, and, by the latter's desire to mark their mutual intimacy and affection, all deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two ladies called each other Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman.", "George and Anne were married on 28 July 1683 in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace , London , by Henry Compton , Bishop of London . The guests included King Charles II, Queen Catherine , and the Duke and Duchess of York . [7] Anne was voted a parliamentary allowance of £20,000 a year, while George received £10,000 a year from his Danish estates, [8] although payments from Denmark were often late or incomplete. [9] King Charles gave them a set of buildings in the Palace of Whitehall known as the Cockpit (near the site of what is now Downing Street in Westminster ) as their London residence. [10]", "With George of Hanover out of contention as a potential suitor for Anne, King Charles looked elsewhere for an eligible prince who would be welcomed as a groom by his Protestant subjects but also acceptable to his Catholic ally, Louis XIV of France . [26] The Danes were Protestant allies of the French, and Louis XIV was keen on an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain the power of the Dutch. A marriage treaty between Anne and Prince George of Denmark , younger brother of King Christian V , was negotiated by Anne's uncle Laurence Hyde, who had been made Earl of Rochester, and the English Secretary of State for the Northern Department , Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland . [27] Anne's father consented to the marriage eagerly because it diminished the influence of his other son-in-law, William of Orange, who was naturally unhappy at the match. [28]", "Anne was born on 6 February 1665 in London, the second daughter of James, Duke of York, brother of Charles II. She spent her early years in France living with her aunt and grandmother. Although Anne's father was a Catholic, on the instruction of Charles II Anne and her sister Mary were raised as Protestants. In 1683, Anne married Prince George of Denmark. It was to be a happy marriage, although marred by Anne's frequent miscarriages, still births and the death of children in infancy.", "Bishop Compton officiated at the wedding of Anne and George of Denmark on 28 July 1683 in the Chapel Royal. [28] Though it was an arranged marriage, they were faithful and devoted partners. [29] They were given a set of buildings, known as the Cockpit , in the Palace of Whitehall as their London residence, [30] and Sarah Churchill was appointed one of Anne’s ladies of the bedchamber . [31] Within months of the marriage, Anne was pregnant, but the baby was stillborn in May. Anne recovered at the spa town of Tunbridge Wells , [32] and over the next two years, gave birth to two daughters in quick succession: Mary and Anne Sophia. [33]", "119. ANNE, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1702-1714) 27 STUART was born February 6, 1665 in St. James Palace, London, England, and died August 1, 1714 in Kensington, Palace, London, England. She married PRINCE GEORGE OF DENMARK July 28, 1683 in Chapel Royal, St. James, England, son of FREDERICK and SOPHIA. He was born April 2, 1653 in Copenhagen, Denmark, and died October 28, 1708 in Kensington, Palace, England.", "His marriage to Anne was arranged in the early 1680s with a view to developing an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain Dutch maritime power. As a result, George was unpopular with his Dutch brother-in-law William of Orange, who was married to Anne's elder sister, Mary. William and Mary became joint monarchs of Britain, with Anne as their heiress presumptive, in 1689 after the \"Glorious Revolution\" deposed James II and VII, the father of both Anne and Mary.", "Anne's husband, Prince George, was the second son of Frederick III, king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne he had been a candidate for the throne of Poland, He was created earl of Kendal and duke of Cumberland in 1689. Some censure, which was directed against the prince in his capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his death. In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a soldier or a statesman.", "In 1683 Anne married Prince George of Denmark, an arrangement negotiated secretly between James and King Louis XIV, who had hoped for an Anglo-Danish alliance against the Dutch and William of Orange. Prince George’s influence and interest in matters of state remained minimal throughout their marriage—he was easy-going, uninterested in politics, and had a drinking problem. Following her marriage, Anne kept her friend Sarah, now Sarah Churchill, close by making her lady of the bedchamber. They became so close that in personal communication, they dropped all pretense of titles and used pseudonyms when writing to each other: Anne was Mrs. Morley and Sarah was Mrs. Freeman.", "Anne was married (July 28, 1683at the Chapel Royal, St James’s Palace, London) to Prince GEORGE of Denmark (born April 2, 1653 at Copenhagen – Died Oct 28, 1708 at Kensington Palace, London), the son of Frederik III, King of Denmark, by his wife Sophia Amalia of Brunswick-Luneburg, the sister of Ernst Augustus, Elector of Hanover, father of the future King George I, and the daughter of George, Duke of Brunswick-Luneberg, by his wife Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt, the daughter of Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. Despite having suffered nineteen pregnancies Queen Anne left no surviving issue.", "Anne was the second daughter of James, Duke of York, who became James II, and his first wife, Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. Anne and her elder sister Mary received a Protestant upbringing although their father James converted to Catholicism and remarried. In 1683 Anne married Prince George of Denmark (1653�1708). She had between 16 and 18 pregnancies but only one child survived - William, Duke of Gloucester who died aged 11 of smallpox in 1700.", "Anne was born at Skanderborg Castle in Denmark, the daughter of Frederick II of Denmark & Norway, and Sophia of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In August 1589 and still only 14 years old, Anne was married by proxy to the 23 year old James VI of Scotland. From James's point of view Anne was the ideal wife. Young and attractive, she was also a Protestant, which would go down well in post- Reformation Scotland; she was Scandinavian, which would help Scottish trade; and she came with a vast dowry of £150,000. On 1 September 1589 a Danish fleet was dispatched to carry Anne to Scotland. A storm struck which was so violent that the Danish Admiral commanding the fleet said he felt it must have been summoned by witchcraft, and he turned back for shelter in Norway.", "The second daughter of King James II and Anne Hyde was the last Stuart monarch, Queen Anne (1665- 1714). Anne�s religious beliefs remained Protestant even after her father converted to Catholicism in 1672. She married Prince George of Denmark in 1683 and did not resist during the overthrow of James during the anti-Catholic Glorious Revolution of 1688. Thus, she managed to maintain her station during the reign of William and Mary and became queen upon William�s death in 1702. England and Scotland were united in 1707, and She held the throne of Great Britain and Ireland until her death in 1714. She had no children and upon her death George I of the Hanover family of Germany was next in line of succession. Many subjects especially in Scotland and Ireland did not favor this transition to a Protestant German-born monarch.", "Even though they were still young, the marriages of the Stuart girls started to be debated. In 1677, Anne was ill with smallpox and unable to attend the wedding of her sister to Prince William of Orange. Anne’s own marriage came into question soon after, and a suitable Protestant husband was found in Prince George of Denmark, brother to King Christian V of Denmark, whom she wed in 1683. Despite the political nature of their marriage, Anne and George loved each other dearly, and would be devoted to one another. The only “unsuccessful” part of their marriage would be their continued childlessness. Over the many years of their marriage, Anne would be pregnant an estimated 17 times, with none surviving past childhood.", "A marriage was arranged for Princess Anne with Prince George of Denmark (pictured right), a good-looking young man, who was tall and blonde. The marriage took place on 28th July, 1683. Despite his good looks, George was rather dull and stupid, he also had a rather unpleasant fondness for the bottle. Charles II rather unkindly said of George \" I have tried him drunk and I have tried him sober and there is nothing in him.\"", "Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company. A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his monarchy, and the choice fell on fourteen-year-old Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II. Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway. James sailed from Leith on hearing that the crossing had been abandoned, in what Willson calls \"the one romantic episode of his life\", with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally. The couple were married formally at the Bishop's Palace in Oslo on 23 November and returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590, after stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe. By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their marriage, seems always to have showed her patience and affection. The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood: Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid fever in 1612, aged 18; Elizabeth, later queen of Bohemia; and Charles, his successor. Anne died before her husband in March 1619.", "Prince George of Denmark and Norway, Duke of Cumberland (Danish: Jørgen; 2 April 1653 – 28 October 1708), was the husband of Queen Anne, who reigned over Great Britain from 1702.", "Brought up as a strict Lutheran, he was considered a suitable partner for Anne because Denmark was a Protestant country like Britain. George and Anne were married on July 28, 1683, at St. James’s Palace, London.", "Anne, born in 1665, was the second daughter of James II and Anne Hyde. She played no part in her father's reign, but sided with her sister and brother-in-law (Mary II and William III) during the Glorious Revolution. She married George, Prince of Denmark, but the pair failed to produce a surviving heir. She died at 49 years of age, after a lifelong battle with the blood disease porphyria.", "Anne with her husband, Prince George of Denmark, painted by Charles Boit, 1706; Credit – Wikipedia", "George II (George Augustus; German: Georg II. August; 30 October / 9 November 1683O.S./N.S. – 25 October 1760) was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) and Archtreasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 (O.S.) until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain. He was born and brought up in Northern Germany. In 1701, his grandmother, Sophia of Hanover, became second-in-line to the British throne after about fifty Catholics higher in line were excluded by the Act of Settlement, which restricted the succession to Protestants.", "This excluded Catholics from the throne and provided that upon Anne's death the crown would pass to Sophia of Hanover and her heirs (Sophia was a Protestant granddaughter of James I).  Under this provision George I of Hanover became England's king in 1714.", "Anne became a general favourite with the people she met either at The Hague or at the Princess of Orange's country house at Teylingen. She was very attractive and stylish, [8] and attracted many men. One of the first men to fall in love with Anne was Spencer Compton, a son of the Earl of Northampton . [9] However, Anne quickly fell in love with Henry Jermyn , who returned her feelings. Anne dismissed Jermyn just as quickly when she met James, Duke of York , the son of the deposed king. [10] On 24 November 1659, two [11] or three [12] years after she first met him, James promised he would marry Anne. [13] Charles, James' brother, forced him reluctantly into this, saying that her strong character would be a positive influence on his weak-willed brother. [14]", "Anne ( 6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714 ) became Queen of England and Ireland and Queen of Scots on 8 March 1702 . On 1 May 1707 , when England and Scotland combined into a single kingdom , Anne became the first sovereign of the Kingdom of Great Britain . She continued to reign until her death. Anne was the last monarch of the House of Stuart ; she was succeeded by a second-cousin, George I , of the House of Hanover .", "George's second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702. She had no surviving children, and by the Act of Settlement 1701 the English Parliament designated Anne's closest Protestant blood relations, George's grandmother Sophia and her descendants, as Anne's heirs in England and Ireland. Consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. He was naturalized as an English subject in 1705 by the Sophia Naturalization Act, and in 1706 he was made a Knight of the Garter and created Duke and Marquess of Cambridge, Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury in the Peerage of England. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and jointly accepted the succession as laid down by the English Act of Settlement. ", "On 16 January 1764, Augusta married Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, at the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace. The wedding was followed by a state dinner at Leicester House, congratulations from the House of Parliament, a ball given by the Queen and an opera performance at Covent Garden, before departing from Harwich on the 26th. ", "Frederik IX, in full Christian Frederik Franz Michael Carl Valdemar Georg (b. March 11, 1899, Sorgenfri Castle, near Copenhagen - d. Jan. 14, 1972, Copenhagen), king of Denmark (1947-72). The eldest son of the future king Christian X and Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederik became crown prince in 1912 and joined the Danish Navy in 1917. He rose to the rank of commander by 1935 and in 1946 became rear admiral. He married Ingrid (also in 1935), the only daughter of the crown prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden; their children were Margrethe, Benedikte, and Anne-Marie. He gave encouragement to the Danish resistance movement against the German occupation during World War II and, along with his father, Christian X, was imprisoned by the Germans (1943-45). Frederik acted as regent for his father in 1942 and 1947 and succeeded to the throne on his father's death on April 20, 1947. A highly popular monarch, he maintained the ties of affection between the people and the royal house. In June 1953 he signed a new constitution that provided for female succession to the throne and reduced Parliament to one house. In 1964 his daughter Anne-Marie married King Constantine II of Greece, who was exiled in 1967. On his death in January 1972, Frederik was succeeded by his daughter Margrethe.", "After George became king, there a search throughout Europe for a suitable wife for him. On 8 September 1761 the King married Princess Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. A fortnight later, both were crowned at Westminster Abbey. The couple enjoyed a happy marriage and George never took a mistress. They had nine sons and six daughters. Two of their sons became Kings of the United Kingdom; another became King of Hanover; a daughter became Queen of Württemberg.", "This union is very unusual in that it is the first time in British history that someone in direct line to the throne has married someone who was not either a foreign princess or came from a British aristocratic or titled family. Patrick Cracroft" ]

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[ "The assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln took place on Good Friday , [1] April 14, 1865, as the American Civil War was drawing to a close. The assassination occurred five days after the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia , General Robert E. Lee , surrendered to Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant and the Union Army of the Potomac . Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated, [2] though an unsuccessful attempt had been made on Andrew Jackson 30 years before in 1835. The assassination of Lincoln was planned and carried out by the well-known stage actor John Wilkes Booth, as part of a larger conspiracy in a bid to revive the Confederate cause.", "On April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth, a famous actor and Confederate sympathizer, fatally shot President Abraham Lincoln at a play at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C. The attack came only five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his massive army at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, effectively ending the American Civil War.", "Abraham Lincoln, nicknamed Honest Abe, was the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Honest Abe steered his country through the American Civil War and ended slavery within the country’s boundaries. He also had the reputation of being respectful and fair. His tenure in office was occupied primarily with the defeat of the secessionist Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. Lincoln successfully defused the Trent affair, a war scare with Britain late in 1861. Lincoln successfully rallied public opinion through his rhetoric and speeches; his Gettysburg Address (1863) became an iconic symbol of the nation’s duty. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation. Lincoln has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of all U.S. Presidents. The assassination of Abraham Lincoln took place on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, as the American Civil War was drawing to a close. The assassination occurred five days after the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, General Robert E. Lee, surrendered to Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant and the Union Army of the Potomac. Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated, though an unsuccessful attempt had been made on Andrew Jackson thirty years before in 1835.", "An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the 1864 presidential election. Anticipating the war's conclusion, Lincoln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer.", "Abraham Lincoln was the first U.S. president to fall to an assassin, murdered by Confederate supporter John Wilkes Booth at the end of the Civil War in 1865. The next was James A. Garfield in 1881, who died weeks after suffering a gunshot wound from Charles Guiteau, a disgruntled supporter of his own party. President William McKinley was mortally wounded at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901, shot by aspiring revolutionary Leon Czolgosz. The fourth presidential assassination, was that of John F. Kennedy in 1963. Kennedy was shot in the head by former Marine Lee Harvey Oswald, but Oswald himself was murdered before ever confessing or explaining his motive.", "16. Abraham Lincoln: No formal education. On April 12, 1861 Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina setting off the Civil War. Lincoln quickly mobilized the Union by executive order. January 1, 1863 he formally issued the Emancipation Proclamation. On November 19, of that same year he delivered the Gettysburg Address. On April 9, 1865 Generals Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant signed term of Confederate surrender at Appomattox, Virginia. Five days later, on April 14, 1865 Lincoln went to Ford's Theater to watch \"Our American Cousin\" and was shot by actor John Wilkes Booth. He died the next morning at Petersen's Boarding House. Lincoln was the first president to die by assassination. At 6 feet 4 inches he was the tallest president. Lincoln's wife, Mary Todd, had a brother, half-brothers and brothers-in-law who fought in the Confederate Army. Lincoln was the only president to receive a patent, for a device for lifting boats over shoals. He was the first president to wear a beard. His son Robert Todd Lincoln, was in Washington, D.C. when Lincoln was killed, was also on the scene when President Garfield was shot in 1881, and President McKinley was assassinated in 1901. A poll of historians named Lincoln the nation's greatest president. Washington was second.", "Abraham Lincoln (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. In doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy.", "Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth President of the United States, who served the country through some tough times during the Civil War, was assassinated on April 14, 1865. His death has been marked as one the major events of American history and also of the American Civil War. Abraham Lincoln was attending the performance of Our American Cousin at the Ford’s Theater with his wife and two guests and when John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, shot him. Booth, along with Lewis Powell and George Atzerodt, planned to kill the President, the Secretary of State (William H. Seward), and the Vice President (Andrew Johnson) in order to bring about chaos and to overthrow the Federal government. Even though Lincoln was killed in this plot, the rest of the attempts failed, as Seward was only wounded and Atzerodt fled the city (Boardman, 1865).", "The assassination of Abraham Lincoln, one of the last major events in the Civil War, took place on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, when the President was shot while attending a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre with his wife and two guests. Lincoln died early the next morning.", "Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in the village of Appomattox Court House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully folding the Confederacy back into the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his officer's saber and his horse, Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became President.", "The first president to be assassinated was Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865. Believing that he could avenge the loss of the South in the U.S. Civil War, the actor John Wilkes Booth entered the President's box at the Ford Theater in Washington, D.C., where Lincoln had gone with friends and family to see a play. Booth fired a bullet into the back of the President's head and then leaped from the stage shouting, \"sic semper tyrannis!\" and \"The South is avenged!\" Despite fracturing his shinbone, he successfully escaped. Twelve days later, Booth was trapped in a Virginia barn and killed when he refused to surrender. The coconspirators in the murder were hanged.", "On the night of April 14, John Wilkes Booth , a staunchly pro-slavery Confederate sympathizer, slipped into the President’s Box at Ford’s Theater in Washington and fired a single bullet into the back of Abraham Lincoln’s head. Lincoln died the next morning, the first American president to be assassinated. Booth was shot weeks later while trying to escape from a barn in Virginia. All those captured who were believed to be his co-conspirators in the plot were hanged, including Mary Surratt, who owned the boarding house where the plotters met.", "1865: On this Good Friday, at Ford�s Theatre, Washington, actor John Wilkes Booth shot Abraham Lincoln, the US president. Lincoln died the following day. Booth, who injured his leg escaping from the theatre, was later cornered in a barn and shot dead.", "President Abraham Lincoln is shot in the head at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C. The assassin, actor John Wilkes Booth, shouted, “Sic semper tyrannis! (Ever thus to tyrants!) The South is avenged,” as he jumped onto the stage and fled on horseback. Lincoln died the next morning.", "22. He was a volunteer in the militia that hanged abolitionist John Brown in 1859. During the Civil War, he developed several plans to kidnap President Lincoln, none of which were carried. Name the assassin who snuck into the presidential box at Ford's Theater on April 14, 1865., and shot Lincoln.", "President Lincoln is shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth while attending the comedy \"Our American Cousin\" at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C. He dies the next day.", "1865 President Abraham Lincoln dies, at 7:22 am, morning after being shot by John Wilkes Booth", "Former lawyer from Illinois who became president in the election of 1860 and guided the Union through the Civil War. In 1863, after several significant Union victories, Lincoln proposed the Ten-Percent Plan for Reconstruction of the South. He was unable to carry out the plan, however, because he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865, at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C.", "Abraham Lincoln was elected as the sixteenth president. He abolished slavery in the country. In 1865 he was shot and killed by John Wilkes Booth.", "On Friday April 14, 1865, the United States of America was shocked when President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated. The president was at Ford's Theater attending a play called Our American Cousin, and he was assassinated by an actor named John Wilkes Booth. But John Wilkes Booth was no ordinary actor at Ford's Theater. Booth was a highly respected actor who used his charisma, charm, and good looks to forge a very successful career on stages around the country. The assassination of the president was only one part of a conspiracy that Booth concocted to overthrow the entire United States government. Booth had targeted the vice president and several other members of the federal government for assassination by his cohorts on the same night he was to kill the president, but Booth would be the only person who would succeed in eliminating his target.", "On April 14, 1865, while attending a play at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C., Abraham Lincoln was shot by Confederate sympathizer, John Wilkes Booth.  The assassination was part of a larger plot to eliminate the Northern government that also left Secretary of State William Seward grievously injured.  Lincoln died the following day, and with him the hope of reconstructing the nation without bitterness.", "Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865. Lincoln was attending the play \"Our American Cousin\" at the Ford Theater in Washington D.C. Booth shot Lincoln while he was watching the show and then ran away, breaking his leg in the process. Lincoln was rushed to a boarding-house across the street by a doctor who had been attending the play and died in the house nine hours later. During this time Lincoln's Secretary of State (William Henry Seward) was being attacked by Booth's main accomplice, Lewis Paine, who failed to kill him. These two assassins were against Lincoln and his political ideas, which is what motivatedthem to murder of the 16th president of the United States of America. Lincoln represented everything that Booth was against, and Booth blamed him for all the problems in the south. He wanted revenge.", "1865. April 14. As President Lincoln was watching a performance of \"Our American Cousin\" at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor from Maryland obsessed with avenging the Confederate defeat. Lincoln died the next morning. Booth escaped to Virginia. Eleven days later, cornered in a burning barn, Booth was fatally shot by a Union soldier. Nine other people were involved in the assassination; four were hanged, four imprisoned, and one acquitted.", "James Abram Garfield’s speech on that day has a resonance that still has meaning almost a century and a half later. Garfield had been a Major General in the Union Army and had fought in the battles of Shiloh (1862) and Chickamauga (1863). Garfield would go on to become the 20th President of the United States on March 4, 1881, though he would soon be shot , dying 80 days after being hit on 19 September, 1881.", "April 14, 1865 – The Stars and Stripes is ceremoniously raised over Fort Sumter. That night, Lincoln and his wife Mary see the play “Our American Cousin” at Ford’s Theater. At 10:13 p.m., during the third act of the play, John Wilkes Booth shoots the president in the head. Doctors attend to the president in the theater then move him to a house across the street. He never regains consciousness.", "April 14, 1865 - The Stars and Stripes is ceremoniously raised over Fort Sumter. That night, Lincoln and his wife Mary see the play \"Our American Cousin\" at Ford's Theater. At 10:13 p.m., during the third act of the play, John Wilkes Booth shoots the president in the head. Doctors attend to the president in the theater then move him to a house across the street. He never regains consciousness.", "It is one of the great crime stories of all time. On April 14, 1865, in full view of a theatre audience packed to the walls and celebrating the impending end of a brutal war, the President of the United States was assassinated. The murderer was not only seen by all, he was instantly recognizable to most. And he got away.", "On April 14, Lincoln sat in Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., watching a play when a man burst into the presidential box and shot the President in the back of his head. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, leaped from the box to the stage to make his escape, shouting \"Sic semper Tyrannis! (Thus always to Tyrants) The South is avenged!\"", "Three days later, the President was shot by the actor John Wilkes Booth while attending a performance at Ford's Theater in Washington. He died at 7:22 the following morning, April 15, 1865. After lying in state in the Capitol, his body was taken to Springfield, Ill., where he was buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery.", "This president was the last president elected who was a veteran of the Civil War. He was the 25th president and was assassinated. He attended Albany Law School.", "On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated while attending a play at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C. Actor John Wilkes Booth shot him in the back of the head before jumping onto the stage and escaping to Maryland. Lincoln died on April 15th.", "When this moment arrived, he then made his way to the special box where the president was seated. He timed the assassination perfectly. Once he was in position, he drew the 0.44 caliber Derringer that he had brought with him. He fired a single shot which hit the back of the president’s head. At some point after the assassination, he fought Major Henry Rathbone before he was able to escape. Before leaving the scene, he clamored the words ‘sic semper tyrannis’, which mean ‘thus always to tyrants’." ]

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[ "Adolf Hitler (German pronunciation: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ], 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), popularly known as the Nazi Party. He was the ruler of Germany from 1933 to 1945, serving as chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and as head of state (Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945.", "Adolf Hitler (German pronunciation: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian -born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party ( German : Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and served as head of state as Führer und Reichskanzler from 1934 to 1945.", " Adolf Hitler ; (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.", "Monarchs who played a leading role in Austrian and world history include Rudolf I of Habsburg (1218–91), founder of the Habsburg dynasty and Holy Roman emperor from 1273; Maria Theresa (1717–80), who succeeded to the Habsburg dominions by means of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1740; her son Joseph II (1741–90), the \"benevolent despot\" who became Holy Roman emperor in 1765; Franz Josef (1830–1916), emperor of Austria at the outbreak of World War I; and his brother Maximilian (Ferdinand Maximilian Josef, 1832–1867), who became emperor of Mexico in 1864, ruling on behalf of Emperor Napoleon III of France, and was deposed and executed. Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich (1773–1859), Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848, was the architect of the European balance of power established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), born in Braunau, was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death. Leading Austrian statesmen since World War II are Bruno Kreisky (1911–1990), Socialist Party chairman and chancellor of Austria from 1970 to 1983; and Kurt Waldheim (b.1918), Austrian diplomat and foreign minister, who was UN secretary-general from 1971 to 1981 and was elected to the presidency in June 1986.", "Adolf Hitler (1889 – 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, commonly known as the Nazi Party.", "Adolf Hitler, the Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the Nazi Party, hailed from Ranshofen, a small village in the municipality of Braunau am Inn, Austria.  He was born on April 20, 1889, the fourth of six children of a minor customs official, Alois Hitler – and Klara Pölzl.  At age three, Adolf moved with the family to Passau, Germany, but remained there only two years before locating in Leonding, near Linz, Austria.  This early traveling between the two countries helped Adolf later adopt the feeling that he was more German than Austrian.", "The non-German ethnic groups broke away leaving Austria's current boundaries as German Austria, which was proclaimed an independent republic. Persistent global economic crisis and domestic political tensions led to civil strife in February 1934, with the May Constitution of 1934 resulting in an authoritarian corporate state. Just two months later the Austrian Nazis staged the July coup, wanting to annex the country to the German Third Reich, resulting in the assassination of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. While the coup failed, Adolf Hitler succeeded in annexing Austria on 12 March 1938 as Ostmark, until 1945. Austria was partitioned after the Second World War and then in 1955 became the independent sovereign state (Second Republic) that has existed to the present day. In 1995, Austria joined the European Union.", "As Austria's Fuehrer and head of the Fatherland Front, Dollfuss attempted to unite Austrians in opposition to Germany's clear intent to absorb the country. After the failed coup attempt that resulted in the assassination of Dollfuss, his successor, Dr. Kurt Schuschnigg, continued the Austro-fascist government's efforts to fend off the Germans.", "On March 11, 1938 Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg addressed his people. He bade them farewell with ominous words: \"God protect Austria.\" The next day at 5:00 a.m., SS leader Heinrich Himmler landed at the Aspern Airport in Vienna. Next the German army crossed the border into Austria. \"Operation Otto,\" as the military element of the Austrian takeover was known, and the \"reunification of Austria with the German Reich,\" as Hitler formulated it for a law, was in full swing. Hitler headed first to Linz, where he had spent part of his childhood, and then to Vienna, where excited crowds waited.", "Hitler on 8th February, 1938, called Chancellor Schuschnigg to a conference at Berchtesgaden. At the meeting of 12th February, 1938, under threat of invasion, Schuschnigg yielded a promise of amnesty to imprisoned Nazis and appointment of Nazis to ministerial posts. He agreed to remain silent until Hitler’s next speech in which Austria’s independence was to be reaffirmed, but Hitler in that speech, instead of affirming Austrian independence, declared himself protector of all. Germans. Meanwhile, subversive activities of Nazis in Austria increased. Schuschnigg on 9th March, 1938, announced a plebiscite for the following Sunday on the question of Austrian independence. On 11th March Hitler sent an ultimatum, demanding that the plebiscite be called off or Germany would invade Austria. Later the same day a second ultimatum threatened invasion unless Schuschnigg should resign in three hours. Schuschnigg resigned. The defendant Seyss-Inquart, who was appointed Chancellor, immediately invited Hitler to send German troops into Austria to “preserve order.” The invasion began on 12th March, I938 On 13th March, Hitler by proclamation assumed office as Chief of State of Austria and took command of her armed forces. By a law of the same date Austria was annexed to Germany.", " Kurt von Schuschnigg ( Schuschnigg, Kurt von ), who became chancellor on the death of Dollfuss, was a man of gentler personality and of less-violent political passions. His administration of the authoritarian constitution was in the easygoing Austrian fashion, less oppressive than in Italy and Germany. Schuschnigg had a mild preference for restoring the Habsburgs, but he shrank from the international complications this would involve. The regime drifted on without popular favour, weakened by the personal rivalries and ambitions of its leaders and sustained only by a guarantee from Italy. The temporary accord of Great Britain, France, and Italy in the Stresa Front (April 1935) seemed to promise new security, but the Italo-Ethiopian War soon destroyed the unity of the Western powers, and Austria's isolation was complete when Hitler and Italian leader Benito Mussolini ( Mussolini, Benito ) allied themselves in 1936.", "The Austrian president, Wilhelm Miklas, refused to appoint a pro-Nazi chancellor in Schuschnigg’s stead. German foreign minister Hermann Goering then faked a crisis by engineering a “plea” for German assistance from inside the Austrian government (really from a German agent). On March 12, 1938, German troops marched into Austria. Hitler announced his Anschluss, and a plebiscite was finally held on April 10. Whether the plebiscite was rigged or the resulting vote simply a testament to Austrian terror at Hitler’s determination, the Fuhrer garnered a whopping 99.7 percent approval for the union of Germany and Austria.", "Kurt von Schuschnigg succeeded Dollfuss. German pressure on Austria increased; Schuschnigg was forced to legalize the operations of the National Socialists and to appoint members of that party to cabinet posts. Schuschnigg planned a last-minute effort to avoid Anschluss by holding a plebiscite, but Hitler forced him to resign. In Mar., 1938, Austria was occupied by German troops and became part of the Reich. Arthur Seyss-Inquart became the Nazi governor.", "The new Austrian state was, at least on paper, on shakier ground than Hungary. While what was left of Austria had been a single unit for over 700 years, it was united only by loyalty to the Habsburgs. By comparison, Hungary had been a nation and a state for over 900 years. However, after a brief period of upheaval and the Allies' foreclosure of union with Germany, Austria established itself as a federal republic. Despite the temporary Anschluss with Nazi Germany, it still survives today. Adolf Hitler cited that all \"Germans\", such as he and the other Austrians should be united with Germany, as all other Germans should.", "Hitler and Mussolini parade through the streets of Vienna after the successful Anschluss of Austria .", "schnigg repudiated the agreement signed at Berchtesgaden, demanding a plebiscite on the question. Through the machinations of Hitler and his devotees within Austria, the plebiscite was canceled, and Schuschnigg resigned.", "1899–1956, Austrian politician, a descendant of the 17th-century general of the same name. He took part in Hitler's \"beer-hall putsch\" of 1923 (see Hitler, Adolf) but later opposed Hitler and became (1930) leader of the Heimwehr, an", "By 1936 the damage to Austria from the German boycott was too great. That summer Schuschnigg told Mussolini that his country had to come to an agreement with Germany. In July 1936 he signed an agreement with Germany's Franz von Papen, in which Schuschnigg agreed to the release of Nazis imprisoned in Austria and Germany promised to respect Austrian sovereignty. This did not satisfy Hitler and the pro-Germany Austrian Nazis grew in strength.", "After the assisantion of Dollfuss, Kurt von Schuschnigg became Chancellor. His position, however, was impossible. With the developing relationship between Mussolini and Hitler, Austria's primary international support was denined. As a result, he agreed to a gentlemen's agreement with Hitler in July 1936. The Austria NAZIs were legalized and those jailed as a result of the failed putch were released. Press criticism was toned down. Austria was to conduct a foreign policy in concert with the Reich. [Davidson, pp. 158-159.] Hitler in February 1938, invited Schuschnigg to Berchtesgarden. Once there Hitler subjected him to a 2 hour ditribe (February 12), demanded concessions that would have virtually ended Austria's existence as an independent country. Schuschnigg managed to avoid commiting the government, but did sign the document put before him.", "Between January 1871 and the end of World War I in November 1918, the German states were united, but the separate states, such as Bavaria, still had full governmental and administrative autonomy and an independent parliament. The Bavarians even had their own King and Kaiser Wilhelm still retained his position as the King of the state of Prussia, along with his title of German emperor or Kaiser. The Nazis could have given Austria the same status after the Anschluss, but instead, the former independent country of Austria became a province of Germany and disappeared from the map.", "Schuschnigg's position was undermined in 1936 when Hitler and Mussolini formalised the Rome-Berlin Axis during their joint involvement in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). With Germany and Italy now firm allies, Austria had lost the protection of Italy and was vulnerable to German attack.", "Hitler's journey through Austria became a triumphal tour that climaxed in Vienna on 15 March 1938, when around 200,000 cheering German-Austrians gathered around the Heldenplatz (Square of Heroes) to hear Hitler say that \"The oldest eastern province of the German people shall be, from this point on, the newest bastion of the German Reich\" followed by his \"greatest accomplishment\" (completing the annexing of Austria to form a Greater German Reich) by saying \"Als Führer und Kanzler der deutschen Nation und des Reiches melde ich vor der deutschen Geschichte nunmehr den Eintritt meiner Heimat in das Deutsche Reich.\" Translation: \"As leader and chancellor of the German nation and Reich I announce to German history now the entry of my homeland into the German Reich.\" Hitler later commented: \"Certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on Austria with brutal methods. I can only say: even in death they cannot stop lying. I have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people, but when I crossed the former frontier (into Austria) there met me such a stream of love as I have never experienced. Not as tyrants have we come, but as liberators.\" ", "In March 1938, Nazi German troops occupied Austria, renaming it Ostmark and annexing it as part of Germany. This annexation was known as the Anschluss. Adolf Hitler enlisted Austrian soldiers in the German army until the end of World War II in 1945. After the war, Allied forces occupied Austria, which was divided into four zones. Nullifying the Anschluss, on 27 April 1945 they reestablished an independent Republic of Austria under its 1920 constitution as amended in 1929. Not until the State Treaty of October 1955, however, did the four Allied powers—the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union—end their occupation of Austria. Austria's status as a neutral nation was incorporated into the constitution by the Federal Constitutional Law on Neutrality of 26 October 1955.", "In February, 1938, Adolf Hitler invited Kurt von Schuschnigg , the Austrian Chancellor, to meet him at Berchtesgarden. Hitler demanded concessions for the Austrian Nazi Party. Schuschnigg refused and after resigning was replaced by Arthur Seyss-Inquart , the leader of the Austrian Nazi Party. On 13th March, Seyss-Inquart invited the German Army to occupy Austria and proclaimed union with Germany .", "The Second Republic: When Germany collapsed in 1945, Austria experienced, along with other targets of Germany's aggressive expansionism, a sense of liberation. After U.S., Soviet, and British troops had entered Austria by March 1945, a Provisional Government was proclaimed under Karl Renner on April 27. Following a long series of negotiations with the occupying powers, Austria finally regained sovereignty through the Austrian State Treaty, signed by all parties on May 15, 1955. On October 26, 1955, the Austrian parliament affirmed the country's permanent neutrality. Austria's reintegration into the community of nations was acknowledged formally on December 15, 1955, when it was admitted into the United Nations.", "Shortly before Hitler was eligible for parole, the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria. The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void. In response, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925.", "The independent Republic of Austria had been established after World War I as a democratic country, but it was far from a democracy. No democratic elections had been held in Austria since 1930, according to Klaus P. Fischer, author of the book \"Nazi Germany.\" The Nazi political party had been banned in Austria and members of the party had been imprisoned. Under the terms of the treaty of July 1936, Schuschnigg had agreed to release the Nazi political prisoners and to lift the ban on the Nazi political party in what was supposed to be the democratic Republic of Austria, but this didn't happen.", "The Austrian emperor, under extreme pressure, agreed to give the Hungarians autonomy, and became a dual monarch – that is, he ruled Hungary as the Hungarian king, and Austria as the Austrian emperor, with separate administrations, legislatures, and ministers. Hungarians, in a move they felt was magnanimous, offered civil rights to non-Hungarian people under their jurisdiction, but announced they would not support independence. This proved to be a powder keg, triggering Croats and South Slavs to violent action against the Magyar administration. The Austrian emperor named the Croat leader Joseph Jellachich an Austrian general, and he was sent to Vienna after defeating the Magyars, where he was able to defeat the liberals putting pressure on the emperor.", "      Austria was completely absorbed into Germany. Any official memory of Austrian existence was destroyed and suppressed. Austria was renamed Ostmark (Eastern March); Upper and Lower Austria became Upper and Lower Danube. Immediately after the invasion, the Nazis arrested many leaders of the anti-Nazi Austrian political parties and a great number of political opponents, particularly communists and socialists. Many Austrians, especially those of Jewish origin, were forced into exile.", "This left the responsibility for the end of the war, on 3 November 1918, solely to the Emperor and his government. On 11 November the emperor, advised by ministers of the old and the new government, declared he would not take part in state business any more; on 12 November German Austria, by law, declared itself to be a democratic republic and part of the new German republic. The constitution, renaming the Staatsrat as Bundesregierung (federal government) and Nationalversammlung as Nationalrat (national council) was passed on 10 November 1920.", "Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955 ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year declared the country's \"perpetual neutrality\" as a condition for Soviet military withdrawal. This neutrality, once ingrained as part of the Austrian cultural identity, has been called into question since the Soviet collapse of 1991 and Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995. A prosperous country, Austria entered the European Monetary Union in 1999.", "On 21 October 1918, the elected German members of the Reichsrat (parliament of Imperial Austria) met in Vienna as the Provisional National Assembly for German Austria (Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich). On 30 October the assembly founded the State of German Austria by appointing a government, called Staatsrat. This new government was invited by the Emperor to take part in the decision on the planned armistice with Italy, but refrained from this business." ]

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[ "Who was the black educationist who was born a slave but became a leader in the search for civil rights in the early 1900s?", "Harriet Tubman (1820?–1913) was a runaway slave who became a leader in the abolitionist movement. A nurse and spy for the Union Army during the Civil War, she earned distinction as the chief \"conductor\" of the Underground Railroad, leading an estimated 300 slaves to freedom in the North. Attorney, writer, activist, educator, and foreign consul James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938) was an early leader of the NAACP and a strong believer in the need for black unity as the legal fight for civil rights evolved. He composed the black anthem \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" in 1900. Labor and civil rights leader A. Philip Randolph (1889–1979) fought for greater economic opportunity in the black community. A presidential consultant in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s and a key organizer of the 1963 March on Washington, Randolph is probably best remembered for his role in establishing the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first black union in the country, in 1925.", "Douglass was born a slave on Maryland's Eastern Shore and was given the name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. At an early age, he learned to read and write, and escaped to freedom in the North, changing his name to Douglass to avoid recapture. Eventually he settled in Rochester, New York, and was active in the abolitionist cause. He was a leader of Rochester's Underground Railroad movement and became the editor and publisher of the North Star, an abolitionist newspaper. After the Civil War, Douglass came to Washington, DC, and served as the marshall of the District of Columbia and was appointed recorder of deeds for the city. In 1889, President Harrison appointed him minister-resident and consul general of the Republic of Haiti and charge d'affaires for the Dominican Republic. During all of this activity, Douglass remained an outspoken advocate for the rights of African Americans. This National Historic Site helps us to better understand the life of the man who is recognized as \"the father of the civil rights movement.\"", "Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Julius Rosenwald, guided by Booker T. Washington, established a fund for African-American education in the early 1900s. It was first used in Tennessee by ex-slave Samuel L. Smith to build a school and church here in Union County. more »", "After the Civil War , newly freed slaves faced the struggle of integrating into white America. A century-long fight for equal rights began in the postbellum decades with black leaders such as Booker T. Washington, who worked as an educator, speaker, and writer for the gradual improvement of African American life.", "*For a time, Booker T. Washington, the writer, educator, and early civil rights leader, lived in Malden, just upriver from Charleston", "Eventually, close to 69,000 teachers, most of them unpaid volunteers and many with little formal education, taught Citizenship Schools throughout the South. Many of the Civil Rights Movement's adult leaders such as Fannie Lou Hamer and Victoria Gray, and hundreds of other local leaders in black communities across the South attended and taught citizenship schools. ", "The life of Booker T. Washington, the most influential Black educational and political leader of the late 19th and early 20th Century. Talks about his stewardship of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. 30 min. Video/C 565", "19th and early 20th centuries was an important time in American history. Within the civil rights movement three of the most prominent African American men... were prompted to attempt to solve the problem of racial inequality. Booker T. Washington, Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. DuBois, all approached the problem of racial inequality differently. Although each one approached the fight for civil rights differently they each had a great and lasting impact on the progression of racial equality. Booker T. Washington...", "No account of black history in America is complete without an examination of the rivalry between Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois , which in the late 19th to early 20th centuries changed the course of the quest for equality in American society, and in the process helped give birth to the modern Civil Rights Movement. Though Washington and Du Bois were both born in the same era, both highly accomplished scholars and both committed to the cause of civil rights for blacks in America, it was their differences in background and method that would have the greatest impact on the future.  ", "1875-1955 - Mary McLeod Bethune - Educator & civil rights leader. Started what became Bethune-Cookman Univ. Advised FDR.", "In 1856, Washington was born into slavery in Virginia as the son of Jane, an African-American slave. After emancipation, she moved the family to West Virginia to join her husband Washington Ferguson. As a young man, Washington worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (now Hampton University) and attended college at Wayland Seminary (now Virginia Union University). In 1881, he was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.", "Martin Luther King, Jr. was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War.  King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee.", "Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist and prominent leader in the African-American civil rights movement. His main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States, and he has become a human rights icon: King is recognized as a martyr by two Christian churches. A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his \"I Have a Dream\" speech. There, he raised public consciousness of the civil rights movement and established himself as one of the greatest orators in U.S. history.", "Martin Luther King Jr. was an African American clergyman, activist and prominent leader in the American civil rights movement. He is an icon in the history of human rights.", "Mary Mcleod Bethune : Champion For Education .  [United States] : TMW Media Group, 2009.  1 DVD videodisc (ca. 30 min.) : sd., col. ; 4 3/4 in.  E185.97.B34 M379 2009 VideoDVD  : American history is filled with notable African American women. This documentary celebrates the life of Mary McLeod Bethune, a crusading 20th-century educator. Through interviews with friends, family, colleagues and scholars, the program follows her journey from humble beginnings to a position of prominence in American education.  Part of the Black American Experience series.", "Civil rights leader and labor activist A. Philip Randolph (1889–1979) recalls the appeal after World War I of the “Back to Africa” movement of Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey (1887–1940). The excerpt was included in NBC’s The American Revolution of ‘63, broadcast September 2, 1963.", "He was born Michael King, but his father changed his name in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther. A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia (the Albany Movement), in 1962, and organized nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention following television news coverage of the brutal police response. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous \"I Have a Dream\" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.", "1900-w-e-b-du-bois-nations-world \"(1900) W. E. B. Du Bois, 'To the Nations of the World'\"], BlackPast.org to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism, to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self-government and to demand political and other rights for African Americans.[http://global-panafricanmovement.net/congresses.html \"The First Pan African Conference of 1900\".] Global Pan African Movement. By this time, southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to disfranchise most African Americans, an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s.", "By the time the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating on public buses unconstitutional in November 1956, King, heavily influenced by Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) and the activist Bayard Rustin (1912-1987), had entered the national spotlight as an inspirational proponent of organized, nonviolent resistance. (He had also become a target for white supremacists, who firebombed his family home that January.) Emboldened by the boycott’s success, in 1957 he and other civil rights activists–most of them fellow ministers–founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), a group committed to achieving full equality for African Americans through nonviolence. (Its motto was “Not one hair of one head of one person should be harmed.”) He would remain at the helm of this influential organization until his death.", "The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission was “to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination”. W.E.B. DuBois played a key role in the founding of the organization.", "Consequently, many black and white religious organizations, former Union Army officers and soldiers, and wealthy philanthropists were inspired to create and fund educational efforts specifically for the betterment of African Americans; some African Americans had started their own schools before the end of the war. Northerners helped create numerous normal schools, such as those that became Hampton University and Tuskegee University, to generate teachers, as well as other colleges for former slaves. Blacks held teaching as a high calling, with education the first priority for children and adults. Many of the most talented went into the field. Some of the schools took years to reach a high standard, but they managed to get thousands of teachers started. As W. E. B. Du Bois noted, the black colleges were not perfect, but \"in a single generation they put thirty thousand black teachers in the South\" and \"wiped out the illiteracy of the majority of black people in the land.\" ", "Virginia in 1856 and had been educated at Hampton Institute, a freedmen's school, was the founder and principal of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. By the time Du Bois began to challenge him in Souls and other writings, Washington had established himself as an educational statesman, the primary spokesman of black America, and the leader of a large network of disciples-the 'Tuskegee Machine\"-who edited newspapers, owned businesses, and directed schools modeled on Tuskegee.", "an African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the dominant leader in the African-American community.", "U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Nobel Peace Prize (1964)", "African-American civil rights and human rights activist. She worked behind-the-scenes with the NAACP with people like W.E.B. Dubois and Martin Luther King Jr.", "The charismatic civil rights leader joined the crusade for equal rights for black people in America in the mid 1950s.", "Founded by W. E. B. Du Bois in 1905 to promote the education of African Americans in the liberal arts so that the African-American community would have well-educated leaders", "Supp 2. Which African-American civil and human rights activist, who was born on December 13th 1903, and died on December 13th 1986, is considered \"one of the most important African-American leaders of the 20th Century and perhaps the most influential woman in the Civil Rights Movement\"?", "On this day in 1875, Mary McLeod Bethune, one of the most influential African American women ever, was born in South Carolina.  As a dedicated teacher, Bethune taught in schools across the South in Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina.  In 1904 she formed the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro girls.  She remained president of the Institute for 40 years.   In 1935, she formed the National Council of Negro Women to work against segregation, inequality, and political disenfranchisement.  In 1936, she serve as director of the Division of Negro Affairs within the Depression-era National Youth Administration, becoming the first African American woman to head a federal agency.  In 1940 she served as vice president of the NAACP.  Bethune died May 18, 1955.", "When Lisa discovers that her Southern ancestors helped a slave escape to freedom, she presents the story during Black History Month.", "After the war, northern missionaries founded numerous private academies and colleges across the South for freedmen. In addition, every state founded state colleges for freedmen, such as Alcorn State University in Mississippi. The normal schools and state colleges produced generations of teachers who were integral to the education of African-American children under the segregated system. By the end of the century, the majority of African Americans were literate." ]

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[ "Maximilien Fran�ois Marie Isidore de Robespierre (May 6, 1758�July 28, 1794) is one of the best-known leaders of the French Revolution. His supporters knew him as \"The Incorruptible\" because of his austere moral devotion to revolutionary political change. He was an influential member of the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror that ended with his arrest and execution in 1794. He studied at College of Louis-Le-grand in Paris and became a lawyer. Politically, Robespierre was a disciple of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, among other Enlightenment philosophes, and a capable articulator of the beliefs of the left-wing bourgeoisie. He was described as physically unimposing and immaculate in dress and personal manners....", "Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre, known to his contemporaries also as \"the Incorruptible\", is one of the best known of the leaders of the French Revolution. He earned the nickname of \"the Incorruptible\" through his selfless devotion to the Revolution. He was an influential member of the Committee of Public Safety, which oversaw the period of the French Revolution in which the revolutionaries consolidated their power; a period which is commonly known as the Reign of Terror. The myth that Robespierre himself became a virtual dictator in his final years is often repeated. While the Committee of Public Safety was certainly a dictatorial committee, Robespierre was not in his own right a dictator. In the Thermidor of Revolutionary calendar's Year Two, he was executed by spiteful colleagues.", "On April 5, 1793, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety which would hold de facto executive power in France. On June 10, 1793, after the Girondins had been arrested, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety, establishing a revolutionary dictatorship. On July 27, 1793, the Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre, who was known as \"the Incorruptible\" for his ascetic dedication to his ideals, became member of the Committee as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution’s domestic and foreign enemies.", "Robespierre (1758-1794) - One of the best known leaders of the French Revolutions; known as \"the Incorruptible\"; leader of the Committee of Public Safety.", "Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, was removed from the committee. On 27 July Maximilien Robespierre, known in Republican circles as \"the Incorruptible\" for his ascetic dedication to his ideals, made his entrance, quickly becoming the most influential member of the committee as it moved to take radical measures against the revolution's domestic and foreign enemies.", "Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the King, was removed from the Committee. On 27 July Maximilien Robespierre, known in Republican circles as \"the Incorruptible\" for his ascetic dedication to his ideals, made his entrance, quickly becoming the most influential member of the Committee as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution's domestic and foreign enemies.", "     Although largely ineffectual in the legislative work of the Revolutionary government, Robespierre gradually became a significant force in the Revolution. He had quietly discovered his voice and issues before he came to Paris. By the spring of 1791, he was one of the best known and respected politicians in France. He had been dubbed \"The Incorruptible\" by his colleagues, and had become the popular representative for many of the people. (5)", "Pétion de Villeneuve, Jérôme, born at Chartres; figured in the French Revolution as a zealous republican, member of the Tiers État, one of the commission to reconduct the royal family from Varennes; was mayor of Paris in the year of the September massacres, 1792; was first President of the Convention, and, though his influence was declining, member of the first Committee of Defence, 1793; his attack on Robespierre proving unsuccessful he committed suicide; his body was afterwards found on the Landes of Bordeaux half devoured by wolves; was surnamed the “Virtuous,” as Robespierre the “Incorruptible”; was of the Girondist party; had “unalterable beliefs, not hindmost of them,” says Carlyle, “belief in himself” (1783-1793).", "1791 - The National Constituent Assembly in Paris is dissolved; Parisians hail Maximilien Robespierre and J�r�me P�tion as incorruptible patriots.", "1789 Revolution, radical \"Jacobin club\" led by Robespierre came to power in 1793 and began the Reign of Terror, Nicknamed \"The Incorruptible\", Robespierre was arrested, tried and guillotined in July 1794. George Danton recommends execution of king, himself executed by Robespierre (fell in 1794), Marat journalist stabbed by Cordet a woman", "No French revolutionary has attracted more biographies than Robespierre. Most have been either passionately for or passionately against him. He has that effect on people. His earnest sincerity commands respect; his conviction appals us. Indeed, it is the very integrity of his principles that makes his adoption of violent tactics so horrifying: a fact recognized by his two greatest English biographers, J.M. Thompson and Norman Hampson.", "Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe.", "Napoleon Bonaparte ( August 15 , 1769 – May 5 , 1821 ) was a general during the French Revolution , the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic, and Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français). He was also King of Italy , Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.", "Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814) was a French aristocrat , revolutionary and writer famous for his libertine sexuality and lifestyle. His works include novels, short stories, plays, and political tracts; in his lifetime some were published under his own name, while others appeared anonymously and Sade denied being their author. He is best known for his clandestine novels , depicting bizarre sexual fantasies with an emphasis on violence , crime , and blasphemy against the Catholic Church. He was a proponent of extreme freedom , unrestrained by morality , religion or law . Sade was incarcerated in various prisons and insane asylums for 29 years and a half (out of a total of 74, see Sade in prison ) of his life; much of his writing was done during his imprisonment . Depending on one's point of view, his writing is either philosophical laced with erotica, or just pornography. The term \" sadism \" is derived from his name and the French literary prize Prix Sade has been installed in his honour.", "Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814), commonly known as the Marquis de Sade, was a French aristocrat, revolutionary politician, philosopher and author famous for his libertine sexuality.", "Due to the damage done to his estate in Lacoste, which was sacked in 1789 by an angry mob, he moved to Paris. In 1790, he was elected to the National Convention , where he represented the far left . He was a member of the Piques section , notorious for its radical views. He wrote several political pamphlets, in which he called for the implementation of direct vote . However, there is much to suggest that he suffered abuse from his fellow revolutionaries due to his aristocratic background. Matters were not helped by his son's May 1792 desertion from the military, where he had been serving as a second lieutenant and the aide-de-camp to an important colonel, the Marquis de Toulengeon . De Sade was forced to disavow his son's desertion in order to save his neck. Later that year, his name was added – whether by error or willful malice – to the list of émigrés of the Bouches-du-Rhône department . [12]", "Maximilien Robespierre, the architect of the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror, is overthrown and arrested by the National Convention. As the leading member of the Committee of Public Safety from 1793, Robespierre encouraged the execution, mostly by guillotine, of more than 17,000 enemies of the Revolution. The day after his arrest, Robespierre and 21 of his followers were guillotined before a cheering mob in the Place de la Revolution in Paris.", "Baboeuf, François Noel, a violent revolutionary in France, self-styled Gracchus; headed an insurrection against the Directory, “which died in the birth, stifled by the soldiery”; convicted of conspiracy, was guillotined, after attempting to commit suicide (1764-1797).", "Robespierre, Maximilien François Marie Isidore de (1758–94) French revolutionary leader. Elected to the National Assembly in 1789, he advocated democracy and liberal reform. In 1791, he became leader of the Jacobins , and gained credit when his opposition to war with Austria was justified by French defeats. With the King and the Girondins discredited, Robespierre led the republican revolution of 1792, and was elected to the National Convention. His election to the Committee of Public Safety (June 1793) heralded the Reign of Terror , in which hundreds died on the guillotine. Ruthless methods seemed less urgent after French victories in war, and Robespierre was arrested in the coup of 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) and executed.", "15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe.", "French general and politician , noted for his courage during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Died of an aneurism of the heart in Paris on November 28, 1825, age 50.", "     Robespierre continued to intensify the Terror. He established the guillotine as a permanent feature of the Revolution and ordered mass executions in order to cleanse France of all threats to his power.", "Robespierre was a visionary who wasinfluenced by circumstance though he cannot be considered a victim ofcircumstance. He was caught up in the revolutionary quagmire of doctrine yet hecould have chosen a less divisive, less centralised form of rule, which, ironically,was one of the chief damnations levelled at Louis XVI's reign.", "During the French Revolution he wrote the book: \"De� Diritti dell�Uomo�,  ï¿½The Human Rights�, which made him famous all over the world (cfr. Robert Bergin: \"This Apocalypic Age\". Manchester 1970).", "(1643-1715)-Also known as the \"Sun King\"; the ruler of France who established the supremacy of absolutism in 17th-century Europe.", "Italian guerrilla leader. He helped galvanise resistance to the French occupation of Naples during the French Revolutionary Wars. His fighting skill and appearance led to him being given the nickname ‘Brother Devil’ by peasants who thought he was supernatural.", "Italian guerrilla. He led resistance to the French occupation of Naples during the French Revolutionary Wars. His intense fighting habit and wild appearance led to him being dubbed by peasants as ‘Brother Devil’, with many considering him supernatural.", "Head of the Committee of Public Safety during the French Revolution. To purge french society of \"Counter Revolutionaries\", he instituted the heavily repressive Reign of Terror, a period which killed thousands of french citizens, many of those killed were simply killed under mere suspicion, with little or no proof. Desposed when the National Convention declared him an outlaw.", "His infamy made international legend. In France, for example, he was \"The One Who Is Scarred.\" He was the symbol of the ultimate in American lawlessness.", "What writer, an icon of the Enlightenment, was imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and 1726?", "French soldier and author. He spent nearly all his life in the army, but saw no active service until he was 60, and ended his career as a general. Also a writer, his one masterpiece was ‘Dangerous Acquaintances’, published in 1780, which caused an immediate sensation through its analysis of personal and sexual relationships.", "Most renown general in France, Used Military power to become dictator, Extended French Empire across most of Europe, eventually exiled " ]

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[ "Florence Nightingale was born in Florence, Italy on May 12, 1820. During the Crimean War, she and a team of nurses improved the unsanitary conditions at a British base hospital, reducing the death count by two-thirds. Her writings sparked worldwide health care reform. In 1860 she established St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Nightingale Training School for Nurses. She died August 13, 1910, in London.", "The war in Crimea engrossed Victoria's attention; she rewarded Florence Nightingale for her service in helping protect and heal soldiers. Victoria's concern for the wounded and sick led to her founding Royal Victoria Hospital.  As a result of the war, Victoria grew closer to the French emperor Napoleon III and his empress Eugénie. ", "A year later, with England's entry into the Crimean War in 1854, Nightingale embarked on her famous journey to the Barrack Hospital in Scutari, Turkey (now known as Uskudar, a district of the city of Istanbul). Nightingale returned home to England in 1856 to a hero's welcome, and then went on to establish the first modern school of nursing at St. Thomas' Hospital in London in 1860.", "During 1854 Britain entered into the Crimean War, and an old Turkish barracks became the British Army Hospital in Scutari. Injured men contracted a variety of illnesses—including cholera, dysentery, typhoid and malaria—due to poor conditions there, and Florence Nightingale sent a plea to The Times for the government to produce a solution.", "Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) worked as a nurse at the Institute of Protestant Deaconesses in Kaisersworth, Germany. In 1852, she was appointed Superintendent of the Institution for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in Distressed Circumstances in London. In 1854, when Britain was fighting the Crimean War, Sir Sidney Herbert, Secretary of War, obtained approval to appoint Miss Nightingale the Superintendent of the Female Nursing Establishment in Turkey. Later that year, she was the leader of a group of 38 nurses who left London for the Barracks Hospital in Scutari. The nurses improved the meals provided to the injured and cared for the approximately 12,000 casualties in the hospital.", "Florence Nightingale was a nurse who became famous for her work during the Crimean War (1853 - 1856) caring for the wounded soldiers in a British hospital in Scutari, and for changing hospital management and the nursing profession forever. She was born May 12th, 1820 in Florence, Italy, to William Edward Nightingale and Frances Nightingale, wealthy British heirs. In 1821 the family moved back to England and Florence was raised in Hampshire and Derbyshire in the family homes. By the time she was 16, Florence had already determined that her calling was to be a nurse, despite the low wages and lack of respect for the profession. Florence went on to become the most famous nurse in history, changing the way hospitals were run and changing the attitude towards the nursing profession.", "The Crimean War of 1853 catapulted Nightingale and her methods to fame. During the war a scandal broke out about the lack of sufficient medical attention and the unsanitary and inhumane conditions to which injured soldiers were being subjected. The poor reputation earned by previous female nurses was the main cause of the lack of adequate staff.  In an effort to better the treatment of the injured soldiers, Secretary of War Sidney Herbert asked Nightingale to organize a corps of nurses to tend to and assist the sick and injured. On arrival in Scutari, the British base hospital in Constantinople, Nightingale found patients lying on their own excrement, rodents and other pests scurrying among them, and a complete lack of sanitary conditions, which made infectious diseases the number one killer of soldiers rather than battle wounds.", "In 1854 she left for the Crimea with 38 nurses and sisters. Her major achievement in the Crimea was to organise the barracks hospital at Scutari, introducing proper discipline among the nurses and better sanitation. She became known as 'the lady of the lamp'.", "On March 30, 1856, the Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean War. Nightingale remained in Scutari until the hospitals were ready to close, returning to her home in Derbyshire on August 7, 1856, as a reluctant heroine.", "By her unceasing care of the wounded and sick in the English camps at Crimea, Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) became known as the ‘Lady of the Lamp’. Back in England, she published her reform measures in Notes on Hospitals (1859) and Notes on Nursing (1859), and in 1860 established a school for nurses at St Thomas’s Hospital in London. With her friend Elizabeth Gaskell, Nightingale endeavoured to improve the social and economic situation of those less fortunate in Britain. She knew Dickens, and distributed his books to nurses and soldiers. She also worked with him on the Committee of the Association for Improving Workhouse Infirmaries.", "Florence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the Crimean War, which became her focus when reports came back to Britain about the terrible conditions for the wounded. On 21 October 1854, she and a staff of 38 women volunteer nurses, trained by Nightingale and including her aunt Mai Smith, were sent to the Ottoman Empire, across the Black Sea from Balaklava in the Crimea, where the main British camp was based.", "March of 1854 brought the start of the Crimean War, with Britain, France and Turkey declaring war on Russia. Although the Russians were defeated at the battle of the Alma River, on 20 September 1854, The Times newspaper criticised the British medical facilities. In response to this Nightingale was asked in a letter from her friend Sidney Herbert, the British Secretary for War, to become a nursing administrator to oversee the introduction of nurses to military hospitals. Her official title was Superintendent of the Female Nursing Establishment of the English General Hospitals in Turkey. Nightingale arrived in Scutari, an Asian suburb of Constantinople, (now Istanbul), with 38 nurses on 4 November 1854 [ 2 ]:-", "When the Crimean War began, reports came back to England about terrible conditions for wounded and sick soldiers. Florence Nightingale volunteered to go to Turkey, and at the urging of a family friend, then secretary of state at war, she took a large group of women as nurses. Thirty-eight women, including 18 Anglican and Roman Catholic sisters, accompanied Florence Nightingale to the warfront.", "Florence Nightingale [[at hospital door as wounded soldiers arrive] by Arthur George Walker, R.A. 1861-1936. Bronze. Part of the Crimean War Memorial located at the junction of Lower Regent Street and Pall Mall, London.", "The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways, and telegraphs. The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and photographs. As the legend of the \"Charge of the Light Brigade\" demonstrates, the war quickly became an iconic symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. The reaction in the British Isles was a demand for professionalization, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while treating the wounded.", "October 16, 1853 - The Crimean War began after the Turkish Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia, Britain, France and portions of Italy allied with the Turks against Russia. It became the first war observed up close by newspaper reporters and photographers. One of the battles was immortalized in Tennyson's poem , The Charge of the Light Brigade. Amid poor sanitary conditions, disease killed many wounded French and British troops. British nurse Florence Nightingale then pioneered modern-style sanitation methods, saving many lives.", "The Crimean War is notorious for logistical, medical and tactical failure on both sides. The naval side saw both a successful Allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, and a successful blockade by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. It was one of the first \"modern\" wars because it saw the first use of major technologies, such as railways and telegraphs. [13] It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole , who pioneered contrasting nursing practices while caring for wounded British soldiers.", "Florence Nightingale heard about the poor medical conditions in the Crimea region, and went there as a civilian to help. She became a big news story. The Crimean War was arguably the first media-driven war.", "Florence Nightingale went to the Crimean War to nurse wounded soldiers. She and her nurses saved many lives.", "1907 British nurse Florence Nightingale, aged 87, was presented with the Order of Merit by Edward VII for her work tending the wounded during the Crimean War.", "Many thousands of troops from all the countries involved were drafted to the area, and disease broke out almost immediately. Hundreds perished, mostly from cholera. Hundreds more would die waiting to be shipped out, or on the voyage. Their prospects were little better when they arrived at the poorly staffed, unsanitary and overcrowded hospitals which were the only medical provision for the wounded. In Britain, a trenchant letter in The Times on 14 October triggered Sidney Herbert, Secretary of State for War, to approach Florence Nightingale to form a detachment of nurses to be sent to the hospital to save lives. Interviews were quickly held, suitable candidates selected, and Nightingale left for Turkey on 21 October. ", "LONDON, Aug. 14.--Florence Nightingale, the famous nurse of the Crimean war, and the only woman who ever received the Order of Merit, died yesterday afternoon at her London home. Although she had been an invalid for a long time, rarely leaving her room, where she passed the time in a half-recumbent position, and was under the constant care of a physician, her death was somewhat unexpected. A week ago she was quite sick, but then improved, and on Friday was cheerful. During that night alarming symptoms developed, and she gradually sank until 2 o'clock Saturday afternoon, when the end came.", "1854 - Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses were sent to the Crimean War.", "Nightingale came to prominence during the 1850s’ Crimean War for her pioneering work in nursing, and was dubbed “The Lady with the Lamp” after her habit of making rounds at night to tend injured soldiers.", "Nightingale came to prominence during the 1850s' Crimean War for her pioneering work in nursing, and was dubbed \"The Lady with the Lamp\" after her habit of making rounds at night to tend injured soldiers.", "After the Crimean War , Nightingale returned to Britain. While she was now considered a national hero, she rejected the accolades and preferred to work behind the scenes.", "Today the names of Alma, Balaklava, Inkerman, Raglan, Cardigan and Palmerston continue to inhabit our collective memory, mainly through street and pub signs. Like David Cameron, we still name our daughters after Florence Nightingale, the nurse who made her name in the Crimea and became an icon of middle-class Victorian values. But few of us could say what the Crimean War was all about – why it began with a religious dispute in the Holy Lands, or why France and Britain got involved in a conflict that developed in the Balkans between Turkey and Russia?", "Florence Nightingale | Fl orence's Calling | Crimean War | Red Cross | Hospital Improvements | Nightingale Training School | Nursing Becomes a Respectable Profession | Honoring Florence", "In October of 1853, the Crimean War broke out. The British Empire was at war against the Russian Empire for control of the Ottoman Empire. Thousands of British soldiers were sent to the Black Sea, where supplies quickly dwindled. By 1854, no fewer than 18,000 soldiers had been admitted into military hospitals.", "On 28 March 1854 Britain and France declared war on Russia, and for the next two years British, French, Sardinian, and Turkish troops fought against Russians in the Crimean War. The loss of life in the war was colossal; of 1 650 000 soldiers who began the war (of all nations), 900 000 died. The majority of those who perished did not die from wounds; rather they died from diseases brought about by the terrible living conditions which they suffered. In these notes we review the Crimean War, and the role Florence Nightingale had in highlighting the plight of the soldiers.", "[Florence Nightingale, nursing, Crimean War, hospitals, health care, medicine, statistics, graphs, graphical displays of information, mortality, disease]", "Mary Seacole was in Panama in 1854 when she learnt of the escalating Crimean War which had broken out in October 1853 between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the United Kingdom, France, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. She decided to volunteer as a war nurse and travelled to England where she approached the War Office, asking to be sent as an army nurse to the Crimea. Her offer, however, was rejected in spite of her ample experiences." ]

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[ "The Battle of Culloden was a defeat in 1746 of the Jacobite rebel army of the British prince Charles Edward Stuart (the 'Young Pretender') by the Duke of Cumberland on a stretch of moorland in Inverness‑shire, Scotland. This battle effectively ended the military challenge of the Jacobite rebellion.", "The Battle of Culloden, which ended the Jacobite rebellion against the English, has a legendary importance for anyone with Scottish ancestry.", "The Battle of Culloden (Scottish Gaelic language: Blàr Chùil LodairScript error) was the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite Rising . On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. The Hanoverian victory at Culloden decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil. [1]", "The Battle of Culloden was a defeat in 1746 of the Jacobite rebel army of the British prince Charles Edward Stuart (the 'Young Pretender') by the Duke of Cumberland on a stretch of moorland in Inverness-shire, Scotland.", "In Inverness we boarded our bus to visit Culloden Battlefield, where the Jacobite Rebellion was crushed on April 16, 1746. This was the last battle to be fought on British soil.", "The Battle of Culloden was the final confrontation of the Jacobite rising of 1745 and part of a religious civil war in Britain. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. Queen Anne had died in 1714 without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, she was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, a daughter of James VI and I. The Hanoverian victory at Culloden halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never again mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.", "Most history books record the crushing of Bonnie Prince Charlie’s Jacobite rebellion at Culloden in 1746 as the last pitched battle fought on British soil.", "1746 – This Rebellion ends when Bonnie Prince Charlie is defeated by Goverment troops at the Battle of Culloden.", "An Incident in the Rebellion of 1745, by David Morier , often known as \"The Battle of Culloden\", is the best-known portrayal of the battle, and the best-known of Morier's works. It depicts the attack of the Highlanders against Barrell's Regiment, and is based on sketches made by Morier in the immediate aftermath of the battle.", "Historical Background: The decisive battle of the 1745 Jacobite Rising took place at Culloden in April, 1746. The British army had been strengthened by reinforcements form the continent, and well trained by the Duke of Cumberland. They were well prepared to fight the Jacobite forces of Prince Charles. The Jacobites were outnumbered, low on supplies, and poorly led in the battle. They were subjected to a deadly artillery barrage, and outflanked by the British. The battle was a disaster for the Jacobites, and ended the rising. Charles escaped safely to France, his supporters in Scotland were not so fortunate. They were brutally suppressed - banished, executed, or imprisoned - by the victorious Duke of Cumberland.", "* An Incident in the Rebellion of 1745, by David Morier, often known as \"The Battle of Culloden\", is the best-known portrayal of the battle, and the best-known of Morier's works. It depicts the attack of the Highlanders against Barrell's Regiment, and is based on sketches made by Morier in the immediate aftermath of the battle.", "At the Battle of Culloden, a well-supplied Hanovarian Government army led by the Duke of Cumberland, son of King George II, would face the forces of Charles Edward Stewart, The Young Pretender , in the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite Rising.", "1746 � Battle of Culloden. This was the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite movement. On April 16, 1746, the Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stewart fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, at Culloden east of Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. The loyalist victory decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stewart to the British throne. Charles Stewart never mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.", "Although the disastrous loss at the Battle of the Boyne had destroyed James II's hopes of regaining the English throne, the Jacobite cause endured. The center of Jacobite activity shifted to Scotland , where uprisings were crushed in 1708, 1715, 1719, and finally, in 1745, at the Battle of Culloden, which also marked the end of the Highland Clan system. The Jacobites then declined as a political force, although Jacobite sentiment continued to be prominent in cultural and literary movements.", "Jacobites made two more serious attempts to regain the throne for the Stuarts - in 1715 and again in 1745, the last under the ineffective but very romantic \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\". After the massacre of his troops during the Battle of Culloden (Scotland) the Jacobite cause effectively ran out of steam. But Culloden became as iconic for Scotland as the Battle of the Boyne is for Ireland.", "George's French opponents encouraged rebellion by the Jacobites, the supporters of the Roman Catholic claimant to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart, often known as the Old Pretender. Stuart was the son of James II, who had been deposed in 1688 and replaced by his Protestant relations. Two prior rebellions in 1715 and 1719 had failed. In July 1745, the Old Pretender's son, Charles Edward Stuart, popularly known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender, landed in Scotland, where support for his cause was highest. George, who was summering in Hanover, returned to London at the end of August. The Jacobites defeated British forces in September at the Battle of Prestonpans, and then moved south into England. The Jacobites failed to gain further support, and the French reneged on a promise of help. Losing morale, the Jacobites retreated back into Scotland. On 16/27 April 1746, Charles faced George's military-minded son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, in the Battle of Culloden, the last pitched battle fought on British soil. The ravaged Jacobite troops were routed by the government army. Charles escaped to France, but many of his supporters were caught and executed. Jacobitism was all but crushed; no further serious attempt was made at restoring the House of Stuart. The War of the Austrian Succession continued until 1748, when Maria Theresa was recognized as Archduchess of Austria. The peace was celebrated by a fête in Green Park, London, for which Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks. ", "In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.", "The Jacobites later turned north and took Fort George and Fort Augustus in Inverness. Around this same area is where the rebellion would end. At the famed Battle of Culloden, Hanoverian, English, and even some Scottish forces defeated the Jacobites. The most common misconception of Culloden is that the Scots hated the House of Stuart and joined the English. This is far from the truth because way more Scots fought for the Jacobites than for the House of Hanover. At the battle, the Jacobite forces were massacred by the Duke of Cumberland. This was because of a massive musket and cannon volley on the Jacobites and new bayonet tactics. The Jacobites had always won because of sheer fierceness and not because of discipline. The Jacobites would charge right near the government forces and then they would be fired upon. In the dust, a bayonet charge was ordered. This caused panic in the Jacobite ranks and they fled. The Duke of Cumberland ordered all of the wounded Jacobites killed. The defeat at Culloden was one of the only victories that the Duke of Cumberland won. This was also the last battle fought on the island of Great Britain.", "The Jacobite Revolts - a chronology of the events leading up to the battle of Culloden", "In July 1745, aged just 25 years old, Bonnie Prince Charlie, as he became known, arrived in Scotland on the island of Eriskay, ready for battle. He soon gathered together his Jacobite Army of supporters, which included the clan Chieftain Iain Dubh MacKinnon who marched from Skye with several hundred clan members, to offer his sword to the Prince. The army progressed slowly towards England with King George's army under the Duke of Cumberland advancing towards them. Reinforcements from England, Wales, and France had failed to join the Jacobites and they were forced to retreat. Back in Scotland it was now the heart of the winter with atrocious conditions as they prepared for the battle of Falkirk in which, like all the other battles in the campaign to date, the Jacobites were the victors. The Jacobite Army was then divided into two regiments, one led by Captain John MacKinnon as they travelled north. Meanwhile the government troops were raising their own support for a final and bloody confrontation at Culloden, in April 1746. Charlie's dream of heroic victory was shattered.", "The Duke of Cumberland, however, was interested in doing more than winning a battle. He wanted to ensure that the long series of Jacobite uprisings in Scotland, with previous flare-ups in 1689, 1708, 1715, and 1719, would be brought to an end, once and for all. He was, after all, part of the Hanoverian dynasty the Jacobites were trying to overthrow. A copy of the general orders issued to the Jacobites the day before the battle had been captured on 15 April, and someone, presumably on Cumberland's instruction, had inserted a forged addition, to the effect that no quarter was to be given to any Hanoverian prisoners. On the morning of the Battle of Culloden, Cumberland's troops were circulated with an order that said: Officers and men will take notice that the public orders of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter. As hints go, it was a heavy one, and in the aftermath of the battle, Cumberland's troops committed widespread atrocities, killing many wounded, surrendering and fleeting Jacobites, as well as bystanders, residents, and just about anyone else within reach.", "Battle of Culloden, five miles southeast of Inverness. Take up the story at the Culloden visitor centre, where an exhibition features eyewitness accounts, a battlefield guide and tours that detail events of 16 April 1746. After a botched night-time attack on sleeping government Redcoats had left Jacobite troops weary and hungry, Charles faced down his advisors – “God damn it! Are my orders still disobeyed?” – and insisted on joining battle. Vastly outnumbered – 7,500 to 5,500 – the Jacobites advanced through afternoon hail, gunfire and grapeshot. Their great tactical weapon, the feared Highland charge, was no match for the well-drilled forces of the Duke of Cumberland, son of King George II. In an hour Charles had lost 1,500 men, while government casualties were just 50. The Jacobite dream lay dead on the rain-drenched, boggy moor, the last hand-to-hand www.britain-magazine.com", "The Jacobite cause was still supported by many Highland clans, both Catholic and Protestant, and the Catholic Charles hoped for a warm welcome from these clans to start an insurgency by Jacobites throughout Britain, but there was no immediate response. Charles raised his father's standard at Glenfinnan and there raised a large enough force to enable him to march on the city of Edinburgh, which quickly surrendered. On 21 September 1745 he defeated the only government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans, and by November was marching south at the head of around 6,000 men. Having taken Carlisle, Charles' army progressed as far as Derby. Here, despite the objections of the Prince, the decision was taken by his council to return to Scotland, largely because of the almost complete lack of the support from English Jacobites that Charles had promised. By now he was pursued by the King George II's son, the Duke of Cumberland, who caught up with him at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April 1746.", "On 8 April 1746, he set out from Aberdeen for Inverness, and, on 16 April, he fought the decisive Battle of Culloden, in which the Stuart forces were completely destroyed. Cumberland ordered his troops to show no quarter against any remaining Jacobite rebels (French Army personnel, including those who were British- or Irish-born, were treated as legitimate combatants). His troops traversed the battlefield and stabbed any of the rebel soldiers who were still alive.Thompson, p.519 When Cumberland learned that a wounded soldier lying at his feet belonged to the opposing cause he instructed a major to shoot him; when the major (James Wolfe) refused to do so, Cumberland commanded a private soldier to complete the required duty.", "The Jacobite cause was still supported by many Highland clans, both Catholic and Protestant, and the Catholic Charles hoped for a warm welcome from these clans to start an insurgency by Jacobites throughout Britain, but there was no immediate response. Charles raised his father's standard at Glenfinnan and there raised a large enough force to enable him to march on the city of Edinburgh, which quickly surrendered. On 21 September 1745 he defeated the only government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans, and by November was marching south at the head of around 6,000 men. Having taken Carlisle, Charles' army progressed as far as Swarkestone Bridge in Derbyshire. Here, despite the objections of the Prince, the decision was taken by his council to return to Scotland, largely because of the almost complete lack of the support from English Jacobites that Charles had promised. By now he was pursued by King George II's son, the Duke of Cumberland, who caught up with him at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April 1746.", "The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness, leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, [4] around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan, who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, [5] a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden [6] enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. [7] Lord George Murray \"did not like the ground\" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.", "The Jacobite forces of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness , leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, [23] around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan , who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, [24] a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden [25] enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South. [26] Lord George Murray \"did not like the ground\" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.", "Charles Edward Stuart , known as \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" or the \"Young Pretender\", arrived in Scotland in 1745 to incite a rebellion of Stuart sympathizers against the House of Hanover. He successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen , and slipped past the Hanoverian stationed in Scotland and defeated a force of militiamen at the Battle of Prestonpans . The city of Edinburgh was occupied, but the castle held out and most of the Scottish population remained hostile to the rebels; others, while sympathetic, were reluctant to lend overt support to a movement whose chances were unproven. The British government recalled forces from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the rebellion.", "Charles Edward Stuart, known as \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" or the \"Young Pretender\", arrived in Scotland in 1745 to foment a rebellion of Stuart sympathizers against the House of Hanover. He successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen, and defeated the Hanoverian Army stationed in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans . The city of Edinburgh was occupied, but the castle held out and most of the Scottish population remained hostile to the rebels; others, while sympathetic, were reluctant to lend over support to a movement whose chances were unproven. The British government recalled forces from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the rebellion.", "Following the battle, the Jacobites' Lowland units headed south, towards Corrybrough and made their way to Ruthven Barracks, while their Highland units headed north, towards Inverness and on through to Fort Augustus. There they were joined by Barisdale's Macdonalds and a small battalion of MacGregors. [9] The roughly 1,500 men who assembled at Ruthven Barracks received orders from Charles Edward Stuart to the effect that all was lost and to \"shift for himself as best he could\". [10] Similar orders must have been received by the Highland units at Fort Augustus. By 18 April the Jacobite army was disbanded. Officers and men of the units in the French service made for Inverness, where they surrendered as prisoners of war on 19 April. The rest of the army broke up, with men heading for home or attempting to escape abroad. [9]", "The Duke of Cumberland’s decisive defeat of Prince Charles Edward Stuart’s Jacobite Army: the beginning of the end for the clan system in the Highlands of Scotland", "The 10 June 1719 saw the Battle of Glenshiel, the final act of a minor Jacobite rising. The Jacobite side, under the command of the 10th Earl Marischal, consisted of only 1,000 men. After some hours of engagement with a Hanovarian army under General Wightman, the Jacobite forces disbanded and the revolt was over." ]

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[ "The first permanent settlement in the New World was Isabella on the island of Hispaniola (in present-day Dominican Republic). This first bit of real estate was built in 1493 by Columbus’s crew on his second voyage. Disease and hunger decimated this first settlement and in 1496, Columbus had his men build another town which became Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic capital today. The first permanent English settlement was Jamestown, Virginia in April, 1607. John Smith and George Percy were the most notable chroniclers of the early colony.", "The English settlements, which were on the Atlantic seaboard, developed in patterns more suitable to the New World, with greater religious freedom and economic opportunity. The first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown Jamestown.", "Several European expeditions, including a group of Spanish Jesuits, explored the Chesapeake Bay during the 16th century. In 1583, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Walter Raleigh a charter to plant a colony north of Spanish Florida. In 1584, Raleigh sent an expedition to the Atlantic coast of North America. The name \"Virginia\" may have been suggested then by Raleigh or Elizabeth, perhaps noting her status as the \"Virgin Queen,\" and may also be related to a native phrase, \"Wingandacoa,\" or name, \"Wingina.\" Initially the name applied to the entire coastal region from South Carolina to Maine, plus the island of Bermuda. Later, subsequent royal charters modified the Colony's boundaries. The London Company was incorporated as a joint stock company by the proprietary Charter of 1606, which granted land rights to this area. The Company financed the first permanent English settlement in the \"New World\", Jamestown. Named for King James I, it was founded in May 1607 by Christopher Newport. In 1619, colonists took greater control with an elected legislature called the House of Burgesses. With the bankruptcy of the London Company in 1624, the settlement was taken into royal authority as an English crown colony.", "Raleigh put together several voyages to travel to and explore the New World. The first English colony in the new world was established by Sir Walter Raleigh on 4 June 1584[2] at Roanoke Island of old Virginia (now North Carolina). The settlement was forced to abandon the island for a number of reasons. Most of the first settlers were not skilled farmers or gardeners; the soil on the island is very sandy, dry and infertile; and the settlers' primary motivation for venturing to America was to seek fortune in gold or other precious products. When it became obvious that this was not going to happen, they wanted to leave. Relations broke down between the settlers and the local native tribes as the colonists placed heavy demands on the natives' crops.", "The first permanent English settlement in the New World begins and it would eventually become the birthplace of the United States .", "Though fitful attempts had been made before, the lasting \"plantation\" of English culture in the Americas starts here. The first permanent English colony was established in 1607, when the Virginia Company landed another ill-prepared group of adventurers in Jamestown. This sad colony--wracked by malaria epidemics, Indian attacks, intrique, laziness, torture, starvation and goulish cannibalism--could well have failed also, but was arguably saved not just by Pocahontas, but by her husband John Rolfe's cultivation of the desperate colony's only substantial resource: tobacco.", "The Town of St George, founded in 1612, is an outstanding example of the earliest English urban settlement in the New World. Its associated fortifications graphically illustrate the development of English military engineering from the 17th to the 20th century, being adapted to take account of the development of artillery over this period.", "The London Company's second settlement in Bermuda claims to be the site of the oldest town in the English New World, as St. George's, Bermuda was officially established (as New London) in 1612, whereas James Fort in Virginia was not converted into James Towne until 1619, and further did not survive into the present day. In 1676, the town was deliberately burned during Bacon's Rebellion, though it was quickly rebuilt. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site.", "Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.", "The English were the first Europeans to establish permanent settlements in America, beginning with Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620. The first Jamestown settlement, comprised of single men hunting for gold and easily exportable goods, flirted with failure until the 1630s when the colony reoriented itself to a stable agricultural economy with lucrative tobacco exports. Many of these early immigrants, most notably the Puritans who settled in Massachusetts Bay and the Quakers in Pennsylvania, came seeking religious freedom. Some even sought refuge from religious persecution within America, such as Roger Williams who founded the state of Rhode Island as a haven for freedom of religion. These religious immigrants characterized the demographic in New England; sometimes whole congregations would pack up and move together. In the South, however, the majority of arrivals came seeking economic opportunity, often signing contracts exchanging their passage over the Atlantic for a few years of labor before acquiring their own tracts of land to till. Besides farmers, these servants worked as craftsmen, tradesmen, and laborers. ", "The Colony of Virginia (also known frequently as the Virginia Colony, the Province of Virginia, and occasionally as the Dominion and Colony of Virginia or His Majesty's Most Ancient Colloney and Dominion of Virginia ) was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with seasonal settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia \"is where the British Empire began ... this was the first colony in the British Empire.\" The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution (as a British colony after 1707 ). The name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. After the English Civil War in the mid 17th century, ", "1606 — The Virginia Company sets sail three ships with settlers and cargo to create the first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, Virginia.", "The remnants are to be seen at Fort Raleigh National Historic Site - the \"first English settlement in North America\".", "The first English settlement occurred about 1642, when 50 Puritan families from the New Haven Colony in Connecticut, led by George Lamberton, tried to establish a theocracy at the mouth of the Schuylkill River. The New Haven Colony had earlier struck a deal with the Lenape to buy much of New Jersey south of present-day Trenton. The Dutch and Swedes in the area burned the English colonists' buildings. A Swedish court under Swedish Governor Johan Björnsson Printz convicted Lamberton of \"trespassing, conspiring with the Indians.\" The offshoot New Haven colony received no support. The Puritan Governor John Winthrop said it was dissolved owing to summer \"sickness and mortality.\" The disaster contributed to New Haven's losing control of its area to the larger Connecticut Colony.", "Inhabited by Ta�nos since the 7th century, the Dominican Republic was reached by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, namely Santo Domingo, the country's capital and Spain's first capital in the New World. In Santo Domingo stand, among other firsts in the Americas, the first university, cathedral, and castle, the latter two in the Ciudad Colonial area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "After several attempts to plant colonies along the north coast of Hispaniola, Spain's first permanent settlement in the New World was established on the southern coast at the present site of Santo Domingo. Under Spanish sovereignty, the entire island bore the name Santo Domingo. Indications of the presence of gold--the life's blood of the nascent mercantilist system--and a population of tractable natives who could be used as laborers combined to attract many Spanish newcomers during the early years. Most were adventurers who, at least initially, were more interested in acquiring sudden wealth than they were in settling the land. Their relations with the Taino Indians, whom they ruthlessly maltreated, deteriorated from the beginning. Aroused by continued seizures of their food supplies, other exactions, and abuse of their women, the formerly peaceful Indians rebelled- -only to be crushed decisively in 1495.", "The English Roanoke Colony is founded in late 1585 or early 1586 on Roanoke Island (in modern North Carolina). Founded by Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a permanent settlement in the Virginia Colony (which itself is named for Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen), the first stockaded town is named Fort Raleigh. Dwellings are probably more like barracks for the initial colonists - elongated English-style cottages with wattle-and-daub covered walls and perhaps internal divisions. Hidden by outer banks, the island is protected from being spotted by passing Spanish ships. The colony is abandoned the following year, leaving a hundred and eight colonists starving, who are then massacred by the natives.", "English settlements began in “New Founde Land,” explored more than a century earlier by John Cabot", "The settlement is known as “The Lost Colony” and the fate of the colonists is still unknown.  In 1584 an expedition to the East Coast of North America financed and organized by Sir Walter Raleigh was carried out.  In 1587 new colonists arrived and their named leader was John white.  John White left for England leaving behind ninety men, seventeen woman and eleven children.  When John White returned in 1890 the settlement was disserted and there was no signs of struggle nor any remains found.  The only clues to be found was the word “Croatoan” carved into a post and the word “Cro” carved into a nearby tree.  The main hypothesis on this disappearance is that the colonists dispersed and merged into local tribes.", "Maine was first settled by the French on St. Croix island in 1604, who called the area Acadia.  The first English settlement at Popham was in 1607, which was abandoned in less than a year. This was the beginning of constant conflict between the two nations.   In 1622 the land that is now roughly the state of Maine was divided into plantations between Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason.  These plantations failed, and were abandoned.  After the four different French and Indian Wars, settlements were again abandoned, and then retried. Over and over.", "Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, and it was followed by the founding by Alonso de Ojeda of Santa Cruz in present-day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas, in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién. ", "Following the collapse of their first Quebec colony in the 1540s, French Huguenots attempted to settle the northern coast of Florida two decades later. The Spanish, viewing the French as a threat to their trade route along the Gulf Stream, destroyed the colony in 1565. Ironically, the leader of the Spanish forces, Pedro Menendez, would soon establish a town not far away -- St. Augustine. It was the first permanent European settlement in what would become the United States.", "The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524. [17] Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua’s principal towns in 1524: Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila . His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo . [19]", "Hispaniola is the site of the first European settlement in the Americas founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493. ", "The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples. The Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the island began in earnest the following year, when 1,300 men arrived from Spain under the watch of Bartolomeo Columbus. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded. After being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas.", "The ancient city had fallen, and a new Spanish colonial city would be built atop its ruins.", "The conquest was of the Chibcha-speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and Tairona indigenous people that lived here. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509—abandoned within the year, and in 1510 the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement in America, Santa María la Antigua del Darién.", "St Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the United States. The city was named by Pedro Menendez de Aviles in 1672 on the day he landed.", "Originally home to many indian tribes, it was first settled by the Spanish in 1540. Later both the French and English settled in the area.", "León Viejo is one of the oldest Spanish colonial settlements in the Americas. It did not develop and so its ruins are outstanding testimony to the social and economic structures of the Spanish Empire in the 16th century. Moreover, the site has immense archaeological potential.", "An attempt to re-establish the colony in 1587 also fails, with the settlers disappearing utterly and only the bones of a single man being discovered. All that is discovered is the word 'Croatoan', the name of a native tribe, etched onto a tree. As this has almost certainly been scratched out by one of the colonists, the presumption is that they have joined that tribe in order to survive.", "Molasses Reef Wreck : early 16th century Spanish shipwreck, the earliest European shipwreck in the Americas to be scientifically excavated." ]

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[ "Jomo Kenyatta (c. 1891 – 22 August 1978) was a Kenyan politician and the first President of Kenya. Kenyatta was the leader of Kenya from independence in 1963 to his death in 1978, serving first as Prime Minister (1963–64) and then as President (1964–78). He is considered the founding father of the Kenyan nation. Kenyatta was a well-educated intellectual who authored several books, and is remembered as a Pan-Africanist. He is also the father of Kenya's fourth and current President, Uhuru Kenyatta.", "Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year joined the Commonwealth. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the predominant Kikuyu tribe and head of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), became Kenya's first president. The minority party, Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and joined KANU. After the 1969 assassination of a leading governmental official, Tom Mboya, and subsequent political tension, the opposition party, Kenya People's Union (KPU) was banned and its leader detained. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969. On October 14, Daniel Arap Moi became President after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. By early 1992, several new parties had been formed, and multiparty elections were held in December 1992. President Moi was reelected for another five-year term.", "Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year became a republic within the Commonwealth. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the predominant Kĩkũyũ tribe and head of the Kenya African National Union, became Kenya’s first president. KADU dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and joined KANU. A small but significant leftist opposition party, the Kenya People’s Union (KPU), was formed in 1966, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice president and Luo elder. The KPU was banned and its leader detained after political unrest related to Kenyatta’s visit to Nyanza Province. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969, and KANU became the sole political party. At Kenyatta’s death in August 1978, Vice President Daniel arap Moi, a former KADU member became interim President. On October 14, Moi became President formally after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee.", "Jomo Kenyatta, original name Kamau Ngengi (born c. 1894, Ichaweri, British East Africa [now in Kenya]—died August 22, 1978, Mombasa , Kenya), African statesman and nationalist, the first prime minister (1963–64) and then the first president (1964–78) of independent Kenya .", "Which of the following individuals was a Kenyan nationalist politician and was the first president of independent Kenya? a. Mustafa Kemal c. Leopold Senghor b. Nnamdi Azikiwe d. Jomo Kenyatta", "Following the defeat of the Mau Mau, the British authorities in Kenya reformed land tenure, allowing greater number of Kenyans access to and ownership of land. In 1957, the authorities staged the first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council but based on a limited suffrage, too fearful to permit universal suffrage. Finally, on 12 December 1963, Kenya was handed its independence with Jomo Kenyatta its first president. Kenya, which two years later was declared a republic, had become a member of the British Commonwealth.", "Daniel arap Moi (born 1924) first became president of Kenya, by appointment, following the death of Kenya's first president, Jomo Kenyatta.", "Protest by Africans, which began in the 1920s, peaked between 1952 and 1956 with the so-called “Mau-Mau” Emergency, an armed Kikuyu-led insurrection directed against white settler domination and British colonial rule. The British put Kenya under a state of emergency until 1959 and imprisoned many of the colony’s nationalist leaders, including Jomo Kenyatta, a British-educated Kikuyu and an activist since the 1920s. After the Mau-Mau revolt abated, Britain increased African representation in the colony’s legislative council until, in 1961, there was an African majority. Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year became a republic and joined the Commonwealth. Kenyatta, head of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), became Kenya’s first president.", "Kenyatta was now the country’s prime minister, and “Harambee!” (“Let us all pull together!”) was the motto of new independence. By December of 1964, Kenyatta had become the first president of Kenya, with business in the one-party state getting off to a brisk and pragmatic start. The new order swept away tribal rivalries in favor of nationalism for the benefit of all Kenyans.", "The National Day of Kenya marking its independence, with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister, in 1963. He became President when Kenya became a republic in 1964.", "Kenya gained its independence from Britain with Jomo Kenyatta as the country’s first Prime Minister. The Union Jack was replaced by the black, red and green flag of the new nation. This followed the first all inclusive elections on 27 May 1963. A year later Kenya was declared a Republic.", "Mau Mau forest armies were largely broken by 1957 and in 1960 the emergency was declared over. Following the rebellion, the British government did implement reforms.  Three years later, in 1963, Kenya received its independence from Great Britain.  One of the alleged Mau Mau leaders, Jomo Kenyatta , became the first president of the new nation.  ", "Jomo Kenyatta led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when President Moi took power in a constitutional succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969 until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made itself the sole legal party in Kenya. President Moi stepped down in December 2002 following fair and peaceful elections. Mwai Kibaki assumed the presidency following a campaign centered on an anti-corruption platform.", "On May 14, 1960, Kenyatta was elected president of KANU, even though he was still in exile. The state of emergency in Kenya was lifted in December 1960, and Kenyatta was finally fully released on August 21, 1961. In 1962 he was admitted into the Legislative Council, where he played a crucial role in the creation of a new constitution. Kenyatta became Prime Minister of the autonomous Kenyan government on June 1, 1963, and retained the position after independence was declared on December 12, 1963. Kenya became a republic on December 12, 1964, and Kenyatta became its first President. He was re-elected in 1966, 1969, and 1974.", "The first years of Kenyan independence were dominated by restructuring and rebuilding the nation. In November of 1964 Kenyatta convinced the rival Kenya African Democratic Union and its leader, Ronald Ngala, to dissolve and join Kenyatta's Kenyan African National Union party to form a single chambered National Assembly. Ngala had been Kenyatta's greatest political rival because his party stood for regional autonomy while Kenyatta's party stood for a strong central government.", "After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911–1994), a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37% of the vote, Matiba received 26%, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19%, and Odinga 18%. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi's government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.", "He died in office on August 22 1978 in Mombassa at the age of 89. He is remembered by many as \"Baba Wa Taifa\" (Father of the Nation), a unifier, one of the greatest figures in African history, his tenure a Kenyan golden age. Others see him as a totalitarian dictator whose policies, in the end, caused instability and far reaching negative consequences. He was succeeded by Daniel arap Moi.", "In 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho. She was popularly referred to as Mama Ngina and was independent Kenya's First Lady, when Kenyatta was elected President.", "In 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho. She was popularly referred to as Mama Ngina and was independent Kenya's First Lady , when Kenyatta was elected President.", "When Kenya formally became a British colony in 1920, organized African political activity developed, but its direct political participation was prohibited until 1944. By then, the Kenya African National Union (KANU) had been established, and Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the predominant Kikuyu tribe became its president. From 1952 to 1956, a movement founded by members of the Kikuyu, Embu, Meru and Kamba tribes raised the “Mau Mau” rebellion against the British colonial rule.", "Daniel arap Moi first became president of Kenya in 1978. For most of his years as president, Moi and the ruling party have had absolute authority over the country's political and judicial systems. Moi is a tough, experienced fighter, with \"country boy cunning\" and craftiness in exploiting tribal divisions. As the pro-government Sunday Times said: \"Moi may not have studied politics at anyone's university, but he has proved himself a real 'Professor of politics' in the practical sense.\" In 1982 Moi pushed legislation through making Kenya a de jure (by right) one-party state, although it had been a de facto (actual) one-party state since 1969, when the opposition was banned and KANU had begun overriding Parliament in decision-making matters.", "Elections were then held in May 1963, pitting Kenyatta's KANU (Kenya African National Union- which advocated for Kenya to be a unitary state ) against KADU (Kenya African Democratic Union - which advocated for Kenya to be an ethnic-federal state). KANU beat KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government. After independence, Queen Elizabeth II remained as Head of State (after Independence, styled as Queen of Kenya), represented by a Governor-General. He consistently asked white settlers not to leave Kenya and supported reconciliation.", "Named vice president in 1967, Moi became president in 1978 following the death of Jomo Kenyatta . He quickly consolidated his power, banning opposition parties and promoting his Kalenjin countrymen to positions of authority at the expense of the Kikuyu . He also curried favour with the army, which proved loyal to him in suppressing a coup attempt in 1982. His continuation of Kenyatta’s pro-Western policies ensured significant sums of development aid during the Cold War (1947–91), and under Moi’s stewardship Kenya emerged as one of the most prosperous African nations.", "Hailing from a minority tribe, Moi started life as a school teacher, he then became an MP for a Rift Valley constituency who worked his way up to be party leader and eventually becoming President of Kenya.", "Jomo Kenyatta (1891-1978) was a Kenyan statesman and the dominant figure in the development of African nationalism in East Africa. His long career in public life made him the undisputed leader of the African people of Kenya in their struggle for independence.", "On January 12, 1962, Kenyatta was elected to the Kenyan Legislative Assembly to represent the constituency of Fort Hall. On April 10, he agreed to serve in a coalition government as minister of state for constitutional affairs and economic planning. In the May 28, 1963 elections Kenyatta led his African National Union party to victory. Kenyatta was invited to form a government and became self-governing Kenya's first prime minister on June 1. He took steps to reassure the European farmers about their future and also appealed to the freedom fighters and members of the Mau Mau to lay down their arms and join the new nation.", "Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta is the fourth and current President of Kenya, in office since 9 April 2013.", "In 1960 as members of Legco, Moi and other nationalists participated in the constitutional talks held in London in preparation for Kenya's independence from Britain. On their return, they formed the political party Kenya Africa National Union (KANU). Eventually Moi and others from minority tribal groups broke away from KANU because it represented the interests of the dominant tribes, the Luo and the Kikuyu, and formed a multi-tribal coalition, the Kenyan African Democratic Union (KADU) as an alternative to KANU. Moi became chair of the new party.", "Kenyatta preached “forgiveness” towards the murderous chiefs and Home Guard who had been the eager jailers and torturers of the Kikuyu masses, saying they were “all brothers and sisters and there should be no revenge”. He assured the European landowners their property rights were safe. He became the leader of the Kenya African National Union party, composed of mainly Kikuyu and Luo people, which saw itself as successor to the KAU and which was voted into government in 1963. Formal independence of Kenya was granted in December of that year.", "He was born in 18th August 1893.After completing his education he joinded the movement for Independence.At that time Kenya was under British Colonial Rule.He was elected as the president of Kenyan African Union (KAU) in 1947.He was arrested and  sentenced to 7 years imprisonment in 1953.He was released in 1961 following public demand,after that he was admitted to the legislative council.", "Kenyatta's major stated goals were unity, economic prosperity, and restitution. Looking to bring about reconciliation between tribes, and between tribal natives and white settlers, he assured white and Asian immigrants they would still be welcome in the new nation. Europeans continued to serve in his government and he sought to kept a favorable relationship with former colonial masters. Britain aided the new nation with money and support in the form of troops which remained in the country and helped the fledgling government against Somali rebels (Shiftas) in the northeast, an army mutiny in Nairobi in 1964, and a subsequent mutiny in 1971. Contrary to this, his major support was the tribal African native population, the Majority Kikuyu specifically, and they were his main concern.", "He initiated long over due land reform that called for a fair redistribution of lands, a life long goal of his fulfilled. He opened up trade with neighboring nations, pursued a pro-west, anti-communist policy, and oversaw Kenya's admission into the United Nations. Kenya enjoyed political stability under much of his administration which attracted foreign investments and led to economic progress as well as agricultural, industrial and educational initiatives. Highly intelligent and charismatic, he became one of the most influential political figures in Africa, one of the earliest and best-known African nationalist leaders." ]

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[ "Romanov (rōˈmənŏf, Rus. rəmäˈnəf) [ key ], ruling dynasty of Russia from 1613 to 1917. The name Romanov was adopted in the 16th cent. by a family of boyars (great nobles) that traced its beginnings to the 14th cent. Czar Ivan IV took as his first wife Anastasia Romanov. Anastasia's brother, Nikita, was a regent for her son, Czar Feodor I . Nikita's son, Philaret, whom Boris Godunov forced to take monastic vows, was patriarch of Moscow from 1619 until his death in 1633. Michael , Philaret's son, was chosen in 1613 as czar of Russia; his election ended a turbulent period in Russian history. Except for the period from 1722 to 1797, the succession was thereafter regulated by the law of primogeniture.", "The House of Romanov (Рома́нов, pronounced [rʌˈmanəf]) was the second and last imperial dynasty of Russia , which ruled the country for five generations from 1613 to 1762. From 1762 to 1917 Russia was ruled by a line of the House of Oldenburg (of which Prince Charles is also a member) descended from the marriage of a Romanov grand duchess to the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. This line was officially also called Romanov, although genealogists sometimes style it, more accurately, Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov.", "The Romanov dynasty ruled Russia from 1613 until the February Revolution of 1917. The family was descended from Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla, a Muscovite boyar who lived in the first half of the 14th century. The name Romanov was taken from Roman Yuriev (d. 1543), the father of Anastasia Romanova (d. 1560), who was the first wife of Tsar Ivan IV.", "The Romanov Dynasty also known as “The House of Romanov” was the second imperial dynasty (after the Rurik dynasty) to rule Russia. The Romanov family reigned from 1613 until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II on March 15, 1917, as a result of the Russian Revolution. Continue reading...", "In February 1613, with the chaos ended and the Poles expelled from Moscow, a national assembly, composed of representatives from fifty cities and even some peasants, elected Michael Romanov, the young son of Patriarch Filaret, to the throne. The Romanov dynasty ruled Russia until 1917.", "(rō`mənŏf, Rus. rəmä`nəf), ruling dynasty of Russia from 1613 to 1917. The name Romanov was adopted in the 16th cent. by a family of boyars boyars", "The House of Romanov (,) was the second dynasty, after the House of Rurik, to rule over Russia, and reigned from 1613 until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II on March 15, 1917, as a result of the February Revolution.", "Afternoon: Pay a visit to the Romanov House Museum for a lecture titled “Getting to Know the Romanovs: Rise and Fall” connected to our theme of the day: The Romanovs. Hear the tale of the Romanov family, rulers of Russia who reigned from 1613 when the 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov was abruptly transformed from a minor boyar into the leader of Russia. The Romanov House Museum was restored in 1913 to commemorate 300 years of the Romanov Dynasty. Located on Varvarka Street not far from the Kremlin and built in the style of 17th century Russian architects, this house was where Mikhail Romanov, the first Romanov czar, spent his childhood. Afterwards, transfer to the hotel and check in.", "The Empire of Russia was declared by Peter the Great in 1721. Officially, Russia would be ruled by the Romanov dynasty until the Russian Revolution of 1917. However, direct male descendants of Michael Romanov came to an end in 1730 with the death of Peter II of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. The throne passed to Anna, a niece of Peter the Great, and after the brief rule of her niece's infant son Ivan VI, the throne was seized by Elizabeth, a daughter of Peter the Great. Elizabeth would be the last of the direct Romanovs to rule Russia. Elizabeth declared her nephew, Peter, to be her heir. Peter (who would rule as Peter III) spoke little Russian, having been a German prince of the House of Holstein-Gottorp before arriving in Russia to assume the Imperial title. He and his German wife Sophia changed their name to Romanov upon inheriting the throne. Peter was ill-liked, and he was assassinated within six months of assuming the throne, in a coup orchestrated by his wife, who became Empress in her own right and ruled as Catherine the Great (both Peter and Catherine were descended from the House of Rurik). Following the confused successions of the descendants of Peter the Great, Catherine's son Paul I established clear succession laws which governed the rules of primogeniture over the Imperial throne until the fall of the Empire in 1917. ", "User: Which royal family ruled over Russia from 1613 until the Russian Revolution in 1917? A. Tudor B. Hapsburg C. Romanov D. Hohenzollern", "The direct male line of the Romanovs came to an end when Elizabeth of Russia died in 1762. After an era of dynastic crisis, the House of Holstein-Gottorp, a cadet branch of the House of Oldenburg which reigned in Denmark, ascended the throne in 1762 with Peter III, a grandson of Peter I. All rulers from the middle of the 18th century to the revolution of 1917 were descended from that branch. Though officially known as the House of Romanov, these descendants of the Romanov and Oldenburg dynasties are sometimes referred to as Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov. ", "Which royal family ruled over Russia from 1613 until the Russian Revolution in 1917? A. Tudor B. Hapsburg C. Romanov D. Hohenzollern", "Note: Russia was ruled by czars of the Romanov family from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries.", "In the late 15th century, Duke Ivan III acquired Novgorod and Tver and threw off the Mongol yoke. Ivan IV—the Terrible (1533–1584), first Muscovite czar—is considered to have founded the Russian state. He crushed the power of rival princes and boyars (great landowners), but Russia remained largely medieval until the reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725), grandson of the first Romanov czar, Michael (1613–1645). Peter made extensive reforms aimed at westernization and, through his defeat of Charles XII of Sweden at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, he extended Russia's boundaries to the west. Catherine the Great (1762–1796) continued Peter's westernization program and also expanded Russian territory, acquiring the Crimea, Ukraine, and part of Poland. During the reign of Alexander I (1801–1825), Napoléon's attempt to subdue Russia was defeated (1812–1813), and new territory was gained, including Finland (1809) and Bessarabia (1812). Alexander originated the Holy Alliance, which for a time crushed Europe's rising liberal movement.", "The Time of Troubles () was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last Russian Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, Feodor Ivanovich, in 1598, and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. In 1601–03, Russia suffered a famine that killed one-third of the population, about two million. At the time, during the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18) (known as the Dimitriads), Russia was occupied by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and suffered from civil uprisings, usurpers and impostors.", "Throughout Feodor's reign (1584–1598), the Tsar's brother-in-law, Boris Godunov, and his Romanov cousins contested the de facto rule of Russia. Upon the death of childless Feodor, the 700-year-old line of Moscow Rurikids came to an end. After a long struggle, the party of Boris Godunov prevailed over the Romanovs, and the Zemsky sobor elected Godunov as tsar in 1599. Godunov's revenge on the Romanovs was terrible: all the family and its relations were deported to remote corners of the Russian North and Urals, where most of them died of hunger or in chains. The family's leader, Feodor Nikitich Romanov, was exiled to the Antoniev Siysky Monastery and forced to take monastic vows with the name Filaret.", "April 21 – The death of Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich of Russia results in a succession dispute between Nicholas Romanov, Prince of Russia and Vladimir's daughter Maria for the leadership of the Imperial Family of Russia.", "Through this time, Russian contacts with the innovations and scholarship of the Renaissance was limited. By its ties to the eastern church, Russia also took no part in the struggle between the western (Catholic) church and the Protestant Reformation. In the early seventeenth century, after a lengthy civil conflict known as the Time of Troubles, the Romanov dynasty emerged. Under the Romanov tsar Peter the Great, a new city was established at Saint Petersburg, on an arm of the Baltic Sea. Peter's intention was to open his state to trade and exchange with the west. Through the seventeenth and eighteenth century artists and architects arrived from western Europe. The Romanov leaders had enormous palaces and country mansions built in imitation of the classically inspired buildings of Renaissance Europe, and began collecting the works of western painters and sculptors.", "The Tsardom of Russia (Русское царство [2] [3] , Russkoye tsarstvo or Российское царство [4] [5] , Rossisyskoye tsarstvo ), also known as the Tsardom of Muscovy, [6] [7] was the name of the centralized Russian state from assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721.", "The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire in world history, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire, and the third largest empire behind the British Empire and the Mongol Empire. At one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe, across Asia, and into North America.", "Peter II Alexeyevich (Russian: Пётр II Алексеевич, Pyotr II Alekseyevich) ( – ) reigned as Emperor of Russia from 1727 until his death. He was the only son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich (son of Peter I of Russia by his first consort Eudoxia Lopukhina) and of Princess Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.", "Nicholas II ( Nikolay Vtoroy; 1868 – 17 July 1918) was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Due to the Khodynka Tragedy, anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, the violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, the execution of political opponents and his perceived responsibility for the Russo-Japanese War, he was given the nickname Nicholas the Bloody by his political enemies. ", "Alexander II (; in Moscow – in Saint Petersburg) was the Emperor of Russia from 2 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Finland.", "1613 - The Zemsky Sobor (rural council) elects Mikhail Romanov as tsar. Everything reverts to the way it had been before all of the turmoil. The Romanov dynasty endures until 1917.", "As the country grew, it also changed its name from the Duchy to the Tsardom of Muscovy and in 1721 it became the Russian Empire. Throughout the centuries, Muscovy/Russia functioned as a centralized state ruled by autocratic leaders whose titles changed as their power and influence grew. The grand dukes became the tsars of Muscovy, who in turn became emperors of the Russian Empire. Although the rulers of the empire were formally called emperors ( imperator ), they were still popularly referred to as tsars or tsarinas.", "The dual war against Sweden and the Ottoman Empire (and, at the end of the reign, against Persia ) constituted an immense drain on resources and cost tens of thousands of lives. After succumbing to Sweden's superior forces at Narva, in contemporary Estonia , in 1700, Peter's forces slowly gained an upper hand, most spectacularly in the south at Poltava in 1709. A significant setback in 1711 at Pruth, north of the Caspian Sea , nearly cost Peter his life and much of his army, but they recovered, and by 1714 the tide of war had turned decisively in Russia's favor. The final victory and Treaty of 1721 secured Russia's place in Europe's northern waters, and it began Russia's extended push to the south, a process not completed until the 1780s.", "The Romanovs' fortunes again changed dramatically with the fall of the Godunov dynasty in 1606. As a former leader of the anti-Godunov party and cousin of the last legitimate tsar, Filaret Romanov was valued by several impostors who attempted to claim the Rurikid legacy and throne during the Time of Troubles. False Dmitriy I made him a metropolitan, and False Dmitriy II raised him to the dignity of patriarch. Upon expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, the Assembly of the Land offered the Russian crown to several Rurikid and Gediminid princes, but all of them declined the honor of it.", "On 11 December, 1912, on the first page of his lined exercise-book, the eight-year-old boy, who was the heir to the Russian throne, started his records, his hand unsteadily forming letters: \"The Romanova House, Mikhail Feodorovitch. 32 years.\" Tsar Mikhail Feodorovitch became the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, and his ascendancy to power in 1613 would put an end to the Time of Troubles, one of the most distressful periods in Russian history. The death of the cruel and powerful Tsar Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) resulted in the Russian crown being fought over by numerous claimants, all implacable rivals.", "Under the conditions of developing capitalist relations, Catherine II, Paul I, Alexander I (1801–25), and Nicholas I (1825–55) harshly repressed the revolutionary liberation movement as they strove to preserve the serf-holding system and the absolute monarchy. Alexander II (reigned 1855–81), the son of Nicholas I, was compelled to abolish serfdom in 1861. Nevertheless, the most important posts in the government, the bureaucracy, and the army remained in the hands of the dvorianstvo (nobility or gentry). Wishing to further consolidate their power, the Romanovs, especially Alexander III (reigned 1881–94) and Nicholas II (1894–1917), pursued a reactionary domestic and foreign policy. Among the many grand dukes from the Romanov dynasty who occupied high posts in the army and in the bureaucracy, several were particularly reactionary: Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder (1831–91), Mikhail Nikolaevich (1832–1909), Sergei Aleksandrovich (1857–1905), and Nikolai Nikolaevich the Younger (1856–1929).", "Peter II was the last of the direct male Romanov line, and on his death Anna , duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan V, ascended the throne. She died without heirs and was succeeded (1740) by Ivan VI, a great-grandson of Ivan V. He was a German, son of the duke of Brunswick and of Anna Leopoldovna, a princess of Mecklenburg.", "After Ivan IV, a time of troubles began when his son Fedor, who was mentally deficient, died without an heir, ending the Rurik dynasty. The boyar Boris Godunov tried to proclaim himself tsar, but several boyar factions refuse to recognize him. The chaos continued after the first False Dmitriy gained the throne, and civil war erupted. When the Romanovs took over, the seventeenth century became one filled with administrative reform. A comprehensive legal code was introduced, and a merging of the boyars into the elite bureaucracy was beginning to form. ", "Emperor Alexander III died in 1894. His place was taken by his son Nicholas, the last of the Romanovs." ]

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[ "1968 series of liberalization reforms undertaken by Alexander Dubček, as leader of Czechoslovakia. As Dubček liberalized the economy, the reforms were crushed violently when Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and occupied its major cities.", "On the night of 20–21 August 1968, the Soviet Union and its main allies in the Warsaw Pact – Bulgaria , Hungary , East Germany , and Poland – invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček 's Prague Spring political liberalisation reforms. [3]", "On the night of 20–21 August 1968, the Soviet Union and her main allies in the Warsaw Pact – Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland) – invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175,000 and 500,000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechs and Slovaks were wounded and 108 killed in the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped the liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.)", "Soviet, Polish, East German, Bulgarian, and Hungarian troops invaded Czechoslovakia on August 20, 1968, and deposed the reformist government of Alexander Dubcek, who had begun a program of economic and political liberalization (the \"Prague spring\"). The United States co-sponsored a UN Security Council resolution condemning the invasion and calling for the prompt withdrawal of Warsaw Pact forces; it also suspended a number of U.S.-Soviet exchange agreements and delayed ratification of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Brezhnev later justified the invasion with the assertion, known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, that when internal or external forces hostile to socialism sought to restore the capitalist order in any socialist state, all other socialist states had the right to intervene.", "On August 20, 1968, the Soviet Union led Warsaw Pact troops in an invasion of Czechoslovakia to crack down on reformist trends in Prague. Although the Soviet Union’s action successfully halted the pace of reform in Czechoslovakia, it had unintended consequences for the unity of the communist bloc.", "In the Autumn of 1989, Mikhail Gorbachev and other Warsaw Pact leaders drafted a statement calling the 1968 invasion a mistake. The statement, carried by the Soviet news agency Tass, said that sending in troops constituted interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign Czechoslovakia and must be condemned.\" This acknowledgement likely helped to encourage the popular revolutions that overthrew Communist governments in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania at the end of 1989 by providing assurance that no similar Soviet intervention would be repeated were such uprisings to occur.", "Rock ’n’ Roll September 17 - October 26, 2008 In both 1968 and 1989, Czechoslovakia played a significant role. Early in 1968 reformers gained control of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, starting a period of openness that came to be called the Prague Spring, a season of hope crushed when 500,000 Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops invaded on the night of August 20.", "This was a major break with the earlier Brezhnev Doctrine, under which the internal affairs of satellite states were tightly controlled by Moscow. This had been used to justify the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, as well as the invasion of the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. By the late 1980s, structural flaws within the Soviet system, growing economic problems, the rise of anti-communist sentiment and the effects of the Soviet-Afghan War made it increasingly impractical for the Soviet Union to impose its will on its neighbors.", "At approximately 11 pm on 20 August 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from four Warsaw Pact countries – the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary – invaded Czechoslovakia. That night, 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops and 2,000 tanks entered the country. Total number of invading troops eventually reached 500,000. Romania did not take part in the invasion, nor did Albania, which subsequently withdrew from the Warsaw Pact over the matter. Participation of the German Democratic Republic was cancelled just hours before the invasion. The decision for the non-participation of the East German Army in the invasion was indeed made on short notice by Brezhnev following requests by high-ranking Czechoslovak opponents of Dubcek who feared of much larger Czechoslovak resistance if German troops were present on Czechoslovak territory due to previous Czech experience with German occupation of Czechoslovakia. ", "In the fall of 1989, Mikhail Gorbachev and other Warsaw Pact leaders drafted a statement calling the 1968 invasion a mistake. This acknowledgement likely helped to encourage the popular revolutions that overthrew communist governments in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania at the end of 1989 by providing assurance that no similar Soviet intervention would be repeated were such uprisings to occur.", "Dubcek's policies shocked the Soviets and leaders in other Eastern European nations. Throughout early and mid-1968, negotiations took place between Dubcek and representatives from Russia and other Soviet bloc nations in an attempt to have the Czechoslovakian leader soften his reforms. Dubcek refused, and tensions with the Soviet Union steadily increased. Meanwhile, the sudden atmosphere of freedom that Dubcek was encouraging took root, and Czech citizens embraced and celebrated the new tolerance for free exchange of ideas and open discussion in what came to be known as the \"Prague Spring.\" On the night of August 20, 1968, more than 200,000 Warsaw Pact troops crossed into Czechoslovakia and headed for the capital city of Prague. In just over a day, the entire country was occupied; within a week nearly three-quarters of a million foreign troops were in Czechoslovakia. Anti-Soviet riots broke out in Prague, but these were viciously crushed and thousands of Czechs fled the country.", "Dubcek’s policies shocked the Soviets and leaders in other Eastern European nations. Throughout early and mid-1968, negotiations took place between Dubcek and representatives from Russia and other Soviet bloc nations in an attempt to have the Czechoslovakian leader soften his reforms. Dubcek refused, and tensions with the Soviet Union steadily increased. Meanwhile, the sudden atmosphere of freedom that Dubcek was encouraging took root, and Czech citizens embraced and celebrated the new tolerance for free exchange of ideas and open discussion in what came to be known as the “Prague Spring.” On the night of August 20, 1968, more than 200,000 Warsaw Pact troops crossed into Czechoslovakia and headed for the capital city of Prague. In just over a day, the entire country was occupied; within a week nearly three-quarters of a million foreign troops were in Czechoslovakia. Anti-Soviet riots broke out in Prague, but these were viciously crushed and thousands of Czechs fled the country.", "Although several Eastern bloc countries had attempted some abortive, limited economic and political reform since the 1950s ( Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , Prague Spring of 1968), the advent of reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend toward greater liberalization. During the mid 1980s, a younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation . The Soviet Union was facing a period of severe economic decline and needed Western technology and credits to make up for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its so-called \"empire\" — the military, KGB , subsidies to foreign client states — further strained the moribund Soviet economy.", "The  Hungarian Revolution of 1956  occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary’s Stalinist leader  Mátyás Rákosi . [123]  In response to a popular uprising, [124]  the new regime formally disbanded the  secret police , declared its intention to withdraw from the  Warsaw Pact  and pledged to re-establish free elections. The  Soviet army  invaded. [125]  Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, [126]  and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos. [127]  Hungarian leader  Imre Nagy  and others were executed following secret trials. [128]", "The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary’s Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi . [123] In response to a popular uprising, [124] the new regime formally disbanded the secret police , declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet army invaded. [125] Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, [126] and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos. [127] Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials. [128]", "In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not intervene as Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary all abandoned Marxist–Leninist rule by 1990. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved.", "This liberalization, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. It also led indirectly to the revolutions of 1989, in which Soviet-imposed communist regimes of the Warsaw Pact were peacefully toppled (Romania excepted),", "By the mid-1980s, the Soviet contingent was increased to 108,800 and fighting increased throughout the country, but the military and diplomatic cost of the war to the USSR was high. [6] By mid-1987 the Soviet Union, now under reformist leader Mikhail Gorbachev , announced it would start withdrawing its forces. [2] [3] The final troop withdrawal started on May 15, 1988, and ended on February 15, 1989. Due to its length it has sometimes been referred to as the \"Soviet Union's Vietnam War \" or the \"Bear Trap\" by the Western media, [47] [48] [49] and thought to be a contributing factor to the fall of the Soviet Union . [50]", "Note: Soviet troops invaded Hungary in 1956 to put down a revolution against the communist government.", "In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government. Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.", "The joint U.S. and British invasion of Afghanistan in late 2001 was preceded by over two decades of war in Afghanistan. On Dec. 24, 1979, Soviet tanks rumbled across the Amu Darya River and into Afghanistan, ostensibly to restore stability following a coup that brought to power a pair of Marxist-Leninist political groups—the People’s (Khalq) Party and the Banner (Parcham) Party. But the Soviet presence touched off a nationwide rebellion by Islamist fighters, who won extensive covert backing from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia , and the United States and who were joined in their fight by foreign volunteers. The guerrilla war against the Soviet forces led to their departure a decade later (see Afghan War ). In the void, civil war reigned, with the Islamist fighters—known as the mujahideen —battling first to oust the Soviet-backed government and then turning their guns on each other.", "The Czechoslovakian people spontaneously, nonviolently and ultimately unsuccessfully resisted invasion of their country of 14 million by hundreds of thousands of troops and 5,000+ tanks from the Soviet Union and four other Warsaw Pact countries. The troops were enforcing the overthrow and arrest of Alexander Dubček and his government, who had been implementing significant democratic reforms known collectively as “socialism with a human face,” or the Prague Spring.", "Which was an uprising against Soviet domination of Czechoslovakia that led to half-a-million Russian troops being brought into Czechoslovakia to occupy it. The French May events, which sparked movements in places like Senegal, Spain, Italy, Mexico City.", "The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was declared on 7 October 1949. By a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets penetrated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control. [24] [25]", "October 1956: The Soviet Union invades Hungary and occupies Budapest, crushing Hungary’s rebellious decision to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact.", "On January 13, 1991, Soviet troops, along with the KGB Spetsnaz Alpha Group, stormed the Vilnius TV Tower in Lithuania to suppress the independence movement. Fourteen unarmed civilians were killed and hundreds more injured. On the night of July 31, 1991, Russian OMON from Riga, the Soviet military headquarters in the Baltics, assaulted the Lithuanian border post in Medininkai and killed seven Lithuanian servicemen. This event further weakened the Soviet Union's position internationally and domestically, and stiffened Lithuanian resistance.", "The geopolitical situations turned unfavorable in the late 1980s, with the Soviet Union retreating from the expansion of Communism under Mikhail Gorbachev 's glasnost and perestroika , which marked a dramatic reduction in aid from Socialist bloc countries. This resulted in even more economic hardship, and more seriously, the collapse of the military in the face of determined onslaughts by guerrilla forces in the north. The Soviet Union stopped aiding the PDRE altogether in December 1990, and this along with the collapse of Communism in the Eastern Bloc in the Revolutions of 1989 , proved to be serious blows to the PDRE.", "La chute des régimes communistes en Europe recouvre l'effondrement des régimes européens du bloc de l'Est, alliés à l'URSS, ainsi que des gouvernements albanais et yougoslave, également communistes mais qui avaient rompu avec l'URSS plusieurs décennies auparavant. Ces événements se déroulent au terme d'un processus entamé en 1985 avec la perestroïka : l'accélération des réformes et les problèmes politiques propres à chacun de ces États entraînent leur effondrement général à partir de la fin de 1989, la chute du mur de Berlin, le 9 novembre 1989, étant l'un des événements les plus marquants de la période : la fin définitive de la guerre froide et du Rideau de fer. Le pacte de Varsovie et le CAEM, structures institutionnelles du bloc de l'Est, cessent d'exister à l'été 1991, et l'URSS elle-m", "Starting in the mid-1980s, the Baltic states used the reforms provided by glasnost to assert their rights to protect their environment (for example during the Phosphorite War) and their historic monuments and, later, their claims to sovereignty and independence. When the Balts withstood outside threats, they exposed an irresolute Kremlin. Bolstering separatism in other Soviet republics, the Balts triggered multiple challenges to the Soviet Union. Supported by Russian leader Boris Yeltsin, the Baltic republics asserted their sovereignty.", "On the night of July 31, 1991, Russian OMON from Riga , the Soviet military headquarters in the Baltics, assaulted the Lithuanian border post in Medininkai and killed seven Lithuanian servicemen. This further weakened the Soviet Union's position, internationally and domestically.", "A military conflict in occurring from 1959 to April 30, 1975. It was an attempt to stop the spread of Communism in Asia.", " Ten years ago, in October and November 1989, communism collapsed in Eastern Europe. The �collapse� of communism took many years and involved many courageous people who struggled for basic human rights and democracy. " ]

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[ "Which Axis Power changed sides during World War II, declaring war on Germany in October 1943?", "Which Axis Power changed sides during World War II, declaring war on Germany in October 1943?", "October 13, 1943 - Italy declared war on its former Axis partner Germany after the downfall of Mussolini and collapse of his Fascist government.", "World War II was a global conflict that began in Europe on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany. War broke out between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and the Soviet Union). Japan invaded China, occupied the Philippines, and seized a number of islands throughout the Pacific, while Germany captured much of Europe and North Africa before invading the Soviet Union. Millions of civilians were killed; Jews were specifically singled out by the Germans for extermination, as were other minorities, such as those who were mentally ill, physically and mentally disabled, homosexual, or members of political and religious groups who opposed the Axis Powers.", "The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, [5] but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 [6] with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Based on the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . For a year starting in late June 1940, the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth were the only Allied forces continuing the fight against the European Axis powers, with campaigns in North Africa and the Horn of Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz bombing campaign, as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic . In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.", "1943 - [May]- Axis resistance in Africa ends. [March]- The Japanese lose the Battle of the Bismarck Sea. Japanese troops retreat across the Yangtze River in China. [July]- The Allies invade Sicily. [Sept.]- The Allies land in Italy. Italy signs an armistice with the Allies in secret. [Oct.]- Italy declares war on Germany. [Nov.]- Russia retakes Kiev from the Germans. U.S. marines invade Tarawa and Makin in the Pacific. The Allies meet in Cairo, Egypt.", "The  Empire of Japan  aimed to dominate  East Asia  and was already  at war  with the  Republic of China  in 1937, [2]  but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the  invasion  of  Poland  by  Germany  and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by  France  and the  United Kingdom . From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and  treaties , Germany formed the Axis alliance with  Italy , conquering or subduing much of continental Europe. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned between themselves and annexed territories of their European neighbours,  including Poland ,  Finland  and the  Baltic states . The United Kingdom and the other members of the British Commonwealth  were the only major Allied forces continuing the fight against the Axis, with battles taking place in  North Africa  and the  Horn of Africa  as well as the long-running  Battle of the Atlantic . In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched  an invasion of the Soviet Union , giving a start to the  largest land theatre of war in history , which tied down the major part of the Axis' military forces for the rest of the war. In December 1941, Japan joined the Axis,  attacked the United States and  European territories  in the  Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.", "Nearly every country in the world participated in World War II, with the exception of a few states that remained neutral. The Second World War pitted two alliances against each other, the Axis powers and the Allied powers. The leading Axis powers were Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan; while the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were the \"Big Four\" Allied powers. ", "On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland with its new war machine using what was called lightning warfare or Blitzkrieg. As a result, on September 3, 1939, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. On September 17, 1939, the U.S.S.R. invaded Poland. In 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Treaty, forming the Axis powers.", "At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalize the Axis Powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. . [93] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact. [94] Romania would make a major contribution to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR , partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu 's desire to combat communism. [95]", "The Allies were initially made up of Poland, the British Empire , France , and others. In May, 1940, Germany invaded western Europe. Six weeks later, France surrendered to Germany. Three months after that, Germany, Italy , and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Powers . Then, nine months later, in June 1941, Germany betrayed and invaded the Soviet Union, forcing the Soviets into the Allied camp (although they continued their non-aggression treaty with Japan). In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States bringing it into the war on the Allied side. China also joined the Allies, as eventually did most of the rest of the world. From the beginning of 1942 through August 1945, battles raged across all of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, and China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Germany and Japan.", "World War II was primarily fought between two large alliances. The Axis Powers were a group of countries led by Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan, and are considered the aggressors of the conflict. The Allies, led by the United Kingdom and, until its defeat, France, were joined in the European theatre by the Soviet Union in June 1941 and by the United States in December 1941. In the Asia-Pacific theatre, the Allies were led by the Republic of China from the invasion of China by Japan in 1937 and then joined by the United States in 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbour.", "December 11, 1941 � the Axis Powers -- Germany and Italy -- declare war on the U.S.", "The war pitted the Allied Powers (the United States, Canada , Australia , Great Britain , France , Russia , and China , among others) against the Axis Powers ( Germany , Italy, Japan , Hungary , Bulgaria , Romania , and others). The leading figures for the Allies were U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945), British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1940–1945, 1951–1955), and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin (1928–1953). The Axis was led by German dictator Adolph Hitler (1933–1945), Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (1922–1943), and Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo (1941–1944).", "The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.", "An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Galeazzo Ciano , foreign minister of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on October 25 , 1936 . Tripartite Treaty was then signed by Saburo Kurusu of Imperial Japan , Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Galeazzo Ciano of Fascist Italy in September 27 , 1940 and was later expanded to include Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria . They were collectively known as the Axis Powers . Then on November 5 , 1937 , at the Reich Chancellory , Adolf Hitler held a secret meeting and stated his plans for acquiring \"living space\" ( Lebensraum ) for the German people.", "On September 27, 1940, ostensibly under Hirohito's leadership, Japan was a contracting partner of the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, forming the Axis Powers. Before that, in July 1939, the Emperor quarreled with his brother, Prince Chichibu, who was visiting him three times a week to support the treaty, and reprimanded the army minister Seishirō Itagaki. But after the success of the Wehrmacht in Europe, the Emperor consented to the alliance.", "Following the lull in fighting, known as the \"Phoney War\", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the mean time attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Powers.", "1940 – World War II: Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and the Empire of Japan signed the Tripartite Pact in Berlin, officially forming a military alliance known as the Axis powers.", "In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France had no choice but to declare war on Germany. World War II had begun.", "After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the \"Pact of Steel\", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the \"Phoney War\" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941. ", "As the war progressed, alliances and allegiances shifted. After the fall of France, a puppet state called Vichy France was set up as an ally of Germany and Italy, including overseas possessions in South America, Africa, and Asia. The Soviet Union, who had signed a non-aggression pact with Germany in 1939 and had helped occupy Poland in 1939, was invaded by Germany on 22 June 1941, becoming the largest and most important of the Allied nations. The Japanese attack on the United States in December 1941 resulted in Hitler declaring war on the United States, though the US had been unofficially aiding enemies of Japan, Germany and Italy for some time.", "To begin with, Japan, Germany, and Italy during WWII were aggressively invading others; the Soviet Union was \"on defense\". After German invasion, the Soviet Union was fighting for its survival. There was no capacity for the Soviet Union to expand towards Japan during world war II.", "On April 6th, 1941, Germany launched a massive assault on Yugoslavia. Within 12 days of the assault Yugoslavia was crushed. Four days after the German assault, on April 10th, 1941, Slavko Kvaternik came forward from the region of Croatia and proclaimed \"a free and independent State of Croatia\" under the direction of Ante Pavelic. At the time of the German assault and later during Kvaternik's declaration, Pavelic was in Italy. He arrived in Croatia on April 14th and took up control of the newly formed independent State of Croatia. On April 17th, Croatia declared war on the British, thus making Croatia a formal Axis partner.", "The outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939 encouraged the Japanese leadership to consider expanding military and political influence into Southeast Asia. Japan urgently needed the region's natural resources, including oil and rubber, for its war effort. In 1940, after France and the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) had fallen to the Germans, the government of Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro announced Japan's intention to build a \"Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,\" a self-sufficient economic and political bloc under Japanese leadership. In September 1940 the Konoe cabinet concluded the so-called Axis Pact, an alliance with Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, and received permission from the Nazi-backed Vichy government in France to move troops into northern French Indochina (the area that is now Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos). The Japanese also tried to negotiate an economic and political foothold in the Dutch East Indies, whose colonial government had declared itself independent of the fallen home government of the Netherlands.", "At the beginning of the period, Britain was the world's most powerful nation, having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II (1939–1945), sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in a surprise attack on the United States, bringing it into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the east and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Free France from the west. The war ended with the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan. Japan later became a western ally with an economy based on the manufacture of consumer goods and trade. Germany was divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union (East Germany and eastward) became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Meanwhile, Western European countries were influenced by the American Marshall Plan and made a quick economic recovery, becoming major allies of the United States under capitalist economies and relatively democratic governments.", "After World War II erupted (1939) in Europe, Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy, sent troops to Indochina (1940), and announced the intention of creating a \"Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere\" under Japan's leadership. In Apr., 1941, a neutrality treaty with Russia was triumphantly concluded. In Oct., 1941, the militarists achieved complete control in Japan, when Gen. Hideki Tojo Tojo, Hideki", "Greece's entry into World War II was precipitated by the Italian invasion on October 28, 1940. That date is celebrated in Greece by the one-word reply--ochi (\"no\")--symbolizing the Greek Prime Minister's rejection of the surrender demand made by Mussolini. Despite Italian superiority in numbers and equipment, determined Greek defenders drove the invaders back into Albania. Hitler was forced to divert German troops to protect his southern flank and attacked Greece in early April 1941. By the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country, although Greek resistance was never entirely suppressed. German forces withdrew in October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens.", "Despite the country's numerically small and ill-equipped armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the Allied efforts in World War II. At the start of the war Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albania on 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see Greco-Italian War). This marked the first Allied victory in the war.", "1944 - During World War II, the Allies launched a major attack against the Japanese in Hollandia, New Guinea.", "On December 8, 1941, the Netherlands declared war on Japan. On January 10, 1942 the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).", "* October 28 – WWII: Italian troops invade Greece, meeting strong resistance from Greek troops and civilians. This action signals the beginning of the Balkan Campaign." ]

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[ "President Salvador Allende of Chile, the world's first democratically-elected Marxist head of state, has died in a revolt led by army leaders.", "Salvador Allende Gossens (Spanish pronunciation: [salßa'ðo? a'?ende '?osens]; 26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and politician who is generally considered the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a [ country in Latin America.[1] ]", "Weegy: Salvador Allende Gossens (Spanish pronunciation: [salßa'ðo? a'?ende '?osens]; 26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and politician who is generally considered the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a [ country in Latin America.[1] ]", "Salvador Allende, a member of the Marxist Popular Unity coalition, won the Chilean presidential election in 1970 , becoming the first democratically elected Marxist leader in Latin America.", "In 1970, Salvador Allende became the first president in a non-Communist country freely elected on a Marxist program. Allende quickly established relations with Cuba and the People's Republic of China, introduced Marxist economic and social reforms, and nationalized many private companies, including U.S.-owned ones. In Sept. 1973, Allende was overthrown and killed in a military coup covertly sponsored by the CIA, ending a 46-year era of constitutional government in Chile.", "..... Click the link for more information. , head of the Popular Unity party, a coalition of leftist political parties, won a plurality of votes in the presidential election and became the first Marxist to be elected president by popular vote in Latin America. Allende, in an attempt to turn Chile into a socialist state, nationalized many private companies, instituted programs of land reform, and, in foreign affairs, sought closer ties with Communist countries.", "Владимир Ильич Ульянов), was the Bolshevik Leader of the 1917 October Revolution , and the first Head of State of the Soviet Union ; in the course of his political career, he used the pseudonyms Lenin, V. I. Lenin, Nikolai Lenin, and N. Lenin. His contribution to political science , Leninism , is his development and interpretations of urban Marxist theory to fit the agrarian Russian Empire of that time, with Leninist theory turning Marx on his head by placing politics over economics.", "Presenter: As we were saying earlier, the military takeover in Chile has ousted Salvador Allende who had been the world's one and only elected Marxist President.", "Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara (June 14,[1] 1928 – October 9, 1967), commonly known as Che Guevara, El Che, or simply Che, was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, politician, author, physician, military theorist, and guerrilla leader. Since death, his stylized image has become a ubiquitous global symbol of counterculture.", "Marxism achieved its first great triumph in the Russian Revolution (1917–21; when the lower class overthrew three hundred years of czar rule), when its successful leader, Vladimir Ilich Lenin (1870–1924), a lifelong follower of Marx, organized the Soviet Union as a proletarian dictatorship (country ruled by the lower class). Lenin based the new government on Marx's philosophy as Lenin interpreted it. Thus, Marx became a world figure and his theories became a subject of universal attention and controversy (open to dispute). Marx wrote hundreds of articles, brochures, and reports, but only five books.", "Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, alias Lenin (;  – 21 January 1924), was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party communist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his political theories are known as Leninism.", "Mao Zedong, and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976), was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution. He was the architect and founding father of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949, and held control over the nation until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism–Leninism, along with his military strategies and brand of policies, are collectively known as Maoism.", "Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Marxist–Leninist government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform, which had replaced the Comintern, and Titoism was branded \"deviationist\". Albania also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state after World War II. ", "Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov; 22 April 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He served as the leader of the Russian SFSR from 1917, and then concurrently as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1922, until his death. Politically a Marxist, his theoretical contributions to Marxist thought are known as Leninism, which coupled with Marxian economic theory have collectively come to be known as Marxism–Leninism.", "Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (April 22, 1870 – January 21, 1924) was a Russian revolutionary, and the leader of the Bolshevik party. He was the first leader of the USSR and the Communist government that took over Russia in 1917. Lenin is also known as the creator of Leninism a version of Communism that Lenin adapted for the Soviet Union.", "Vladimir Ilyich Uljanov, better known under his pseudonym Vladimir Lenin Leninism was the founder and leader of Russia and the Soviet Union from the revolution in 1917 until his death in 1924.", "(1921 - 2008) Succeeded Zhou Enlai as Premier after Zhou's death in 1976. Succeeded Mao Zedong as the de facto leader of China after winning a power struggle with the so-called \"Gang of Four\". (Full biography) Archive", "On October 1, 1949, Mao proclaimed the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), a one-party state controlled by the CPC. In the following years Mao solidified his control through land reform campaigns against landlords, and perceived enemies of the state he termed as \"counter-revolutionaries\". In 1957, he launched the Great Leap Forward campaign that aimed to rapidly transform China's economy from an agrarian economy to an industrial one. The campaign contributed to a widespread famine, whose death toll is estimated at between 15 and 45 million. In 1966, he initiated the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, a program to remove \"counter-revolutionary\" elements of Chinese society that lasted 10 years and which was marked by violent class struggle, widespread destruction of cultural artifacts and unprecedented elevation of Mao's personality cult. In 1972, Mao welcomed American President Richard Nixon in Beijing, signalling a policy of opening China, which was furthered under the rule of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992). Mao suffered a series of heart attacks in 1976, dying in that September, aged 82. He was succeeded as Paramount leader by Hua Guofeng (1976–1978), who was quickly sidelined and replaced by Deng.", "Josip Broz Tito, original name Josip Broz (born May 7, 1892, Kumrovec, near Zagreb , Croatia , Austria-Hungary [now in Croatia]—died May 4, 1980, Ljubljana , Yugoslavia [now in Slovenia]), Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman. He was secretary-general (later president) of the Communist Party (League of Communists) of Yugoslavia (1939–80), supreme commander of the Yugoslav Partisans (1941–45) and the Yugoslav People’s Army (1945–80), and marshal (1943–80), premier (1945–53), and president (1953–80) of Yugoslavia . Tito was the chief architect of the “second Yugoslavia,” a socialist federation that lasted from World War II until 1991. He was the first Communist leader in power to defy Soviet hegemony , a backer of independent roads to socialism (sometimes referred to as “national communism”), and a promoter of the policy of nonalignment between the two hostile blocs in the Cold War .", "Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi (and numerous variants) (;; ; - 20 October 2011), commonly known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He governed Libya as Revolutionary Chairman of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then as the \"Brotherly Leader\" of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011. Initially ideologically committed to Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, he came to rule according to his own Third International Theory before embracing Pan-Africanism.", "Deng Xiaoping zh-Deng_Xiaoping.ogg listen; pinyin: Dèng Xiǎopíng; Wade-Giles: Teng Hsiao-p'ing; 22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a prominent Chinese politician. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng became a reformer who led China towards market economics. While Deng never held office as the head of state or the head of government, he nonetheless served as the Paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.", "Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a Russian communist revolutionary,politician and political theorist. He served as the leader of the Russian SFSRfrom 1917, and then concurrently as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1922,until his death.", "Zhou Enlai (; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou served under Mao Zedong and was instrumental in the Communist Party's rise to power, and later in consolidating its control, forming foreign policy, and developing the Chinese economy.", "(1892-1980). The Yugoslav Partisans, an army of freedom fighters who successfully fought Hitler’s armies in World War II, were led by Tito. After the war he became the leader of the new Yugoslav socialist state. Officially elected president on Jan. 13, 1953, Tito remained the ruler of Yugoslavia until his death, providing his country with more than 30 years of stable leadership. By breaking with the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, he proclaimed the right of each socialist nation to pursue its own course. He also conducted and promoted a policy of not politically committing his country to support either the Soviet Union or the United States. This neutrality policy led to close ties with other neutralist leaders, such as Egypt’s president Gamal Abdel Nasser and India’s prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and to the founding of a conference of nonaligned countries in 1961 (see International Relations, \"The Third World\"). With them he denounced colonialism and proclaimed the equality of large and small states.", "Mobutu Sese Seko, also called Mobutu Sese Seko Koko Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, original name Joseph (-Désiré) Mobutu (born October 14, 1930, Lisala, Belgian Congo [now Democratic Republic of the Congo]—died September 7, 1997, Rabat , Morocco ), president of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) who seized power in a 1965 coup and ruled for some 32 years before being ousted in a rebellion in 1997.", "Leader of the Soviet Union from 1922 - 1953. Established government based on the principles of Leninism.", "Zog I, Albanian in full Ahmed Bey Zogu (born October 8, 1895, Castle Burgajet, Albania —died April 9, 1961, Suresnes , France ), president of Albania from 1925 to 1928 and king from 1928 to 1939. Though able to manipulate Albania’s internal affairs to his own advantage, he came to depend heavily on Benito Mussolini’s Italy and was eventually ousted by the Italian dictator on the eve of World War II .", "Enver Hoxha ( 16 October 1908 – 11 April 1985 ) was the Communist leader of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985.", "Mohammad Rezā Shāh Pahlavi (Persian: محمدرضا شاه پهلوی, pronounced [mohæmmæd-rezɒː-ʃɒːh-e pæhlæviː]) ( 26 October 1919 – 27 July 1980 ) was the Shah of the Imperial State of Iran from 1941 until he was deposed in 1979 by the Islamic Revolution .", "Chaim Azriel Weizmann ( ', ; 27 November 1874 – 9 November 1952) D.Sc, Sc.D, LL.D was a Zionist leader and Israeli statesman who served as President of the Zionist Organization and later as the first President of Israel. He was elected on 16 February 1949, and served until his death in 1952. Weizmann convinced the United States government to recognize the newly formed state of Israel.", "Apollo Milton Obote (28 December 1925 – 10 October 2005 ) was a Ugandan political leader who led Uganda to independence in 1962 from British colonial administration. Following the nation's independence, he served as Prime Minister of Uganda from 1962 to 1966 and President of Uganda from 1966 to 1971, then again from 1980 to 1985. He was overthrown by Idi Amin in 1971, but regained power after Amin's 1979 overthrow. His second period of rule was marred by repression and the deaths of many civilians as a result of a civil war known as the Ugandan Bush War.", "He never held office as the head of state or the head of government, but served as the de facto leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s. He pioneered \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics\"." ]

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[ "The Rosetta Stone is a very famous historical artifact, almost everyone has heard of it and most people know it has something to do with language. It is a black basalt slab that provided scholars with their first key to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Prior to this point Egyptian hieroglyphics were considered to be a pictorial form of writing without a real grammar and the Egyptians were considered by the English to be a backward people. Using the Rosetta Stone as a dictionary, scholars were able to translate other inscriptions and manuscripts written in hieroglyphics opening up three thousand years of remarkable Egyptian history. The stone was discovered in 1799 near el-Rashid, known as Rosetta in Egypt, by a French engineer of Napoleon's army, Captain François-Xavier Bouchard, built into the wall of an ancient Arab fort (Fort St Julien) which he'd been assigned to tear down.", "The Rosetta stone is a dark grey granite slab three feet tall with a pink vein running through the top left corner, and it is carved with writing in three scripts:  Greek, Egyptian demotic, and Egyptian hieroglyphic. Because the text of each of the Egyptian scripts is the same as the Greek text, which scholars were able to translate quickly after discovery of the monument, the Rosetta Stone became the key to deciphering the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. It is the most famous discovery made by the French forces in Egypt. When it was taken to Cairo and given over to the scholars of the Institute of Egypt , they recognized immediately that it was the single most important object in their care.", "The mission is named after the Rosetta Stone, a slab of volcanic basalt found near the Egyptian town of Rashid (Rosetta) in 1799. The stone revolutionised our understanding of the past. By comparing the three carved inscriptions on the stone (written in two forms of Egyptian and Greek), historians were able to decipher the mysterious hieroglyphics – the written language of ancient Egypt. As a result of this breakthrough, scholars were able to piece together the history of a lost culture.", "The Rosetta Stone, which is housed in the British Museum, is a black, possibly basalt slab with three languages on it (Greek, demotic and hieroglyphs) each saying the same thing. Because the words are translated into the other languages, it provided Jean-Francois Champollion the key to the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphs .", "In July 1799, a French officer of engineers unearthed a black, basalt slab of stone with Egyptian hieroglyphic, Greek letters, and a cursive Demonic Egyptian script inscribed on it. When it was discovered that the Greek text was the actual translation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the slab of stone became the master key to deciphering the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and the foundation to modern Egyptology.", "The Museum can boast of the largest collection of Egyptian artifacts in the world outside of the Cairo museum. They range from the pre-dynastic period to the Christian period and include a famous collection of mummies and coffins, jewelry, weapons, furniture, and tools. The Rosetta Stone is perhaps the most famous of all the Egyptian artefacts. It is a basalt slab with identical texts in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek, thus unlocking the key to Egyptian hieroglyphic translation.", "The ancient Egyptians used the distinctive script known today as hieroglyphs (Greek for \"sacred words\") for almost 4,000 years. Hieroglyphs were written on papyrus, carved in stone on tomb and temple walls, and used to decorate many objects of cultic and daily life use. Altogether there are over 700 different hieroglyphs, some of which represent sounds or syllables; others that serve as determinatives to clarify the meaning of a word. The hieroglyphic script originated shortly before 3100 B.C., at the very onset of pharaonic civilization. The last hieroglyphic inscription in Egypt was written in the 5th century A.D., some 3500 years later. For almost 1500 years after that, the language was unable to be read. In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was discovered in Egypt by Napoleon's troops. The Rosetta Stone is a trilingual decree (written in hieroglyphs, Greek, and Demotic) dating to the time of Ptolemy V (205-180 B.C.). Its discovery proved to be a crucial link in unlocking the mysteries of Egyptian hieroglyphs and in 1822, enabling Jean-François Champollion to re-decipher the hieroglyphic signs, thereby allowing the modern study of Egyptian language to begin.", "And why is it so important you ask? Its importance lies not in what is written but rather in how it is written. The same inscription appears in three different languages, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Egyptian demotic and Greek. The Rosetta Stone was the key to the understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs, enabling scholars to decipher ancient Egyptian scripts for the first time.", "The Rosetta Stone, 196 BC. A basalt slab inscribed with a decree of the Pharaoh...The Rosetta Stone, 196 BC. A basalt slab inscribed with a decree of the Pharaoh Ptolemy Epiphanes (Ptolemy V) (205-180 BC) in three languages; Greek, Hieroglyphic and Demotic script. Discovered near Rosetta in Egypt in 1799, the stone became the key to deciphering Egyptian inscriptions. It was translated by Jean-Francois Champollion between 1822 and 1824. From the British Museum. LessMore", "Rosetta stone The agency through which a puzzle is solved; something that provides the initial step in the understanding of a previously incomprehensible design or situation. The Rosetta stone, discovered in 1799 by the French engineer M. Boussard, is an ancient basalt table which bears inscriptions in two languages—Egyptian and Greek—and three alphabets—hieroglyphic, demotic (a cursive type of Egyptian hieroglyphics), and Greek. This archaeological windfall furnished the key to translating the hitherto indecipherable Egyptian hieroglyphics. The expression’s current figurative use as a reference to the first clue in unraveling a mystery was illustrated by Ellsworth Ferris, as cited in Webster’s Third:", "In the ninth year of the reign of Egyptian King Ptolemy V Epiphanes, the temple priests recorded the events of his kingship on a black basalt stone. Discovered in 1799 by Napoleon's army in Rashid, or Rosetta, Egypt, this stone provided the key to the oldest and most difficult Egyptian writing system, hieroglyphics.", "Many art works of the period contain hieroglyphs and hieroglyphs themselves constitute an amazing part of ancient Egyptian arts. Knowledge of hieroglyphic script was lost after it was superseded by other scripts. The script was decrypted by Champollion who studied the Rosetta stone for 14 years and discovered the key.", "The Rosetta Stone is a rock stele, found in 1799, inscribed with a decree issued at Memphis, Egypt, in 196 BC on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The decree appears in three scripts: the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion is Demotic script, and the lowest is Ancient Greek. Because it presents essentially the same text in all three scripts (with some minor differences among them), the stone provided the key to the modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs.", "Two particular areas of study resulted in significant and long-lasting discoveries or achievements. The savants traveled with the army and the geography was charted and a map of Egypt was drawn (completed in 1806) that remained classified until the end of Napoleon's reign. The great monuments were examined and the science of Egyptology was founded. One of the most important discoveries in that field was the Rosetta Stone. The Stone is a block of basalt with engravings made on its polished surface. It was named after the village where it was found, Rashid (known as Rosetta to Europeans) located a few miles from the sea in the western delta of the Nile. It measures 3'9\" (114 cm) in height, 2'4-1/2\" (72cm) in width and 11\" (28cm) in thickness. It weighs just under a ton (762kg). It is somewhat damaged, missing a large part of the upper left-hand corner, and a smaller part of its lower right corner. The chiseled inscriptions are in two languages, Greek and Egyptian, but three scripts. The first of the Egyptian scripts is Hieroglyphs, used 3,000 years ago at the time of the First Dynasty. The second was later determined to be Demotic, a cursive language that evolved from Hieroglyphs and dating from 643 B.C.", "The Rosetta Stone was a black basalt slab with the same piece of writing carved in three different languages: Hieroglyphics (top), Demotic (middle) and Greek (bottom).", "Egyptians could carve hieroglyphs into stone, mud brick, or papyrus (paper made by pounding the stems of a reed until they stick together). Egyptian writing was so difficult that only a very few people learned to read it. If these “scribes” worked very hard, they could become court officials or priests. After Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire, knowledge of how to speak and write Ancient Egyptian disappeared. In the early 1800s, a large slab of stone with three different forms of writing on it was found. Because it was found near the town of Rosetta in the Egyptian delta, it was called the Rosetta Stone.", "The stone was discovered in July 1799, one year after the French had arrived in Egypt. Captain François-Xavier Bouchard, an engineer and officer in Napoleons Egyptian army, was in charge of the demolition of an ancient wall in the city of Rosetta on a branch of the Nile, a few miles from the sea. The Rosetta Stone was built into the wall, but Bouchard recognized that the stone might make it possible to decipher hieroglyphics. So he saved it, and the stone was taken to the scientists in Cairo in mid-August 1799.", "Two other inscriptions of the Memphis decrees have been found since the discovery of the Rosetta Stone: the Nubayrah Stele and an inscription found at the Temple of Philae . Unlike the Rosetta Stone, their hieroglyphic inscriptions were relatively intact, and though the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone had been deciphered long before the discovery of the other copies of the decree, subsequent Egyptologists including Wallis Budge used these other inscriptions to further refine the actual hieroglyphs that must have been used in the lost portions of the hieroglyphic register on the Rosetta Stone. [35]", "Thomas Young, an English physicist, was the first to show that some of the hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone wrote the sounds of a royal name, that of Ptolemy. The French scholar Jean-François Champollion then realized that hieroglyphs recorded the sound of the Egyptian language and laid the foundations of our knowledge of ancient Egyptian language and culture.", "a part of an inscribed granite stela that was originally about six feet tall and was set up in 196 BC; the inscriptions in hieroglyphics and Demotic and Greek gave the first clues to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics", "This was a tremendous piece of luck because it enabled scholars to unlock the hieroglyphic code and without the stone, we would know nothing of the ancient Egyptians, and the details of their three thousand years of history would remain a mystery.", "Hieroglyphics was invented in Ancient Egypt about the same time as cuneiform in Mesopotamia, but scientists believe that cuneiform came first.", "At some unknown time, the Giza Necropolis had become abandoned, with the Sphinx becoming buried up to its shoulders in sand. Thus. the first documented attempt at an excavation dates to c. 1400 BC, when the young Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he placed a granite slab, known as the Dream Stele, inscribed with the following (an extract):", "The Rosetta Stone was found near the Egyptian village of el-Rashid (or Rosetta) around 196 BC. Today the stone, part of a larger slab, lies in Room 4 at the British Museum.", "Danelius should certainly know, precludes an identification of the two words. In point of fact, the peculiarities of the Egyptian writing system are such as to makes the two words less similar in appearance than the conventional renderings, or even the transliterations just given, might seem to allow. [For the present, at least, I am technically unable to cite the hieroglyphic writings here to show how different they actually are. Readers with access to Egyptological materials can compare the writings of �3m �Asiatic� in A. Erman and H. Grapow, W�rterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache, Vol. I, p. 167 with the writing of �mw in K. Sethe, Urkunden des �gyptischen Altertums, Vol. IV, p. 329, line 6.]", "Fayum alphabet - noun. the Fayum alphabet is an Ancient Greek abecedary inscribed on four copper plates, purportedly from Fayum, Egypt. It may preserve the earliest form of the Greek alphabet. It is the only known Greek abecedary which ends in the letter tau(T), as does the ancestral Phoenician alphabet; all other Greek abecedaries have at least the addition of non-Phoenician upsilon (Y).", "The Rosetta Stone is a black granite stone discovered n 1799 by a French soldier in the town of Rosetta (today called Rashid) in Egypt. It was originally engraved in 196 B.C. under the orders of king Ptolemy V Epiphanes.", "The Coffin Texts superceded the Pyramid Texts as early as the VIIIth Dynasty, but their principal sources are the later cemeteries of the nomarchs of Middle Egypt in the XIIth Dynasty. The largest number of spells of this textual tradition was found in Deir el-Bersha, the cemetery of Hermopolis, the city of the god of writing, Thoth. These spells (1.185 of them) appear mainly on coffins of officials and their subordinates, but also on tomb walls, stelæ, canoptic chests, mummy masks and papyri. Important spells were entirely in red. ", "One of the slabs contains 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the characters are also found in ancient Greek, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian.", "Linear A and may have come from Crete. Inscriptions appear on baked clay tablets, bronze votives, ivories, and seals. It has not been deciphered.", "There are 2 encoded \"doors\", one at the beginning of section 3, the partially indented DYAHR, and the other at the beginning of section 4, the DOHW?OBKR. The ? in the center of this \"door\" is the ?-doorway referred to by the Carter account of the opening of the tomb, and it is where you insert the CANDLE to solve section 4. The H's of these two \"doors\" may be the \"seals\" of the Necropolis inspectors that sealed Tut's tomb, both at the bottom and top of the passageway.", "The original shape of the monument is shown in the final portion of the last sentence written in hieroglyphs." ]

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[ "800:   Charlemagne, king of the Franks, is crowned \"Emperor of the Romans\" by Pope Leo III in Rome. For the first time in 300 years, there is an emperor of the \"East\" and an emperor of the \"West\".", "Charlemagne (2 April 742 or 747 – 28 January 814) (also Charles the Great; from Latin, Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus), son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, was the king of the Franks from 768 to 814 and king of the Lombards from 774 to 814. He was crowned Imperator Augustus in Rome on Christmas Day, 800 by Pope Leo III and is therefore regarded as the founder of the Holy Roman Empire, a reincarnation of the ancient Western Roman Empire. Through military conquest and defense, he solidified and expanded his realm to cover most of Western Europe and is today regarded as the founding father of both France and Germany. His was the first truly imperial power in the West since the fall of Rome.", "Charlemagne is a man that was born circa 742.  He is one of the greatest rulers in world history and became King of the Franks in 768.  In 800 he was named Emperor of the Romans, a position that he held for the remainder of his life.  In the Holy Roman Empire he was known as Charles I and was the first Holy Roman Emperor.  During Charlemagne’s lifetime he expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire, which covered much of Western and Central Europe.  Charlemagne is regarded as the founding father of both the French and German monarchies, as well as the father of Europe.", "In A.D. 800, Charlemagne was crowned as imperator Romanorum, again restoring the Roman Empire in the West. In Charlemagne, Western Europe had a Christian Caesar, a Roman emperor born of Germanic race. His realm was the spiritual heir of the old Western Roman Empire.", "Pepin's son Charlemagne continued in the footsteps of his father and grandfather. He further expanded and consolidated the Frankish kingdom (now commonly called the Carolingian Empire). His reign also saw a cultural rebirth, commonly called the Carolingian Renaissance. Though the exact reasons are unclear, Charlemagne was crowned \"Roman Emperor\" by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. Upon Charlemagne's death, his empire had united much of modern-day France, western Germany and northern Italy. The years after his death illustrated how Germanic his empire remained. Rather than an orderly succession, his empire was divided in accordance with Frankish inheritance custom, which resulted in instability that plagued his empire until the last king of a united empire, Charles the Fat, died in 887, which resulted in a permanent split of the empire into West Francia and East Francia. West Francia would be ruled by Carolingians until 987 and East Francia until 911, after which time the partition of the empire into France and Germany was complete.", "In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an extensive expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, and beyond, linking the Frankish kingdom with Papal lands. On Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. ", "Charlemagne who became King of the Franks in 768ce and Emperor in 800 ce was the son of Pepin the Short and Grandson of Charles the Hammer who stopped the Muslims from invading Europe from Spain. He promoted education for his family and his empire and supported the development of culture.", "800: Charlemagne, king of the Franks, is crowned emperor by Pope Leo III and founds the Holy Roman Empire", "The apex of Frankish influence was seen in the Carolingian dynasty under Charlemagne (768-814) who was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800 by Pope Leo III. The era of Carolingian rule saw the gradual", "Charlemagne was the King of the Franks who conquered Italy and took the Iron Crown of Lombardy in 774 and, on a visit to ...", "Charlemagne, or Charles I, was one of the great leaders of the Middle Ages. He was King of the Franks and later became the Holy Roman Emperor. He lived from April 2, 742 until January 28, 814. Charlemagne means Charles the Great.", "DEFINITION: The king of the Franks from 768-814 AD, who conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy, subdued the Saxons, and annexed Bavaria to his kingdom. He is one of the greatest historical and legendary heroes, son of Pepin the Short, restored the kingdom's laws and economy, and re-established the institutions of the Western Church. Charlemagne was an able military leader, fighting campaigns in Spain and Hungary, uniting into one superstate almost all of the Christian lands of western Europe. In 800, he also became emperor. His patronage and accomplishments became known as the Carolingian Renaissance.", "Carolingian Empire (800–888) is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and ends with the death of Charles the Fat. This Empire can be seen as the later history of the Frankish Realm or the early history of France and of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Pepin’s son was Charlemagne. Crowned emperor of the West in 800, Charlemagne expanded his lands by conquest. He gave his subjects an efficient administration, created an admirable legal system, and labored for the rebirth of learning, piety, and the arts.", "On Christmas Day in the year 800 A.D. Charlemagne, king of the Franks and part of the Carolingian line,", "                800 - 814 Charlemagne : king of Franks; born in Aachen; son of Pepin the Short; grandson of", "The name given by later generations to Charles, King of the Franks , first sovereign of the Christian Empire of the West; born 2 April, 742; died at Aachen , 28 January, 814. Note, however, that the place of his birth (whether Aachen or Liège ) has never been fully ascertained, while the traditional date has been set one or more years later by recent writers; if Alcuin is to be interpreted literally the year should be 745. At the time of Charles' birth, his father , Pepin the Short , Mayor of the Palace, of the line of Arnulf, was, theoretically, only the first subject of Childeric III, the last Merovingian King of the Franks ; but this modest title implied that real power, military, civil, and even ecclesiastical , of which Childeric's crown was only the symbol. It is not certain that Bertrada (or Bertha ), the mother of Charlemagne, a daughter of Charibert, Count of Laon, was legally married to Pepin until some years later than either 742 or 745.", "Charlemagne, Charles the Great, King of Franks, and Emperor of Western Europe, was born in 742 A.D., and became a famous commander in one of the great centers of power in history: The Sacred Roman Empire. Charlemagne's empire was based on the fighting strength of the Franks, a confederation of barbarian tribes from the land of the Rhine in German. They fulfilled the emptiness of power after the fall of the Roman Empire. Their insatiable ambition, sometimes increased due to the goal of extending Christendom, led them to France, Germany, Italy and many other territories. An aggressive conqueror, wise politician, statesman, and fortunate General, Charlemagne set the shape of the vast empire that, in a different way, has reached to modern times.", "The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pippin's son Charlemagne, who in 771 reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Islamic Spain as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony (804) after prolonged campaigning.", "In 768, when Charlemagne was 26, he and his younger brother Carloman inherited the kingdom of the Franks. In 771 Carloman died, and Charlemagne became sole ruler of the kingdom. At that time the Franks were falling back into barbarian ways, neglecting their education and religion. The Saxons of northern Europe were still pagans. In the south, the Roman Catholic church was asserting its power to recover land confiscated by the Lombard kingdom of Italy. Europe was in turmoil.", "The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pippin's son Charlemagne . In 771 Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Islamic Spain as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony (804) after prolonged campaigning.", "..... Click the link for more information.  to recognize Carloman's sons, Charlemagne intervened (773) on the side of the pope and defeated the Lombards. At Rome, Charlemagne was received by Adrian as patrician of the Romans (a title he had received with his father in 754), and he confirmed his father's donation to the Holy See. Shortly afterward he took Pavia, the Lombard capital, and assumed the iron crown of the Lombard kings of Italy.", "Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, was the son of Charles Martel, and at first shared with his brother Carloman the viceroyalty of the kingdom under Hilderik III.; in 747 Carloman retired to a monastery, and five years later Pepin deposed Hilderik and ascended the throne; his kingdom embraced the valleys of the Rhine, the Rhône, and the Seine; he united his interests with those of the Church, and in 756 entered Italy to rescue the Pope from the threatened domination of the Lombards; reduced Aistulf of Lombardy to vassalage, assumed the title of Patrician of Rome, and by bestowing on Pope Stephen III. the “Exarchate” of the Roman empire, laid the foundation of papal temporal sovereignty, five cities being placed under his jurisdiction; his subsequent exploits included the conquest of the Loire Valley and the expulsion of the Moors from France; his fame was overshadowed by that of his son Charlemagne; d. 678.", "814 Jan 28 - Charlemagne dies at 70, turns over power to only living legitimate son, Louis I the Pious who becomes Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire", "Charlemagne used harsh measures in subduing the Saxons and virtually exterminating the Avars. Though he had essentially amassed an empire, he did not style himself \"emperor,\" but called himself the King of the Franks and Lombards.", "CHARLEMAGNE, Carolingian king (768 - 814) and emperor (800 - 814) (born April 2, 746 at Aachen - died Jan 28, 814 at Aachen). He left issue by his mistress SIGRADA (living c780 - c790). CHARLEMAGNE and SIGRADA were the parents of,", "The title dux et princeps Francorum, or duke and prince of the Franks, was the title adopted by Pepin of Heristal ...", "Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pippin the Short (714 – 24 September 768, reigned from 751) and his wife Bertrada of Laon (720 – 12 July 783), daughter of Caribert of Laon and Bertrada of Cologne. The reliable records name only Carloman and Gisela as his younger siblings. Later accounts, however, indicate that Redburga, wife of King Egbert of Wessex, might have been his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him Roland's maternal nephew through Lady Bertha.", "Charlemagne (English: Charles the Great, Dutch: Karel de Grote, German: Karl der Grosse, Latin: Carolus Magnus) was born on April 2, 742 in Northern Europe. Charles was the eldest son of Pepin III and Bertrada of Laon .", "Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pepin the Short (714 – 24 September 768, reigned from 751) and his wife Bertrada of Laon (720 – 12 July 783), daughter of Caribert of Laon and Bertrada of Cologne. Records name only Carloman, Gisela, and three short-lived children named Pepin, Chrothais and Adelais as his younger siblings.", "Pepin (born Carloman but renamed in this year by his father, Charlemagne), is given command of the Italian portion of the empire after the successful conquest of the Lombards . Charlemagne's youngest son, Louis the Pious, is given Aquitaine .", "Pepin the Short (, , c. 714 – 24 September 768) was the King of the Franks from 751 until his death. He was the first of the Carolingians to become king. " ]

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[ "The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the kingdoms of Scotland and England (after the English Civil War ) under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard from 1649 to 1660.", "By the early seventeenth century, Parliament had become a prominent part of the political landscape, which led to confrontations between the King and leading Members of Parliament [12] and the outbreak of two civil wars, the latter resulting in the beheading of King Charles I on January 3, 1649. [13]   The period 1649–60 was known as the Interregnum, when England was ruled as a Republican nation.  Power was vested mainly in the “Rump Parliament,” which abolished both the House of Lords and the Monarchy.  In 1653, Oliver Cromwell forcibly dissolved the Rump Parliament, and army commanders appointed 140 members to a new assembly, known as the “Barebones Parliament.”  This Parliament appointed Cromwell as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland.  The Protectorate Parliament succeeded the Barebones Parliament; however, it was not a success and paved the way to military rule, which was extremely unpopular.  The Rump Parliament was later reinstated and, voted that the government should be led by a king, returned Charles II, the son of Charles I, to the throne. [14]   The return from republican state to monarchy became known as the Restoration.  Charles II called few Parliaments and was succeeded by James II.  James II was unpopular and was eventually overthrown by Prince William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch Republic.  With William’s consent, a new Parliament was called in 1689 and offered the Crown to William and his wife, Mary. [15]", "Puritan interregnumthe term refers to both the Puritan government established under Oliver Cromwell after the civil war against the British monarch and those years in which that government lasted (1649-1658). This interregnum marks the end of the English Renaissance", "The overall outcome of the war was threefold: the trial and execution of Charles I; the exile of his son, Charles II; and the replacement of English monarchy with, at first, the Commonwealth of England (1649–53) and then the Protectorate (1653–59) under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although the idea of parliament as the ruling power of England was legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. ", "Charles II's father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King on 5 February 1649, England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, and the country was a de facto republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic, and the Spanish Netherlands.", "The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658. [137]", "The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658. [138]", "The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658. [125]", "Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) - Military leader and politician who led an overthrow of the British monarchy in the English Civil War; established the Commonwealth of England over which he ruled as Lord Protector.", "Between 1642 and 1660, following the English Civil War and the trial and execution of King Charles I , England became a republic . It was ruled by Parliament and a Council of State under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell , a puritan army officer who was declared Lord Protector of a united Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653. Because the Stuart Royal family had gone into exile in Europe, this period is also known as the interregnum . ", "The English Civil War 1642-1649 was fought between the royalist forces loyal to King Charles I and the parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. The Royalist were defeated at the Battle of Naseby in 1645 and Charles I was caught and executed on 30 January 1649. Cromwell declared Britain a republic 'The Commonwealth' and went on to become it's Lord Protector. Following his death in 1658 Cromwell was succeeded briefly by his son Richard before the monarchy was restored and Charles II became king on 29 May 1660.", "In the war the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The king was tried for treason and beheaded (1649). The monarchy was abolished, and the country was governed by the Rump Parliament, the remainder of the last Parliament (the Long Parliament) Charles had called (1640), until 1653, when Cromwell dissolved it and established the Protectorate. Cromwell brutally subjugated Ireland, made a single commonwealth of Scotland and England, and strengthened England's naval power and position in international trade. When he died (1658), his son, Richard, succeeded as Lord Protector but governed ineffectively.", "Oliver Cromwell, the inspiring military leader who led the Parliamentary forces to victory in the English Civil War, is the man most responsible for the eventual establishment of parliamentary democracy as the English form of government.", "The period of Cromwellian rule (1649-1659), between the Stuart dynastic rules of Charles I and Charles II.", "After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, Charles's chances of regaining the Crown seemed slim. Oliver Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son, Richard Cromwell. However, the new Lord Protector abdicated in 1659. The Protectorate of England was abolished, and the Commonwealth of England established. During the civil and military unrest which followed, George Monck, the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy and sought to restore the monarchy. Monck and his army marched into the City of London and forced the Long Parliament to dissolve itself. For the first time in almost twenty years, the members of Parliament faced a general election. A Royalist House of Commons was elected. The Convention Parliament, soon after it assembled on 25 April 1660, heard about the Declaration of Breda, in which Charles agreed, amongst other things, to pardon many of his father's enemies. It subsequently declared that Charles II had been the lawful Sovereign since Charles I's execution in 1649.", "Oliver Cromwell had risen from unknown member of Parliament in his 40s to being commander of the New Model Army, which emerged victorious from the English Civil War. When he returned from a final campaign in Ireland, Oliver Cromwell became disillusioned at inconclusive debates in the Rump Parliament between Presbyterians and other schools of thought within Protestantism. Parliamentarian suspicion of anything smacking of Catholicism, which was strongly associated with the Royalist side in the war, led to enforcement of religious precepts that left moderate Anglicans barely tolerated. A Puritan regime strictly enforced the Sabbath, and banned almost all form of public celebration, even at Christmas. Cromwell attempted to reform the government through an army-nominated assembly known as Barebone's Parliament, but the proposals were so unworkably radical that he was forced to end the experiment after a few months. Thereafter, a written constitution created the position of Lord Protector for Cromwell and from 1653 until his death in 1658, he ruled with all the powers of a monarch, while Richard took on the role of heir.", "With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by a Council of State, which included Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even \"invested\" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in 20 years led to the election of a Convention Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as Charles II .", "also known as the \"Protectorate\", a man who imposed military rule on England after the execution of Charles I. Cromwell had absolutist policies, although ruling through Parliament.", "The Rump Parliament governed England while Cromwell put down revolts in Ireland and Scotland with great cruelty. In 1653 he came back from the wars, dismissed Parliament, and \"nominated\" a Parliament of his own (called Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praisegod Barebone). The Commonwealth then took the name of Protectorate, with Cromwell as Lord Protector", "The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland or Cromwellian war in Ireland (1649–53) refers to the conquest of Ireland by the forces of the English Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of England's Rump Parliament in August 1649.", "After the King’s execution, a Council of State was instituted in place of a monarchy. This council ordered Cromwell to take Ireland in 1649, followed by Scotland in 1650. His actions led to his appointment to Lord General, the high commander of the parliamentary military. Cromwell led his armies into battle at Worcester, in September of 1651, and the resulting victory united England, Scotland, and Ireland, into the Commonwealth.", "On 12 December 1653, after Cromwell had refused an offer of the Crown, Cromwell, (virtual dictator of England from 1649-1658) received the title of Lord Protector. He used his office to seek reforms in the Church and Parliament, which was a common aim of the Puritans. He tried to get 140 devout churchmen to run the country, but it did not work, so after five months they handed power back to Cromwell. When Cromwell died his son Richard (in September 1658), was proclaimed Lord Protector of the Realm, but he was not up to the job and senior army commanders quarrelled amongst themselves. The military officers on the council showed open animosity towards their civil counterparts and resented his appointment. Richard was forced to dissolve the Protectorate and reinstate the Rump Parliament in January 1659.Total anarchy was avoided by a decision to return to the ancient constitution of Kings, Lords and Commons.", "Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 - 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.", "Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. [54]", "Though the English Commonwealth failed soon after Cromwell's death, the monarchs that followed had lost considerable power to Parliament.  The end result, a constitutional monarchy with the king subservient to Parliament, was what Cromwell had wanted in 1640.", "After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the P being an abbreviation for Protector, which was similar to the style of monarchs who used an R to mean Rex or Regina, and it soon became the norm for others to address him as \"Your Highness\". As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year. ", "Following the execution of Charles I, England was ruled by a Council of State, headed by Oliver Cromwell and Lord Fairfax. Oliver Cromwell then named himself the Lord Protectorate of England - a monarch in every sense, minus the official title. Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan, and English culture experienced a radical restriction on festivities under his reign.", "A new constitution was drawn up called the Instrument of Government. Cromwell was made Lord Protector. At first he ruled with a council but in September 1654 a new parliament was called. However the Protectorate Parliament refused to accept the Instrument of Government so Cromwell dissolved it in January 1655.", "Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) was the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Ireland and Scotland. He was a well known military and political leader of the 1600s. Cromwell was born in Huntingdon to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. His family was of mid gentry class and was, at one time, one of the most wealthy in the area. However, since Robert was the youngest out of the siblings, his wealth was limited to a house and a bit of land. This gave him income that would make him considered one of the lower earning gentries.", "Moreover, despite repeated purges and the drafting of politically unreliable units to fight in Ireland, Jamaica, Flanders, the Leveller and democratic tradition remained strong in the Army. So in 1657 Cromwell surrendered to his second Parliament and accepted a new parliamentary constitution. This constitution (the “Humble Petition and Advice”) took executive power from a council representing the Army Grandees and placed it in one controlled by Parliament, brought the Army under Parliament’s financial control, made the protectorate non-elective and the Protector subject to Parliamentary control. The new constitution was introduced by a City Member, and was supported by many former Presbyterians who were soon to welcome home Charles II. Protests in the Army only just prevented Oliver accepting the Crown as King. The Grandees were bought off by being given seats in a new second chamber.", "1653: Following the execution of Charles I, Oliver Cromwell failed to get the Parliament he wanted and became Lord Protector, turning himself into an uncrowned king for the next four years.", "Hello, Cromwell held power throughout the 1650's by retaining the loyalty of the army. He also granted important positions... View the full answer" ]

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[ "Dimitri Tsafendas ( Greek : Δημήτρης Τσαφέντας; 14 January 1918 – 7 October 1999) is known as the murderer of Prime Minister of South Africa Hendrik Verwoerd , the \"Architect of Apartheid \" on 6 September 1966. [1] Tsafendas, working as a parliamentary messenger, stabbed Verwoerd with a dagger during a parliamentary session.", "Dimitri Tsafendas (; 14 January 1918 – 7 October 1999) is known as the assassin of Prime Minister of South Africa Hendrik Verwoerd, the \"Architect of Apartheid\" on 6 September 1966. Tsafendas, working as a parliamentary messenger, stabbed Verwoerd with a dagger during a parliamentary session.", "1966: Death of Dr Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, Prime Minister of South Africa. He was stabbed to death with a stiletto by a deranged white man, a parliamentary messenger, who thought his policies were not right-wing enough.", "In 1966, Prime Minister Verwoerd was assassinated by a discontented White government employee, and B.J. Vorster became the new Prime Minister. From the late 1960s, the Vorster government began attempts to start a dialogue on racial and other matters with independent African nations. These attempts met with little success, except for the establishment of diplomatic relations with Malawi and the adjacent nations of Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland - all of which were economically dependent on South Africa.", "National Party Prime Minister of South Africa from 1958 until his assassination on 6 September 1966, Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd was the chief architect of 'Grand Apartheid', which called for the separation of races in South Africa.", "But the most significant opposition to apartheid is internal. It begins with non-violent protest in the tradition of Gandhi , but possibly includes in 1966 the assassination in parliament of the prime minister, Hendrik Verwoerd (stabbed by an immigrant of mixed racial descent, but of severely unbalanced mind and with no clear motive). With mounting desperation, as the white regime becomes ever more repressive, violence escalates. Spearheading the campaign are two linked organizations, the ANC and the PAC.", "THE SOUTH AFRICAN PRIME MINISTER, DOCTOR HENDRICK VERWOERD, WAS STABBED TO DEATH BY A WHITE ASSASSIN IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PARLIAMENT IN CAPE TODAY (TUESDAY).", "REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA: PRIME MINISTER DOCTOR HENDRICK VERWOERD ASSASSINATED IN PARLIAMENT. LIBRARY FILM OF PREVIOUS ASSASSINATION ATTEMPT & VERWOERD'S ACCESSION TO LEADERSHIP", "On 6 September 1966, Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd was stabbed to death on the floor of the House of Assembly by a parliamentary messenger, Dimitry Tsafendas. Tsafendas was subsequently judged mentally unfit to stand trial and was held, first in prison and then in a psychiatric facility, until his death in 1999. Theophilus Dönges took the position of acting prime minister for 8 days before the post went to Balthazar Johannes Vorster on 13 September 1966.", "      South African Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd is stabbed to death by a deranged messenger during a parliamentary meeting in Cape Town. The assailant, Demetrio Tsafendas, was a Mozambique immigrant of mixed racial descent part Greek and part Swazi. As minister of native affairs and later as South African leader, Verwoerd oversaw the introduction and application of South Africa's racist apartheid policies. As prime minister from 1958, he instituted an intricate system of laws separating whites, Africans (blacks), Coloureds, and Asians, and resettled blacks in backwater reservations. These policies provoked anti-apartheid demonstrations by blacks, which were brutally crushed by government forces at Sharpeville and elsewhere. When, in April 1960, Verwoerd miraculously survived being shot twice in the head by an English farmer, he proclaimed that his survival was evidence of God's approval of his work. Six years later, it seems that God must have changed his mind.", "1927-1986 - Olof Palme - Two-term prime minister. UN mediator in Iran�Iraq War. Steadfast in non-alignment & against apartheid in South Africa. Assassinated.", "       During the next few years, Verwoerd's government arrested anti-apartheid leaders such as Nelson Mandela and sentenced them to long prison terms on the basis of various convictions. Verwoerd had succeeded in temporarily crushing anti-apartheid resistance, but he could not prevent a schizophrenic parliamentary page from walking up to him in the Houses of Assembly and stabbing him to death on September 6, 1966. Tsafendas, who apparently was not acting in protest of apartheid, was sent to a mental hospital near Johannesburg, where he lived until his death in 1999. Apartheid was abolished in South Africa in 1993.", "Known as the \"great crocodile\", P.W. Botha joined the Nationalist Party in 1948 and served as Prime Minister from 1978 until his resignation in 1989. Although Botha was a strict conservative, many apartheid restrictions were loosened under his regime and he began secret negotiations with the then imprisoned Nelson Mandela before he was ousted by his own party. He was charged at the Truth and Reconciliation for 'Crimes of Humanity', which occurred under his watch.", "On 4 December 2001, Marike de Klerk was found stabbed and violently strangled to death in her Cape Town flat. De Klerk, who was on a brief visit to Stockholm, Sweden, to celebrate the 100-year anniversary of the Nobel Prize foundation, announced he would immediately return to mourn his dead ex-wife. The atrocity was reportedly condemned strongly by South African president Thabo Mbeki and Winnie Mandela, among others, who openly spoke in favour of Marike de Klerk. On 6 December 21-year-old security guard Luyanda Mboniswa was arrested for the murder. On 15 May 2003, he received two life sentences for murder, as well as three years for breaking into Marike de Klerk's apartment. ", "Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black chief executive, and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.", "In December 1991, the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (Codesa) began negotiations on the formation of a multiracial transitional government and a new constitution extending political rights to all groups. Months of wrangling finally produced a compromise and an election date, although at considerable human cost. Political violence exploded across the country during this time, particularly in the wake of the assassination of Chris Hani, the popular leader of South Africa's Communist Party. It is now known that elements within the police and army contributed to this violence. There have also been claims that high-ranking government officials and politicians ordered or at least condoned massacres.", "As attacks against police stations and other government installations increased, the regime announced (1985) an indefinite state of emergency. In 1986, Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu , a black South African leader, addressed the United Nations and urged further sanctions against South Africa. A wave of strikes and riots marked the tenth anniversary of the Soweto uprising in 1987. In 1989, President Botha fell ill and was succeeded, first as party leader, then as president, by F. W. de Klerk . De Klerk's government began relaxing apartheid restrictions, and in 1990, Nelson Mandela was freed after 27 years of imprisonment and became head of the recently legalized ANC.", "On 9 April 1960, Verwoerd opened the Union Exposition in Milner Park, Johannesburg, to mark the jubilee of the Union of South Africa. After Verwoerd delivered his opening address, David Pratt, a rich English businessman and farmer from the Magaliesberg, near Pretoria, attempted to assassinate Verwoerd, firing two shots from a .22 pistol at point-blank range, one bullet perforating his right cheek and the second his right ear.", "1990. A year after FW de Klerk replaces PW Botha as president and segregation begins to end, the ANC is unbanned and Mandela is set free. Nine days earlier, FW de Klerk announces the end to apartheid and the coming of a \"new South Africa\" to a stunned all-white parliament.", "Tributes came from around the world. US President Ronald Reagan said: 'The American people share in the loss of a voice of wisdom and humanity who, with eloquence and gentle wit, brought to the problems of today the experience of a long life of public service.'[66] Outlawed ANC president Oliver Tambo sent his condolences: 'As South Africans we shall always remember him for his efforts to encourage the apartheid regime to bow to the winds of change that continue to blow in South Africa.'[66] Commonwealth Secretary-General Sir Shridath Ramphal affirmed: 'His own leadership in providing from Britain a worthy response to African national consciousness shaped the post-war era and made the modern Commonwealth possible.'[66]", "Although the government respected the rights of opposition parties in the whites-only Parliament, it suppressed criticism of its policies from other quarters, detaining without trial or otherwise silencing opponents of the regime. In 1976, the police opened fire on high-school students in the black township of Soweto (now part of Johannesburg), who were marching in protest against having to be taught in Afrikaans, perceived as the language of the oppressor. Massive protests, which rapidly spread from Soweto to other black townships, were brutally suppressed by the government. In 1977, Steve Biko, who led a Black Consciousness Movement that encouraged Africans to take pride in their own culture and to recognize their own self-worth, was killed while in police custody; his death provoked an international outcry. Later that year, the United Nations Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa.", "Earlier in the year, negotiations had been threatened by the highest-level political assassination in South Africa since President de Klerk unbanned the ANC in 1990. On April 10, 1993, Chris Hani, president of the South African Communist Party (SACP) and member of the National Executive Committee of the ANC, was shot dead outside his home by Janusz Waluz, a Polish immigrant and member of the AWB. In October, Waluz was found guilty of the murder of Hani, together with Clive Derby-Lewis, a Conservative Party member of parliament, who had supplied the gun. Both were sentenced to the death penalty.", "He returned to South Africa in 1964, fluent in eight languages, and somehow - despite his mixed parentage, status as an illegal immigrant and history of mental instability - secured a post in the whites-only parliament as a messenger, exploiting his privileged position to stab the prime minister to death. Shortly before the assassination he applied for reclassification from white to \"coloured\". Although there were attempts by police, during interrogation, to suggest to him that he believed a tapeworm had \"ordered\" him to carry out the killing, he never seems to have made the claim himself.", "1977 - Student anti-apartheid leader Steve Biko, 30, is murdered while in police custody in Port Elizabeth.", "Kruger gained worldwide notoriety in 1977 when he was the minister of police. He uttered the famous words \"it leaves me cold\" after black consciousness leader Steve Biko died in police detention.", "September 12, Death in detention of Stephen Bantu Biko, the leader of the Black Consciousness Movement.", "On April 9, 1960, a deranged white farmer shot Verwoerd in an assassination attempt that failed. Six years later Verwoerd was stabbed to death in the parliamentary chamber by a temporary parliamentary messenger, Demetrio (also known as Dimitri) Tsafendas, a Mozambique immigrant of mixed descent. He initially blamed his actions on instructions he had received from a giant tapeworm in his stomach, was found to be insane, and was confined to prison or a mental asylum for the rest of his life. Later interviews with Tsafendas revealed that the assassination was motivated by the great resentment he felt toward the arbitrary racial classifications and policies of apartheid, which had adversely affected his life.", "..... Click the link for more information. , leader of the Zulu-based Inkatha movement, with the backing and sometimes active participation of South African security forces. There were also reprisals by supporters of the ANC and the Pan-Africanist Congress. In Sept., 1992, government-backed black police fired on a crowd of ANC demonstrators in Ciskei, killing 28. In Apr., 1993, the secretary-general of the South African Communist party was murdered by a right-wing extremist.", "(1946-1977) An organizer of black consciousness movement in South Africa, in opposition to apartheid; murdered while in police custody", "** In Sebokeng, South Africa, gunmen fire on mourners attending the funeral of a leader of the African National Congress, killing 13 people.", "Political executions in South Africa by the apartheid government 1961 - 1989 | South African History Online", "Member of the SRC at University of Natal (Non-European section), first president of SASO, Chair of SASO Publications, Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) leader, banned person, political prisoner, killed in police detention" ]

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[ "Gustavus Adolphus or Gustav II Adolf was the King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632. Known as the \"Lion of the North\" he is most famous for his intervention in the 30 Years War, sponsored by the French. King Gustavus Adolphus was a military genius, being innovative in the development of new tactics, a clear strategic thinker and a courageous commander on the field of battle. Probably no other commander on the Protestant side in the 30 Years War could match his ability. He was killed at the battle of Luetzen when his forces looked to be defeated but his troops were so outraged by the death of their beloved warrior-king that they rallied and won the day.", "Gustav II Adolf was the King of Sweden who was known as 'Lion of the North'. His leadership took place between... View the full answer", "He was known by the epithets \"The Golden King\" and \"The Lion of the North\" by neighboring sovereigns. Gustavus Adolphus is commemorated today with city squares in Stockholm , Gothenburg and Helsingborg . Gustavus Adolphus College , a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota is also named for the Swedish king.", "Called the “Lion of the North” by his admirer Voltaire, Charles XII led his country of Sweden into disastrous conflicts that cost her dearly in men, money, and territory. Charles became unpopular with many Swedes for such needless sacrifices.", "The involvement of the famous Protestant General and King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of \"the Lion of the North\" (German: \"Der Löwe von Mitternacht\"). Yet, notably, his daughter and heiress Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654) abdicated from the Swedish throne in 1654 after converting to Roman Catholicism and emigrating to Rome. In Poland, John II Casimir of Poland abdicated from the throne in 1668. With his death, the royal House of Vasa became extinct in 1672.", "The Swedish Power Metal Band Sabaton made a song about Gustav Adolphus called The Lion of the North in their new Album Carolus Rex", "As the name of Chapter 4: The Lion of the North implies, the Kingdom of Sweden and Gustav II Adolf will appear and begin to gain influence in Europe. The World Clock will move between the 15th and mid-17th centuries.", "Charles XIV & III John (Jean-Baptiste d'Radzilow; 26 January 1763 – 8 March 1844 [1] ) was King of Sweden (as Charles XIV John) and King of Norway (as Charles III John) from 5 February 1818 until his death, and ruler of Duchy and Electorate of Latvia-Belarus (Lithuania) in 1795, also served as de facto regent and head of state from 1810 to 1818. Baron Carl Otto Mörner (22 May 1781 – 17 August 1868), a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates, advocated for the succession. [2] The third son of Maximilian I , younger brother to James Casimir I and nephew and successor of Stanislaus August II .", "Gustav III ( – 29 March 1792) was King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792. He was the eldest son of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden and Queen Louise Ulrika, a sister of King Frederick the Great of Prussia, and a first cousin of Empress Catherine the Great of Russia by reason of their common descent from Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin, and his wife Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.", "The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) against the forces of Count Tilly .", "Charles XII king of Sweden (1697–1718), an absolute monarch who defended his country for 18 years during the Great Northern War and promoted significant domestic reforms. He launched a disastrous invasion of Russia (1707–09), resulting in the complete collapse of...", "In the middle of the 17th century Sweden was the third largest country in Europe by land area, only superseded by Russia and Spain. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent during this time under the rule of Charles X (1622–1660) after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The foundation of Sweden's success during this period is credited to Gustav I's major changes on the Swedish economy in the mid-1500s, and his introduction of Protestantism. The 17th century saw Sweden engaged in many wars, for example with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with both sides competing for territories of today's Baltic states, with the disastrous Battle of Kircholm being one of the highlights.", "IT WAS 1700 when an alliance of nations including Russia, Poland, Prussia, Saxony and Denmark-Norway joined forces to chase the Swedes from territories in Northern Europe. In addition to fielding a larger army than the lone Scandinavian power, the aggressors also had one more thing going for them: Sweden’s ruler,the teenaged  Charles XII , was unproven as a wartime leader. Not surprisingly, most expected Charles to be a pushover. [1] Unfortunately for the alliance, the 18-year-old monarch turned out to be a tough and resourceful strategist. Within six years, the young king and his army had defeated the coalition, save for Russia. Although his subsequent march on Moscow in 1709 would end in defeat and exile for Charles, the now veteran ruler would return to lead his troops again in a series of new campaigns against both Norway and Russia. In 1718, while besieging the city of Haldenm, Norway, Charles was struck in the head by a musket ball. The wound proved fatal. And while the leaderless Swedes abandoned Halden and eventually give up most of their empire in Europe, the death of Charles would hold perhaps an even greater significance for history – it would be the last time a European monarch would die in battle.", "Gävle Castle is the northest one of so-called Vasa castles, built by Gustav Vasa of Sweden or his sons. The construction started in 1583 by the religious King John III of Sweden. The design was made by Willem Boy and the center of castle was a chapel. The castle was completed in 1597, five years after John\"s death. In 1727 the chapel and the top floor were destroyed by fire. Gävle castle stayed damaged unt ...", "The Swedish Empire () refers to the Kingdom of Sweden's territorial control of much of the Baltic region during the 17th and early 18th centuries, a time when Sweden was one of the great European powers. The beginning of the Empire is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, who ascended the throne in 1611, and the end as the loss of territories in 1721 following the Great Northern War. In Swedish history, the period is referred to as stormaktstiden, literally meaning \"the Great Power era\".", "He was known by the epithets \"The Golden King\" and \"The Lion of the North\" by neighboring sovereigns. He made Sweden one of the great powers of Europe in part by reforming the administrative structure. For example he began Parish registration of the population , so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript the people. Historian Christer Jorgensen argues that his:", "Charles X Gustav, also Carl Gustav (; 8 November 1622 – 13 February 1660), was King of Sweden from 1654 until his death. He was the son of John Casimir, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg and Catherine of Sweden. After his father's death he also succeeded him as Pfalzgraf. He was married to Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, who bore his son and successor, Charles XI. Charles X Gustav was the second Wittelsbach king of Sweden after the childless king Christopher of Bavaria (1441–1448) and he was the first king of the Swedish Caroline era, which had its peak during the end of the reign of his son, Charles XI. He led Sweden during the Second Northern War, enlarging the Swedish Empire. By his predecessor Christina, he was considered de facto Duke of Eyland (Öland) before ascending to the Swedish throne.", "Eric XIV was born at Tre Kronor castle on 13 December 1533. Before the age of two, he lost his mother. In 1536, his father, Gustav Vasa, married Margaret Leijonhufvud (1516–51), a Swedish noblewoman. He was crowned as Eric XIV, but was not necessarily the 14th king of Sweden named Eric. He and his brother Charles IX (1604–11) adopted regnal numbers according to Johannes Magnus 's partly fictitious history of Sweden. There had, however, been at least six earlier Swedish kings with the name of Eric, as well as pretenders about whom very little is known.", "In 1389, the crowns of Denmark, Norway and Sweden were united under the rule of the Danish Queen Margareta. In 1397, the Kalmar Union was formed, with the three Scandinavian countries under a single monarch. However, the union (1397–1523) was scarred by internal conflicts that culminated in the ‘Stockholm Bloodbath’ in 1520, when 80 Swedish nobles were executed at the instigation of the Danish union king, Kristian II. The act provoked a rebellion, which in 1521 led to the deposition of Kristian II and the seizure of power by a Swedish nobleman, Gustav Vasa, who was elected king of Sweden in 1523.", "Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg , the daughter of John Sigismund , Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a great loss to the Lutheran side. This resulted in large parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism, to be reconquered for Catholicism (via the Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of \"the Lion of the North\", or as it is put in German \"der Löwe von Mitternacht\".", "Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a great loss to the Lutheran side. This resulted in large parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism, to be reconquered for Catholicism (via the Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of \"the Lion of the North\", or as it is put in German \"der Löwe von Mitternacht\".", "Christian I, also spelled Christiern (born 1426—died May 21, 1481, Copenhagen , Den.), king of Denmark (1448–81), Norway (1450–81), and Sweden (1457–64, 1465–67), and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty , which ruled Denmark until 1863. He tried to gain control over Sweden and maintain a union of the Scandinavian nations but was defeated by rebellious Swedish nobles (1471).", "In the 1550s, King Gustav Vasa of Sweden learnt that the Danish King Christian III had added The Three Crowns to his own coat of arms. Gustav thought this was Christian III's sign of intending to conquer Sweden and resurrect the union. Christian argued that since the monarchs of the Union had used it, the symbol belonged to both kingdoms.", "Swedish success against Denmark did not solve all the state's problems. Brandenburg-Prussia, Poland, and Austria settled their differences and aligned against Sweden. In February 1660, Charles X contracted a fever and died, aged only thirty-eight.", "The Lion of the North by G. A. Henty · OverDrive: eBooks, audiobooks and videos for libraries", "Statyn föreställer Karl X Gustav (1622 - 1660) som 1658 gick över isen på Stora och Lilla Bält och angrep den danska huvudstaden.", "Mannen som står bredvid kungen är Erik Dahlberg (1625-1703). Han var rådgivare till Karl X Gustav och deltog under övergången av Stora Bält. För dessa insatser adlades han 1660.", "Prince Louis of Vasa · Charles XV ** · Prince Gustaf, Duke of Uppland ** · Oscar II ** · Prince August, Duke of Dalarna", ", 1426–81, king of Denmark (1448–81), Norway (1450–81), and Sweden (1457–64), count of Oldenburg, and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty of Danish kings.", "Georg Carl von D�beln (1758-1820) - the most famous of all Swedish generals. Not the least through Swedish-Finnish literature. He was easily recognisable by a black ribbon around his forehead to conceal a shot-wound. Fought in a Swedish enlisted regiment on the French side against the English in India 1781-88, captain during Sweden's war with Russia 1788-90 (where he received the mentioned shot-wound at Porrasalmi), commander of the Bj�rneborg's Brigade 1808-09, victories of Juutas, Siikajoki and Lappo 1808, commanded the Swedish army on �land 1809, but was forced to retreat over the frozen waters to the mainland of Sweden as none of his requested reinforcements arrived, led the defence in Northern Sweden and secured supplies for the Swedish at Ume� 1809, accused for treason and sentenced to death during the German campaign in 1813-14, as he had responded to a Danish request for help to defend Hamburg against the French without proper authorisation (before the Danes had officially again sided with the French), the death-sentence was altered to one year in prison after which he was given command over a regiment to take part in the invasion of Norway in 1814, he was appointed President of the High Military Court in 1816. His motto: �Honour, Duty and Will� (�ra, skyldighet och vilja).", "Sweden's national anthem is Du gamla, Du fria (\"Thou ancient, Thou free\"). The original title of the anthem was \"Sång till Norden\" (\"Song to the North \").", "Gustavus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, \"The Lord God is my armor!\" It is more likely that he simply wore a leather cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. In 1627, near Dirschau in Prussia, a Polish soldier shot him in the muscles above his shoulders. He survived, but the doctors could not remove the bullet, so from that point on, he could not wear iron armor; two fingers of his right hand were paralyzed. " ]

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[ "On 1 January 1948 the companies were nationalised to form British Railways as a result of the Transport Act 1947.", "On 1 January 1948 the main line railways of Great Britain were nationalised, forming British Railways.", "Britain's railways were nationalised by Labour in 1948 and returned to private hands by John Major's Conservative government in 1993.", "Following the Second World War, in which most of the infrastructure was worn down by war duties or destroyed by bombing raids, all of the Big Four companies were in dire financial straits and were unable to cope with the backlog of maintenance and repairs that had built up during the war. As a result, the government nationalised all railways in 1948. The resulting state-owned British Rail ran trains for nearly fifty years during a time of change. In an attempt to stem passenger losses resulting from increased car usage, steam locomotives were replaced by diesel and electric trains, while some lines were electrified and upgraded to allow for higher speeds.", "After the Second World War, nationalisation of the railways in 1947 had needed a new regulatory relationship to be forged with the state-owned British Railways, a newly created monolithic operator of the entire national rail network, sponsored by the Department of Transport. At the time, fatal injuries to railway workers, let alone members of the public involved in train crashes or at level crossing accidents, were averaging around 250 a year. There were major safety problems to be solved, but solutions seemed difficult to find in a monopolistic industry entrapped in a culture of complacency and weakly regulated.", "Despite its nationalisation in 1947 \"as one of the 'commanding heights' of the economy\", according to some sources British Rail was not profitable for most (if not all) of its history. Newspapers reported that as recently as the 1990s, public rail subsidy was counted as profit; as early as 1961, British Railways were losing £300,000 a day. ", "On 1 January 1948 the railways of Great Britain were nationalised. Liverpool Central became part of British Railways’ London Midland Region. Nationalisation included the Mersey Railway. At first services remained similar to those before the war. On 7 January 1952 the Southport service was withdrawn when the line from Aintree to Southport Lord Street closed to passengers. The North Liverpool Extension Line was served from Liverpool Central mostly by trains that terminated at Gateacre, although some peak hour trains continued to Aintree (renamed Aintree Central in January 1952).", "The war-damaged LMS was nationalised in 1948 by the Transport Act 1947, becoming part of British Railways. It formed the London Midland Region and part of the Scottish Region. British Railways transferred the lines in Northern Ireland to the Ulster Transport Authority in 1949. The London Midland & Scottish Railway Company continued to exist as a legal entity for nearly two years after Nationalisation, being formally wound up on 23 December 1949. The lines in Great Britain were rationalised through closure in the 1950s to 70s but the main routes survive and some have been developed for 125 mph inter-city services.", "In 1922 the L&YR amalgamated into the London and North Western Railway, and in 1923 this company amalgamated into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. This company was nationalised in 1948 under the Transport Act 1947 and became part of British Railways.", "The Railways Act 1921 took effect on 1 January 1923, when most railway companies in Britain were grouped into one of the Big Four. The Wirral Railway became part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) company, while the GCR, which it met at Bidston, was absorbed into the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). The Birkenhead Joint Railway and the Mersey Railway were both unaffected by the grouping of 1923 and remained in existence until the nationalisation of the railways in 1948.", "There were also joint railways between the big four and a few light railways to consider (see list of constituents of British Railways). Excluded from nationalisation were industrial lines like the Oxfordshire Ironstone Railway. The London Underground — publicly owned since 1933 — was also nationalised, becoming the London Transport Executive of the British Transport Commission. The Bicester Military Railway was already run by the government. The electric Liverpool Overhead Railway was also excluded from nationalisation. ", "Attlee's government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utillities. The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946. Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and cable and wireless were nationalised in 1947, electricity and gas followed in 1948. The steel industry was finally nationalised in 1951. By 1951 about 20% of the British economy had been taken into public ownership. Other changes included the creation of a National Parks system, the introduction of the Town and Country Planning system, and the repeal of the Trades Disputes Act 1927.", "Jan 1: The majority of the railway companies in Great Britain grouped into four main companies, the Big Four: LNER, GWR, SR, LMSR lasted until nationalisation in 1948", "In the 20th century, the railways saw a gradual drop in usage as the heavy industrial works and mines began to reduce output and close and many stations became redundant. Following the Second World War, the railways were nationalised in 1948. In the 1960s the main line services in Wales underwent dieselisation, but this modernisation failed to save the rail system and by 1968 many passenger lines were discontinued by the Beeching Axe.", "The period of nationalisation saw sweeping changes in the national railway network. A process of dieselisation and electrification took place, and in 1968 steam locomotion had been entirely replaced by diesel and electric traction, except for one narrow-gauge tourist line. Passengers replaced freight as the main source of business, and one third of the network was closed by the Beeching Axe of the 1960s in an effort to reduce rail subsidies.", "Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley \"Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government. Please never mention the railways to me again.\" Shortly before her resignation, she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail, which her successor John Major implemented in 1994. The effect of privatising the railway is disputed, with large growth in passenger numbers and increasing efficiency matched by large public subsidy and concern about foreign companies running British railways.", "The LPTB was nationalised in 1948, and the reconstruction of the mainline railways was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground. In 1953 an unpainted aluminium train entered service on the District line, and this became the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, and steam locomotives no longer hauled passenger trains. The Victoria line, a new tube line across central London, opened in 1968–71 with trains driven automatically. In 1976 the isolated Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the mainline railway at Finsbury Park. In 1979 another new route, the Jubilee line, took over part of the Bakerloo line; it was extended through the Docklands to Stratford in 1999.", "British Railways inherited a mixed bag of stock, for example only about 20 percent of the LNER stock was `fitted', that is fitted with a continuous braking system which can be controlled from the loco or brake van. By the end of 1948 British Railways had something like a million assorted 'unfitted' wagons and vans and about a hundred thousand 'fitted' vehicles. Roughly a third of the rolling stock was more than twenty five years old, that is it dated from before the 1923 grouping. There were in the region of thirty thousand 'service' vehicles in departmental use, about twenty thousand containers of various types and about half a million ex-private owner mineral wagons which had been bought from their owners after the end of the war. There were still about twenty thousand privately owned railway vehicles on the system, these being wagons and vans carrying things like salt or lime and rail tanks for oil and other liquids.", "The Transport Act 1947 established the British Transport Commission taking over the railways from the Big Four being the Great Western Railway, London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and the Southern Railway to form British Railways.", "From 1948 to 1997, British Rail was solely responsible for the state railways of Britain, transforming a collection of exhausted, post-war steam operators into the modern network we know today. Read more of its story.", "The companies were formed as a result of the Railways Act 1921, in a process known as \"The Grouping\" (of the railways), which came into effect on 1 January 1923.", "Following a 1950s modernisation plan designed to take Britain’s railways from the 19th to the 20th century, Doctor Richard Beeching’s 1963 report, ‘The Reshaping of British Railways’, recommended the closure of a third of passenger services and more than 4000 of the 7000 stations. Most of the closures were carried out between 1963 and 1970, and today’s network is largely his legacy.", "It was thought that most of the nationalised railways (excluding some freight services) would cease to operate like other unprofitable privatised businesses in the UK, and British Rail's profitability was questioned. Although the company was considered the sole public-transport option in many rural areas, the Beeching cuts made buses the only public transport available in some rural areas. Despite increases in traffic congestion and automotive fuel prices beginning in the 1990s, British Rail remained unprofitable. ", "The result was that by 1955 income no longer covered operating costs, and the situation steadily worsened. Much of the money spent on the Modernisation Plan had been borrowed, and much was wasted. By the early 1960s the railways were in financial crisis. Operating losses increased to £68m in 1960, £87m in 1961, and £104m in 1962 (£ Template:Formatprice as of Template:CURRENTISOYEAR ). [7] Template:Inflation-fn The BTC could no longer pay interest on borrowed money, which worsened the financial problem. The government lost patience and looked for radical solutions.", "The steam locomotives of British Railways were used by British Railways over the period 1948–1968. The vast majority of these were inherited from its four constituent companies, the “ Big Four “.", "The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) was a British railway company. It was formed on 1 January 1923 under the Railways Act of 1921, which required the grouping of over 120 separate railway companies into just four. The companies merged into the LMS included the London and North Western Railway, Midland Railway, several Scottish railway companies (including the Caledonian Railway) and numerous other, smaller ventures.", "The 1955 Modernisation Plan promised expenditure of over £1,240 million; steam locomotives would be replaced with diesel and electric locomotives, traffic levels would increase and the system was predicted to be back in profit by 1962. Instead losses mounted, from £68 million in 1960 to £87 million in 1961, and £104 million in 1962 (£ billion in terms). The BTC could no longer pay the interest on its loans. The government lost patience and looked for radical solutions.", "The implementation of nationalised railways was a move of necessity as well as ideology. The main line railways had struggled to cope with a war economy in the First World War and by the end of World War Two the four remaining companies were on the verge of bankruptcy. Nationalisation was the easiest way to save the railways in the short term and provide money to fix war time damage. The BTC necessarily prioritised the reconstruction of its main line railways over the maintenance of the Underground network. The unfinished parts of the New Works Programme were gradually shelved or postponed.", "The implementation of nationalised railways was a move of necessity as well as ideology. The main line railways had struggled to cope with a war economy in the First World War and by the end of World War Two the four remaining companies were on the verge of bankruptcy. Nationalisation was the easiest way to save the railways in the short term and provide money to fix war time damage. However the BTC prioritised the reconstruction of its main line railways over the maintenance of the Underground network. The unfinished parts of the New Works Programme were gradually shelved or postponed.", "Between 1963 and 1970 London Transport reported directly to the Minister of Transport, before control passed to the Greater London Council. Electrification work on the Metropolitan line, suspended due to the war, had restarted in 1959. The line was electrified to and the unpainted aluminium (A Stock) replaced steam trains, British Rail providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and .", "Under the process of British Rail's privatisation, operations were split into more than 100 companies. The ownership and operation of the infrastructure of the railway system was taken over by Railtrack. The Telecomms infrastructure and British Rail Telecommunications was sold to Racal, which in turn was sold to Global Crossing and merged with Thales Group. The rolling stock was transferred to three private ROSCOs (rolling stock companies). Passenger services were divided into 25 operating companies, which were let on a franchise basis for a set period, whilst goods services were sold off completely. Dozens of smaller engineering and maintenance companies were also created and sold off.", "Passenger levels decreased steadily from 1962 to the late 1970s, but experienced a renaissance with the introduction of the high-speed InterCity 125 trains in the late 1970s and early 1980s and the accompanying Age of the Train advertising campaign. Network improvements included completing electrification of the Great Eastern Main Line from London to Norwich between 1976 and 1986 and the East Coast Main Line from London to Edinburgh between 1985 and 1990. A main line route closure during this period of relative network stability was the 1500V DC-electrified Woodhead Line between Manchester and Sheffield: passenger service ceased in 1970 and goods in 1981." ]

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[ "ENGLISH Charles, Prince of Wales, descends from every English King who left descendants except Charles I, Charles II and James II. The Prince’s sons, Prince William and Prince Harry of Wales, are descendants several times over of Charles I, Charles II and James II through their mother, the late Diana, Princess of Wales.", "The Prince Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George;[N 1] born 14 November 1948) is the oldest child of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, making him heir apparent, equally and separately, to the sixteen thrones of Commonwealth realm countries. He is resident in and most directly involved with the United Kingdom, the oldest realm, while also carrying out duties in and on behalf of the other states of which his mother is sovereign. He is also heir to the positions of Supreme Governor of the Church of England, Duke of Normandy, Lord of Mann, and Paramount Chief of Fiji, though he will not necessarily become Head of the Commonwealth.[2] Since 1958, Charles has held the title Prince of Wales, though in Scotland he is instead titled as Duke of Rothesay; he may also be referred to as the Duke of Cornwall.", "“The Earl descended from King Edward III through both his parents. Prince Charles and the late Princess Diana both descend from Sir William Gascoigne and his wife Lady Margaret.", "Charles was born in St. James's Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I , who ruled the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland , and Henrietta Maria , the sister of the French king Louis XIII . Charles was their second son and child. Their first son, who was born about a year before Charles, had died aged less than a day. [1] England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. Charles was baptised in the Chapel Royal on 27 June by the Anglican Bishop of London William Laud and brought up in the care of the Protestant Countess of Dorset , though his godparents included his maternal uncle and grandmother, Marie de' Medici , both of whom were Catholics. [2] At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , along with several other associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested with the Honours of the Principality of Wales . [1]", "Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948), is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay and in South West England as Duke of Cornwall, he is the longest-serving heir apparent in British history, having held the position since 1952. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover (the heir presumptive to Queen Anne), who died in 1714 at the age of 83.", "Prince Charles was born on 14 November 1948 at Buckingham Palace . His father is The Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , eldest son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess Alice of Battenberg . At the time of his birth, his mother was The Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh , the elder daughter of King George VI and Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon and his father was The Duke of Edinburgh (having not yet been created a Prince of the United Kingdom). His mother was Heiress Presumptive to the British throne at the time of the Prince's birth. The Prince was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 15 December 1948 by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Dr Geoffrey Fisher and his godparents were: King George VI , Queen Mary , Princess Margaret , the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven , Hon. David Bowes-Lyon , Lady Brabourne , King Haakon VII of Norway (for whom the Earl of Athlone stood proxy) and Prince George of Greece (for whom Prince Philip stood proxy).", "Prince Charles was born Charles Philip Arthur George on November 14, 1948, in London, England. The son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Charles ascended the royal hierarchy at an early age. His mother became queen when he was only three after the death of his grandfather King George VI  in 1952. As Elizabeth's oldest child, Charles became the heir apparent to the British throne and received the title of Duke of Cornwall. Charles was also destined to become Great Britain's oldest heir apparent, with his mother remaining queen for more than six and a half decades.", "1. PRINCE CHARLES, the Prince of Wales: The eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Born on November 14, 1948, he became heir to the throne on the accession of his mother in 1952 and is the longest serving heir apparent in British history.", "Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948), is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay and in South West England as Duke of Cornwall, he is the longest-serving heir apparent in British history, having held the position since 1952. He is also the oldest person to be next-in-line to the throne since 1714.", "Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948), is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay and in South West England as Duke of Cornwall, he is the longest-serving heir apparent in British history, having held the position since 1952. He is also the oldest heir to the throne since 1714.", "Camilla is a direct descendent of William the Conqueror , the first Norman King of England. [176] Through Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle , Camilla and Prince Charles are ninth cousins once removed . [177] [178]", "Following Gaunt's marriage to Katherine, their children (the Beauforts) were legitimised by King Richard II but the legitimation carried a condition: their descendants were barred from inheriting the throne. Lady Margaret's own son Henry VII (and all English, British, and UK sovereigns who followed) are descended from Gaunt and Swynford, Henry VII having come to the throne not through inheritance but by force of arms.", "Via his mother, William descends from the Spencer family , the Earl Spencer , and the Baron Fermoy family, and more anciently from Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton , and Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond , two of the illegitimate sons of King Charles II . As King, William would be the first monarch since Anne to descend from Charles I , and the first to descend from Charles II. [123] [124]", "King Charles II was born on May 29, 1630 at St. James’ Palace in London. He was the eldest surviving son of King Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France , daughter of King Henri IV of France .  Charles was the Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay from birth and was declared Prince of Wales in 1638, but was never formally created Prince of Wales. Charles’ mother was not happy with his appearance. She wrote in a letter: “He is so ugly. I am ashamed, but his size and fatness make up for what he lacks in beauty.”", "Henrietta Maria of France (French: Henriette Marie de France); (25 November[1] 1609 – 10 September 1669) was the Queen consort of England, Scotland and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of two kings, Charles II and James II, and grandmother of two queens and one king, Mary II, William III and Anne of Great Britain, as well as paternal aunt of Louis XIV of France.", "For as long as I’ve been alive, Queen Elizabeth II has been the monarch of Great Britain, having attained the throne in 1952 after the death of her father, King George VI. As of this date, she is the oldest monarch ever to sit on the English or British throne, and is blessed as of this year to have had the third longest reign (58 years) in English and British history after having passed the lengthy reign of Henry III, who reigned from 1216 through 1272 (only Victoria’s 63-year reign and George III’s 59-year reign are longer). While not having much power, Elizabeth’s personal life has done much to dignify the monarchy in Britain, despite the travails of her children, including the man who is destined to succeed her, Charles, the Prince of Wales. It remains to be seen if Charles will succeed as King Charles III or will pass the succession to the man who would eventually succeed Charles no matter what, William (he will eventually be crowned King William V).", "William's mother Diana was a descendant of two of King Charles II's illegitimate sons, the Duke of Grafton and the Duke of Richmond, making William, who is at present second in line to the throne, likely to be the first ever British monarch to take the throne who is a direct descendant of Charles II.", "1. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip are third cousins — both are great-great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Philip’s mother was born in Windsor Castle and he, in fact, has more royal blood than Elizabeth—his parents were Princess Alice of Battenberg and Prince Andrew of Greece, while Elizabeth’s mother was of British nobility.", "Prince Edward Antony Richard Louis was born at Buckingham Palace, on 10 March 1964, the third son and fourth and youngest child of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Baptised on 2 May 1964 in the Private Chapel at Windsor Castle by the then Dean of Windsor, Robin Woods; the Prince's godparents were: Prince Richard of Gloucester (his mother's first cousin); the Duchess of Kent (his mother's first cousin by marriage, for whom Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, his mother's aunt by marriage, stood proxy); Princess George William of Hanover (his paternal aunt); the Prince of Hesse and by Rhine (his first cousin twice removed); and the Earl of Snowdon (his maternal uncle by marriage). As a child of the Sovereign, Edward was styled from birth as His Royal Highness The Prince Edward.", "In five decades of rule, Queen Elizabeth II’s popularity has hardly subsided. She has traveled more extensively than any other British monarch and was the first reigning British monarch to visit South America and the Persian Gulf countries. In addition to Charles and Anne, she and Philip have had two other children, Prince Andrew in 1960 and Prince Edward in 1964. In 1992, Elizabeth, the wealthiest woman in England, agreed to pay income tax for the first time.", "In 1766 Charles' father died. Until his death James had been recognised as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the Pope, as \"James III and VIII\". But Clement XIII decided not to give the same recognition to Charles.", "The next most senior living descendant of the Electress Sophia who had been ineligible to succeed on this ground is George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, the eldest son of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who married the Roman Catholic Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. His son, Lord Downpatrick, converted to Roman Catholicism in 2003 and is the most senior descendant of Sophia to be barred as a result of his religion. More recently, Peter Phillips, the son of Anne, Princess Royal, and eleventh in line to the throne, married Autumn Kelly; Kelly had been brought up as a Roman Catholic, but she converted to Anglicanism prior to the wedding. Had she not done so, Phillips would have forfeited his place in the succession upon their marriage.", "1997: David Streeter, director of Britain's \"Church Society,\" stated that Prince Charles should end his relationship with Camilla Parker Bowles or give up his claim to the throne. \"We are not going to have a confessed adulterer as supreme head of the Church of England,\" he said (an extremely ironic statement because the Church of England was created by an adulterer, King Henry VIII, to accommodate his repeated divorces and marriages that even the Papacy, the \"great harlot\" of Rome, said was immoral).", "By 1701 Parliament had gained sufficient clout to prevent kings (and queens) they didn’t like from inheriting the kingdom. They mainly didn’t like Catholic Stuart kings – the 1701 Act of Settlement, identified the first available non-Catholic heir by tracing back up the Stuart family tree to Elizabeth of Bohemia (the so-called Winter Queen) who was the daughter of James VI of Scotland/ James I of England. Her daughter was Sophia of Hanover. Parliament very politely invited her to accept the crown in the event of Queen Anne, who clearly wasn’t going to have an heir of her own, dying. Sadly for Sophia, Queen Anne outlived her by nearly three months, necessitating a further Act of Settlement that invited Sophia’s Protestant son George of Hanover to take the crown in 1714.", "Charles's parents did not attend the marriage ceremony (possibly because the Queen felt unable to attend the remarriage of a divorcee, due to her position as Supreme Governor of the Church of England); neither did Camilla's father; instead, Camilla's son and Prince William acted as witnesses to the union. ", "8. James Alexander Philip Theo Mountbatten Windsor, Viscount Severn, son of HRH The Prince Edward, The Earl of Wessex (2007)", "Viscount Severn and Lady Louise Windsor aren’t children of a Duke at present. Prince Edward is an Earl.", "Its impact was recently seen in 2008, when Peter Phillips, the oldest son of the Princess Royal, married Canadian-born Catholic Autumn Kelly. In order for him to remain 11th in line to the throne, she was required to convert from Catholicism to Anglicanism. Another famous example is that of the Queen’s cousin, Prince Michael of Kent, who gave up his claim to the throne to marry a Catholic.", "Skipped George Windsor, The Earl of St. Andrews (excluded himself from succession by marrying a Roman Catholic)", "Traditionally the choice of monarch has been determined on the hereditary and primogeniture principles which means that the oldest male child of a monarch was the next in line to the throne. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement of 1701, the monarch and the monarch's spouse could not be Catholics because the UK monarch is also the Head of the Church of England. In 2015, the primogeniture principle was abolished, so that the next in line can now be a female eldest child, and the monarch can marry a Catholic but not himself or herself be one.", "Regarding fact 3. The Act of Settlement of 1701 excluded Catholics or someone who marries a Catholic from being in the line of succession to the British Throne. Prince Philippe is Roman Catholic therefore, excluded.", "Rome claimed (reasonably) that Elizabeth wasn’t the legitimate Queen because she was illegitimate by birth. By Roman Catholic standards, her father, Henry VIII, had not been legally married when Elizabeth was conceived because he had not been legally divorced from his previous wife. According to Roman Catholic law and the Pope, Queen Elizabeth I was a bastard." ]

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[ "Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, known as Trajan, (53 – 117), was the Roman Emperor who succeeded Nerva , ruling the Empire from 98 AD until his death in 117 AD. Trajan was born in 53 AD into a non-patrician family in the Hispania Baetica province (modern day Spain). His parents were Marcia and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, who was a prominent senator and general from the gens Ulpia.", "Trajan (Latin: Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus Augustus; 18 September 53 – 9 August 117), was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, in Spain Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in Spain, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus. In September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard compelled him to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died on 27 January 98, and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident.", "In 117 AD, while sailing back to Rome from his last military campaign in Parthia, Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, Trajan, died of a stroke on August 9, in the city of Selinus. He was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajan’s Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son, Publius Aelius Hadrianus, known as Hadrian. Trajan’s reputation as an emperor has endured as he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived the scrutiny of nineteen centuries of history.", "Trajan organized his new conquest into provinces, but revolts broke out behind him everywhere. Even within the empire the Jews erupted in a bitter revolt, massacring the Gentiles where they could and being massacred in return. Trajan intended to restore order and resume the war, but he died suddenly (117), and his successor, Hadrian, made peace with Parthia and abandoned the Eastern provinces except Arabia.", "Following Trajan's death in 117 he was succeeded by Hadrian, who signed peace with the Parthians and returned the conquered territories to them. His reign saw consolidation rather than conquest and the building of defensive walls in Britannia and along the Rhine and Danube. Jerusalem was sacked and the Jews scattered about the Empire. Hadrian died in 138 and was succeeded by Antoninus Pius (138-161) who in turn was followed by Marcus Aurelius. In 163 was broke out with the Parthians and Casca joined the legions in their attack on Ctesiphon. Roman forces were also victorius at Dura Europus. After Casca deserted the legions peace was concluded following an outbreak of the plague.", "The imperial successor to the republic lasted approximately 1400 years. The first two centuries of the empire's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or \"Roman Peace\". Following Octavian's victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead. Under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. After Claudius' successor, Nero, committed suicide in 68, the empire suffered a period of brief civil wars, as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea, during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus, who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors. The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line.", "After the death of Nero, until the end of the first century, the empire was reigned by Galba (68 to 69), Otho (69), Vitellius (69), the Vespasian (69 to 79). After Vespasian General Titus became emperor. Titus was the man who led a campaign against Judea and destroyed Jerusalem and its temple in 70 A.D. Domitian followed him as Emperor in 81 A.D. Emperor Domitian exiled the apostle John to the Island of Patmos in 95 A.D. Following him as ruler is Nerva (96 to 98) and Trajan (98 to 117).", "Along the Rhine River, he took part in the Emperor Domitian's wars while under Domitian's successor, Nerva, who was unpopular with the army and needed to do something to gain their support. He accomplished this by naming Trajan as his adoptive son and successor in the summer of 97. According to the Augustan History, it was the future Emperor Hadrian who brought word to Trajan of his adoption. When Nerva died on 27 January 98, the highly respected Trajan succeeded without incident.", "When Nerva died on 27 January 98, Trajan succeeded to the role of emperor without any outward incident. However, the fact that he chose not to hasten towards Rome, but instead to make a lengthy tour of inspection on the Rhine and Danube frontiers, hints to the possible fact that his power position in Rome was unsure and that he first had to assure himself of the loyalty of the armies at the front. It is noteworthy that Trajan ordered Prefect Aelianus to attend him in Germany, where he was apparently executed (\"put out of the way\"), with his post being taken by Attius Suburanus. Trajan's accession, therefore, could qualify more as a successful coup than an orderly succession.", "Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 98 A.D. until his death in 117 A.D. He is best known for launching military campaings, such as Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106 A.D.), two brief wars between the Roman Empire and Dacia, and expansion to the east. It is under his rule, that the Empire reached its greatest territorial extent.", "When Nerva died in January of 98 CE, Trajan did not immediately return to Rome. Instead, he inspected the Rhine and Danube frontiers to not only safeguard against the Dacians but also to test the allegiance of many of the legions still loyal to Domitian. Finally, in the summer of 99 CE, he made his entry into Rome on foot where he mingled with both the citizenry and senators. Pliny the Younger (61-112 CE) - a lawyer, author, and governor of Bithynia - often corresponded with Emperor Trajan on a variety of topics. After Nerva’s death and Trajan’s ascension, Pliny wrote one of his many letters to the new emperor, ”May you then, and would through your means, enjoy every prosperity worthy of your reign: to which let me add my wishes, most excellent Emperor, upon a private as well as public account, that your health and spirits may be preserved firm and unbroken.”", "As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has enduredhe is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, melior Traiano (that he be \"luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan\"). Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. In the Renaissance, Machiavelli, speaking on the advantages of adoptive succession over heredity, mentioned the five successive good emperors \"from Nerva to Marcus\" a trope out of which the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five Good Emperors, of whom Trajan was the second. ", "In that same year, he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon. After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt, he withdrew due to health issues. In 117, his illness grew and he died of edema. He nominated Hadrian as his heir. Under Trajan's leadership the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned 2500000 mi2.Scarre 1995", "Following the assassination of Domitian, the Flavian line of emperors was replaced by the Nerva-Antonine dynasty. This dynasty brought excellent administrative leadership to the Empire through the absolute rule of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius were exceptional administrative leaders.", "The Roman emperor Trajan (ca. 53-117), or Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, was the first non-Italian emperor. He expanded Rome's territory to its farthest limits, and his designation as optimus princeps, \"the best of princes, \" attests to his reputation.", "117: Trajan dies on his way to the Persian Gulf and Hadrian, his wife's lover, becomes emperor", "Caesar's assassination brought anarchy, out of which the Second Triumvirate emerged with the rule of Octavian (later Augustus ), Antony , and Lepidus . Octavian was Caesar's nephew, ward, and heir, and his true successor. At Actium (31 B.C.) he defeated Antony and Cleopatra and made the empire one. No change was made in the government, but Octavian received from the senate the title Augustus and from the people life tribuneship; this, with the governorship of all the provinces conferred by the senate, made him the real ruler. He was called imperator [commander] and princeps [leader] and is usually considered the first Roman emperor. (For a list of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to the fall of Rome and the years they reigned, see the table entitled Rulers of the Roman Empire .)", "[1] 18 September 53 – 9 August 117 AD) was Roman Emperor from 98 AD until his death. Officially declared by the senate as optimus princeps (\"the best ruler\"), Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history , leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public building programs and implementing social welfare policies , which earned him his enduring reputation as the second of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace and prosperity in the Mediterranean world .", "Trajan (c.53–117 ad), Roman emperor 98–117. His reign is noted for the many public works undertaken and for the Dacian wars (101–6), which ended in the annexation of Dacia as a province, and which are illustrated on Trajan's Column in Rome .", "Roman emperor. Originally the commander of the Emperor’s personal bodyguards, he succeeded Emperor Julian after his death during the campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Ruling for only eight months before his death, his reign saw the reestablishment of Christianity and peace with the Persians.", "With the annexation of Decebalus' kingdom, Dacia was turned into Rome's newest province, only the second such acquisition since the death of Augustus nearly a century before. All that was left to deal with were Decebalus' Sarmatian allies to the north, requiring a number of campaigns that did not cease until 107 at the earliest; however, by the end of 106, the legions began erecting new Castra along the frontiers. Trajan returned to Rome in the middle of June 107.", "No stranger to expedience, Augustus duly arranged for his friend and associate Marcus Agrippa to marry Julia, then adopted their children – his grandchildren – as his own. He also adopted his step-son, Tiberius, and arranged for him to marry Julia after the death of Agrippa. Tiberius was therefore the stepson, the adopted son and son-in-law of Augustus – and not surprisingly, it was Tiberius who succeeded Augustus after his death in 14AD. So began the rule of the so-called Julio-Claudian dynasty and the famous five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero.", "Trajan - Trajan is considered by many historians to be the greatest of Rome's Emperors. He ruled for 19 years. During that time, he conquered many lands increasing the wealth and size of the empire. He also was an ambitious builder, constructing many lasting buildings throughout Rome.", "With the new powers that were conferred by the Senate, including the title of \"Augustus\" in 27 BC, Octavian arranged for the administration of the Empire: stable currency and taxation standardized, created an administrative structure consisting of knights and military foresaw the Treasury benefits for the soldiers at the time of the leave. Divided into Senatorial provinces (controlled by proconsul appointed senators) and Imperial (ruled by imperial-related). Augustus also became a promoter of cultural events and he himself was inspired by great masters such as Horace and Virgil, who celebrated it in their works. The death of the Emperor Augustus was a blow to Rome, for he was one of the most beloved emperors of history, as he had managed to revive the city in economic policy-both in the artistic, favoring the creation of beautiful monuments and the promotion of literature. At his death, was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius (Emperor 14-37 AD), which brought forward the program of Augustus ensure wealth and prosperity to the city. After the death of two children, Drusus and Germanicus, Tiberius led a retreat at the villa in Capri and left power in the hands of the master Elio Sejanus. Following, the Emperor Tiberius discovered a plot that seemed to have hatched Sejanus against him and put him to death along with many of his friends. The persecution did not end, that the death of Tiberius, which occurred in 37 to Cape Miseno.", "The Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end with the murder of Claudius's deranged successor, Nero, in AD 68. The following year of dynastic struggle has been graphically named \"the year of the four Emperors\". From the turmoil emerged the able Vespasian, first of the Flavian Emperors. He and his sons Titus and Domitian ruled successively until 96, and maintained the empire. New territory was added in Germany, east of the Rhine, and the eastern frontiers were greatly improved and strengthened. The empire was not, however, to grow for much longer: forces were at work, both internally and externally, which were to bring about the protracted end of the Roman Empire.", "On the death of Jovian, Julian's successor, Valentinian I (364–75) ruled the Western Empire; Valentinian II (375–92) succeeded him. After the death (395) of Theodosius I the empire was permanently divided into Eastern (see Byzantine Empire ) and Western, and Rome rapidly lost its political importance.", "Around this time he married Pompeia Plotina, a noble woman from the settlement at Nimes , although the marriage ultimately remained childless. It is not clear that Trajan was actively predisposed towards homosexuality, as bisexual activity was common among Roman men of the period, and so his homosexual activities could be interpreted as nothing more than a functional aspect of his class. Nevertheless, Dio Cassius makes reference to them, and his identified lovers included Hadrian and the pages of the imperial household, the actor Pylades, a dancer called Apolaustus, and possibly Licinius Sura and Nerva . [8]", "The Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies, leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons, Caracalla and Geta, 211", "The Arch of Septimius Severus was erected in 203 by his sons Caracalla and Geta to celebrate the triumphs of the emperor. It is a marble gateway, richly decorated in bas-reliefs, with a main central arch and two smaller side arches (another reference to the Emperor and his sons). There are four protruding columns, and on top of the arch was originally a bronze sculpture of a chariot of the Emperor Septimius with his two sons. A curious detail is that, after the bloody Caracalla killed his brother Geta in front of his mother, he had to remove his name from all monuments in the empire.", "Flavian rule came to an end on September 18, 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty.", "Flavian rule came to an end on September 18, 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nervan-Antonian dynast", "Another arch in the Forum Romanum is the white marble Arch of Septimius Severus, dedicated in 203 to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, in the two campaigns against the Parthians of 194/195 and 197-199.  After the death of Septimius Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were initially joint emperors. Caracalla had Geta assassinated in 212; Geta's memorials were destroyed and all images or mentions of him were removed from public buildings and monuments. Accordingly Geta's image and inscriptions referring to him were removed from the arch." ]

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[ "The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French Navy and Spanish Navy , during the War of the Third Coalition (August–December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). The battle was the most decisive British naval victory of the war. Twenty-seven British ships of the line led by Admiral Lord Nelson aboard HMS Victory defeated thirty-three French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Pierre Villeneuve off the south-west coast of Spain , just west of Cape Trafalgar . The Franco-Spanish fleet lost twenty-two ships, without a single British vessel being lost.", "The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a naval battle in which combined French and Spanish fleets were smashed by the British Royal navy under the command of Admiral Nelson Piquet Junior (formerly Horatio Roger Nelson) . [1] The Americans joined after the fighting had finished and claimed it was their 'victory', spinning a story how the US Navy Seals had got hold of the Franco-Spanish sailing times and passed this information to Nelson. When the British denied this happened, the Americans took this as a 'typical ungrateful Limey attitude' and was one of the reasons why the USA declared war on Britain in 1812 as 'pay back.' [2]", "October the 21st, 1805- This date begins one of the greatest naval military victories in history when Admiral Horatio Nelson’s fleet engages the French Fleet, supported by the Spanish in at the Battle of Trafalgar.  Nelson’s forces defeated thirty-three French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve.  It was during this battle that Nelson was mortally wounded and later died, but not before being told his fleet had defeated French and Spanish forces.  Today, Nelson is honored with a great statue in Trafalgar Square in London, England.", "Trafalgar, battle of (trəfălˈgər) [ key ], naval engagement fought off Cape Trafalgar on the SW coast of Spain on Oct. 21, 1805, in which the British fleet under Horatio Nelson won a famous victory over the allied French and Spanish fleets under Pierre de Villeneuve . Nelson's strategy was to divide his own fleet into two sections, one led by himself in the HMS Victory, the other by his deputy Cuthbert Collingwood in the HMS Royal Sovereign, and to penetrate the enemy line in two places. This maneuver resulted in the capture of 20 enemy ships (one was blown up). The British lost no ships. Among the dead was Nelson himself, struck by a bullet from the French ship Redoutable. The decisive English victory ended Napoleon I's power on the sea and made a French invasion of England impossible. The words signaled by Nelson at the beginning of the battle—\"England expects that every man will do his duty\"—became immortal.", "October 21 Trafalgar - Nelson defeats combined Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Villeneuve, losing his life but gaining control of the oceans for Britain for the rest of the war", "October 21, 1805 - The Battle of Trafalgar took place between the British Royal Navy and the combined French and Spanish fleets. The victorious British ended the threat of Napoleon's invasion of England. British naval hero Admiral Horatio Nelson was mortally wounded aboard his ship Victory.", "1805-10-21 Battle of Trafalgar: British Admiral Horatio Nelson defeats combined French and Spanish fleet. Nelson shot and killed during battle.", "In 1805, the combined fleets of France and Spain faced the Royal Navy in the last great battle of the age of sail, at Cape Trafalgar off the coast of Spain. British naval hero Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson led the daring British attack in HMS 'Victory', but was killed at the height of the battle. It seems likely that the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, had already abandoned his plans for the invasion of England, but the victory nonetheless handed Britain complete control of the seas.", "On October 21, the British Admiral Horatio Nelson had caught a French and allied Spanish fleet at Trafalgar and utterly destroyed it at the cost of his own life. Great Britain had lost its greatest sailor, but never again would the French challenge the might of the British navy.", "The British Government began placing pressure on the French Emperor, Napoleon I. Thanks to Pitt's efforts, Britain joined the Third Coalition, an alliance that also involved Austria, Russia, and Sweden. In October 1805, the British Admiral, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, won a crushing victory in the Battle of Trafalgar, ensuring British naval supremacy for the remainder of the war.", "When Admiral Villeneuve learned that he was to be removed from command he took his ships to sea on the morning of October 19, first sailing south towards the Mediterranean but then turning north towards the British fleet, beginning the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson had already made his plans: to break the enemy line some two or three ships ahead of their Commander in Chief in the centre and achieve victory before the van could come to their aid. In the event fitful winds made it a slow business. For five hours after Nelson's last manoeuvring signal the two columns of British ships slowly approached the French line before Royal Sovereign, leading the lee column, was able to open fire on Fougueux. Twenty five minutes later Victory broke the line between Bucentaure and Redoutable firing a double shot broadside into the stern of the former from a range of a few yards. At 25 minutes past one Nelson was shot, the fatal ball entering his left shoulder and lodging in his spine. He died at half past four. Such killing had taken place on Victory's quarter deck that Redoutable attempted to board her, but the marines and small arms men repelled them. Nelson's last order was for the fleet to anchor but this was rejected by Vice Admiral Collingwood. Victory lost 57 killed and 102 wounded.", "43. Who was the commander of the fleet in opposition to Nelson, at the Battle of Trafalgar?", "The Battle of Trafalgar was fought in October 1805 between the British and the combined French and Spanish navies. The French army, under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte, wanted to invade Britain. By 1804, the French navy was trying to destroy the British Royal Navy or at least move it away from the English Channel (the strip of water between England and France). This would give the French troops an easy path to attack Britain. To prevent this from happening, the British naval commander Horatio Nelson attacked the allied French and Spanish navies near Cape Trafalgar on the south coast of Spain. Usually, fighting ships would line up and fire their cannons at each other from a distance, but Nelson chose to take his ships close to the enemy, where the faster British ships would have an advantage. During the battle, Nelson walked openly around the deck of his ship to encourage his men, but was shot by a French gunman. Nelson died but the British won the battle, which stopped Napoleon from invading.", "In 1805, Admiral Nelson defeated the French navy at the Battle of Trafalgar. At the same time the French army turned its attention away from the invasion of Britain and headed east to fight the Austrians and Russians. Napoleon never again had the chance to invade.", "This series of events lead us to October of 1805. The naval fleets of France and Spain tried to gain control of the English Channel in order to facilitate Napoleon's invasion of Britain. The British Navy responded to this threat by sending a fleet of warships under the command of Admiral Horatio Nelson to confront the French and Spanish fleets off the coast of Spain. On 20 October the French fleet tried to maneuver to the south, but Nelson caught them off Cape Trafalgar the next day. One of the largest battles in naval history ensued, with Admiral Nelson's fleet of 27 ships going against a fleet of 33 ships (18 French and 15 Spanish). In the end, the French and Spanish fleets were crushed. About 1,500 British seamen were killed or wounded, but not a single British warship was lost. The defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar ended Napoleon's plans to invade England, and the Napoleonic Wars came to a close ten years later at the Battle of Waterloo where the French Army was routed by Anglo-German forces. France surrendered soon after, and Napoleon was exiled to the island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.", "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronté, KB (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was an English flag officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He won several victories, including the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he was killed.", "October 21 Battle of Trafalgar: British navy under Horatio Nelson defeats the French navy. Due to censorship of the press, the French people are not told of this loss for many months", "Later Nelson was given command of the Mediterranean fleet. He blockaded the French fleet at Toulon for more than a year until it slipped out. Nelson chased it to the West Indies and back, laid siege to it and the allied Spanish fleet in the harbor of Cadiz, and finally brought them both to bay off Cape Trafalgar on Oct. 21, 1805. From his ship, the Victory, he flew the signal that has ever since been Britain's watchword: \"England expects that every man will do his duty.\" Nelson's tactics shattered the enemy fleet. While the battle still raged Nelson fell mortally wounded. His flag captain, Thomas Hardy, carried him below deck. His last words were, \"Now I am satisfied. Thank God, I have done my duty.\" He died on Oct. 21, 1805.", "Born in 1758, he was made commander in chief of the British fleet in May 1803. This great man fought valiantly for his country many times and won many notable naval battles. This came at the personal cost of losing an arm and one eye. Admiral Horatio Nelson's last and most famous battle was the Battle of Trafalgar. Off the Spanish cape of Trafalgar, he defeated Napoleon and the French and Spanish fleets. Sadly, during it, on 21st of October 1805, he lost his life aboard H.M.S. Victory.", "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, KB (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was noted for his inspirational leadership and superb grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics, which resulted in a number of decisive naval victories, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was wounded several times in combat, losing one arm in the unsuccessful attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the sight in one eye in Corsica. He was shot and killed during his final victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.", "A map of the Battle of Trafalgar, just west of Cape Trafalgar, Spain. The battle was between the British Royal Navy under Admiral Lord Nelson and the combined fleets of the French and Spanish navies. This sea battle, fought on 21st October, 1805, res...", "Nelson was in England at the time of the Treaty of Amiens (1802-03), which temporarily ended the fighting between England and France. When war broke out again in 1803 he was appointed commander of the British Mediterranean fleet. In the Battle of Trafalgar, on October 21, 1805, Nelson overwhelmingly defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets, leading the attack himself in his flagship Victory. The British victory put an end to Napoleon's plans for invading England.", "Trafalgar : Battle of Trafalgar : Horatio Nelson : Royal Navy : French : Villeneuve : Spain", "Keywords: Battle of Trafalgar, physical, historical, battle of trafalgar, british fleet, combined french and spanish fleet, division of vice admiral collingwood, physical features, other military, inlandWaters, location, oceans, Unknown, October 21, 1805", "-Naval battle in which Napoleon's forces were defeated by a British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson", "Trafalgar also had a broader significance in world history. Nelson’s rout of the Franco-Spanish fleet, whose losses included 18 ships, 6,000 killed or wounded, and over 20,000 taken prisoner, so stung Napoleon that he never initiated another naval campaign. Admiral Nelson’s losses were zero ships and approximately 1,700 killed or wounded. For this, Nelson is credited with saving Britain from a Napoleonic invasion even though Napoleon’s geopolitical ambitions had changed prior to Trafalgar.", "In an age when a successful admiral might gain one victory in fleet or squadron action during his lifetime, Nelson gained three: at the Battle of the Nile (1798), the Battle of Copenhagen (1801) and the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). The scale and significance of these victories was also unparalleled. His taking of nineteen French and Spanish ships off Cape Trafalgar - the \"great and glorious victory\" he prayed for - gave him more enemy ships than any of his predecessors had captured or destroyed in all their battles put together, and, more important, it secured for Great Britain command of the sea for over a century. Killed by a sharpshooter at the height of the battle, Nelson died the way he always wanted: at the moment of victory in a great battle in the service of his country.", "The alliance came just at the right time for Britain, as Napoleon was preparing for an assault on the Isle, which he derogatorily called \"that island of shopkeepers.\" Extremely alarmed, the British deployed Admiral Nelson to the English Channel separating England and France. Meanwhile, the Austrian and Russian Armies were approaching France from the east. Napoleon, upset that his invasion of England had been preempted, was forced to move his troops to face the approaching Russo-Austrian army. On October 25, 1805, Nelson wiped out the French fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar.", "Over the period 1794 to 1805, under Nelson's leadership, the Royal Navy proved its supremacy over the French. His most famous engagement, at Cape Trafalgar, saved Britain from threat of invasion by Napoleon, but it would be his last. Before the battle on 21 October 1805, Nelson sent out the famous signal to his fleet 'England expects that every man will do his duty'. He was killed by a French sniper a few hours later while leading the attack on the combined French and Spanish fleet. His body was preserved in brandy and transported back to England where he was given a state funeral.", "Napoleon was finally defeated by Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from the field while the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank. The French army left the battlefield in disorder, which allowed Coalition forces to enter France and restore Louis XVIII to the French throne. Off the port of Rochefort, Charente-Maritime, after quickly considering an escape to the United States, Napoleon made his formal surrender to the British Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.", "Napoleon was finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington ( Arthur Wellesley ) and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at The Battle of Waterloo in present-day Belgium on 18 June 1815. Off the port of Rochefort, after unsuccessfully attempting to escape to the United States , Napoléon made his formal surrender while on board HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.", "Above,beneath the setting sun, his fleet was lying in two groups with the shattered hulks of the enemy ships all around them. The British losses had been heavy; 449 killed and 1,241 wounded. But of the 27 ships of the British fleet, not one had been sunk or captured. Trafalgar was the decisive battle of the Napoleonic Wars." ]

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[ "The Battle of Blenheim (also the Battle of Blindheim and referred to in some countries as the Second Battle of Höchstädt), fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance.", "The Battle of Blenheim (referred to in some countries as the Second Battle of Höchstädt), fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession . [1] Louis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna , the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. The dangers to Vienna were considerable: the Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin 's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Vendôme 's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass . Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi 's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg and help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance .", "The Battle of Blenheim, a major battle in the War of the Spanish Succession, was fought on this day in British history, 13 August 1704. French King Louis XIV hoped to seize Vienna and ransom it in return for peace with Austria, a result that would weaken the Grand Alliance. Instead, the Duke of Marlborough managed to march a massive army south to the Danube and engage Marshall Tallard’s Franco-Bavarian army that had effectively surrounded Vienna.", "One of the decisive battles of the War of Spanish Succession, 13 August 1704. The British (under John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough) and Austrians (Prince Eugen of Savoy) defeated the French and Bavarians near the Bavarian village of Blenheim.", "The Duke of Marlborough leads the attack at the Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession: picture by Harry Payne", "French soldiers marching to join their regiment: Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession: picture by Jean Anthoine Watteau", "Fought between a Grand Alliance and the French-Bavarian Army. Blenheim has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance. Allied casualties were 4,500 killed and 7,500 wounded, whereas the enemy suffered losses of 38,600 killed, wounded or taken prisoner. It destroyed the myth of French invincibility.", "Marlborough’s cavalry attacks: Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession", "Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession: picture by Harry Payne", "Blenheim has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance. Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis's hopes for a quick victory came to an end. France suffered over 30,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, who was taken captive to England. Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau , and the towns of Trier (Trèves) and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself.", "Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession: click here to buy this picture", "French supply column: Battle of Blenheim 2nd August 1704 in the War of the Spanish Succession: picture by Jean Anthoine Watteau", "1. During the war of the Spanish succession, the Duke of Marlborough, commanding the forces of the Grand Alliance, won a victory at Blenheim (August 12, 1704) in his campaign in the Spanish Netherlands.", "The Battle of Blenheim, which was fought on August 14 1704, was a huge turning point in the balance of power in Europe. It was also a significant message to the rest of the World that Britain was a powerful military force.", "The Battle of Blenheim was a major British victory against combined French and German forces, which succeeded in countering French plans for a united Europe, under French control.", "The Battle of Blenheim saw John Churchill, the 1st Duke of Marlborough, defeat the French army of Louis XIV on 13 August 1704.", "1704 - English, Bavarian, and Austrian troops under Marlborough defeat the French at the Battle of Blenheim and save Austria from invasion.", "French losses were immense: over 30,000 killed, wounded and missing. [89] Moreover, the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed and Louis's hopes of an early and victorious peace had been wrenched from his grasp. [89] Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: \"The French lost this battle for a wide variety of reasons. For one thing they had too good an opinion of their own ability ... Another point was their faulty field dispositions, and in addition there was rampant indiscipline and inexperience displayed ... It took all these faults to lose so celebrated a battle.\" [90] It was a hard-fought contest, leading Prince Eugene to observe – \"I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least.\" [91] Nevertheless, the Battle of Blenheim was probably the most decisive victory of the war; Marlborough and Eugene, working indivisibly together, had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse. [92] Munich , Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and all remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies. By the Treaty of Ilbersheim , signed 7 November 1704, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to utilise its resources for the rest of the conflict. [93]", "17/11/1887, Viscount Montgomery, World War Two army commander who defeated Rommel in Africa in World War Two, was born in Kensington, London, the son of a vicar.", "English general and statesman who served under five British monarchs. He is best known for his decisive victory in the Battle of Blenheim (1704).", "1704 - French & Bavarian forces were routed by a combined British, German & Dutch army at Blenheim, Germany", "↑ All dates in the article are New Style (unless otherwise stated). The Old Style calendar as used in England differed by eleven days after 1700. Thus, the Battle of Blenheim is 13 August N.S or 2 August O.S.", "Blenheim Palace in England, built to honour victory at the battle of Blenheim , fought on August 13th 1704.", "The successes of the French in Alsace enabled them to menace Vienna (1703), but the opportunity was lost by dissension among their chiefs. In 1704, Marlborough succeeded in moving his troops from the Netherlands into Bavaria, where he joined Eugene and won the great victory of Blenheim over the French under the count of Tallard (see Blenheim, battle of ), and the French lost Bavaria. Meanwhile, Portugal and Savoy had changed sides (1703), and in 1704 the English captured Gibraltar.", "A little more than two weeks later, the Scots Greys fought in the Battle of Blenheim. As part of Ross' Brigade, the Scots Greys again fought as dismounted infantry in the attack on Blenheim itself. On route to the village, the Scots Greys and the Wynne's Regiment of Dragoons had to fend off a charge by the French regiments of d'Artois and 1er Provence. With the help of the Hanoverians, the Scots Greys beat back the charge and then helped to clear the French from Blenheim. Despite being heavily engaged, at times in hand-to-hand combat, the Scots Greys did not have a single fatality, though they did suffer many wounded.", "Diorama of the battle in the Höchstädt museum. In the middle ground the Allied cavalry are breaking through, pushing Tallard's squadrons from the battlefield. The foreground depicts the fierce fighting in and around Blenheim.", "Image: The Duke of Marlborough at the Battle of Blenheim: The Surrender of Maréchal Tallard (National Trust)", "By 16:00, with the enemy troops besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column), supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits. There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to concert the attack upon the whole front, and Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganize. [75]", "At 12.30pm Prince Eugene reported that he was in place and ready and Marlborough ordered Coutts to assault Blenheim. By 1pm Row’s Brigade of 1st Guards, 10th Foot, 21st Foot, 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and 24th Foot were advancing on the village under heavy fire. The British Foot was ordered not to return the fire, so as not to delay the advance, until the brigadier himself struck the first fortification. The Foot was then to storm the village at the point of the bayonet.", "The position of the forces at noon, 13 August. Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglauheim, whilst Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen .", "  The position of the forces at noon, 13 August. Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglauheim, whilst Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen .", "Size of the armies at the Battle of Blenheim: There is considerable dissent on the size of the respective armies." ]

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[ "Henry IV was succeeded by his son and later his grandson, Henry V and Henry VI. This was the House of Lancaster.", "A brief epitome of the reigns of the three successive kings belonging to the house of Lancaster ( Henry IV , V and Henry VI ) will be found elsewhere [see respective biographies]. With the death of Henry VI the direct male line of John of Gaunt became extinct. But by his daughters he became the ancestor of more than one line of foreign kings, while his descendants by his third wife, Catherine Swynford, conveyed the crown of England to the house of Tudor. It is true that his children by this lady were born before he married her; but they were made legitimate by act of parliament, and, though Henry IV in confirming the privilege thus granted to them endeavoured to debar them from the succession to the crown, it is now ascertained that there was no such reservation in the original act, and the title claimed by Henry VII was probably better than he himself supposed.", "House of Lancaster, a cadet branch of the house of Plantagenet . In the 15th century it provided three kings of England—Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI—and, defeated by the house of York , passed on its claims to the Tudor dynasty .", "Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England 1422–1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realms were governed by regents. Contemporaneously, he was described as a peaceful and pious man, not suited for the harsh nature of the struggles facing him. His periods of insanity and his inherent benevolence eventually led to his own downfall, the collapse of the House of Lancaster, and the rise of the House of York.", "Henry of Bolingbroke had established the House of Lancaster on the throne in 1399, when he deposed his cousin Richard II and was crowned as Henry IV. Bolingbroke's son, Henry V, maintained the family's hold on the crown; but when Henry V died in 1422, his heir was the infant, Henry VI. The Lancastrian claim to the throne descended from John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, the third surviving son of Edward III. Henry VI's right to the crown was challenged by Richard, Duke of York, who could claim descent from Edward's second and fourth surviving sons, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence and Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York. Richard of York, who had held several important offices of state, quarrelled with prominent Lancastrians at court and with Henry VI's queen, Margaret of Anjou.", "Henry IV, also called (1377–97) earl of Derby or (1397–99) duke of Hereford, byname Henry Bolingbroke or Henry of Lancaster (born April? 1366, Bolingbroke Castle, Lincolnshire , England —died March 20, 1413, London ), king of England from 1399 to 1413, the first of three 15th-century monarchs from the house of Lancaster . He gained the crown by usurpation and successfully consolidated his power in the face of repeated uprisings of powerful nobles. However, he was unable to overcome the fiscal and administrative weaknesses that contributed to the eventual downfall of the Lancastrian dynasty .", "King Henry V (1386 – 1422) Second monarch from the House of Lancaster. Henry V is most famous for leading the English to a decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) during the ongoing one hundred years war with France.", "Henry VI's reign was interrupted by Edward IV's due to the War of the Roses. Henry VI was a member of the House of Lancaster, while Edward IV was from the House of York. The former House descended from Henry of Bolingbroke, the fourth son of King Edward III; the latter House descended from Edmund of Langley, Edward III's fifth son.", "\"Henry IV (15 April 1367– 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland (1399–1413). He was the tenth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry (of) Bolingbroke /ˈbɒlɪŋbrʊk/. His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of Edward III, and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Henry's cousin Richard II, whom Henry eventually deposed. Henry's mother was Blanche, heiress to the considerable Lancaster estates, thus he became the first King of England from the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenets.\"", "Henry IV, also known by the epithet \"Good King Henry\", was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon.", "The antagonism between the Houses of Lancaster and York commenced in 1399 when Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster overthrew his unpopular cousin King Richard II. A grandson of Edward III , through John of Gaunt, his claim to the English crown was relatively weak compared to his Yorkist relations. Ruling until 1413 as Henry IV, he was forced to put down several uprisings to maintain the throne. On his death, the throne passed to his son, Henry V. A great warrior known for his victory at Agincourt , Henry V only lived until 1422 when he was succeeded by his nine-month old son Henry VI. For most of his minority, Henry was surrounded by unpopular advisors such as the Duke of Gloucester, Cardinal Beaufort, and the Duke of Suffolk.", "The antagonism between the Houses of Lancaster and York began in 1399 when Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster (left) deposed his unpopular cousin King Richard II.  A grandson of Edward III , through John of Gaunt, his claim to the English throne was relatively weak compared to his Yorkist relations.  Reigning until 1413 as Henry IV, he was forced to put down numerous uprisings to maintain the throne.  On his death, the crown passed to his son, Henry V.  A great warrior known for his victory at Agincourt , Henry V only survived until 1422 when he was succeeded by his nine-month old son Henry VI.  For most of his minority, Henry was surrounded by unpopular advisors such as the Duke of Gloucester, Cardinal Beaufort, and the Duke of Suffolk. ", "Henry IV was succeeded by his son Henry V, and eventually by his grandson Henry VI in 1422.", "Mary died in 1394, and on 7 February 1403 Henry married Joanna of Navarre , the daughter of Charles d'Évreux, King of Navarre , at Winchester. She was the widow of John V of Brittany , with whom she had had four daughters and four sons; however, her marriage with the King of England was to be childless. But Henry had already four sons from his first marriage, which was undoubtedly a clinching factor in his acceptability for the throne. By contrast, Richard II had no children and Richard's heir-presumptive Edmund Mortimer was only seven years old. The only two of Henry's six children who produced children to survive to adulthood were Henry V and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. Henry IV's male Lancaster line ended in 1471 during the War of the Roses, between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists, with the deaths of his grandson Henry VI and Henry VI's son Edward, Prince of Wales. Henry IV's son, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester 's descendants include Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, queen consort of George VI and mother of Elizabeth II , [26] and the Queen's current daughters-in-law, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall and Sophie, Countess of Wessex . [27]", "At the start of the period, concurrent with the accession of Henry IV (r. 1399–1413), England’s first Lancastrian king, Great Britain and Ireland are rife with internal tensions, including Welsh revolt, a series of baronial rebellions led by the Percy family of Northumberland, and ongoing warfare among the Anglo-Irish nobility. In 1415, Henry V (r. 1413–22) renews the war with France that has continued, with interruptions, for nearly a century. His endeavors are temporarily successful, gaining large territories in France and securing his claim to the French throne. During the reign of his son Henry VI (1422–61; 1470–71), however, the English are expelled from France with the help of Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl, and political turmoil erupts at home when the king’s frequent illnesses place England in the hands of a Protector, Richard, duke of York. By the end of the fifteenth century, civil war between the Yorkists and Lancastrians seriously undermines the power of the monarchy and leaves the nobility fractured and vulnerable to the prevailing Tudor family.", "Henry VII, known before accession as Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond (; 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), was King of England after seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death, the first monarch of the House of Tudor. He ruled the Principality of Wales until 29 November 1489 and was Lord of Ireland. ", "Henry VI was the only child of King Henry V and Katharine of Valois, born on 6th December 1421 at Windsor Castle . He became King of England, upon his father's death, when he was only nine months old. The Council assumed the regency, but, as the King's eldest uncle, John, Duke of Bedford, was usually fighting in France, his younger uncle, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, was practically allowed to act as Protector. Two months after his accession to the English crown, Henry became, so far as the Treaty of Troyes could make him so, King of France also and he was the only English King ever crowned in France with that title. His uncles, Henry, Cardinal Beaufort , and Gloucester, above mentioned, both imbued him with a love of learning which remained his consolation during his long and miserable reign. His first tutor (1428-1436) in martial exercises was Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, who perhaps ill-treated him and gave him a disgust for such matters, for he seems to have been a tender and delicate boy. He spent his summers in residence with his mother at Wallingford Castle in Berkshire. Henry was crowned at Westminster in 1429 and at Paris in 1430.", "Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413 and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III, to the Kingdom of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry of Bolingbroke /ˈbɒlɪŋbrʊk/.", "King Henry VI was the leader of the Lancaster branch of the family (symbolized by the Red Rose). The York branch (symbolized by the White Rose) challenged his throne. Eventually the Yorkists won and Edward IV became king, followed by Richard III, another Yorkist. Henry VII was a supporter of the Lancasters.", "Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413 and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III, to the Kingdom of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry of Bolingbroke.", "Henry IV ( 3 April 1367 – 20 March 1413) was the King of England and France and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence the other name by which he was known, \"Henry (of) Bolingbroke\". His father, John of Gaunt, was the third and oldest surviving son of King Edward III of England , and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Richard II . Henry's mother was Blanche, heiress to the considerable Lancaster estates.", "Henry VI, King of England (reigned 31 August 1422 – 4 March 1461 and 30 October 1470 – 11 April 1471)", "With Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, and Tudors would continue to rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, the Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle. Parliament quickly recognized him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.", "an English royal house descended from a Welsh squire, Owen Tudor (died 1461), and ruling from 1485 to 1603. Monarchs of the Tudor line were Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I", "The one exception to this occurred, ironically, when an English king had the most realistic chance of actually becoming King of France! After his military successes at Agincourt and afterwards, Henry V secured recognition as heir to the throne of France from Charles VI, although this was not accepted by many of the French, and the war went on. From the point of this recognition, which was given in the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, Henry styled himself by the Grace of God King of England, Heir and Regent of France, and Lord of Ireland. The two kings – Henry and Charles – died within two months of each other in 1422, so that, according to the treaty, Henry VI of England was also King of France, and resumed the pre-1420 royal style.", "Cousins - both were descendents of Edward III. Henry VI was descended from John of Gaunt (4th son of Edward III). Edward IV was descended from Lionel, Duke of Clarence (3rd son of Edward III) & Edmund, Duke of York (6th son of Edward III)", "Henry V died unexpectedly in 1422 and his son, King Henry VI of England, ascended the throne as an infant only nine months old. From his childhood, he was surrounded by quarrelsome councillors and advisors. Henry's younger surviving paternal uncle, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, sought to be named Protector and deliberately courted the popularity of the common people for his own ends, but was opposed by Cardinal Beaufort. On several occasions, Beaufort called on John, Duke of Bedford, Humphrey's older brother, to return from his post as Regent in France, either to mediate or to defend him against Humphrey's accusations of treason. Some time after Bedford died in 1435, Cardinal Beaufort withdrew from public affairs, partly due to old age and partly because William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, rose to become the dominant personality at court. Suffolk was widely held to be enriching himself through his influence on Henry, and was blamed for mismanaging the government and poorly executing the continuing Hundred Years' War with France. Under Henry VI, all the land in France won by Henry V and even the provinces of Guienne and Gascony, which had been held since the reign of Henry II three centuries previously, were lost.", "(1422) Henry V died; Son Henry VI (aged nine months) succeeded; council established to rule England", "Henry VI at 10 months becomes king of England, on the death of his father Henry V;", "Appears in: Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; Henry V; Henry VI, Part 1", "They were called the Tudors because Henry VII was otherwise known as Henry Tudor. He was the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the son of Princess Catherine of Valois and Owen Tudor, and Margaret Beauford, who was a descendant of King Edward III through an illegitimate line. Henry Tudor became Henry VII when he won the throne from King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, and his son and grandchildren continued the Tudor dynasty until 1603.", "Born the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, handsome Prince Henry was not expected to become king. Yet he went on to become one of England’s most memorable monarchs – but of what of his six wives?" ]

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[ "1919 British troops opened fire on 10,000 unarmed civilians at Amritsar in India who had defied the restrictions against public gatherings. 379 people were killed and 1,200 wounded.", "The agitation unleashed by the acts culminated on  13 April   1919 , in the  Amritsar Massacre  in  Amritsar , Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier-General  Reginald Dyer , ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 10,000 persons. They had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled garden, to celebrate  Baisakhi , a   Sikh festival, without prior knowledge of the imposition of martial law. A total of 1,650 rounds were fired, killing 379 persons and wounding 1,137 in the episode, which dispelled wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill in a frenzy of postwar reaction.", "The 1919 Amritsar massacre, known alternatively as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre after the Jallianwala Bagh (Garden) in the northern Indian city of Amritsar, was ordered by General R.E.H. Dyer. On Sunday April 13, 1919, which happened to be 'Baisakhi', one of Punjab's largest religious festivals, fifty British Indian Army Soldiers, commanded by Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, began shooting at an unarmed gathering of men, women, and children without warning. Dyer marched his fifty riflemen to a raised bank and ordered them to kneel and fire. Dyer ordered soldiers to reload their rifles several times and they were ordered to shoot to kill. Official British Raj sources estimated the fatalities at 379, and with 1,100 wounded. Civil Surgeon Dr Williams DeeMeddy indicated that there were 1,526 casualties. However, the casualty number quoted by the Indian National Congress was more than 1,500, with roughly 1,000 killed.", "The agitation unleashed by the acts led to British attacks on demonstrators, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, blocked the main, and only entrance-cum-exit, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and children. They had assembled peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute the imposed ban on all meetings and proposed to teach all Indians a lesson the harsher way. A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official British commission; Indian officials' estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the massacre.) Dyer was forced to retire but was hailed as a hero in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationalists that the Empire was beholden to public opinion in Britain, but not in India. The episode dissolved wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill and opened a rift that could not be bridged short of complete self-rule. ", "Soon after Dyer's arrival, on the afternoon of April 13, 1919, some 10,000 or more unarmed men, women, and children gathered in Amritsar's Jallianwala Bagh (bagh, \"garden\"; but before 1919 it had become a public square) to attend a protest meeting, despite a ban on public assemblies. It was a Sunday, and many neighbouring village peasants also came to Amritsar to celebrate the Hindu Baisakhi Spring Festival. Dyer positioned his men at the sole, narrow passageway of the Bagh, which was otherwise entirely enclosed by the backs of abutted brick buildings. Giving no word of warning, he ordered 50 soldiers to fire into the gathering, and for 10 to 15 minutes 1,650 rounds of ammunition were unloaded into the screaming, terrified crowd, some of whom were trampled by those desperately trying to escape. According to official estimates, nearly 400 civilians were killed, and another 1,200 were left wounded with no medical attention. Dyer, who argued his action was necessary to produce a \"moral and widespread effect,\" admitted that the firing would have continued had more ammunition been available.", "Gen. R.E.H. Dyer was sent with troops from Jullundur to restore order, and, though no further disturbances occurred in Amritsar until April 13, Dyer marched 50 armed soldiers into the Jallianwallah Bagh (Garden) that afternoon and ordered them to open fire on a protest meeting attended by some 10,000 unarmed men, women, and children without issuing a word of warning. It was a Sunday, and many neighboring peasants had come to Amritsar to celebrate a Hindu festival, gathering in the Bagh, which was a place for holding cattle fair and other festivities. Dyer kept his troops firing for about ten minutes, until they had shot 1650 rounds of ammunition into the terror-stricken crowd, which had no way of escaping the Bagh, since the soldiers spanned the only exit. About 400 civilians were killed and some 1200 wounded. They were left without medical attention by Dyer, who hastily removed his troops to the camp. Sir Michael O'Dwyer fully approved of and supported the Jallianwallah Bagh massacre, and on April 15, 1919, issued a martial law decree for the entire Punjab:", "1919: The Amritsar massacre took place in the Punjab when British troops led by Brigadier-General Dyer opened fire on an unlawful demonstration on an open wasteland in the Holy City of the Sikhs.", "However, one part of the tour did go extremely well – the visit to Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. I was an accredited royal correspondent on that visit and watched as the Queen laid a wreath at the spot in April 1919 where a platoon of British soldiers opened fire into a crowd, killing 379 people and injuring 1100. It was one of the worst atrocities in the history of British India. That bloodbath led Gandhi to initiate the civil disobedience campaign, giving impetus to India’s independence movement that proved so important in precipitating the end of British rule. The wreathlaying was a gesture intended to acknowledge the excesses of a shared history, and to build on this reconciliation.", "After World War I, Indians are growing increasingly frustrated that they fought for Britain but still have no freedom in their own land. On April 13, 1919, British General Reginald Dyer fires on a peaceful public meeting in Amritsar, in northern India. The resulting massacre convinces many Indians that they need independence from Britain.", "Nehru’s close association with the Congress Party dates from 1919 in the immediate aftermath of World War I . That period saw an early wave of nationalist activity and governmental repression, which culminated in the Massacre of Amritsar in April 1919; according to an official report, 379 persons were killed (though other estimates were considerably higher), and at least 1,200 were wounded when the local British military commander ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of unarmed Indians assembled in an almost completely enclosed space in the city.", "Tagore was strongly involved in protest against the Raj on a number of occasions, most notably in the movement to resist the 1905 British proposal to split in two the province of Bengal, a plan that was eventually withdrawn following popular resistance. He was forthright in denouncing the brutality of British rule in India, never more so than after the Amritsar massacre of April 13, 1919, when 379 unarmed people at a peaceful meeting were gunned down by the army, and two thousand more were wounded. Between April 23 and 26, Rabindranath wrote five agitated letters to C.F. Andrews, who himself was extremely disturbed, especially after he was told by a British civil servant in India that thanks to this show of strength, the \"moral prestige\" of the Raj had \"never been higher.\"", "1919 - British soldiers kill hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians at a protest in Amritsar, India.", "The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, involving the killing of hundreds of Indian civilians on the orders of a senior British military officer, Reginald Edward Harry Dyer, took place on 13 April 1919 in the heart of Amritsar, the holiest city of the Sikhs, on a day sacred to them as the birth anniversary of the Khalsa (Vaisakhi day).", "Indian leaders viewed the autocratic enactment of such legislation, following the victorious conclusion of a war in which India had so loyally supported Britain, as a confession of British treachery and duplicity and the abandonment of the promised policy of reform in favour of a new wave of repression. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Gujarati who had returned from South Africa shortly after the war started and was by then recognized throughout India as one of the most promising leaders of Congress, called upon his country to take sacred vows to disobey the Rowlatt Acts, launching a nationwide movement for the repeal of those repressive measures. Gandhi's appeal received the strongest popular response in the Punjab, where the nationalist leaders Kichloo and Satyapal addressed mass protest rallies from the provincial capital of Lahore to Amritsar, sacred capital of the Sikhs. Gandhi himself had taken a train to the Punjab early in April 1919 to address on of those rallies, but he was arrested at the border station and taken back to Bombay by orders of the tyrannical lieutenant governor of the Punjab, Sir Michael O'Dwyer.", "Suddenly Dyer appeared there with troops and without any warning to the people, ordered firing on the completely peaceful and defenceless crowd. The fusillade continued till Dyer’s ammunition ran out. Atleast about a thousand people, if not more, are estimated to have been killed. This cold-blooded carnage, Dyer admitted later, was perpetrated ‘to strike into the whole of Punjab’. The massacre stunned the people and became a turning point in the history of India’s struggle for freedom.", "Amritsar was also the location of the 1919 Amritsar Massacre during the struggle for independence .", "A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence. Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts. This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre. In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the event, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion. The subsequent Non-Co-Operation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years. ", "On April 10, in Amritsar, Kichloo and Satyapal were arrested and deported from the district by deputy commisioner Miles Irving, and when their followers tried to march to Irving's bungalow in the camp to demand the release of their leaders they were fired upon by British troops. With several of their number killed and wounded, the enraged mob rioted through Amritsar's old city, burning British banks, murdering several Englishmen, and attacking two Englishwomen.", "** Amritsar Massacre: British and Gurkha troops massacre 379 Sikhs at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in the Punjab Province (British India).", "The events of the Ghadar conspiracy during World War I, the presence of Mahendra Pratap 's Provisional Government in Afghanistan and its links to Bolshevik Russia and Soviet Designs on India, as well as a still active revolutionary movement especially in Punjab and Bengal, and worsening civil unrest throughout India, especially amongst the Bombay millworkers, led to the appointment of a Sedition committee in 1918 chaired by Sydney Rowlatt, an English judge. It was tasked to evaluate German and Bolshevik links to the militant movement in India, especially in Punjab and Bengal.", "Whether the firing was planned or accidental remains unresolved. Most early histories assume it was planned either by the Nana Sahib (Kaye and Malleson) or that Tantia Tope and Brigadier Jwala Pershad planned it without the Nana Sahib's knowledge (G W Forrest). The stated reasons for the planned nature are: the speed with which the Nana Sahib agreed to the British conditions (Mowbray Thomson); and the firepower arranged around the ghat which was far in excess of what was necessary to guard the European troops (most histories agree on this). During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence of any such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded the boats and he (Tatya Tope) raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi ( Bungalow ) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it. [71] Some British histories allow that it might well have been the result of accident or error; someone accidentally or maliciously fired a shot, the panic-stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop the massacre. [72]", "Bareilly (121), a city in NW. India, the chief town in Rohilkhand, 153 m. E. of Delhi, notable as the place where the Mutiny of 1858 first broke out.", "On 20 January 1948, Madanlal Pahwa, Shankar Kistaiya, Digambar Badge, Vishnu Karkare, Gopal Godse, Nathuram Godse, and Narayan Apte came to Birla Bhavan (aka Birla House) in Delhi to carry out another attack on Mahatma Gandhi and Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Except for Madanlal Pahwa and Vishnu Karkare, everyone else reached the venue through the rear entrance in a cab. Madanlal Pahwa tried to bribe Choturam, the driver at Birla Bhavan, to let him go behind the podium to take pictures of Gandhi. However, Choturam became suspicious and asked Madanlal Pahwa why he needed photographs from behind, and inquired about the absence of a camera. Madanlal Pahwa instead left, making Choturam think he was going back to the taxi; however, he placed a cotton ball enclosing a bomb on the wall behind the podium and ignited it. The bomb went off without creating any panic. The team had left after abandoning Madanlal Pahwa.", "1930 Attempted raid on the armoury of police and auxiliary forces in Chittagong in Bengal province, British India by armed pro-independence revolutionaries led by Surya Sen popularly known as Master-da.", "Soldiers of the British Raj fired on unarmed non-violent protestors of the Khudai Khidmatgar with machine guns during the Indian independence movement [138] [139]", "During World War I, Madras (Chennai) was shelled by the German light cruiser SMS Emden, resulting in 5 civilian deaths and 26 wounded. The crew of a merchant ship also destroyed by the Germans that night.", "In 1984, the holy Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, was taken over by Sikh extremists seeking an autonomous state. In response, Gandhi sent Indian troops to regain the temple by force. In the barrage of gunfire that ensued, hundreds of Sikhs were killed, igniting an uprising within the Sikh community.", "The troops assumed positions around the building and began firing (it was by now around 11.00am). The barrage of fire from both sides was relentless and was to continue for around two hours. The crowds around the perimeter were now considerable, and policemen had a difficult time holding them back, as the newsreel films make clear. The films showed the heaving crowds, the troops getting into position, policemen armed with rifles, and gunfire coming from the buildings either side of Sidney Street.", "Brigadier General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer marched his men to the Bagh (or park). One of his right hand men suggested that warning shots be fired. Brig.-Gen. Dyer replied that these people had had their warning. He ordered his men to shoot into the crowd. There were women and children among them. A few of the crowd had lathis (fighting sticks) but none had firearms. Dyer’s men blocked the exit and it was very difficult for the crowd to climb over the wall of the park to escape. Some dived into a well to save themselves. The firing went on for about 10 minutes.", "The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian civilians that had been killed by the rebel sepoys. During the street fighting, artillery had been set up in the main mosque in the city and the neighbourhoods within range were bombarded. These included the homes of the Muslim nobility from all over India, and contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches.", "Some political groups have argued for creating states independent of India. On 2 November 2000, in Malom, a town in the Imphal Valley of Manipur, ten civilians were shot and killed while waiting at a bus stop. The incident, known as the \"Malom Massacre\", was allegedly committed by the Assam Rifles, one of the Indian Paramilitary forces operating in the state. This incident resulted in continuing unrest in the area.", "10. On which town famous for its saris, were Indian paratroopers first dropped on 11 December?" ]

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[ "The Battle of Ramillies / ˈ r æ m ɪ l iː z / , fought on 23 May 1706, was a major engagement of the War of the Spanish Succession . For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed an indecisive campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had been forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands , and suffered defeat in northern Italy. Yet despite his opponents' setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace – but he wanted it on reasonable terms. For this end, and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies would swing over to the offensive in 1706.", "The Battle of Ramillies, fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed an indecisive campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had been forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands and suffered defeat in northern Italy. Yet despite his opponents' setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace – but he wanted it on reasonable terms. For this end and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706.", "The Battle of Ramillies was fought under the command of the Duke of Marlbourgh during the War of the Spanish Succession.", "John Churchill Duke of Marlborough: Battle of Ramillies 12th May 1706 in the War of the Spanish Succession", "Battle of Ramillies 12th May 1706 in the War of the Spanish Succession: click here to buy this picture", "First Foot Guards at the Battle of Ramillies 12th May 1706 in the War of the Spanish Succession", "British 16th Foot charging at the Battle of Ramillies 12th May 1706 in the War of the Spanish Succession: picture by Richard Simkin: click here to buy this picture", "Ramillies, battle of, 1706. Marlborough's second major victory in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the Spanish Netherlands (modern Belgium ) north of Namur, is regarded as his masterpiece. A bold advance by a French army of about 70,000 under Villeroi was intercepted by a roughly equal number of allied forces (British–Dutch–Danish) under Marlborough, and routed in a battle dominated by tactical subtleties. French losses were over 13,000, allied losses about 3,500. As a result France was forced permanently onto the defensive in the war, any French threat to the United Netherlands was ended, and Brussels , Antwerp, and most of the Spanish Netherlands came under allied control.", "1706: Marlborough defeated the French at the Battle of Ramillies in Belgium, the British allied with the Dutch and Danish armies.", "Ramillies was the only battle of the war at which the Duke of Marlborough was not in partnership with the Imperial commander Prince Eugene of Savoy. Prince Eugene was at the time commanding the Imperial army in Italy, defeating the French at the Battle of Turin.", "The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was a military conflict between Napoleon's empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare.", "The four day battle fought near Leipzig, Germany in October 1813 was also known as the Battle of the Nations, and was far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars, and the largest pitched battle of the whole century. It was the decisive engagement of the Sixth Coalition war, fought by the allied powers to finish off Napoleon after his defeat in Russia. Just two weeks after Napoleon’s return from Russia a coalition formed consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Sardinia to capitalise on his defeat and finish him off. Napoleon, who still had a few allies (Kingdom of Italy, Duchy of Warsaw, Naples, Denmark-Norway, Switzerland, Confederation of the Rhine) was able to put 900,000 troops into the field against about 1 million allied troops, although this number swelled as the war went on and Napoleon’s allies began to defect – the allies swelled to 1.2m, whilst Napoleon’s army reduced to 400,000.", "The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire, led by Napoleon I, against an array of European powers formed into various coalitions. They revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly owing to the application of modern mass conscription. The wars were a continuation of the Revolutionary Wars, which broke out in 1792 during the French Revolution. Initially, French power rose quickly as the armies of Napoleon conquered much of Europe. In his military career, Napoleon fought about 60 battles and lost seven, mostly at the end of his reign. The great French dominion collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in 1814, and sent into exile on the island of Elba; he then escaped and returned to power, only to be defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, and was exiled again, this time to Saint Helena.", "The Battle of Arras was a British offensive during World War I . From 9 April to 16 May, 1917, British , Canadian , and Australian troops attacked German trenches near the French city of Arras on the Western Front.", "The French Emperor Napoleon I attempted to militarily coerce Tsar Alexander I of Russia into rejoining his unpopular Continental System by invading Russia with about 650,000 troops, collectively known as the Grande Armée, and eventually occupied Moscow in late 1812, after the bloody yet indecisive Battle of Borodino. However, the Russian Tsar refused to surrender even as the French occupied the city, which was burnt by the time of its occupation. The campaign ended in complete disaster as Napoleon and his remaining forces retreated during the bitterly cold Russian winter, with sickness, starvation, and the constant harrying of Russian Cossack marauders and partisan forces leaving the Grande Armée virtually destroyed by the time it exited Russian territory. Making matters even worse for Napoleon, in June 1813 the combined armies of Great Britain, Portugal, and Spain, under the command of Britain's Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington, had decisively routed French forces at the Battle of Vitoria in the Peninsular War, and were now advancing towards the Pyrenees and the Franco-Spanish border. With this string of defeats, the armies of France were in retreat on all fronts across Europe.", "The Battle of Leipzig or Battle of the Nations (; ; ) was fought from 16 to 19 October 1813, at Leipzig, Saxony. The coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, led by Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, decisively defeated the French army of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French. Napoleon's army also contained Polish and Italian troops, as well as Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine. The battle was the culmination of the 1813 German campaign and involved nearly 600,000 soldiers, making it the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I.", "The following year, the Scots Greys were once again in the field under Marlborough. With the French armies pressing the Alliance, Marlborough's forces had to remain in the Low Countries. The French armies were manoeuvring to fight a battle that would allow them to dictate terms for a peace treaty. The two armies met near Ramillies on 23 May 1706. During the battle, the Scots Greys, serving in Lord Hays' brigade of dragoons, forced their way into the village of Autre Eglise, routing the French infantry defending the village. After passing through the village, the Scots Greys encountered French and quickly defeated the Régiment du Roi. The French quickly surrendered, with the Scots Greys capturing their colours. It was also at this battle that the Scots Greys discovered that one of its troopers was more than he appeared. Carried wounded from the battle to the surgeon, it was discovered that one of the dragoons was in fact a woman who had joined the regiment searching for her husband. ", "The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories, where the French Empire effectively crushed the Third Coalition . On 2 December 1805 (20 November Old Style, 11 Frimaire An XIV, in the French Republican Calendar ), a French army, commanded by Emperor Napoleon I , decisively defeated a Russo - Austrian army, commanded by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, after nearly nine hours of difficult fighting. The battle took place near Austerlitz (Slavkov u Brna) about Script error south-east of Brno in Moravia, at that time in the Austrian Empire (present day Czech Republic ). The battle was a tactical masterpiece of the same stature as the ancient battles of Gaugamela and Cannae , in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. [1]", "The battlefield of Ramillies is very similar to that of Blenheim, for here too there is an immense area of arable land unimpeded by woods or hedges.Barnett: Marlborough, 162 Villeroi’s right rested on the villages of Franquenée and Taviers, with the river Mehaigne protecting his flank. A large open plain, about 2 km wide, lay between Taviers and Ramillies, but unlike Blenheim, there was no stream to hinder the cavalry. His centre was secured by Ramillies itself, lying on a slight eminence which gave distant views to the north and east. The French left flank was protected by broken country, and by a stream, the Petite Gheete, which runs deep between steep and slippery slopes. On the French side of the stream the ground rises to Offus, the village which, together with Autre-Eglise farther north, anchored Villeroi’s left flank. To the west of the Petite Gheete rises the plateau of Mont St. André; a second plain, the plateau of Jandrenouille – upon which the Anglo-Dutch army amassed – rises to the east.", "Casualties at the Battle of Ramillies: Allied casualties were 3,500. French casualties were 13,000. The whole of the French and Bavarian artillery, 70 guns and mortars, was captured.", "The battlefield of Ramillies is very similar to that of Blenheim, for here too there is an immense area of arable land unimpeded by woods or hedges. [28] Villeroi’s right rested on the villages of Franquenée and Taviers, with the river Mehaigne protecting his flank. A large open plain, just over 1 mile (~2 km) wide, lay between Taviers and Ramillies, but unlike Blenheim, there was no stream to hinder the cavalry. His centre was secured by Ramillies itself, lying on a slight eminence which gave distant views to the north and east. The French left flank was protected by broken country, and by a stream, the Petite Gheete, which runs deep between steep and slippery slopes. On the French side of the stream the ground rises to Offus, the village which, together with Autre-Eglise farther north, anchored Villeroi’s left flank. To the west of the Petite Gheete rises the plateau of Mont St. André; a second plain, the plateau of Jandrenouille – upon which the Anglo-Dutch army amassed – rises to the east. [28]", "The Battle of Nations is an operational level simulation of the battle between Napoleon's Grande Armee and four Allied armies (the Army of the North, the Army of Poland, the Army of Silesia, and the Army of Bohemia), which occurred on October 16-19, 1813, near the town of Leipzig in Saxony. Also known as the Battle of Leipzig, the 1813 contest saw the French surrounded and defeated by the combined forces of Prussia, Austria, Sweden and Russia in the largest and most decisive battle of the Napoleonic Era.", "Both armies consisted of around 60,000 men, and both were familiar with the landscape in which they were fighting. And so, when a British reconnaissance force headed for the village of Ramillies before dawn on 23 May, they found Villeroi’s army already occupying this prime camping spot.", "In 1815 two men faced off in a muddy field in Belgium. Wellington, with his British and Allied army, and Napoleon with his French Imperial Guard. One decisive battle could end 20 years of bloody conflict on the continent.", "Napoleon III wisely left the fighting to his professional generals. The first great battle of the war, on 4 June 1858, was fought at the town of Magenta . It was long and bloody, and the French center was exhausted and nearly broken, but the battle was finally won by a timely attack on the Austrian flank by the soldiers of General MacMahon. The Austrians lost seven thousand men killed and five thousand captured, while the French forces lost four thousand men killed. The battle was largely remembered because, soon after it was fought, patriotic chemists in France gave the name of the battle to their newly discovered bright purple chemical dye; the dye and the color took the name Magenta . [87]", "Incensed by Russia 's refusal to join his blockade of Britain , Napoleon invades Russia with one of the largest armies Europe has ever seen. Frustrated by the Russian policy of using the vast space of the country to defeat him, he is forced to retreat to Germany. In early 1813, Europe's armies mobilise against him and French armies are pushed out of Spain by General Wellesley, and out of Germany by the allied armies.", "Napoleon III wisely left the fighting to his professional generals. The first great battle of the war, on 4 June 1858, was fought at the town of Magenta. It was long and bloody, and the French center was exhausted and nearly broken, but the battle was finally won by a timely attack on the Austrian flank by the soldiers of General MacMahon. The Austrians lost seven thousand men killed and five thousand captured, while the French forces lost four thousand men killed. The battle was largely remembered because, soon after it was fought, patriotic chemists in France gave the name of the battle to their newly discovered bright purple chemical dye; the dye and the color took the name Magenta. The rest of the Austrian Army was able to escape while Napoleon III and King Victor-Emmanuel made a triumphal entry on 10 June into the city of Milan, previously ruled by the Austrians. They were greeted by huge, jubilant crowds waving Italian and French flags.", "and in the South of France. Ln: Barthes & Lowell 1876. Six volumes set. Numerous maps and plans. Book plate FEP. All bound in contemporary HC bindings with cloth boards and title labels, light scuffing and wear, a VG set. 1. Captain Jean-Roche Coignet - The Note-Books of Captain Coignet. 2. William Grattan - Adventures with the Connaught Rangers, 1809-1814. 3. Major George Simmons - A British Rifle man. 4. Captain W. Siborne - History of the Waterloo Campaign. 5. Major-General Sir Benjamin D’Urban - The Peninsular Journal 1808-1817. All published by Greenhill Books 1986 -1990, bound in maroon cloth with gilt titles and in DJs, VG.", "On the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and French both prepared offensives in Belgium, with the Austrians besieging Landrecies and advancing towards Mons and Maubeuge. The French prepared an offensive on multiple fronts, with two armies in Flanders under Pichegru and Moreau, and Jourdan attacking from the German border. The French withstood several damaging but inconclusive actions before regaining the initiative at the battles of Tourcoing and Fleurus in June. The French armies drove the Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond the Rhine, occupying Belgium, the Rhineland, and the south of the Netherlands.", "The Battle of Le Hamel (4 July 1918) was a victory for the Allies, and most specifically for the Australian 4th Division, four companies of US infantry and the supporting troops with 60 Allied tanks and machine gun units. The aim for the attack was to straighten a German-held salient bulging into the Allied line. The carefully planned attack was a complete surprise to the Germans and the salient was won and closed up within about 90 minutes, with casualties on the Allied side of about 1,000. Almost 1,500 Germans surrendered.", "In France at dawn on November 20th, 1917, some 300 British Mark IV tanks of the Tank Corps, led by Brigadier Hugh Elles, created a major break in the German Hindenburg Line and nearly reached Cambrai itself. This was the Battle of Cambrai, and so successful was this action, that the church bells were rung throughout Great Britain. Each year this great battle is commemorated as \"Cambrai Day\".", "* Divisional General Robert Nivelle – Commander-in-Chief of the French Army (13 December 1916 – April 1917)" ]

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[ "The Third Crusade (1187-1192): In 1187 Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, recaptured the city of Jerusalem from the Christians. A third Crusade was launched led by Emperor Barbarossa of Germany, King Philip Augustus of France, and King Richard the Lionheart of England. Richard the Lionheart fought Saladin for several years. In the end he could not conquer Jerusalem, but he did win the right for pilgrims to visit the holy city once again.", "The Third Crusade, also called the Kings’ Crusade was a response to the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria in 1187. Frederick I (Barbarossa) of Germany, Richard I of England and Philip II of France responded to the Pope’s call for the military expedition to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims. However, Frederick I Barbarossa who set out first, died on his way to the Holy Land, while the rivalry between Richard and Philip resulted in the departure of the latter from the Holy Land. The English king managed to capture the city of Acre which was besieged from 1189 shortly after Philip’s departure in 1191 and defeated Saladin in the Battle of Arsuf. By the end of year 1191, he was only a few miles from Jerusalem but he was forced to withdraw. Before he departed from the Holy Land, however, he concluded a truce with Saladin by which he negotiated Jaffa and a narrow strip of coast, and a free access to the Holy Sepulcher for the Christians. With Richard’s withdrawal in 1192, the Third Crusade came to an end without achieving its goal - recapture of Jerusalem.", "Although, during the Crusades, Saladin , Sultan of Egypt, was his enemy, he negotiated a peace-treaty with him and the two kings developed mutual respect, even friendship—which has itself passed into legend. At a time when many Christians saw Muslims as almost sub-human and when many rejected the possibility of entering any peace treaties or negotiations with them, Richard saw his enemies as of equal worth. Although Richard stands guilty of neglecting the welfare of his people, they have credited him with always keeping this in mind.", "Outrage over these defeats inspired the Third Crusade, led by rulers such as the aging Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who was drowned at Anatolia before his entire army reached Syria), King Philip II of France and King Richard I of England (known as Richard the Lionheart). In September 1191, Richard’s forces defeated those of Saladin in the battle of Arsuf; it would be the only true battle of the Third Crusade. From the recaptured city of Jaffa, Richard reestablished Christian control over some of the region and approached Jerusalem, though he refused to lay siege to the city. In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that reestablished the Kingdom of Jerusalem (though without the city of Jerusalem) and ended the Third Crusade.", "Saladin came to power in Egypt, the Latin States were on the defensive but were able to maintain themselves. But in 1187 Saladin inflicted a major defeat on a combined army at Hattin and subsequently took Jerusalem. The situation had become dire. In response to the Church's call for a new, major Crusade, three Western rulers undertook to lead their forces in person. These were Richard I, the Lion-Hearted of England, Philip II of France, and Frederick I, called Frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor. Known as the Third Crusade, it has become perhaps the most famous of all Crusades other than the First Crusade, though its role in legend and literature greatly outweighs its success or value.", "King Richard and Saladin finally concluded a truce. Christians were permitted to visit Jerusalem without paying tribute, had access to the holy places and remained in control of the coast from Jaffa to Tyre. King Richard then set sail for England, and with his departure from the Holy Land the Third Crusade came to an end. Subsequent crusades did not significantly change the disposition of either side. After 1291 Jerusalem would remain under Muslim (Ottoman) rule until it fell under a British Mandate on 11 December 1917.", "1187 - 1192     The Third Crusade is led by Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I Lion Heart of England, and Philip II Augustus of France. It would end with a peace treaty giving Christians access to Jerusalem and the Holy Places.", "Saladin (c. 1137-1193), (I.3, Melchisedek and the Three Rings and X.9, Saladin and Messer Torrello). Saladin was a Muslim warrior and first Sultan of Egypt who quickly became the stuff of legend and folklore. He clashed with armies of the Third Crusade and utterly crushed them, securing the Kingdom of Jerusalem from European control. Despite being a terror to the West, Saladin's often portrayed in a positive light by European writers. He was admired for his military prowess and, as we see in X.9, is depicted as a deeply generous, intelligent and warm individual. The scholars at The Decameron Web  tell us that Boccaccio draws on the character sketch of Saladin in Il Novellino, the Tuscan collection of short stories written shortly before Boccaccio began The Decameron. We can see these qualities in abundance in the story of the friendship between Torello and Saladin.", "1191: The Crusader army led by Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England, held off a succession of onslaughts by the army commanded by Saladin at Arsuf, near Jaffa.  Victory for Richard allowed him to take Jaffa and Ascalon that winter, but he was unable to capitalise on his success.  The campaign fizzled out the following year and the peace offered by Saladin was accepted, ending the Third Crusade.", "1187- Saladin, the sultan, or absolute ruler, of Egypt took and captured, from the Christians, Jerusalem and most of the Holy land in the battle of Hattin; Saladin’s army defeated King Guy in this battle. Pope Urban III was said to have died of shock when word spread to Europe that Muslims had conquered Jerusalem. Pope Gregory VIII, the next Pope after Pope Urban III, called on Kings and other Christian leaders to fight. The Kings that answered the call were the three European leaders King Philip Augustus of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. [4]", "Richard I (1157–1199), son of Henry II, reigned 1189–99; known as Richard Coeur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart. He led the Third Crusade, defeating Saladin at Arsuf (1191) but failing to capture Jerusalem. Returning home, he was held hostage by the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI until being released in 1194 on payment of a huge ransom.", "Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem prompted the Third Crusade, financed in England by a special \"Saladin tithe\". Richard I of England (Richard the Lionheart) led Guy's siege of Acre, conquered the city and executed 3,000 Muslim prisoners, including women and children. Saladin retaliated by killing all Franks captured from August 28 – September 10. Bahā' ad-Dīn writes, \"Whilst we were there they brought two Franks to the Sultan (Saladin) who had been made prisoners by the advance guard. He had them beheaded on the spot.\" Bahā' ad-Dīn also wrote:", "Richard the Lionheart left the Holy Land in the second week of October 1192. The Third Crusade had been only a partial success and, after three years of fighting the Saracens, the Christian warriors were exhausted and their numbers much depleted by disease, desertion and death in battle. Richard finally agreed a three-year truce with Saladin, the great Muslim general, under which the Christians were to keep a thin strip of land on the Mediterranean coast and several important strongholds, and pilgrims were to be allowed to visit Jerusalem unmolested.", "From Tyre, Christian forces, reinforced by the soldiers of the Third Crusade (1189–1191), encircled Muslims in Acre, destroyed the bulk of the Egyptian navy, and, under the leadership of Richard the Lion-Heart, captured the city and slaughtered its Muslim defenders. Saladin, by avoiding a direct battle with the new crusader forces, was able to preserve Muslim control over Jerusalem and most of Syria and Palestine.", "Third Crusade: The Third Crusade was launched in 1189 A.D. In 1187 A.D., the Muslim armies, led by Saladin, had re-conquered Jerusalem. Although at first a huge army was amassed, the Third Crusade was ultimately unsuccessful. The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa of Germany, drowned, under uncertain circumstances, on the way to the Holy Land. Richard the Lionheart of England was able to recapture several coastal cities, but did not attempt to retake Jerusalem due to a lack of resources. Lionheart did negotiate a peace treaty with Saladin, allowing for Christian pilgrims to enter Jerusalem without danger.", "Saladin managed to unite and lead the Muslim world and the Christians of western Europe were stunned by his success. The pope, Gregory VIII, ordered another crusade immediately to regain the Holy City for the Christians. This was the start of the Third Crusade. It was led by Richard I (Richard the Lionheart), Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany and King Philip II of France. These were possibly the three most important men in western Europe - such was the significance of this crusade. It was to last from 1189 to 1192.", "Saladin restored the official status of Sunni Islam and the formal authority of the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt. Soon afterward, he united Egypt with Syria. In 1187 he led the Islamic reconquest of Jerusalem. Saladin's descendants, the Ayyubids, ruled Egypt, as well as parts of Syria and Yemen, until 1250. Ayyubid relations with the Crusader states varied; some rulers encouraged European Christians to settle in Palestine and even leased Jerusalem to the Crusaders for a short time. However, Egypt's Nile Delta suffered Crusader attacks from 1218 to 1221 and from 1249 to 1250. The latter invasion, during the Third Crusade, led to the overthrow of the Ayyubid dynasty by the Mamluks (also spelled Mamelukes), who regarded the Ayyubid rulers as weak and corrupt. The Mamluks were slaves from Central Asia and Caucasia whom the Ayyubids used as soldiers.", "The imprisonment of King Richard I of England, also called Richard the Lionheart, was a historically significant event at the end of the third crusade. On July 11, 1192, Akkon was conquered by the crusaders of the third crusade, among them Leopold V, the Duke of Babenberg and his army. The troops had already departed for the Holy Land two years before and had been weakened by the long journey and a plague that had afflicted their camps.", "When Saladin captured King Guy at Hattin (and killed Reynald, just as in the movie), recovered Jerusalem and most of the rest of Outremer (only Tyre remained of the Kingdom of Jerusalem) for Islâm, this set off the Third Crusade (1189-1192). While the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and King Philip II Augustus of France went on the Crusade, Frederick died on the way, Philip soon left, and operations were mainly conducted by a third monarch, the King of England, Richard I, the Lion-Heart . \"Operations\" principally meant the recovery of Acre, whose inhabitants, after a long siege, and surrendering on terms, were then massacred, reinforcing the reputation for savagery and treachery that the Crusaders already had. Jerusalem was not recovered. Acre would end up being the last possession of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, falling to Islâm in 1291.", "His father and Philip II had done so at Gisors on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin. Having become king, Richard, together with Philip, agreed to go on the Third Crusade, since each feared that during his absence, the other might usurp his territories", "The Lords of Châtillon lead to a number of historically important marriages. Reynald (or Renaud) of Châtillon, as noted, becomes Prince of Antioch through marriage to the heiress, Constance, of Prince Bohemond II. They had no issue, and Reynald was even repudiated by Constance. Reynald's subsequent mischief so angered the Sult.ân of Egypt, Saladin , that he was killed, in some accounts, at the hand of the Sult.ân himself, after being captured at the Battle of the Horns of Hattin in 1187.", "* 1189–1192: The Third Crusade is an attempt by European leaders to wrest the Holy Land from Saladin.", "Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy (as Richard IV), Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Poitiers, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. The Muslims called him Melek-Ric (King Richard) or Malek al-Inkitar (King of England). He was also known in Occitan as Oc e No (Yes and No), because of his reputation for terseness.", "Richard I, byname Richard the Lionheart or Lionhearted, French Richard Coeur de Lion (born September 8, 1157, Oxford , England —died April 6, 1199, Châlus, duchy of Aquitaine), duke of Aquitaine (from 1168) and of Poitiers (from 1172) and king of England, duke of Normandy , and count of Anjou (1189–99). His knightly manner and his prowess in the Third Crusade (1189–92) made him a popular king in his own time as well as the hero of countless romantic legends . He has been viewed less kindly by more recent historians and scholars.", "Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy (as Richard IV), Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Poitiers, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. The Muslims called him Melek-Ric (King Richard) or Malek al-Inkitar (King of England). He was also known in Occitan as Oc e No (Yes and No), because of his ability to change his mind.", "Ranke glosses over some interesting details here. England and France were at war in 1187 when news arrived of the fall of Jerusalem. Though they made peace on the spot, it was still three years before Henry II's son Richard (by then Richard I of England) and this coalition of French and English knights set out on the Third Crusade.", "Richard's decision not to attack Jerusalem would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years after the third ended in 1192. However, Richard's victories facilitated the survival of a wealthy Crusader kingdom centered on Acre. Historian Thomas Madden summarizes the achievements of the Third Crusade:", "Adding to the on-going intrigue of this much-coveted island, Richard I of England captured it during the Third Crusade (circa 1191) and used it as a supply base. He later sold it to the Knights Templar.", "During the First Crusade (1096-1099), a military campaign by Western European Christians to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims (see¬¨‚ĆCrusades), Egypt faced a possible invasion. Although the Crusaders captured Jerusalem from a small Fatimid garrison in 1099, they did not invade Egypt. The Fatimids formed diplomatic and commercial ties with the newly established Crusader state known as the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, with other Crusader states along the Mediterranean coast of the Middle East, and with the various kingdoms and principalities of Christian Europe. Fatimid power declined in the 12th century, and in 1171 Kurdish military adventurer Saladin overthrew the dynasty.", "As the (Eastern) Roman–Byzantine Empire came to terms with new rivals in the form of the Franks and later the Crusaders, Cyprus’ leaders occasionally questioned Constantinople’s authority, continuing what had now become a tradition of asserting one’s independence. One such independent–minded leader was the Emperor’s nephew, Isaac Comnenus, who set himself up as Emperor of Cyprus (a tyrant resented by both the Cypriots and the Byzantine authorities), only to be captured by Richard the Lionheart in 1191, in revenge for having treated the latter’s shipwrecked fiancée discourteously. Richard then sold the island to the Knights Templar who, under attack from the local population, resold it to Richard, who in turn sold it on to another crusader, Guy de Lusignan, in 1192.", "The most spectacular example of Venetian manipulation of the dumb giants of this world has gone down in history as the Fourth Crusade. At a tournament in the Champagne in 1201, the Duke of Champagne and numerous feudal barons collectively vowed to make a fighting pilgrimage to the sepulcher of Our Lord in Jerusalem. Here they were to reinforce a French garrison hard-pressed by the Turk Saladin. For many of them, this involved penance for certain misdeeds, not the least of which was a plot against their own sovereign liege, the king.", "1148: King Louis VII of France, Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine, and Emperor Conrad III in the East join the Second Crusade" ]

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[ "The attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI [7] [8]  by the Japanese  Imperial General Headquarters  (Operation Z in planning) [9]  and the Battle of Pearl Harbor [10] ) was a surprise  military strike  conducted by the  Imperial Japanese Navy  against the United States  naval base  at  Pearl Harbor , Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). The attack was intended as a  preventive  action in order to keep the  U.S. Pacific Fleet  from interfering with military actions the  Empire of Japan  was planning in  Southeast Asia  against overseas territories of the  United Kingdom , the  Netherlands , and the United States.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI [7 ] [8 ] by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (Operation Z in planning) [9 ] and the Battle of Pearl Harbor [10 ]) was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , and the United States.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (Operation Z in planning) and the Battle of Pearl Harbor) was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). From the standpoint of the defenders, the attack commenced at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time. The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, the Hawaii Operation or Operation AI by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, and Operation Z during planning, was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor [nb 4] was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II .", "Pearl Harbor attack, (December 7, 1941), surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu Island, Hawaii, by the Japanese that precipitated the entry of the United States into World War II . The strike climaxed a decade of worsening relations between the United States and Japan . Japan’s invasion of China in 1937, its subsequent alliance with the Axis powers (Germany and Italy) in 1940, and its occupation of French Indochina in July 1941 prompted the United States to respond that same month by freezing Japanese assets in the United States and declaring an embargo on petroleum shipments and other vital war materials to Japan. By late 1941 the United States had severed practically all commercial and financial relations with Japan. Though Japan continued to negotiate with the United States up to the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, the government of Prime Minister Tōjō Hideki decided on war.", "'Why Did Japan Attack Pearl Harbour?' In December 1941, Pearl Harbour was attacked by the Japanese. It wasthe consequence of a series of events which brought tension betweenJapan and America to boiling point - A-Level History - Marked by Teachers.com", "On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack, knocking out the main American battleship fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. Roosevelt called for war in his famous \"Infamy Speech\" to Congress, in which he said: \"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.\"", "December 7, 1941, Japanese bombers launched a surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, precipitating the entry of the United States into World War II.", "On December 7, 1941, Japanese carrier-based bombers struck the American naval base at Pearl Harbor . Japan’s military planners hoped to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet in order to buy time to capture and fortify the region they sought to control, then negotiate an armistice from a position of strength. War had not been declared between the two nations before the attack; the Japanese embassy in Washington, D.C., took too long decoding the 5,000-word message from their homeland; however, the plan was to deliver it just 30 minutes before the bombs were to start falling anyway.", "The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 was the primary event that galvanized the United States into entering World War II .", "On 7 December 1941, Japanese warplanes commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo carried out a surprise air raid on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the largest U.S. naval base in the Pacific. The Japanese forces met little resistance and devastated the harbor. This attack resulted in 8 battleships ( including the California, the Utah, the West Virginia, the Oklahoma, the Arizona,and the Tennesee) either sunk or damaged, 3 light cruisers and 3 destroyers sunk as well as damage to some auxiliaries and 343 aircraft either damaged or destroyed. 2408 Americans were killed including 68 civilians; 1178 were wounded. Japan lost only 29 aircraft and their crews and five midget submarines. However, the attack failed to strike targets that could have been crippling losses to the US Pacific Fleet such as the aircraft carriers which were out at sea at the time of the attack or the base's ship fuel storage and repair facilities. The survival of these assets have led many to consider this attack a catastrophic long term strategic blunder for Japan.", "On Sunday morning, December 7, 1941, the American Army and Navy base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The attack came as a surprise to the American Army and Navy and lead to great losses of life and equipment. More than 2000 American citizens were killed and more than 1000 were injured. The Americans also lost a large proportion of their battle ships and nearly 200 aircraft that were stationed in the Pacific region. More than 60 Japanese servicemen were killed, injured or captured. The Japanese Navy also lost five midget submarines and 29 aircraft.", "American actions provoked both Japanese and German retaliation. On 7 December 1941 Japanese naval aircraft attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, followed by the rapid conquest of western colonies in south-east Asia and the southern Pacific.", "The Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941, which caused the US to enter World War II.", "On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack against the United States at the Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii. After the Pearl Harbor attack, the United States quickly entered World War II, declaring war against Japan the next day.", "December 7, 1941 - Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; also attack the Philippines, Wake Island, Guam, Malaya, Thailand, Shanghai and Midway.", "Oʻahu was the target of a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Imperial Japan on December 7, 1941. The attack on Pearl Harbor and other military and naval installations, carried out by aircraft and by midget submarines , brought the United States into World War II .", "President Franklin Roosevelt called December 7, 1941, \"a date which will live in infamy.\" On that day, Japanese planes attacked the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory. The bombing killed more than 2,300 Americans. It completely destroyed the American battleship U.S.S. Arizona and capsized the U.S.S. Oklahoma. The attack sank or beached a total of twelve ships and damaged nine others. 160 aircraft were destroyed and 150 others damaged. The attack took the country by surprise, especially the ill-prepared Pearl Harbor base.", "On the 7th of December 1941 the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor marked the begining of the Pacific War. Japanese forces landed at Kota Bahru North Malaya and...", "1941 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy made its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, intending to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet from influencing the war Japan was planning to wage in Southeast Asia.", "In the summer of 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands began an oil embargo against Japan, threatening its ability to fight a major war at sea or in the air. However, Japanese forces continued to advance into China. Japan planned an attack on Pearl Harbour to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet, then seize oil fields in the Dutch East Indies. On December 7, a Japanese carrier fleet launched an unexpected air attack on Pearl Harbour, Hawaii. The raid destroyed most of the American aircraft on the island and knocked the main American battle fleet out of action (six battleships sank, but four of them along with two other badly damaged battleships eventually returned to service). However, the four American aircraft carriers that had been the intended main target of the Japanese attack were off at sea. At Pearl Harbour, the main dock, supply, and repair facilities were quickly repaired. Furthermore, the base's fuel storage facilities, whose destruction could have crippled the Pacific fleet, were untouched.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor began shortly before 8 o'clock in the morning on December 7 when Japanese planes and submarines began bombing the naval base. The attack lasted little more than two hours, and the Japanese sunk or badly damaged eight battleships, thirteen other naval vessels, and more than 150 planes. The attack killed 2,400 soldiers, sailors, and civilians, and wounded nearly 1,200 others.", "Meanwhile, the United States enters the war when the Japanese air force bombs the US naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii on 7 December. Germany and Italy declare war on the US on 11 December.", "1941 On December 7, Japanese carrier-based airplanes attack American military installations in Hawaii and the Philippines, leading to America's entry in World War II.", "At Pearl Harbor, the U.S. Pacific Fleet is bombed by the Japanese, forcing U.S. entry into World War II. Nearly 4,000 men are killed in the surprise attack.", "On this day, in an early-morning sneak attack, Japanese warplanes bomb the U.S. naval base at Oahu Island’s Pearl Harbor—and the United States enters World War II.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor was a huge shock to the United States. President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed the United States Congress as well as the world with his famous quote “December 7 , a date which will live in infamy\". The following day the United States declared war on Japan. The attack on Pearl Harbor is the factor that pushed the United States to enter World War II in both the Pacific and Europe. Although the Japanese attack was, in many ways, a tactical success, it was in retrospect a strategic failure. Seven months after the attack, fuel supplies overlooked in the attack enabled the defeat of a Japanese naval fleet forced by U.S. Pacific Fleet carriers at Midway, in a battle that turned the tide of the war.", "At dawn on December 7th, the Japanese fleet launches its aircraft. Their approach to Hawaii is detected by two radar operators but their concerns are dismissed as the duty officer receiving their alert assumes it is a group of American B-17 Flying Fortresses inbound from the mainland scheduled to land later that day. As a result the Japanese achieve complete surprise and a joyous commander Fuchida, riding in a Nakajima B5N \"Kate,\" sends the code to begin the attack: \"Tora! Tora! Tora!\" Meeting no opposition, the Japanese planes savage Pearl Harbor with a series of attacks. General Short's anti-sabotage precautions prove a disastrous mistake that allows the Japanese aerial forces to destroy the U.S. aircraft on the ground with ease, thereby preventing an effective aerial counter-attack. The damage to the naval base is catastrophic with the Americans suffering severe casualties. Seven battleships are either sunk or heavily damaged. Hours after the first bombs fall, Admiral Kimmel finally receives the Pentagon's telegram warning of impending danger. ", "At 7:55 A.M., the first Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor, the main base of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Moored in the harbor were more than 70 warships, including 8 of the fleet’s 9 battleships. There were also 2 heavy cruisers, 29 destroyers, and 5 submarines. Four hundred airplanes were stationed nearby. Japanese torpedo bombers, flying just 50 feet above the water, launched torpedoes at the docked American warships. Japanese dive bombers strafed the ships’ decks with machine gun fire, while Japanese fighters dropped high-explosive bombs on the aircraft sitting on the ground. Within half an hour, the U.S. Pacific Fleet was virtually destroyed. The U.S. battleship Arizona was a burning hulk. Three other large ships—the Oklahoma, the West Virginia, and the California—were sinking." ]

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[ "The Roman Senate finally declared war against Cleopatra and on September 2, 31 BC, at the naval Battle of Actium, Octavian defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra.", "31 BC – Final War of the Roman Republic: Troops supporting Octavian defeated the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the naval Battle of Actium on the Ionian Sea near Actium in Greece.", "The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic, a naval engagement between Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the promontory of Actium, in the Roman province of Epirus Vetus in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the power of Queen Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt.", "** 31 BC, 2 September – Battle of Actium – Octavian decisively defeats Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece.", "the naval battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Roman civil war between the forces supporting Octavian and those supporting Mark Antony. The fleet of Octavian was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and the fleet of Antony supported by the fleet of his wife, Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The battle was won by the forces of Octavian and the date is now used to mark the beginning of the Roman empire", "Relations deteriorated between Octavian and Antony in 32 B.C. when Antony renounced his wife Octavia in favor of Cleopatra. Augustus took Roman troops to fight the Roman traitor and defeated him decisively in a sea battle in the Ambracian gulf, near the promontory of Actium.", "In prospect, the war between Antony and Octavian promised to be the largest civil conflict ever conducted by the Romans. Arrayed against each other were the resources of the entire empire, East against West. The not inconsiderable resources of Ptolemaic Egypt, the last surviving major Hellenistic kingdom, were also in the mix. In the end, however, the war ended not with a bang but with a fizzle. The massive forces moved against each other and converged in Greece, as had Caesar and Pompey at the outset of an earlier great conflict. The two sides encamped on the north side of the Ambracian gulf, near the promontory of Actium . Cleopatra's presence proved problematic for Antony, and there were defections to Octavian. Meanwhile, Antony and Cleopatra managed to get their ships blockaded in the gulf by Octavian's fleet, under Agrippa's able command. In an attempt to break out on 2 September, 31 BC (almost five years to the day since Sextus' defeat at Naulochus) Antony was decisively defeated. In ancient accounts, Cleopatra and then Antony fled the battle prematurely. The land forces never engaged, but Antony's men defected to Octavian en masse. Everything had been decided in a few hours of naval warfare. [[30]]", "While planning a campaign against Parthia in the east, Antony realizes he needs money and supplies, and cannot get enough from anywhere but Egypt. After refusing several times to leave Egypt, Cleopatra gives in and meets him in Tarsus. Antony becomes drunk during a lavish feast. Cleopatra sneaks away, leaving a slave dressed as her, but Antony discovers the trick and confronts the queen. The war is decided at the naval Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC where Octavian's fleet, under the command of Agrippa, defeats the Antony-Egyptian fleet. Cleopatra assumes he is dead and orders the Egyptian forces home. Antony follows, leaving his fleet leaderless and soon defeated. Several months later, Cleopatra manages to convince Antony to retake command of his troops and fight Octavian's advancing army. However, Antony's soldiers have lost faith in him and abandon him during the night; Rufio (Martin Landau), the last man loyal to Antony, kills himself. Antony tries to goad Octavian into single combat, but is finally forced to flee into the city.", "31 BCE: Antonius decides to bring his forces to the western side of Greece. Cleopatra accompanies him. Octavian sends a military expedition under the command of Agrippa to challenge Antonius' control of Greece. Octavian joins Agrippa and their fleet bottles up the fleet of Antonius and Cleopatra in the Gulf of Ambracia. A naval battle ensues at Actium in which Cleopatra, for fear of being captured, pulls her ships out of the battle and heads back to Egypt thus ensuring the defeat of Anthonius' forces. Anthonius and some of his ships escape from the battle and follow Cleopatra.", "The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that of Cleop�tra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleop�tra insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, when Cleop�tra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave the line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued until his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered.", "The first conflict of the war occurred when Octavian's general Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone. The city had previously been loyal to Antony. Although Antony was an experienced soldier, he did not understand naval combat, which led to his downfall. Antony moved his fleet to Actium where Octavian’s navy and army had taken camp. In what would become known as the Battle of Actium, Antony, on September 2, 31 BC, moved his large quinqueremes through the strait and into the open sea. There, Octavian’s light and maneuverable Liburnian ships drew in battle formation against Antony’s warships. Cleopatra stayed behind Antony’s line on her royal barge.", "Antony’s behavior was considered outrageous by the Romans, and Octavian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In 31 B.C.E., Antony’s forces faced the Romans in a naval action off the coast of Actium. Cleopatra was present with a fleet of her own, but when she saw that Antony’s poorly equipped and undermanned ships were losing to the Romans’ superior vessels, she took flight. Antony abandoned the battle to follow her.", "After Sextus Pompeius had been defeated, Octavian and Marc Antony started a war, which culminated in the naval battle off Actium (31), where Octavian defeated his opponent and won the supremacy in the Mediterranean world. From now on, he was known as the emperor Augustus .", "As with most battles from this period, precise casualties are not known. Sources indicate that Octavian lost around 2,500 men, while Antony's fleet suffered 5,000 killed and over 200 ships sunk or captured. The impact of Antony's defeat was far-reaching. At Actium, Publius Canidius, commanding the ground forces, began retreating and the army soon surrendered. Elsewhere, Antony's allies began deserting him in the face of Octavian's growing power. With Octavian's troops closing in on Alexandria, Antony committed suicide. Learning of her lover's death, Cleopatra killed herself as well. With the elimination of his rival, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome and was able to begin the transition from republic to empire.", "*260 BC: First naval encounter (Battle of the Lipari Islands) is a disaster for Rome, but soon afterwards, Gaius Duilius wins the battle of Mylae with the help of the corvus engine.", "*261 BC: Battle of Agrigentum, which results in a Roman victory and capture of the city. Rome decides to build a fleet to threaten Carthaginian domination at sea.", "In 31 B.C., opposing armadas under Octavian and Marc Antony clashed near the Greek peninsula at Actium. At stake was control of the Roman Republic, which had hung in the balance since the assassination of Julius Caesar some 13 years earlier. Antony and his lover Cleopatra commanded several hundred ships, many of them well-armored war galleys equipped with wooden towers for archers, massive rams and heavy grappling irons. Octavian’s vessels were mostly smaller Liburnian craft capable of greater speed and maneuverability and manned by more experienced crews.", "After several more years of tension and propaganda attacks, Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, and therefore Antony, in 31 B.C. Enemies of Octavian rallied to Antony’s side, but Octavian’s brilliant military commanders gained early successes against his forces. On September 2, 31 B.C., their fleets clashed at Actium in Greece. After heavy fighting, Cleopatra broke from the engagement and set course for Egypt with 60 of her ships. Antony then broke through the enemy line and followed her. The disheartened fleet that remained surrendered to Octavian. One week later, Antony’s land forces surrendered.", "In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.", "As the armies stood on either side of the naval battle, they watched as Antony was being outmatched by Agrippa. Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without firing a shot, leaving Antony to fight for himself. As a gap opened in Agrippa's blockade, she funneled through, and was soon closely followed by Antony's command ships. The commanders of Antony's land forces, which were supposed to follow him to Asia, promptly surrendered their legions without a fight. Antony retreated to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape to Alexandria. By the end of the day, Antony’s entire fleet would lie at the bottom of the sea and the Roman world had witnessed the largest naval battle in almost 200 years.", "On September 2, 31 B.C., Antony's fleet desperately attempted to escape the blockade and regroup in Egypt. With his large ships, he sailed out of the gulf of Actium and engaged Agrippa's prepared navy. Though Antony's under-matched forces fought valiantly, they were simply unable to counter Agrippa's superiority. As the tide turned against Antony, Cleopatra seized an opportunity to flee the battle with her own ships that had been held in reserve. As a gap opened in Agrippa's blockade, she funneled through, and was soon closely followed by Antony's command ships. The commanders of Antony's land forces, which were supposed to follow him to Asia, promptly surrendered without a fight. Octavian stood as the master of the Roman world, East and West, and to commemorate his victory, he founded the city of Nicopolis (City of Victory) on that site in Greece.", "Octavian moved his soldiers across the Adriatic Sea to confront Antony near Actium. Meanwhile, Agrippa disrupted Antony's supply lines with the navy. Gaius Sosius commanded a squadron in Mark Antony's fleet with which he managed to defeat the squadron of Lucius Arruntius and put it to flight, but when the latter was reinforced by Agrippa, Sosius's ally Tarcondimotus - the king of Cilicia - was killed and Sosius himself was forced to flee.", "Battle of Carteia - The Roman fleet under the command of Gaius Laelius defeat the Carthaginian fleet Adherbal.", "** 36 BC – Battle of Naulochus – Octavian's fleet, under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeats the forces of the rebel Sextus Pompeius.", "His fleet of approximately 220 heavy craft equipped with missile‑throwing devices attacked at close range. Octavian's fleet of some 260 light vessels had greater maneuverability. The outcome of the battle remained in doubt until Cleopatra, apparently alarmed by an enemy manoeuver, ordered the Egyptian contingent, about 60 vessels, to withdraw. Antony himself followed her, but most of his remaining vessels were soon overtaken and annihilated. The deserted army later surrendered to Octavian.", "As the battle raged, Agrippa began extending his left with the goal of turning Antony's right flank. Lucius Policola, leading Antony's right wing, shifted outward to meet this threat. In doing so, his formation became detached from Antony's center and opened a gap. Seeing an opportunity, Lucius Arruntius, commanding Agrippa's center, plunged in with his ships escalating the battle. As neither side could ram, the usual means of naval attack, the fight effectively devolved into a land battle at sea. Fighting for several hours with each side attacking and retreating, neither was able to gain a decisive advantage.", "The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. The majority of Mark Antony's warships were quinqueremes , huge galleys with massive rams, that could weigh up to 300 tons. Antony's ships were often furnished with grappling irons, which were effective if hurled successfully, but if they failed were apt to damage the ship or to cause so much delay as to expose the men on board to the darts from the smaller vessel. [3] The bows of the galleys were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult.", "Before the battle, one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, had defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Cleopatra, in the rear, could not bear the suspense, and in an agony of anxiety, gave the signal for retreat to open sea, without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction, and the Egyptian ships were soon hurrying out of sight.", "36 BC - Battle of Naulochus - Octavian's fleet under the command of Marcus Agrippa Vipsanius, defeat the forces of rebel Sextus Pompeius.", "¶ Although Antony has the land advantage over Octavian, he choses to fight at sea to please Cleopatra.", "¶ Antony has commanding superiority in numbers of infantry and he is about matched with Octavian for cavalry; although Antony has more ships available for this engagement, Octavian has overall sea superiority.", "Octavian's fleet, under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeats the forces of Sextus Pompey ." ]

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[ "In 1958, in an attempt to introduce a more 'Chinese' form of communism, Mao launched the 'Great Leap Forward'. This aimed at mass mobilisation of labour to improve agricultural and industrial production. The result, instead, was a massive decline in agricultural output, which, together with poor harvests, led to famine and the deaths of millions. The policy was abandoned and Mao's position weakened.", "In 1958, in an attempt to distance Chinese Communism from the Soviet variety, Mao instituted what he referred to as the Great Leap Forward. This was an initiative aimed at doubling food production through the use of mass collectivization (the movement of urbanites to communal farms in the country) and increasing the production of steel through the building of new factories and refineries.", "By the winter of 1958–59, Mao himself had come to recognize that some adjustments were necessary, including decentralization of ownership to the constituent elements of the communes and a scaling down of the unrealistically high production targets in both industry and agriculture. He insisted, however, that in broad outline his new Chinese road to socialism, including the concept of the communes and the belief that China, though “poor and blank,” could leap ahead of other countries, was basically sound. At the Lushan meeting of the Central Committee in July–August 1959, Peng Dehuai , the minister of defense, denounced the excesses of the Great Leap and the economic losses they had caused. He was immediately removed from all party and state posts and placed in detention until his death during the Cultural Revolution. From that time, Mao regarded any criticism of his policies as nothing less than a crime of lèse-majesté, meriting exemplary punishment.", "The consistent course of the USSR toward the development and strengthening of Sino-Soviet friendship and toward extending comprehensive assistance to the PRC, as well as the tremendous progress that was achieved with this aid in the building of socialist China, contributed to strengthening the influence of internationalist forces in the CPC and among the Chinese people. The Eighth CPC Congress, held in September 1956, was marked by the strengthening and growth of healthy Marxist-Leninist forces in the ranks of the CPC. The congress confirmed the party’s general line toward building socialism in China and emphasized that the CPC must be guided by Marxism-Leninism. Thus the congress reevaluated the resolution of the Seventh Congress (1945) to the effect that the CPC must be guided by the “ideas of Mao Tse-tung.” As the main direction of foreign policy the congress decided “to continue to strengthen and enhance the perpetual and indestructible fraternal friendship with the great Soviet Union and all people’s democracies.” In the positions adopted on the second five-year plan (1958–62), the congress called for a 50–percent increase in the national income, a doubling of gross industrial output, and an increase in food crops from 176 million tons to 240 million tons. To provide assistance to the PRC in fulfilling the second five-year plan, a number of new agreements that called for technical assistance to people’s China for the construction and expansion of 125 large new industrial enterprises were concluded between the USSR and the PRC in 1958–59.", "Alongside passage of the Formosa Resolution, the United States and Taiwan entered into a mutual security pact, strengthening the connection between the two nations and making Mao’s “liberation” efforts more difficult to achieve. Between 1956 and 1957, Mao altered his strategy, expressing a desire to achieve a peaceful settlement of the conflict with the Nationalists, despite Chiang Kai-shek’s refusal to remove troops from Quemoy and Matsu. By 1958, however, tension in the Taiwan Straits resumed. Concerned with increased American involvement in Taiwan and frustrated with the failure of a more moderate policy, Mao switched gears once again and assumed a hard-line approach to Taiwan. Another contributing factor to China’s decision to win back Taiwan by force involved Mao’s “socialist transformation” of Chinese society, known as the Great Leap Forward. Gambling that Taiwan could play a significant factor in popular mobilization behind the radical movement aimed at the rapid advancement of China’s industrial and economic capabilities, Mao directed the bombing of Quemoy in August 1958.", "In 1958 Mao Zedong tried to look for supporters within the Soviet leadership for his planned war with the Republic of China (Taiwan). He flabbergasted Gromyko by telling him that he was willing to sacrifice the lives of \"300 million people\" just for the sake of annexing the Republic of China into the People's Republic of China. Gromyko assured Mao that the proposal would never get the approval of the Soviet leadership. When the Soviet leadership learnt of this discussion they responded by terminating the Soviet-Chinese nuclear program and various industrialization projects in the People's Republic of China. Years later Gromyko, during the Cuban Missile Crisis under Nikita Khrushchev, acting on the instruction of the Soviet leadership met John F. Kennedy, then President of the United States. Gromyko wrote in his Memoirs that Kennedy seemed out of touch when he first met him, he further claimed that Kennedy was not practical but instead very ideologically driven. Gromyko, in an interview in 1988, described Kennedy as nervous and said most of his arguments were contradictory. Threats towards Cuba were followed by assertions by the United States government that they were not planning any assaults on Cuba. During his twenty-eight years as Minister of Foreign Affairs Gromyko supported the policy of disarmament, stating in his Memoirs that \"Disarmament is the ideal of Socialism\". ", "Militancy on the domestic front was echoed in external policies. The \"soft\" foreign policy based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence to which China had subscribed in the mid-1950s gave way to a \"hard\" line in 1958. From August through October of that year, the Chinese resumed a massive artillery bombardment of the Nationalist-held offshore islands of Jinmen (Chin-men in Wade Giles but often referred to as Kinmen or Quemoy) and Mazu (Ma-tsu in Wade-Giles). This was accompanied by an aggressive propaganda assault on the United States and a declaration of intent to \"liberate\" Taiwan.", "Outside the Soviet sphere of control, China grew increasingly restive under Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong. Chinese discontent with the new Soviet leadership stemmed from low levels of Soviet aid, feeble Soviet support for China in its disputes with Taiwan and India, and the new Soviet doctrine of peaceful coexistence with the West, which Mao viewed as a betrayal of Marxism-Leninism. Against Khrushchev's wishes, China embarked on a nuclear arms program, declaring in 1960 that communism could defeat \"imperialism\" in a nuclear war. The dispute between militant China and the more moderate Soviet Union escalated into a schism in the world communist movement after 1960. Albania left the Soviet camp and became an ally of China, Romania distanced itself from the Soviet Union in international affairs, and communist parties around the world split over whether they should be oriented toward Moscow or Beijing. The monolithic bloc of world communism had shattered.", "economic and social plan used in China from 1958 to 1961 which aimed to use China's vast population to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a modern industrial society.", "Even before Stalin’s successor, Nikita S. Khrushchev , had given his secret speech (February 1956) denouncing his predecessor’s crimes, Mao Zedong and his colleagues had been discussing measures for improving the morale of the intellectuals in order to secure their willing participation in building a new China. At the end of April, Mao proclaimed the policy of “letting a hundred flowers bloom”—that is, the freedom to express many diverse ideas—designed to prevent the development in China of a repressive political climate analogous to that in the Soviet Union under Stalin. In the face of the disorders called forth by de-Stalinization in Poland and Hungary , Mao did not retreat but rather pressed boldly forward with that policy, against the advice of many of his senior colleagues, in the belief that the contradictions that still existed in Chinese society were mainly nonantagonistic. When the resulting “great blooming and contending” got out of hand and called into question the axiom of party rule, Mao savagely turned against the educated elite, which he felt had betrayed his confidence. Henceforth he would rely primarily on the creativity of the rank and file as the agent of modernization. As for the specialists, if they were not yet sufficiently “red,” he would remold them by sending them to work in the countryside.", "Matters were made worse in 1960 by the withdrawal of Soviet economic assistance and technical advice. As the USSR moved toward peaceful coexistence with the West, ideological differences developed between the two leading Communist powers. Their alliance deteriorated rapidly in the early 1960s, and in 1962 China openly condemned the USSR for withdrawing its missiles from Cuba under pressure from the United States, maintaining that aggression and revolution were the only means to achieve the basic Communist purpose of overthrowing capitalism. In particular, the Chinese accused Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev of modern revisionism and betrayal of Marxist-Leninist ideals. As a result, the USSR no longer actively financed the economic development of China. The Chinese began to compete openly with the USSR for leadership of the Communist bloc and for influence among the neutral nations. Zhou Enlai toured Asia and Africa in 1963 to gain support for the Chinese view.", "Over the next few years, Mao Tse-tung instituted sweeping land reform, sometimes through persuasion and other times through coercion, using violence and terror when he deemed it necessary. He seized warlord land, converting it into people's communes. He instituted positive changes in China, including promoting the status of women, doubling the school population and improving literacy, and increasing access to health care, which dramatically raised life expectancy. But Mao's reforms and support were less successful in the cities, and he sensed the discontent. In 1956, he launched the \"Hundred Flowers Campaign\" and, in democratic fashion, allowed others to express their concerns. Mao hoped for a wide range of useful ideas, expecting only mild criticism of his policies. Instead, he received a harsh rebuke and was shaken by the intense rejection by the urban intelligentsia. Fearing a loss of control, he ruthlessly crushed any further dissent. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese were labeled \"rightists,\" and thousands were imprisoned.", "Throughout the next decade, Mao largely developed policies while Zhou carried them out, attempting to moderate some of the excesses of the Cultural Revolution (such as preventing Beijing from being renamed \"East Is Red City\" and the Chinese guardian lions in front of Tian'anmen Square from being replaced with statues of Mao ). Despite his best efforts, the inability to prevent many of the events of the Cultural Revolution were a great blow to Zhou. Over the last decade of his life, Zhou's ability to implement Mao's policies and keep the nation afloat during periods of adversity was so great that his practical importance alone was sufficient to save him (with Mao's assistance) whenever Zhou became politically threatened. At the latest stages of the Cultural Revolution, in 1975, Zhou pushed for the \"Four Modernizations\" in order to undo the damage caused by the Mao's policies.", "4. The Development Plan issued by the KTT in the autumn of 1949 confirmed all this. It challenged Chinese social traditions, based on family ties and on local and regional government. It advocated agrarian reform through the introduction of more modern methods of production and by the extension of the area under cultivation. The KTT wanted to harness China's Immense resources of human labour power and by extending and improving the educational system, to prepare the population for the role assigned to them in a society undergoing industrialisation. China's new rulers wanted a modern road network to bring the areas producing materials into closer contact with the urban industrial centres. According to the KTT the primary task was the creation of modern industry. Mao's programme for the period to follow the 'taking of power' was essentially the programme of triumphant capitalism .", "From 1958 the CPSU Central Committee and the Soviet government persistently took steps to prevent a deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations. In 1965 the Soviet Union once again made a number of constructive proposals to conduct discussions with the Chinese leadership on the normalization of Sino-Soviet relations and on an agreement to rebuff jointly American aggression in Vietnam. All, however, were rejected by the Chinese leadership.", "Toward the non-Western world, the Soviet leadership limited its revolutionary activity to promoting opposition among the indigenous populations against \"imperialist exploitation.\" The Soviet Union did pursue an active policy in China, aiding the Guomindang (Nationalist Party), a non-Marxist organization committed to reform and national sovereignty. After the triumph of the Guomindang in 1927, a debate developed among Soviet leaders concerning the future status of relations with China. Stalin wanted the Chinese Communist Party to join the Guomindang and infiltrate the government from within, while Trotsky proposed an armed communist uprising and forcible imposition of socialism. Although Stalin's plan was finally accepted, it came to naught when in 1927 the Guomindang leader Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Chinese communists massacred and Soviet advisers expelled.", "The Peoples Republic of China completely changed the culture and geography of the Chinese people. It implemented five-year plans that consisted of land reform, social reform, cultural reform, and economic planning. The changes lead to the Great Leap Forward and Great Proletarian Cultural Reform . In 1949, China also implemented a 30-year alliance with Russia against Japanese and Japanese allies, although tensions strained after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1955. Relations between the two countries remained strained until 1985.", "On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally established, with its national capital at Beijing. \"The Chinese people have stood up!\" declared Mao as he announced the creation of a \"people's democratic dictatorship.\" The people were defined as a coalition of four social classes: the workers, the peasants, the petite bourgeoisie, and the national-capitalists. The four classes were to be led by the CCP, as the vanguard of the working class. At that time the CCP claimed a membership of 4.5 million, of which members of peasant origin accounted for nearly 90 percent. The party was under Mao's chairmanship, and the government was headed by Zhou Enlai (", "Among China's most pressing needs in the early 1950s were food for its burgeoning population, domestic capital for investment, and purchase of Soviet-supplied technology, capital equipment, and military hardware. To satisfy these needs, the government began to collectivize agriculture. Despite internal disagreement as to the speed of collectivization, which at least for the time being was resolved in Mao's favor, preliminary collectivization was 90 percent completed by the end of 1956. In addition, the government nationalized banking, industry, and trade. Private enterprise in mainland China was virtually abolished.", "Now, people all over the country are working hard with full confidence towards the \"two centenary goals\" - to complete the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects when the Communist Party of China celebrates its centenary in 2021, and to turn China into a modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced and harmonious when the PRC marks its centenary in 2049 - as well as the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Continuously enriching and developing the practice of \"one country, two systems\" in the HKSAR and maintaining long-term prosperity and stability in the region are integral part of the Chinese dream. It is also a necessary requirement for improving and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics and promoting the modernization of the national governance system and governing capability. The central government will continue to work with the HKSAR government and the Hong Kong compatriots to fully and faithfully implement the principle of \"one country, two systems\" and the Basic Law, so as to further the development of all undertakings in Hong Kong. We are convinced that the HKSAR will advance steadily forward under the principle of \"one country, two systems\" and the Basic Law, and work hand in hand with the mainland toward a better future for the Chinese nation.", "Naming himself head of state, communist revolutionary Mao Zedong officially proclaims the existence of the People’s Republic of China; Zhou Enlai is named premier. The proclamation was the climax of years of battle between Mao’s communist forces and the regime of Nationalist Chinese leader Chiang Kai-Shek, who had been supported with money and arms from the American government. The loss of China, the largest nation in Asia, to communism was a severe blow to the United States, which was still reeling from the Soviet Union’s detonation of a nuclear device one month earlier.", "In 1922, at the Second Congress of the Chinese party, the policy of the united front in the democratic revolution was adopted, and based upon this we expressed our attitude toward the political situation. At the same time, the representative of the Communist Youth International, Dalin, came to China and suggested to the Kuomintang the policy of a united front of the revolutionary groups. The head of the Kuomintang, Sun Yat-sen, stubbornly rejected this, agreeing only to allow the members of the Chinese Communist Party and the Youth League to join the Kuomintang as individuals and obey it, denying any unity outside of the party.", "Shortly after taking office in January 1953, President Dwight Eisenhower, in response to the end of the Korean War, lifted the U.S. naval blockade of Taiwan, meant to prevent an outbreak of hostilities between the Nationalists and mainland China. With the removal of an American military presence in the Taiwan Straits, Chiang Kai-shek remained free to intensify his efforts to regain control of China. During August 1954, he authorized the movement of troops to the Nationalist stronghold islands of Quemoy and Matsu. Despite Washington’s stern warnings to the communists against any retaliatory measures, Mao viewed the blockade removal and subsequent increased activity of the Nationalists as an opportunity to “liberate Taiwan.” Hoping to use Taiwan as a way to unite his people against potential foreign threats like the United States, Mao ordered the bombing of the occupied offshore islands beginning in September 1954.", "The CCP was so small that the Soviet Union looked elsewhere for a viable political ally. A Comintern agent, Adolph Joffe, was sent to China to approach Sun Yat-sen, who had failed to obtain assistance from Great Britain or the United States. The period of Sino-Soviet collaboration began with the Sun-Joffe Declaration of Jan. 26, 1923. The KMT was recognized by the Soviet Union, and the Communists were admitted as members. With Soviet aid, the KMT army was built up. A young officer, Chiang Kai-shek, was sent to Moscow for training. Upon returning, he was put in charge of the Whampoa Military Academy, established to train soldiers to fight the warlords, who controlled much of China S(See Chiang Kai-shek). Zhou Enlai (also Chou En-lai) of the CCP was deputy director of the academy's political department.", "From this point onwards, the Kuomintang was reduced to control of Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu Islands, and two major islands of Dongsha Islands and Nansha Islands. The Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over all \"China\", which it defined to include mainland China, Taiwan, Outer Mongolia and other areas. On mainland China, the victorious Communists claimed they ruled the sole and only China (which they claimed included Taiwan) and that the Republic of China no longer existed. ", "T.V. Soong, Premier of the Nationalist Chinese government, signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with the Soviet government. In exchange for Soviet recognition of the Nationalist Chinese government, the Nationalist Chinese agreed to the independence of Outer Mongolia, gave the Soviets joint 30-year ownership of the Manchurian Railway and the port of Dalian (Darien), and agreed to the conversion of Lushun (Port Arthur) into a Chinese-Soviet naval base. This treaty formalized Nationalist Chinese consent to the Allied concessions granted to the Soviets at the Yalta Conference.", "To this day the Chinese government justifies its actions with the same contemptible lie put forward at the time by the 85 year-old \"paramount leader\" of Chinese Stalinism, Deng Xiaoping. In a speech on June 9, 1989, he denounced the movement his regime had drowned in blood as a reactionary \"counter-revolutionary rebellion\" aimed at the overthrow of the socialist system.", "By January 1949, the Chinese Communist Army, following a series of major battles, had moved south to the Yangtze River.  On 1 October, Mao proclaimed the establishment in Peking of the Peoples Republic of China.  The defeated Nationalist Army and Government regrouped itself on Taiwan.", "Note: The Chinese communists , with Mao Zedong as their leader, defeated Chiang's Nationalists in 1949, proclaiming the People's Republic of China . The Nationalists withdrew to the island of Taiwan .", "He never held office as the head of state or the head of government, but served as the de facto leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s. He pioneered \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics\".", "Desiring a peaceful settlement of the problems of the postwar organization of China, the CPC advanced proposals for a democratic coalition government in China and for the implementation of democratic transformations. Negotiations between the CPC and the Kuomintang, which culminated in a compromise agreement, were held in Chungking between Aug. 28 and Oct. 10, 1945. It was decided to call the Political Consultative Conference consisting of representatives of the CPC, the Kuomintang, and other parties and of public figures who were not members of a party to resolve the question of the democratic reorganization of China. As early as Oct. 13, 1945, however, Chiang Kaishek’s government attacked liberated regions. This attack generated indignation among broad segments of the Chinese people. At the insistence of the government of the USSR, the conference of the ministers of foreign affairs of the USSR, the USA, and Great Britain, held in Moscow from Dec. 16 to Dec. 26, 1945, recognized the need for the peaceful unification of China and for cessation of the civil war. An agreement “with respect to the desirability of the withdrawal of Soviet and American armed forces from China as quickly as possible” was reached. This diplomatic action on the part of the Soviet Union was of great importance to the Chinese revolution: the direct armed intervention of the United States in China was stopped.", "The first phase collectivization resulted in only modest improvements in output. Famine along the mid-Yangzi was averted in 1956 through the timely allocation of food-aid, but in 1957 the Party's response was to increase the proportion of the harvest collected by the state to ensure against further disasters. Moderates within the Party, including Zhou Enlai, argued for a reversal of collectivization on the grounds that the claiming the bulk of the harvest for the state had made the people's food-security dependent upon the constant, efficient, and transparent functioning of the government." ]

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[ "In the second part of his political testament, he expelled both Göring and Himmler from the Nazi Party and appointed Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor, not as Führer, but as President of the Reich. Dönitz was to preside over a government with Goebbels as Chancellor and Bormann as Party Minister. After completing his dictations, Hitler went off to bed, having been up all night.", "Although Hess had less influence than other top NSDAP officials, he was popular with the masses. After the Invasion of Poland and the start of World War II in September 1939, Hitler named Reich Aviation Minister Hermann Göring as his successor, followed by Hess.", "In his political testament just before his own suicide, Hitler expelled Göring and Heinrich Himmler from the party and from all offices of State for disloyalty to him, for negotiating with the enemy without his knowledge and against his wishes, and for illegally attempting to seize power in the State for themselves. This referred to a telegram which Göring sent from Berchtesgaden to Hitler in Berlin on April 23, 1945, in which he offered to take command of the Reich as Hitler's designated successor. Hitler accused Göring of high treason, stripped him of all his offices, and had him placed under arrest by the SS on April 25.", "In 1925 Hess was appointed secretary of a re-organised Nazi Party and then in 1933 became Deputy Führer, and third in line to the Nazi Leadership. However, as Germany went to war in 1939, he became eclipsed by the more intelligent and ruthless Martin Bormann.", "Adjutant, bodyguard and secretary to Hitler in the 1920's, Hess took his dictation of portions of the Nazi manifesto, Mein Kampf, when they were in prison for their failed Beer Hall Putsch against the Weimar Republic. In 1933, Hitler was elected Germany's Chancellor, and Hess became the Nazi Party chief and a designated successor. He signed the infamous Nuremberg laws depriving Jews of their rights.", "Göring didn't know that Hitler had since rebounded from his meltdown and regained a measure of composure. Therefore, Hitler's response to Göring's telegram, prompted by Martin Bormann, was that the Reich Marshal had committed \"high treason.\" Although this carried the death penalty, Göring would be spared if he immediately resigned all of his titles and offices – which Göring promptly did. Next, Bormann, a longtime behind-the-scenes foe of Göring, transmitted an order to the SS near Berchtesgaden to arrest Göring and his staff. As a result, just before dawn on Tuesday, April 24, Göring was put under house arrest. Thus ended the long career of the man who would be Führer.", "Speer is indicted under all Four Counts . Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1932. In 1934 he was made Hitler's architect and became a close personal confidant. Shortly thereafter he was made a Department Head in the German Labour Front and the official in charge of Capital Construction on the staff of the Deputy to the Fuehrer, positions which he held through 1941. On 15th February, 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, Speer was appointed Chief of the Organisation Todt and Reich Minister for Armaments and Munitions (after 2nd September, 1943, for Armaments and War Production). The positions were supplemented by his appointments in March and April, 1942, as General Plenipotentiary ,for Armaments and as a member of the Central Planning Board, both within the Four Year Plan. Speer was a member of the Reichstag from 1941 until the end of the war.", "Helmuth Br�ckner was Gauleiter of Silesia (Schlesien) from 1925 to the end of 1934, at which point he was expelled from the NSDAP in connection with the R�hm affair.", "Adolf Hitler advocated that the party should change its name to the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP). Hitler, therefore redefined socialism by placing the word \"National\" before it. He claimed he was only in favour of equality for those who had \"German blood\". Jews and other \"aliens\" would lose their rights of citizenship, and immigration of non-Germans should be brought to an end. In April 1920, the German Workers Party became the NSDAP. Hitler became chairman of the new party and Karl Harrer was given the honorary title, Reich Chairman. (105)", "Adolf Hitler ( 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945 ) was a German politician who led the Nazi party from 1921 to 1945. He served as Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 , and as dictatorial leader of the Third Reich from 1934 to 1945.", "Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945, standard German pronunciation [ˈaː.dɔlf ˈhɪt.ləɐ] in the IPA) was the Führer (leader) of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. In that capacity he was Chancellor of Germany, head of government, and head of state, an absolute dictator.", "The end of the war suddenly left Hitler without a place or goal and drove him to join the many disillusioned veterans who continued to fight in the streets of Germany. In the spring of 1919 he found employment as a political officer in the army in Munich with the help of an adventurer-soldier by the name of Ernst Roehm—later head of Hitler's storm troopers (SA). In this capacity Hitler attended a meeting of the so-called German Workers' party, a nationalist, anti-Semitic, and socialist group, in September 1919. He quickly distinguished himself as this party's most popular and impressive speaker and propagandist, helped to increase its membership dramatically to some 6, 000 by 1921, and in April that year became Führer (leader) of the now-renamed National Socialist German Workers' party (NSDAP), the official name of the Nazi party.", "After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Hess was appointed Deputy Führer of the NSDAP and received a post in Hitler's cabinet. He was the third most powerful man in Germany, behind only Hitler and Hermann Göring. In addition to appearing on Hitler's behalf at speaking engagements and rallies, Hess signed into law much of the legislation, including the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which stripped the Jews of Germany of their rights in the lead-up to the Holocaust.", "In October 1933, Bormann became a Reich Leader (Reichsleiter) of the NSDAP, and in November, a member of the Reichstag. From July 1933 until 1941, Bormann served as the personal secretary for Rudolf Hess. Bormann commissioned the building of the Kehlsteinhaus. The Kehlsteinhaus was formally presented to Hitler in 1939, after 13 months of expensive construction.", "Adolf Eichmann ( March 19 , 1906 - May 31 , 1962 ) was a high-ranking official in Nazi Germany , and a member of the SS ( Schutzstaffel ). He was largely responsible for the logistics of the extermination of millions of people during the Holocaust , in particular, Jews , which was called the \"final solution\" (Endl�sung). He organised the identification and transportation of people to the various concentration camps . Therefore, he is often referred to as the 'Chief Executioner' of the Third Reich .", "July - Reichstag elections doubles NSDAP representation making it the strongest German political party. Hitler refuses Chancellor Franz von Papen�s offer to join the cabinent as vice-chancellor.", "Hitler then left it to Ribbentrop and a representative of the Austrian Nazi party to work out terms to be presented to Schuschnigg: Seyss-Inquart was to be appointed Minister of the Interior and another member of the Nazi party was to be appointed Minister of Economics. The most outspoken anti-Nazis in Schuschnigg's cabinet were to be dismissed and all Nazis held in jail for political reasons, including those involved in the assassination of Dollfuss, were to be released. Thoroughly intimidated by Hitler, Schuschnigg accepted these terms that same day.", "In 1945 Hudal gave refuge in Rome to Otto Wächter, who had played a leading role in the July Putsch of 1934 in Austria, which led to the assassination of Dollfuss. In 1938-1939, he headed the “Wächter-Kommission”, the government body named after him that was responsible for the dismissal and/or compulsory retirement of all Jewish officials in Austria.[28]. From 1939 on, as governor of the Cracow district, Wächter organized the persecution of the Jews and ordered the establishment of the Cracow Ghetto in 1941. Wächter is mentioned as one of the leading advocates in the General Government who were in favor of the Jewish extermination by gassing and as a member of the SS team who under Himmler’s supervision and Odilo Globocnik’s direction planned Operation Reinhard, the first phase of the Final Solution, leading to the death of more than 2,000,000 Polish Jews[29]. After the war Wächter lived in a Roman monastery “as a monk”[30], under the protection of Bishop Hudal. He died on July 14, 1949, in the Roman hospital of Santo Spirito “in the arms” of Bishop Hudal[31].", "Bormann replaced Hess as Hitlers Deputy in charge of Party affairs after Hess was asked to resign following his unofficial flight to England to persuade England to negotiate peace with Hitler. Bormanns reputation among members of his own Party and, especially, the German army was very negative. He was seen as uncivilized, ruthless and brutal.", "Dollfuss' successor was Kurt Schuschnigg, who followed a political course similar to his predecessor. In 1935 Schuschnigg used the police to suppress Nazi supporters. Police actions under Schuschnigg included gathering Nazis (and Social Democrats) and holding them in internment camps. The Austrofascism of Austria between 1934–1938 focused on the history of Austria and opposed the absorption of Austria into the Third Reich (according to the philosophy Austrians were \"better Germans\"). Schuschnigg called Austria the \"better German state\" but struggled to keep Austria independent.", "After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Hess was appointed Deputy Führer of the NSDAP and received a post in Hitler's cabinet. In addition to appearing on Hitler's behalf at speaking engagements and rallies, Hess signed into law much of the legislation, including the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, that stripped the Jews of Germany of their rights in the lead-up to the Holocaust .", "After his release from prison in 1925, Hess served for several years as Hitler's personal secretary in spite of having no official rank in the Nazi Party. In 1932, Hitler appointed him Chairman of the Central Political Commission of the Nazi Party and SS General as a reward for his loyal service. On April 21, 1933, he was made Deputy Führer, a figurehead position with mostly ceremonial duties.", "A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained support by promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933 and transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His avowed aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.", "Hitler remained in the army, in Munich, after World War I. He participated in various \"national thinking\" courses. These had been organized by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Reichswehr, under Captain Karl Mayr, of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army lance corporal, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated DAP (German Workers' Party). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. He soon realized that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and he rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian \"patriotic associations\" (revanchist), called the Kampfbund. This political base extended to include about 15,000 brawlers, most of whom were ex-soldiers.", "Himmler joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in August 1923; his Party number was 14,303. As a member of Röhm's paramilitary unit, Himmler was involved in the Beer Hall Putsch—an unsuccessful attempt by Hitler and the NSDAP to seize power in Munich. This event would set Himmler on a life of politics. He was questioned by the police about his role in the putsch, but was not charged because of insufficient evidence. However, he lost his job, was unable to find employment as an agronomist, and had to move in with his parents in Munich. Frustrated by these failures, he became ever more irritable, aggressive, and opinionated, alienating both friends and family members.", "Goebbels was one of twelve NSDAP members to gain election to the Reichstag. This gave him immunity from prosecution for a long list of outstanding charges, including a three-week jail sentence he received in April for insulting the deputy police chief Weiß.", "(real surname, Schickelgruber). Born Apr. 20, 1889, in Braunau, Austria; died Apr. 30, 1945, in Berlin. Leader of the German fascist (National Socialist) party and head of the German fascist state (1933-45); major war criminal.", "After working in Austria after the Anschluss in 1938, Eichmann was selected by senior SS officers to create the Central Office for Jewish Administration in Austria, which was an organisation that was introduced to expel/deport Jews from Austria after they had left their property and wealth to the Third Reich. Once again, Eichmann demonstrated his organisational skills. It was at this time that Eichmann made a study of Judaism which led to him formulating extreme anti-Semite beliefs.", "German politician. He served under Hitler as Commissar for Price Control in 1934 and mayor of Leipzig. He later became one of the leaders of the opposition to Hitler, culminating in the unsuccessful bomb plot of 20 July 1944, for which he, together with a number of other generals, were executed.", "Contrary to popular belief, Hitler was never elected. In the final free election in November 1932 his party lost considerable support.", "Overview of the discrimination and exclusion of Jews in Germany following Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in the 1930s.", "Meanwhile, the NSDAP began passing laws to marginalize Jews and remove them from German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service." ]

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[ "The War of the Spanish Succession was finally settled in 1713 by a series of treaties and agreements. Under the Treaty of Utrecht, which was signed on 13 July 1713 and brought together a number of sub-treaties and agreements, Philip V was accepted by Britain and Austria as King of Spain in exchange for guarantees that the crowns of France and Spain would not be unified. Various territorial exchanges were agreed: although Philip V retained the Spanish overseas empire, he ceded the Southern Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and some Milanese lands to Savoy; and Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain. In addition he granted the British the exclusive right to non-Spanish slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years, the so-called asiento. With regard to Gibraltar (Article X), the town, fortifications and port (but not the hinterland) were ceded to Britain \"for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever.\" The treaty also stipulated that if Britain was ever to dispose of Gibraltar it would first have to offer the territory to Spain. ", "In 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet, representing the Grand Alliance, captured the town of Gibraltar on behalf of the Archduke Charles of Austria in his campaign to become King of Spain. The occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliance's campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britain's withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779 to 1783), during the American War of Independence.", "An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The territory was subsequently ceded to Britain \"in perpetuity\" under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was an important base for the Royal Navy; today its economy is based largely on tourism, financial services, and shipping.", "The Spanish King ceded it to the British Empire during the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) that ended the War of Spanish Succession, and granted independence or a change of \"ownership\" for many former Spanish vassal states, including The Netherlands, Gibraltar, Sicily, The Duchy of Milan, The kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, vast swaths of Southern America that was returned to Portugal.", "Gibraltar (often referred to affectionately as the Rock or Gib) is an overseas territory of the UK, occupying a narrow peninsula protruding from Spain's southern Mediterranean coast. It was captured from Spain in 1704 and formally ceded to the Kingdom of Great Britain (later the United Kingdom), in perpetuity, under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.", "1713 A treaty signed between Great Britain and Spain at Utrecht ceded Gibraltar to Britain in perpetuity.", "Franco-Spanish troops failed to retake the town, and British sovereignty over Gibraltar was subsequently recognised by the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the war. Spain ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to the United Kingdom, which has retained sovereignty over the former ever since, despite all attempts by Spain to recapture it.", "The island of Minorca was a British dependency for most of the 18th century as a result of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. This treaty—signed by the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Portugal as well as the Kingdom of Spain, to end the conflict caused by the War of the Spanish Succession—gave Gibraltar and Minorca to the Kingdom of Great Britain, Sardinia to Austria (both territories had been part of the Crown of Aragon for more than four centuries), and Sicily to the House of Savoy. In addition, Flanders and other European territories of the Spanish Crown were given to Austria. The island fell to French forces, under Armand de Vignerot du Plessis in June 1756 and was occupied by them for the duration of the Seven Years' War.", "At the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 gave Britain a thirty-year asiento, or contract-right, to supply an unlimited number of slaves to the Spanish colonies, and 500 tons of goods per year. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the (traditionally) closed markets in Spanish America. However, Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–20), the Blockade of Porto Bello (1726) and the Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729).", "Under the Treaties of Utrecht (11 April 1713), the European powers decided what the fate of Spain would be, in terms of the continental balance of power. The French prince Philippe of Anjou, grandchild of Louis XIV of France , became the new Bourbon king Philip V . He retained the Spanish overseas empire, but ceded the Spanish Netherlands , Naples , Milan , and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and parts of Milan to the Duchy of Savoy ; and Gibraltar and Minorca to the Kingdom of Great Britain . Moreover, Philip V granted the British the exclusive right to slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years, the so-called asiento , as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions, openings, as Fernand Braudel remarked, for both licit and illicit smuggling. [186]", "The Treaty of Utrecht, agreed in the spring of 1713, brought an end to the tired War of the Spanish Succession which had raged through much of the western world for the previous 11 years. The antagonists in this wide conflict – France and the French party in Spain on the one hand, and the Grand Alliance formed by Great Britain, Holland and Imperial Austria on the other – had fought each other to exhaustion. Only with a Treaty such as this, for all its imperfections, could peace of a kind be achieved. This talk considers the war and causes for war, the main events and personalities, the covert and overt negotiations for peace, and the Treaty terms themselves. It also looks at the associated agreements reached at Rastadt and Baden. The talk then reviews whether Utrecht was, overall, a ‘good thing’ or not in re-establishing a balance of power in Europe for the 18th century.", "Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located in the South of Spain (Province of Cadiz in Andalucia). The isthmus has an area of 6.7 km2 and around 30,000 inhabitants.The sovereignity of Gibraltar is a major point of dispute between the United Kingdom and Spain . An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar in 1704 during the War of Succession in Spain on behalf of Archduke Charles of Austria, the Habsburg pretender to the Spanish Throne. In 1713, Gibraltar was ceded \"in perpetuity\" to Britain under Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht. This was confirmed in later treaties signed in Paris and Seville. However Gibraltar has remained a permanent cause of friction between these two states .", "The Treaty of Utrecht, which established the Peace of Utrecht, comprises a series of individual peace treaties, rather than a single document, signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht in March and April 1713. The treaties between several European states, including Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic, helped end the war. The treaties were concluded between the representatives of Louis XIV of France and Philip V of Spain on the one hand, and representatives of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, the Duke of Savoy, the King of Portugal and the United Provinces on the other.", "the name for the series of bilateral peace treaties that, along with the Treaty of Rastatt of 1714, ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Treaties were signed in Utrecht on Apr. 11, 1713, between France and Great Britain, the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal; on July 13, 1713, between Spain and Great Britain and Spain and Savoy; on June 26, 1714, between Spain and the Republic of the United Provinces, and on Feb. 6, 1715, between Spain and Portugal.", "The War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701- 1714) was a major European conflict that arose in 1701 after the death of the last Spanish Habsburg king, Charles II. Charles had bequeathed all of his possessions to Philip, duc d'Anjou - a grandson of the French King Louis XIV - who thereby became Philip V of Spain. The war began slowly, as the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I fought to protect his own dynasty's claim to the Spanish inheritance. As Louis XIV began to expand his territories more aggressively, however, other European nations (chiefly England and the Dutch Republic) entered on the Holy Roman Empire's side to check French expansion (and, in the English case, to safeguard the Protestant succession). Other states joined the coalition opposing France and Spain in an attempt to acquire new territories, or to protect existing dominions. The war was fought not only in Europe, but also in North America, where the conflict became known to the English colonists as Queen Anne's War.", "Great Britain wins some useful territories. Gibraltar is ceded by Spain, as is Minorca - a valuable Mediterranean base captured by a British fleet in 1708. From France Britain receives Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Hudson Bay territory. Louis XIV also recognizes the Protestant succession and promises to give no further support to the exiled Stuarts (a pledge made also in 1697 but subsequently broken).", "When, however, Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox, the issue re-opened. In 1700, the two rulers agreed to the Second Partition Treaty (also called the Treaty of London), under which the territories in Italy would pass to a son of the King of France, and the other Spanish territories would be inherited by a son of the Holy Roman Emperor.Troost, 256–257 This arrangement infuriated both the Spanish, who still sought to prevent the dissolution of their empire, and the Holy Roman Emperor, to whom the Italian territories were much more useful than the other lands. Unexpectedly, the invalid King of Spain, Charles II, interfered as he lay dying in late 1700.Troost, 258–260 Unilaterally, he willed all Spanish territories to Philip, a grandson of Louis XIV. The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance. Furthermore, Louis XIV alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of the former King James II who had died in 1701, as de jure King of England. The subsequent conflict, known as the War of the Spanish Succession, continued until 1713.", "The treaty recognised Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, as King of Spain (as Philip V), thus confirming the succession stipulated in the will of the Charles II of Spain who died in 1700. However, Philip was compelled to renounce for himself and his descendants any right to the French throne. In similar fashion various French princelings, including most notably the Duke of Berry (Louis XIV's youngest grandson) and the Duke of Orléans (Louis's nephew), renounced for themselves and their descendants any claim to the Spanish throne. Utrecht marked the rise of Great Britain under Anne and later the House of Hanover; her exploits martial were due to Marlborough. The lucrative trading opportunities afforded to the British were gained at the expense of her allies with the Dutch forgoing a share in the Asiento and the Holy Roman Empire ceding Spain to Philip V and being forced to reinstate the Elector of Bavaria.", "Very soon foreign and domestic events combined to force England into the leadership of the alliance against France. The continued attempts of Louis XIV to restore the rule of James and his son finally led to William's War of the League of Augsburg (1689 – 1697, ended by the indecisive Treaty of Ryswick) and to the Wars of the Spanish Succession conducted by the Duke of Marlborough . After Marlborough's victories at Blenheim in 1704 and at Ramillies in 1706 the war was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht that marked a change of importance to the world at large – the maritime, commercial, and financial supremacy of Great Britain.", "In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession. The conflict, which France and Spain were to lose, lasted until 1714. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, gaining Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca. Gibraltar, which is still a British overseas territory to this day, became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean.", "Peter initially supports France during the War of Spanish Succession. Britain alters the situation with the signing of the Methuen Treaty with Portugal on 16 May 1703, which grants mutually beneficial commercial rights for wine and textiles from the two countries. In December 1703 a military alliance between Austria , Britain, and Portugal sees them invade Spain .  Lorraine is occupied during the war, forcing the ducal court to flee. The allied forces capture Madrid in 1706, although the campaign ends in a defeat at the Battle of Almansa.", "..... Click the link for more information. ) to Savoy. Britain and Spain signed the Asiento, an agreement giving Britain the sole right to the slave trade with Spanish America. The Treaty of Rastatt (Mar. 7, 1714) between Louis XIV and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and the Treaty of Baden (Sept. 7, 1714), which completed the settlement, restored the right bank of the Rhine to the empire and confirmed Austria in possession of the formerly Spanish Netherlands, of Naples, and of Milan. The Third Barrier Treaty (Nov. 15, 1715) regulated trade relations between the Dutch and Austrian Netherlands.", "The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of the War of the Austrian Succession by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The issue of the asiento was not mentioned in the treaty, and it had lessened in importance to both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid in which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to the asiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000 and allowed British trade with Spanish America under favourable conditions.", "By treaty of Utrecht France accepted limits on its expansion as well as a political settlement for Europe.  It accepted Queen Anne (1702-1714) instead of James's II son as the true monarch of Britain.  Britain had also won the rock of Gibraltar controlling the entrance to the Mediterranean.  Pope Clement XI (1700-1721) is ignored and Sardinia, Sicily, Parma and Piacenzia are disposed.  Sicily is assigned to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy (1675-1730) including control over the church.  The pope issued a bull condemning the action but no one paid any attention.", "The Holy Roman emperor Charles VI , in what is considered the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, concluded peace with France in the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden (March 6, 1714 and Sept. 7, 1714; see Rastatt and Baden, Treaties of ). Peace between the emperor and Spain was not concluded until the Treaty of The Hague (February 1720).", "As the War of the Grand Alliance came to a close in 1697, the issue of the Spanish succession was becoming critical. England and France, exhausted by the conflict, agreed to the Treaty of Den Haag (1698), (the First Partition Treaty), which named Joseph Ferdinand heir to the Spanish throne, but divided Spanish territory in Italy and the Low Countries between France and Austria. This decision was taken without consulting the Spanish, who vehemently objected to the dismemberment of their empire. Thus, when the Partition Treaty became known in 1698, Charles II of Spain agreed to name the Bavarian Prince his heir, but assigned to him the whole Spanish Empire, not just the parts England and France had chosen.", "major engagement of the War of the Spanish Succession (see Spanish Succession, War of the), fought on Aug. 13, 1704, at the village of Blenheim, near Höchstädt, Bavaria.", "France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when the preliminaries of peace had been signed in London. This initial agreement was based on a tacit acceptance of the partition of Spain’s European possessions. Following this, a congress opened at Utrecht on January 29, 1712. The British representative was John Robinson (the Bishop of Bristol). Reluctantly the Dutch United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, but the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, refused to do so until he was assured that these preliminaries were not binding. This assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and Portugal was also represented.", "France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when the preliminaries of peace had been signed in London. This initial agreement was based on a tacit acceptance of the partition of Spain's European possessions. Following this, a congress opened at Utrecht on 29 January 1712, with the British representatives being John Robinson, Bishop of Bristol, and Thomas Wentworth, Lord Strafford. Reluctantly the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, but the Emperor refused to do so until he was assured that these preliminaries were not binding. This assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and Portugal was represented by D. Luís da Cunha.", "The War of the Spanish Succession began when Charles II of Spain left his territories to?:", "524 (inv 1713) Charles (Mordaunt), 3rd Earl of Peterborough. In command of the forces in Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession.", "This tile picture depicts a battle that took place in Ramillies, a village in Brabant province in the Spanish Netherlands (modern Belgium), in May 1706. This battle was an important event in the War of the Spanish Succession, which arose from a dispute between English, Dutch, and French rulers over the succession to the throne of Spain. John Churchill, duke of Marlborough, commanded allied English and Dutch troops; François de Neufville, duke of Villeroi, led an equal number of opposing French forces." ]

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[ "Henrietta Maria of France (French: Henriette Marie de France); (25 November[1] 1609 – 10 September 1669) was the Queen consort of England, Scotland and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of two kings, Charles II and James II, and grandmother of two queens and one king, Mary II, William III and Anne of Great Britain, as well as paternal aunt of Louis XIV of France.", "Henrietta Maria of France, Queen consort of England, Scotland and Ireland (25 November[1] 1609 – 10 September 1669) was the consort of Charles I.", "Henrietta Maria of France (; 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was queen consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of his two immediate successors, Charles II and James II.", "1625 - King Charles I is married to the French princess Henrietta Maria de Bourbon. She becomes England's Queen Consort.", "CHARLES I (ENGLAND) (1600–1649; ruled 1625–1649), king of Great Britain and Ireland . Charles I was born in Dumfirmline Castle on 19 November 1600, the second son of James VI of Scotland (ruled 1567–1625; James I of England , ruled 1603–1625) and Anne of Denmark (1574–1619). Charles's childhood and adolescence were unhappy. He suffered from rickets and a severe stammer that bedeviled him almost until his death. His parents had little to do with him, while his elder brother, Prince Henry, the charismatic heir, teased him mercilessly.", "Charles King I England, Scotland And Ireland England (Stuart), Queen Henrietta Maria England (Stuart) (o.s. Bourbon)", "Charles I (1600–49), king of England , Scotland , and Ireland (1625–49). Charles was the second son of James VI and Anne of Denmark . Born in Scotland, he moved to England in 1604 after his father ascended the English throne. He developed into a somewhat reserved, scholarly boy, who hero-worshipped his charismatic elder brother Prince Henry . Only after Henry was struck down by typhoid in 1612 did Charles, as heir apparent, move centre stage. In 1621 he was a regular attender at the House of Lords as Parliament considered whether England should intervene on the protestant side in the Thirty Years War. Public opinion favoured this, but James, as a leading protestant ruler, hoped to heal religious divisions by concluding a marriage between Charles and the Infanta Maria, sister of ‘the most catholic king’ of Spain .", "Charles I was born at Dunfermline Palace on 19 November 1600. He was the second son of James I and Anne of Denmark. He was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. He was a supporter of the Divine Right of Kings, and many in England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent. Religious conflicts continued throughout Charles's reign. He selected his Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria, over the objections of Parliament and public opinion.", "Charles I king of Great Britain and Ireland (1625–49), whose authoritarian rule and quarrels with Parliament provoked a civil war that led to his execution. Charles was the second surviving son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark. He was a sickly child,...", "Henrietta Maria (25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669), was Princess of France and Queen Consort of England, Scotland and Ireland (13 June 1625 – 30 January 1649) through her marriage to Charles I. She was the mother of two kings, Charles II and James II, and was grandmother to Mary II, William III, and Anne of Great Britain. She was also, through her daughter Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans, the ancestor of Louis XV, Louis XVI, Louis XVII, Louis XVIII & Charles X. Through the illegitimate children of Charles II, she is a direct ancestor of Princess Diana , Prince William and Prince Harry.", "Charles I (1600–49) King of England , Scotland and Ireland (1625–49). Son of James I , he was criticized by Parliament for his reliance on the Duke of Buckingham and for his Catholic marriage to Henrietta Maria. Although he accepted the petition of right , Charles' insistence on the “divine right of kings” provoked further conflict with Parliament, and led him to rule without it for 11 years (1629–40). With the support of the Archbishop of Canterbury , William Laud , Charles imposed harsh penalties on nonconformists. When attempts to impose Anglican liturgy on Scotland led to the Bishops' War, Charles was forced to recall Parliament to raise revenue. The Long Parliament insisted on imposing conditions, and impeached Charles' chief adviser, the Earl of Strafford , and in 1641 it presented the Grand Remonstrance . Relations worsened and Charles' attempt to arrest five leading opponents in the Commons precipitated the English Civil War . After the defeat of the Royalists, attempts by Oliver Cromwell and other parliamentary and army leaders to reach a compromise with the king failed, and he was tried and executed.", "Henrietta Maria (mərĪˈə) [ key ], 1609–69, queen consort of Charles I of England, daughter of Henry IV of France. She married Charles in 1625. Although she was devoted and loyal to her husband, her Roman Catholic faith made her suspect in England. By her negotiations with the pope, with foreign powers, and with English army officers, she added to the suspicions against Charles that helped to precipitate (1642) the English civil war. After 1644 she lived in France, making continual efforts to secure foreign aid for her husband until his execution in 1649. She returned (1660) to England after the Restoration, but resumed living in France in 1665. Her influence may have affected the religious beliefs of her sons Charles II and James II , although she herself was unsuccessful in her attempts to convert them to Catholicism.", "Charles I of England married Henrietta Maria of France, daughter of Henri IV of France and Marie de Medici. Although Charles I was executed by order of parliament on the 30th of January 1649, two of their sons subsequently became Kings of England. In 1660 two years after the death of Oliver Cromwell, Charles II was restored to the throne of England. His brother James II, subsequently succeeded him.", "That husband was now King of England. The early years of the married life of Charles I were most unhappy. He soon found an excuse for breaking his promise to relieve the English Catholics. His young wife was deeply offended by treatment which she naturally regarded as unhandsome. The favourite, Buckingham , stirred the flames of his master's discontent. Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628, the barrier between the married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which from that moment united them was never loosened. The children of the marriage were Charles II (b. 1630), Mary, Princess of Orange (b. 1631), James II (b. 1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636), Henry, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans (b. 1644).", "King Charles I (second son of James I and Anne of Denmark)(lived 1600 - 1649)(ruled 1625 - 1649)(he was beheaded on Jan. 30, 1649)", "Charles was born in St James's Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I (who ruled the three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland ) and Henrietta Maria (the sister of the French king Louis XIII ). Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day. England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican , Presbyterian and Roman Catholic . Charles was baptised in the Chapel Royal on 27 June by the Anglican Bishop of London , William Laud , and brought up in the care of the Protestant Countess of Dorset , though his godparents included his maternal uncle and grandmother, Marie de' Medici , both of whom were Catholics. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , along with several additional associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales , though he was never formally invested with the Honours of the Principality of Wales .", "Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558) was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet “Bloody Mary”. As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after the short-lived Protestant reign of her half-brother. Her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed after her death in 1558 by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.", "Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649.", "Charles I (November 19, 1600 – January 30, 1649) was King of England, King of Scotland , and King of Ireland from March 27, 1625 until his execution in 1649. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. As he was an advocate of the Divine Right of Kings , many in England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying of taxes without Parliament 's consent.", "Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.", "Elizabeth I, House of Tudor, (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born a princess, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his half-sisters out of the succession. His will was set aside, Lady Jane Grey was executed, and in 1558 Elizabeth succeeded the Catholic Mary I, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.", "Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The House of Stuart came to power in 1603 when the Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir.", "During the 1640s, when the Prince of Wales was still young, his father Charles I fought parliamentary and Puritan forces in the English Civil War. The prince accompanied his father during the Battle of Edgehill and, at the age of fifteen, participated in the campaigns of 1645, when he was made titular commander of the English forces in the West Country. In 1647, due to fears for his safety, he left England, going first to the Isles of Scilly , then to Jersey , and finally to France , where his mother was already living in exile. (His cousin, Louis XIV sat on the French throne.) In 1648, during the Second Civil War , Charles moved to The Hague , where his sister Mary and brother-in-law the Prince of Orange seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the Royalist cause than the Queen's French relations. However Charles was neither able to use the royalist fleet that came under his control to any advantage, nor to reach Scotland in time to join up with the royalist \" Engagers \" army of the Duke of Hamilton , before it was defeated at the Battle of Preston .", "Queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1702–1714). The last monarch of the Stuart line, she was also the first English ruler to reign over a unified England and Scotland (1707), making her the first sovereign of Great Britain.", "In 1625, King Charles I (1600 - 1649) succeeded his father James I as king of Great Britain and Ireland. Van Dyck became his court painter in 1632, and created images of him which expressed the king's belief in his divine right to govern.", "405 Charles, Duke of York King Charles I after original by van Dyck.jpg 1600–1649 1611 Later Charles I, King of England", "Charles , the controversial King of England and Ireland, as well as King of the Scots from March 27, 1625 to January 30, 1649, is noteworthy as the only saint canonized by the Church of England after the Reformation. He is also the only martyr to appear in this article, due to his less positive claim to fame: being the only king of England publicly beheaded. Charles is known for reigning in such a way that he alienated Puritans in his country. He tried to rule without Parliament, raised taxes through loopholes, attempted to impose a common prayer book on Scotland, and married a French Catholic.", "Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland .", "Charles I - King during the Stuart period of British history. He opposed Parliament and, following the Civil War, was beheaded. You can use a Cavalier costume – although it is a little too early for this style of costume.", "George I (George Louis) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death on 11 June 1727. He was also the first de facto Prince-Elector of Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire.", "The picture is of King Charles I whose constant disputes with the Parliamentarians led to the English Civil War and his execution", "Name either of the two Flemish painters who worked in England who were knighted by King Charles I ?" ]

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[ "After retreating from Howe's army, Washington's army had to camp in Valley Forge in the winter of 1777 to 1778. They were all miserable and terribly equipted. Many of the soldiers were barefoot and had only blankets. A quarter of the soldiers died from exposure to cold and diseases. Some citizens brought food and supplies to the soldiers. ", "Valley Forge is the 1777-78 winter encampment of the Continental Army under General George Washington. Few places evoke the spirit of patriotism and independence, represent individual and collective sacrifice, or demonstrate the resolve, tenacity and determination of the people of the United States to be free as does Valley Forge. The Valley Forge experience is fundamental to both American history and American myth, and remains a source of inspiration for Americans and the world.", "Meanwhile, immersed in the unceasing conflict, George Washington's army made its winter encampment near Philadelphia at Valley Forge . The brutal winter of 1777-8 brought deprivations far worse than those experienced a year earlier at Morristown. Disease, cold, and hunger plagued the Americans for months. Desertion rates skyrocketed and Washington warned Congress that if it did not send supplies immediately, the army would be forced to \"starve, dissolve, or disperse.\" 128 But the army found its own salvation when Washington ordered generals Nathaniel Greene and Henry Lee to lead foraging expeditions into New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. The men took livestock, cattle, and horses and in exchange they issued \"receipts\" that were supposed to be honored by the Continental Congress. News of the French alliance, Congress's new promises of extra pay and bonuses after the war, the newfound food rations, and the warmer change of weather with the onset of spring all helped to revive the troops sufficiently for Washington to initiate a rigorous training program for them. To make up for their lack of formal military training, the Americans sought out Prussian soldier Frederick William Augustus Henry Ferdinand, Baron von Steuben , whose frequent use of expletives would have rivaled the \"potty mouth\" of World War II General George Patton. Speaking through an interpreter, von Steuben drilled the troops, taught them how to properly handle their weapons, and how to march in formation.", "January 3, 1777 - During the American Revolution , General George Washington defeated the British at Princeton and drove them back toward New Brunswick. Washington then established winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. During the long harsh winter, Washington's army shrank to about a thousand men as enlistments expired and deserters fled.", "December 17, 1777 - At Valley Forge in Pennsylvania, the Continental Army led by General George Washington settled in for the winter.", "Washington and Lafayette shared a close companionship over the course of the entire war. In fact, Lafayette spent the harsh winter of 1777-78 with Washington and his men at Valley Forge, suffering along with the other Continental soldiers in the frigid, disease-ridden encampment. He helped Washington at his darkest hour when he faced an internal threat from the Conway Cabal, a plot to drive Washington from his command.", "Washington and his army encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they would stay for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben.", "Luckily for the British, Washington also had his problems over the winter of 1777-8. On 21 December 1777 Washington and his 11,000 men had marched to Valley Forge, where they had made camp for the winter. Washington had picked Valley Forge for several convincing reasons. First, it was well positioned to watch the British, eighteen miles to the southeast at Philadelphia. Second, it was an easily defensible location on high ground. Third, it was in a largely unpopulated area and Washington did not want to alienate the population of Pennsylvania by inflicting a wintering army on them. Finally, there was some hope that supplies would be easier to find in Pennsylvania than had been the case in previous winters. However, the location also had its problems. There was little or no food present when the army arrived (the British had already searched the area earlier in the year), the remoteness of the location made it hard for supplies to reach the army, and when the army arrived there were no building for them to use. Across January and February the army faced near starvation, boredom and poor discipline.", "The Continental army still had to endure the hardships of the cruel winter at Valley Forge , when only loyalty to Washington and the cause of liberty held the half-frozen, half-starved men together. Among them were three of the foreign idealists who had come to aid the colonials in their struggle—Johann Kalb , Baron von Steuben , and the marquis de Lafayette . At Valley Forge, Steuben trained the still-raw troops, who came away a disciplined fighting force giving a good account of themselves in 1778. Sir Henry Clinton , who had succeeded Howe in command, decided to abandon Philadelphia for New York, and Washington's attack upon the British in the battle of Monmouth (see Monmouth, battle of ) was cheated of success mainly by the equivocal actions of Gen. Charles Lee .", "December 19, 1777, during the American Revolution, General George Washington led 11,000 regulars to take up winter quarters at Valley Forge on the west bank of the Schuylkill River, 22 miles (35 km) northwest of Philadelphia.", "January 3, 1777 - A second victory for Washington as his troops defeat the British at Princeton and drive them back toward New Brunswick. Washington then establishes winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. During the harsh winter, Washington's army shrinks to about a thousand men as enlistments expire and deserters flee the hardships. By spring, with the arrival of recruits, Washington will have 9000 men.", "During the winter of 1779–80 the American army suffered worse hardships than they had at Valley Forge previously. The Congress was ineffective, the Continental currency worthless, and the supply system was fundamentally broken. Washington was finding it extremely difficult to keep his army together, even without any major fighting against the British. In 1780 actual mutinies broke out in the American camp. The Continental Army's strength dwindled to such an extent that the British decided to mount two probing attacks against New Jersey in June 1780. The New Jersey militia strongly rallied, however, and the British quickly returned to their bases.", "During 1777, Patriot forces under General Washington suffered major defeats against the British at the battles of Brandywine and Germantown; Philadelphia, the capital of the United States, fell into British hands. The particularly severe winter of 1777-1778 proved to be a great trial for the American army, and of the 11,000 soldiers stationed at Valley Forge, hundreds died from disease. However, the suffering troops were held together by loyalty to the Patriot cause and to General Washington, who stayed with his men. As the winter stretched on, Prussian military adviser Frederick von Steuben kept the soldiers busy with drills and training in modern military strategy.", "..... Click the link for more information.  witnessed the heroic endurance of Washington's troops in the winter of 1777–78, making the site a shrine of patriotism. In the postwar period, Pennsylvania's role as the geographical keystone of the new nation was strengthened by its resolution of boundary disputes that had persisted throughout the colonial period: agreement was reached with Maryland in 1784 by acceptance of the Mason-Dixon line; with Virginia and New York in 1786; with the United States and the Iroquois Confederacy in 1789; and with Connecticut in 1799 after bitter dissension in the Wyoming Valley.", "In the fall of 1777, General George Washington 's Continental Army moved south from New Jersey to defend the capital of Philadelphia from the advancing forces of General William Howe . Clashing at Brandywine on September 11, Washington was decisively defeated, leading the Continental Congress to flee the city. Fifteen days later, after outmaneuvering Washington, Howe entered Philadelphia unopposed. Seeking to regain the initiative, Washington struck at Germantown on October 4, but was again defeated. With the campaign season ending and cold weather rapidly approaching, Washington moved his army into winter quarters.", "When General Clinton should have co-operated with Burgoyne he set out for the conquest of Philadelphia, the capital of the new union. Transporting his army by the Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay, he landed in Maryland , marched towards Philadelphia and, after defeating Washington's army on the Brandywine, occupied the capital. Though the fighting around Philadelphia was not decisive, the patriot army, as shown in the engagement at Germantown (Oct., 1777), was improving in efficiency. To defend the Continental military stores, as well as to menace Philadelphia, Washington went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. It is unnecessary to repeat the familiar story of the sufferings of the patriot army. One thing, however, was accomplished during that terrible winter. The little army of Washington was rigorously drilled by the German volunteer, Baron Von Steuben. Thereafter the Continentals were a match for the best-drilled troops of England . In the spring of 1778 there was a rumour that a French fleet had sailed for the Delaware. This consideration, together with the improvement in the condition of Washington's army, persuaded the British to return across New Jersey to New York City. During this march a severe engagement occurred at Monmouth Court House, N.J., 28 June, 1778. It was only the treachery of General Charles Lee that prevented Washington from winning a more complete victory.", "Howe proceeded to divide his forces in New Jersey into small detachments that were vulnerable to defeat in detail, with the weakest forces stationed the closest to Washington’s army. [58] Washington decided to take the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on the night of December 25–26, and capturing nearly 1,000 surprised and unfortified Hessians at the Battle of Trenton . [59] Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was first repulsed and then outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777, taking around 200 prisoners. [60] Howe then conceded most of New Jersey to Washington, in spite of Howe’s massive numerical superiority over him. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey , having given a morale boost to the American cause. Throughout the winter New Jersey militia continued to harass British and Hessian forces near their three remaining posts along the Raritan River . [61]", "The British under Gen. William Howe and his brother, Admiral Richard Howe , came to New York harbor. After vain attempts to negotiate a peace, the British forces struck. Washington lost Brooklyn Heights (see Long Island, battle of ), retreated northward, was defeated at Harlem Heights in Manhattan and at White Plains, and took part of his dwindling army into New Jersey. Thomas Paine in a new pamphlet, The Crisis, exhorted the revolutionists to courage in desperate days, and Washington showed his increasing military skill and helped to restore colonial spirits in the winter of 1776–77 by crossing the ice-ridden Delaware and winning small victories over forces made up mostly of Hessian mercenaries at Trenton (Dec. 26) and Princeton (Jan. 3).", "After Washington left Mount Vernon in 1775, he would not return again for over six years. Every year, during the long winter months when the fighting was at a standstill, the General asked Martha to join him at his winter encampment.", "Again showing an unwillingness to eliminate Washington's army, Howe soon moved into winter quarters around New York and only dispatched a small force under Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis to create a \"safe zone\" in northern New Jersey. Recovering in Pennsylvania, Washington was able to win victories at Trenton and Princeton in December and January. As a result, Howe pulled back many of his outposts. While Washington continued small-scale operations during the winter, Howe was content to remain in New York enjoying a full social calendar.", "General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase the army of Washington throughout New Jersey, until the Americans move back across the Delaware River towards Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign of the visible conclusion of the season, the British entered the winter quarters. Though Howe had missed various opportunities of crushing down the decreasing quantity of American army, he had killed or captured more than 5,000 Americans.", "9/9-11 1777 – General George Washington and Continental Army are defeated by British General Howe at Brandywine Creek and are driven back toward Lancaster, PA. Both sides suffer heavy casualties.", "On September 15 Howe followed up his victory by invading Manhattan . Though checked at Harlem Heights the next day, he drew Washington off the island in October by a move to Throg’s Neck and then to New Rochelle , northeast of the city. Leaving garrisons at Fort Washington on Manhattan and at Fort Lee on the opposite shore of the Hudson River , Washington hastened to block Howe. The British commander, however, defeated him on October 28 at Chatterton Hill near White Plains . Howe slipped between the American army and Fort Washington and stormed the fort on November 16, seizing guns, supplies, and nearly 3,000 prisoners. British forces under Lord Cornwallis then took Fort Lee and on November 24 started to drive the American army across New Jersey . Though Washington escaped to the west bank of the Delaware River , his army nearly disappeared. Howe then put his army into winter quarters, with outposts at towns such as Bordentown and Trenton .", "the site of the camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777–1778 in the American Revolutionary War.", "September 9-11, 1777 - In the Battle of Brandywine Creek, Gen. Washington and the main American Army of 10,500 men are driven back toward Philadelphia by Gen. Howe's British troops. Both sides suffer heavy losses. Congress then leaves Philadelphia and resettles in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.", "September 9-11, 1777 - In the Battle of Brandywine Creek, Gen. Washington and the main American Army of 10,500 men are driven back toward Philadelphia by Gen. Howe's British troops. Both sides suffer heavy losses. Congress then leaves Philadelphia and resettles in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.", "Military camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777-1778 in the American Revolutionary War.", "As winter approached, both sides faced their own problems. The Americans were so short on gunpowder that soldiers were given spears to fight with in the event of a British attack. Many of the American troops remained unpaid and many of their enlistments would be up at the end of the year. On the British side Howe, who had replaced Gage as commander in October, was faced with different problems. Wood was so scarce that they began cutting down trees and tearing down wooden buildings, including the Old North Meeting House. To add to this, supplying the city had become increasingly difficult because of winter storms and the rise in rebel privateers. The British troops were so hungry that many were ready to desert as soon as they could. Worse, scurvy and smallpox had broken out in the city. Washington's army faced similar problems with smallpox, as soldiers from rural communities were exposed to the disease. Washington moved infected troops to a separate hospital, the only option then available given the public stigma against inoculation. ", "American forces were numerically superior - approximately 8500 troops in September grew to almost 12,000 by the second battle in October 1777. They too dominated an area about one square mile, which was located south of the British camps in an area called Bemis Heights. Commanded by Major General Horatio Gates, the American forces included New Englanders, New Yorkers, Virginians, Marylanders, Pennsylvanians, Native Americans, Canadians, French volunteers and one Pole-Thaddeus Kosciusko. Women and children accompanied both armies, sharing the hardships and dangers that army life presented.", "With the winter setting in the prospects for campaigning being greatly diminished, General George Washington sought quarters for his men.", "1777: General Howes British troops defeated George Washingtons American troops at the Battle of Brandywine Creek during the American War of Independence.", "In January 1780, fighting in the Revolutionary War came to a standstill as Mother Nature transformed America into a frigid hell. For the only time in recorded history, all of the saltwater inlets, harbors and sounds of the Atlantic coastal plain, from North Carolina northeastward, froze over and remained closed to navigation for a period of a month or more. Sleighs, not boats, carried cords of firewood across New York Harbor from New Jersey to Manhattan. The upper Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and the York and James rivers in Virginia turned to ice. In Philadelphia, the daily high temperature topped the freezing mark only once during the month of January, prompting Timothy Matlack, the patriot who had inscribed the official copy of the Declaration of Independence, to complain that \"the ink now freezes in my pen within five feet of the fire in my parlour, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon.\"" ]

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[ "  Charles V (Spanish: Carlos I, German: Karl V., Italian: Carlo V, Dutch: Karel V, French: Charles Quint; 2/24, 1500 – 9/21, 1558) was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.  As the heir of three of Europe's leading dynasties—the House of Habsburg of the Habsburg Monarchy; the House of Valois-Burgundy of the Burgundian Netherlands; and the House of Trastámara of Crown of Castile-León & Aragon—he ruled over extensive domains in Central, Western, and Southern Europe; and the Spanish colonies in North, Central, and South America, the Caribbean, and Asia.  As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear.  Initially dismissing Luther's theses as \"an argument between monks\", he later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism.  Charles V was generally protective of the Jews.  In 1520 he refrained from demanding the customary coronation tax.  In 1530 Charles V reconfirmed the privileges he had granted to the Jews and defended them through the encouragement of Josel of Rosheim against Martin Luther.", "1521 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V pronounced Martin Luther an outlaw and heretic for refusing to recant his teachings while at the Diet of Worms (held the previous month).", "1521 - Martin Luther confronted the emperor Charles V in the Diet of Worms and refused to retract his views that led to his excommunication.", "As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. Initially dismissing Luther's theses as \"an argument between monks\", he later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism.", "Edict of Worms (1521) - Declaration by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the end of the Diet of Worms that Martin Luther was an outlaw and a heretic (Protestant Reformation).", "The Diet of Worms 1521 (,) was an imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire held at the Heylshof Garden in Worms, then an Imperial Free City of the Empire. An imperial diet was a formal deliberative assembly of the whole Empire. This one is most memorable for the Edict of Worms (Wormser Edikt), which addressed Martin Luther and the effects of the Protestant Reformation.", "The Diet of Worms 1521 was an imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire. This one is most memorable for the Edict of Worms , which addressed Martin Luther and the effects of the Protestant Reformation.", "Diet of Worms meeting of the Diet (assembly) of the Holy Roman Empire held at Worms, Germany, in 1521 that was made famous by Martin Luther ’s appearance before it to respond to charges of heresy. Because of the confused political and religious situation of the time,...", "The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the  Diet of Worms . This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in  Worms , a town on the  Rhine . It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with  Emperor Charles V  presiding. Prince  Frederick III, Elector of Saxony , obtained a  safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.", "The enforcement of the ban on the Ninety-five Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.", "1521: 2 April, Diet of Worms begins. Luther is promised by Frederick III, elector and prince of Saxony for safe passage on Charles’ promises, and plans for escape in Luther loses his case.", "Emperor Charles V opened the imperial Diet of Worms (pronounced \"DEE-it of Vorms\") on 22 January 1521. Luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views and was given an imperial guarantee of safe-conduct to ensure his safe passage. When he appeared before the assembly on 16 April, Johann Eck, an assistant of Archbishop of Trier, acted as spokesman for the Emperor. (Bainton, p. 141) He presented Luther with a table filled with copies of his writings. Eck asked Luther if the books were his and if he still believed what these works taught. Luther requested time to think about his answer. It was granted.", "1530: Charles V called for an arbitration meeting between Protestants and Catholics. It was the ( OR DIET OF WORMS.  “Luther, however, retained unaltered the Apostles, the Nicene, and the  Athanesian Creeds; but he explained in many of his writings to what extent, and on what grounds, a change must needs be effected in human rites and traditions; what form of doctrine he wished to retain, and what administration of the sacraments he most approved, were obvious from a confession which the Elector-John, Duke of Saxony, and Prince Philip Landgrave of Hesse, &c. presented to the Emperor Charles the Fifth, at an imperial diet, in the year 1530, and are apparent both from the rites of the church in that city, and from the doctrine with which our church now resounds, the chief of which is clearly comprehended in the confession.” [74]", "1500s Martin Luther translated bible into german, diet of worms, 95 theses vs indulgences at Wittenburg, burned papal bull of excommunication, At the Diet of Worms held in this city in 1521, Martin Luther refused to eat his words", "In 1530, when the diet met at Augsburg, Charles was in a strong position. The Sack of Rome in 1527 had increased his influence with the pope and strengthened his growing hold in Italy. In 1529 the Turks had been repelled in an attempt to take Vienna, and in the same year the Treaty of Cambrai with France brought temporary peace with the old enemy on terms favorable to Charles. In 1530 Charles was crowned emperor in Bologna by the pope. He came to the diet the first he had attended personally since Worms in 1521 determined to settle the religious question once and for all. Luther, as an outlaw, could not be there; he stayed at the castle of Coburg, in constant touch with Melanchthon, who was charged with presenting the Lutheran position. This position was embodied in what has become known as the Augsburg Confession, still recognized today as the most authoritative statement of the Lutheran faith.", "The city of Worms was frequently visited by the imperial court, and won the title of \"Mother of Diets.\" The concordat of Worms closed the investiture controversy in 1 12 2. The \"perpetual peace\" (ewiger Landfriede) was proclaimed by the emperor Maximilian I . at the diet of 1495, and Luther appeared before the famous diet of 1521 to defend his doctrines in the presence of Charles V . Four years later, Worms formally embraced Protestantism, and religious conferences were held there in 15 4 0 and 1557. It suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War . After being sacked in turn by Mansfeld , Tilly and the Spaniards, it was taken by Oxenstierna in 1632, who held a convention here with his German allies. The imperialists again took Worms in 1635, and it admitted the French under Turenne in 1644. The French under Melac burnt the city almost entirely in 1689, and it has only fully recovered from this blow in recent years. Thus the population, which XXVIII. 27 in its prosperous days is said to have exceeded 50,000, had sunk in 1815 to 6250.", "In 1543, the king of France Francis I announced his unprecedented alliance with the Islamic sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Suleiman the Magnificent, by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in concert with Ottoman forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles V in his invasion of France. Although the Spanish were defeated at the Battle of Ceresole in Savoy the French army was unable to seriously threaten Spanish controlled Milan, whilst suffering defeat in the north at the hands of Henry, thereby being forced to accept unfavourable terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League.", "Cortés's fifth letter to King Charles attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on \"various and powerful rivals and enemies\" who have \"obscured the eyes of your Majesty.\" Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with wars with France, the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire), except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attending to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.", "The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean. After seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, continued for the rest of Charles's reign. In the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by both religious and political opposition to him. He could not prevent the spread of Protestantism and although he won a decisive victory against the Princes at the Battle of Mühlberg, 1547, he was ultimately forced to concede the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 which divided Germany on confessional lines.", "At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army. Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the Biblical apocalypse that would destroy the antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church. He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, \"as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name\". On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks. In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war. By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks. ", "The Schmalkaldic Wars and the Peace of Augsburg of the 1540s through 1555 created a number of issues for Charles V Hapsburg of Austria. The debate over what religion German states could adopt had not been resolved, as the Peace of Augsburg provided for the states' princes to adopt either Catholicism or Lutheranism, but not Calvinism. The issue of the German princes' power and sovereignty was also at bay, as the princes increasingly desired more power. Finally, the princes had been seizing Church land, angering Charles V.", "3. One of the German princes and cities that supported the doctrines of Luther and protested against the decision of the second Diet of Speyer (1529) to enforce the Edict of Worms (1521) and deny toleration to Lutherans.", "In 1543, Francis I, king of France, announced his unprecedented alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in concert with Turkish forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France. Although the Spanish army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Ceresole, in Savoy, Henry fared better, and France was forced to accept terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League.", "Charles V had Gout ( at this time) is from eating too much meat, and not enough vitamins and fruits. It cripples the joints. And 1555, Charles wanted to come to compromise, and he has a Diet of Augsburg called in 1555, to come up to some solution to stop the warfare between Protestant and Catholics. So they decide in the German lands to allow autonomy in regards to each local ruler’s choice of religion. The German princes agree upon this. These Princes will have their choice to become either Protestant or Catholic.  So whoever rules gets to decide what religion will reside in these regions, but this pertains to the peasants. Whomever reigns will decide the religion of the realm. All have to accept it. It was an enormous change in Religious public life and the religious landscape changes at this time. No more catholic dominance. “A new set of possibilities are on the scene.”", "1546-1555 Charles V, old now, and suffering from gout wanted to end the religious wars as part of his legacy. (German on-and-off Catholic and Protestant wars) and no  one gives in, Germans have the church lands and drains Charles V’s coffers, and the king is getting older and sicker.", "The French king Charles VI suffered bouts of insanity through much of his reign. Henry V had invaded France in 1415 and delivered a crushing defeat to the French at Agincourt. In 1418, John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, whose political and economic interests favoured an agreement with the English, occupied Paris. One year later he was murdered by his Armagnac opponents on the bridge at Montereau. His son Philip the Good formed an alliance with the English and negotiated the treaty with the English King.", "With the Ottoman threat growing (see below), he needed to ensure that he was not facing a major schism within Christianity. He refuted the Lutheran position (Augsburg Confession) (Confessio Augustana) with the Confutatio Augustana, and had Ferdinand elected King of the Romans on 5 January 1531, ensuring his succession as a Catholic monarch. In response, the Protestant princes and estates formed the Schmalkaldic League in February 1531 with French backing. Further Turkish advances in 1532 (which required him to seek Protestant aid) and other wars kept the emperor from taking further action on this front until 1547 when imperial troops defeated the League at the Battle of Mühlberg, allowing him to once more impose Catholicism.", "The county of Holland passes to the son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. That son is Philip, later king consort of Castile . The following year, an alliance is formed between Naples , the Pope , Milan, Venice , and the emperor in order to defend Italy from Charles VIII of France . This marks the beginning of the highly destructive Italian Wars which last until 1559.", "In October 1518, an imperial diet (\"DEE-it\") - a meeting of the Holy Roman Empire's princes and nobles - was held in Augsburg. The Pope sent a representative to the meeting with instructions to convince the German princes to support a crusade against the Turks. A secondary task was to meet with Luther and convince him to recant. Not entirely confident he would return home alive, Luther nevertheless attended the meeting in the hopes of defending his views.", "* ''Charles VII'' was officially Charles VI's son, but his own mother, the beautiful Isabeau of Bavaria, claimed that [[HeroicBastard he'd been fathered by Charles' brother, Louis of Orleans]]. He's best known for his alliance with Joan of Arc. He had a [[WhyDidItHaveToBeSnakes phobia of bridges]] after watching John the Fearless murdered on a bridge. His later years were marred by a feud with his eldest son and the growth of a tumor on his jaw that prevented him from eating. He starved to death in 1461.", "The Catholic League's army (which included René Descartes in its ranks as an observer) pacified Upper Austria, while Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria. The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at the Battle of White Mountain, near Prague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic, Bohemia remained in Habsburg hands for nearly 300 years.", "In 1511, King Henry VIII joined the Holy League against France with the Pope, Emperor Maximillian, Spain and Venice.  England would soon be at war alongside these states precipitating a crisis in relations with Scotland." ]

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[ "The 1969 Libyan coup d'état, also known as the al-Fateh Revolution or the 1 September Revolution, was a military coup d'état executed in Libya by the Free Officers Movement, a group of rebel military officers led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, that led to the overthrow of King Idris of Libya.", "Idris, GBE (Arabic: إدريس الأول), also known as \"King Idris I of Libya\" (born El Sayyid Prince Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi; 12 March 1889 – 25 May 1983), was the first and only King of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969, and the chief of the Senussi Muslim order. While in Turkey for medical treatment, Idris was deposed in a 1969 coup d'etat by army officers led by Muammar Gaddafi.", "Idris, GBE (), also known as \"King Idris I of Libya\" (born El Sayyid Prince Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi; 12 March 1889 – 25 May 1983), was the first and only King of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969, and the chief of the Senussi Muslim order. While in Turkey for medical treatment, Idris was deposed in a 1969 coup d'etat by army officers led by Muammar Gaddafi.", "In 1969, Gaddafi was appointed a Signals Corps aide-de-camp, and headed one of the conspiracies hatched in the Libyan armed forces at the time. On September 1, 1969, a group of insurgents led by Captain Gaddafi seized the royal palace, government buildings, radio and television, and declared that King Idris was deposed. Gaddafi proclaimed Libya a republic. He became the head of the Revolutionary Command Council and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Since that time he served as the de facto ruler of the country, holding a number of official posts.", "Libya gained independence on 24 December 1951. On this day the United Libyan Kingdom was created under the rule of King Idris. However, in 1969, King Idris was overthrown by Col Muammar Gaddafi in a coup. After the overthrow, Gaddafi established the Libyan Arab Republic. Under the rule of Gaddafi, only the 1969 coup date was permitted to be marked.", "1969 - King Idris deposed in military coup led by Col Muammar Gaddafi, who pursues a pan-Arab agenda by attempting to form mergers with several Arab countries, and introduces state socialism by nationalising most economic activity, including the oil industry.", "1969 – A revolution in Libya brings Col. Moammar Qaddafi to power, ousting King Idris I .", "Commissioned into the Libyan army in 1965, Gaddafi began planning for the overthrow of the Libyan monarch, King Idris, whom he considered a pawn of the Western European nations. Within four years, Gaddafi, with the rank of colonel, took control of the army. On September 1, 1969, he seized power in a bloodless coup.", "Idris I ( March 12 , 1890 - May 25 , 1983 ) was king of Libya from independence ( December 24, 1951 ) until the coup d'etat on September 1 , 1969 that brought Moammar Al Qadhafi to power.", "King Idris ruled from 1951 until Muammar Gaddafi seized power in a coup in 1969. Given events in Libya in the past five decades, his life and reign seem now to have faded from public consciousness. The history of modern Libya is often thought of as synonymous with Gaddafi, but the man who preceded him was a nationalist and an astute politician at a time when his homeland was fought over by colonial powers.", "Muammar Gaddafi became the de facto leader of Libya on 1 September 1969 after leading a group of young Libyan military officers against King Idris I in a bloodless coup d'état. After the king had fled the country, the Libyan Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) headed by Gaddafi abolished the monarchy and the old constitution and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic, with the motto \"freedom, socialism, and unity\". ", "Idris I ( Arabic: إدرÙس اÙØ£ÙÙ) (March 12, 1890 - May 25, 1983 ) was the first King of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969 .", "Upon independence, Libya adopted a federal system of government that left wide powers to the different provinces, though all linked to a central government under the ineffective rule of King Idris, the Amir of Cyrenaica. 83Id. at 47–48. That monarchy was brought to an end on September 1, 1969 in a bloodless coup led by a twenty-seven year old military officer named Mu’ammar al-Qaddafi. 84Id. at 79.", "Libya was a poor and backward state under King Idris; some folks unkindly described it as \"a geographical hyphen\" between Egypt and the rest of North Africa. Even after oil was discovered in 1959, the British and American military bases continued to be Libya's main source of income. On September 1, 1969, while the seventy-nine-year-old king was in Turkey for medical treatment, a group of young army officers, determined to do for Libya what Nasser had done for Egypt, abolished the monarchy and replaced it with the Revolutionary Command Council, led by a twenty-seven-year-old captain, Muammar el-Gaddafi. (16)", "Libya had been an Italian colony until Italy’s defeat in World War II. After the war, the U.S. and Britain set up a monarchy in Libya under King Idris I. Moammar al-Gadhafi was a military officer when he led a coup in 1969 against the monarchy. This led to the nationalization of Libya’s oil and social gains for the Libyan people...", "..... Click the link for more information.  Muslim sect, he became leader of the group in 1917. He was acknowledged (1920) by the Italians as emir of Cyrenaica but had to flee to Egypt in 1922 after quarreling with the Italian Fascists. He was restored to power by the British (1943) and became Libya's first king when independence was granted (1951). Deposed in a military coup (1969) by Colonel Muammar al- Qaddafi Qaddafi, Muammar al-", "Idris I ( March 12 , 1890 - May 25 , 1983 ) was the first King of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969 .", "September 1 A coup in Libya ousts King Idris, and brings Colonel Muammar Gaddafi to power.", "1969 September 1: While Idris is in Turkey for medical treatment, he is deposed by the Libyan army under the leadership of Colonel Gadhafi in a bloodless coup .", "Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom ( '), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ( ') in 1963. Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ( '). The official name was \"Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\" from 1977 to 1986, and \"Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\" ( ' ) from 1986 to 2011.", "On September 1, 1969 the pro-western regime that had ruled in Libya was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and his officers.", "• Muammar Gaddafi, who ruled Libya from 1969 until August this year, has been killed by forces loyal to the country's new government. The Libyan government has confirmed his death. Gaddafi 69, was reportedly found hiding in a drain outside Sirte, where he and and others had taken shelter after their convoy was hit by a Nato airstrike as it attempted to escape. A spokesman for the National Tranisitional Council – Libya's ruling body – said Gaddafi was alive when captured but died in an ambulance on the way to hospital.", "In mid-1969, Idris travelled abroad to spend the summer in Turkey and Greece. Gaddafi's Free Officers recognized this as their chance to overthrow the monarchy, initiating \"Operation Jerusalem\". On 1 September, they occupied airports, police depots, radio stations and government offices in Tripoli and Benghazi. Gaddafi took control of the Berka barracks in Benghazi, while Omar Meheisha occupied Tripoli barracks and Jalloud seized the city's anti-aircraft batteries. Khweldi Hameidi was sent to arrest crown prince Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi, and force him to relinquish his claim to the throne. They met no serious resistance, and wielded little violence against the monarchists.", "On this day in 2011, Moammar Gadhafi, the longest-serving leader in Africa and the Arab world, is captured and killed by rebel forces near his hometown of Sirte. The eccentric 69-year-old dictator, who came to power in a 1969 coup, headed a government that was accused of numerous human rights violations against its own people and was linked to terrorist attacks, including the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am jet over Lockerbie, Scotland.", "On September 1, 1969, in a daring coup d'�tat, a group of about seventy young army officers and enlisted men, mostly assigned to the Signal Corps, seized control of the government and in a stroke abolished the Libyan monarchy. The coup was launched at Benghazi, and within two hours the takeover was completed. Army units quickly rallied in support of the coup, and within a few days firmly established military control in Tripoli and elsewhere throughout the country. Popular reception of the coup, especially by younger people in the urban areas, was enthusiastic. Fears of resistance in Cyrenaica and Fezzan proved unfounded. No deaths or violent incidents related to the coup were reported.", "Muammar Gaddafi, the deposed leader of Libya, died on 20 October 2011 during the Battle of Sirte. Gaddafi was found hiding in a culvert west of Sirte and captured by National Transitional Council forces. He was killed shortly afterwards. The NTC initially claimed he died from injuries sustained in a firefight when loyalist forces attempted to free him, although videos of his last moments show rebel fighters beating him before he was shot several times as he screamed violently at them. ", "Colonel Gaddafi seized power in the 1969 coup, and held onto it through the imposition of tough controls and a sometimes bizarre streak of showmanship until his death at the hands of his own people in 2011", "After the coup d'état which brought Muammar Gaddafi to power in 1969, there have been a number of international incidents concerning territorial claims of the Gaddafi regime over the waters of the Gulf of Sidra.", "In 1977, Libya officially became the \"Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\". Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead, but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power. Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself. The new \"jamahiriya\" governance structure he established was officially referred to as a form of direct democracy, though the government refused to publish election results. Later that same year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the Libyan-Egyptian War, both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumediène. ", "January 16th - 1970 Colonel Kadhafi Becomes Premier of Libya Photos and Images | Getty Images", ", 1942–2011, Libyan army officer and dictator. He graduated from the Univ. of Libya in 1963 and became an army officer in 1965. In 1969 he formed, along with a group of fellow officers, a secret revolutionary committee and led (1969) a successful coup", "* Muhammad VIII al-Amin, former king of Tunisia, he was deposed in 1957 by Habib Bourguiba." ]

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[ "Faced with an unhappy American public and depressing news from his military leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson decided to end the escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam.", "Two years later, 1962, Nixon ran for and lost the California gubernatorial race. Returning to the national political arena, he defeated Hubert Humphrey for the presidency in 1968. President Lyndon Johnson, severely damaged politically by the extremely unpopular Viet Nam war, declined to run for reelection. Nixon succeeded in ending the US involvement in the Vietnam War in 1973.", "23/4/1975, US President Ford announced that US involvement in Vietnam was to end. US forces began the final evacuation of personnel from Saigon by aeroplane, see 28 and 29/4/1973.", "\"I'm not going to be the first American president to lose a war.\" —President Richard Nixon in October 1969, six years before the Vietnam War finally ended", "Serious negotiations to end the war began after U.S. President Lyndon Johnson's decision not to seek reelection in 1968. Contacts between North Vietnam and the United States in Paris in 1968 were expanded in 1969 to include South Vietnam and the NLF. The United States, under the leadership of President Richard M. Nixon , altered its tactics to combine U.S. troop withdrawals with intensified bombing and the invasion of Communist sanctuaries in Cambodia (1970).", "president Gerald Ford .... The end of the Vietnam War on April 30, 1975, was a much-anticipated and emotionally fraught event... View the full answer", "The run-up to the 1968 election was transformed in 1967 when Minnesota’s Democratic senator, Eugene J. McCarthy , challenged Democratic Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson on his Vietnam War policies. Johnson had succeeded to the presidency in 1963, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy , and had been overwhelmingly reelected in 1964. Early in his term he was immensely popular, but U.S. involvement in Vietnam, which had escalated invisibly during the presidential administrations of both Dwight D. Eisenhower and Kennedy, became highly visible with rapidly increasing U.S. death tolls, and, as the war’s unpopularity mounted, so did Johnson’s.", "October 31, 1968 - During the Vietnam War , President Lyndon Johnson ordered a halt of American bombing of North Vietnam.", "October 31, 1968 - During the Vietnam War , President Lyndon Johnson ordered a halt of American bombing of North Vietnam.", "Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the thirty-sixth President of the United States, serving from 1963-1969. A Democrat, Johnson succeeded to the presidency following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, and after completing Kennedy's term was elected President in his own right in a landslide victory in the 1964 Presidential election. Johnson was a major leader of the Democratic Party and as President was responsible for designing the \"Great Society\" legislation that included civil rights laws, Medicare (government funded health care for the elderly), Medicaid (government funded health care for the poor), aid to education, and the \"War on Poverty.\" Simultaneously, he escalated the American involvement in the Vietnam War from 16,000 American soldiers in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968.", "   * July 25 - Vietnam War: U.S. President Richard Nixon declares the Nixon Doctrine, stating that the United States now expects its Asian allies to take care of their own military defense. This starts the 'Vietnamization' of the war.", "U.S. involvement in the region escalated until Lyndon Johnson, his successor, directly deployed regular U.S. military forces for fighting the Vietnam War.[126][127] After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson passed NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963. It reversed Kennedy's decision to withdraw 1,000 troops, and reaffirmed the policy of assistance to the South Vietnamese.", "On October 11th Kennedy signs National Security Memorandum No. 263 that is a plan to “Vietnamize” the war - and withdraw U.S. troops from Vietnam by 1965. However, after JFK’s assassination on November 22, this executive order is rescinded by the new president, Lyndon Johnson in NSM No. 273. This is the first step toward full-scale war.", "Kennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower 's policies of giving economic and military aid to South Vietnam left the door open for President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. [305] At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historians, cabinet members and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam conflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived. [306] [136] The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape.", "Alarmed senators then passed a resolution that deplored past executive excesses and recognized no presidential commitment to continue the war. Claiming that as commander in chief he possessed sole authority over the armed forces and could order them abroad without specific congressional approval, Nixon ignored the resolution. He thereby charted a collision course with Congress. He did pull some troops out of Vietnam, but peace advocates complained about the slow pace. As antiwar demonstrations escalated, Nixon bristled. As had Johnson, he declared he would not be the \"first American President to lose a war.\" Polls taken at this time, October 1969, indicated majority support for his position.", "Kennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower's policies of giving economic and military aid to South Vietnam left the door open for President Johnson's escalation of the conflict.[257] At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historians, cabinet members and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam conflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived.[258][125] The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape.", "As North Vietnamese forces advanced, Ford requested Congress approve a $722 million aid package for South Vietnam, funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin. Senator Jacob K. Javits offered \"...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid\". President Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country. Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave a speech at Tulane University. In that speech, he announced that the Vietnam War was over \"...as far as America is concerned\". The announcement was met with thunderous applause.", "Aided by his chief international affairs adviser and later Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger, Nixon pursued a vigorous foreign policy. In Viet-Nam he gradually reduced U.S. commitments while seeking to \"Vietnamize\" the conflict. In conjunction with the Saigon government of South Viet-Nam, he continued aerial and naval assaults on the North Vietnamese and their Indochinese allies and made incursions against their strongholds in Cambodia and Laos. He finally succeeded in disengaging U.S. forces and arranging for the release of American prisoners-of-war held by North Viet-Nam and the Viet Cong. These latter actions played an important part in ending large-scale demonstrations in the United States against participation in the war.", "was the first president to be solely elected by a vote from Congress. He entered the office in August of 1974 when Nixon resigned. He pardoned Nixon of all crimes that he may have committed. The Vietnam War ended in 1975, in which Ford evacuated nearly 500,000 Americans and South Vietnamese from Vietnam. He closed the war.", "1968 – Vietnam War: President Lyndon B. Johnson announces the appointment of Gen. William Westmoreland as Army Chief of Staff; Gen. Creighton Abrams replaced him as commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam.", "Severe communist losses during the Tet Offensive allowed U.S. President Richard Nixon to begin troop withdrawals. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine , was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \" Vietnamization \". Vietnamization had much in common with the policies of the Kennedy administration. One important difference, however, remained. While Kennedy insisted that the South Vietnamese fight the war themselves, he attempted to limit the scope of the conflict.", "Kennedy was also absorbed during his Senate years by a quest to end the war in Vietnam. As a new Senator, Kennedy had originally supported the Johnson administration's policies in Vietnam, but also called for a greater commitment to a negotiated settlement and a renewed emphasis on economic and political reform within South Vietnam. As the war continued to widen and America's involvement deepened, Senator Kennedy came to have serious misgivings about President Johnson's conduct of the war. Kennedy publicly broke with the Johnson administration for the first time in February 1966, proposing participation by all sides (including the Viet Cong's political arm, the National Liberation Front) in the political life of South Vietnam. The following year, he took responsibility for his role in the Kennedy administration's policy in Southeast Asia, and urged President Johnson to cease the bombing of North Vietnam and reduce, rather than enlarge, the war effort. In his final Senate speech on Vietnam, Kennedy said, \"Are we like the God of the Old Testament that we can decide, in Washington, DC, what cities, what towns, what hamlets in Vietnam are going to be destroyed?... Do we have to accept that?... I do not think we have to. I think we can do something about it.\"", "NARRATOR: In the summer of 1969, Nixon announced the first American troop withdrawals from Vietnam. Arms control, China, Southeast Asia. He seemed to be moving steadily toward becoming a peacemaker.", "The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that \"I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President\" and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam. Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place \"to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end\". A few days later, much to Johnson's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began. ", "During the next few years, the extended length of the war, the high number of U.S. casualties, and the exposure of U.S. involvement in war crimes, such as the massacre at My Lai, helped turn many in the United States against the Vietnam War. The communists’ Tet Offensive of 1968 crushed U.S. hopes of an imminent end to the conflict and galvanized U.S. opposition to the war. In response, Johnson announced in March 1968 that he would not seek reelection, citing what he perceived to be his responsibility in creating a perilous national division over Vietnam. He also authorized the beginning of peace talks.", "By the end of his second term as president, his approval rates plunged to an all-time low as the end of the Vietnam War was nowhere in sight after the Viet Cong’s Tet Offensive. On March 31, 1968, at the height of the Vietnam War, Johnson announced he would not seek reelection.", "In early January 1968, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that the war would be winding down as the North Vietnamese were losing their will to fight, but shortly thereafter, they launched the Tet Offensive, in which the North Vietnamese and Communist Vietcong forces launched simultaneous attacks on all government strongholds in South Vietnam. The Tet episode led many Americans to ponder whether the war was winnable or worth it. In addition, they felt they could not trust their government's assessment and reporting of the war effort. The Pentagon called for sending several hundred thousand more soldiers to Vietnam. Johnson's approval ratings fell below 35%, and the Secret Service refused to let the president make public appearances on the campuses of American colleges and universities, due to his extreme unpopularity among college students. The Secret Service also prevented Johnson from appearing at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, because it could not guarantee his safety from assassination. ", "was the secretary of defense under Kennedy. He helped develop the flexible response policy. He was against the war in Vietnam and was removed from office because of this", "The president held to the conviction, however, that continuing the Vietnam War was a course both honorable and in the national interest. Yet as the war grew more and more unpopular, so did the president. On March 31, 1968, he surprised the nation by announcing that he would not seek re-election.", "elected President in 1968 and 1972 representing the Republican party. He was responsible for getting the United States out of the Vietnam War by using \"Vietnamization\", which was the withdrawal of 540,000 troops from South Vietnam for an extended period. He was responsible for the", "The U. S. president most responsible for sending \"combat\" troops into Vietnam and escalating that war was:", "Who won the 1968 US presidential election by running on a platform of a victory with honor in Vietnam?" ]

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[ "On August 27, 1776, the Battle of Long Island (also known as the Battle of Brooklyn) was the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the modern sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park, and Grand Army Plaza. ", "were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War.[9][10] They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present-day Arlington), and Cambridge, near Boston. The battles marked the outbreak of open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen of its colonies on the mainland of British America; Paul Revere;", "The American Revolution begins this year, with the first military engagement being the April 19 Battles of Lexington and Concord on the day after Paul Revere's now-legendary ride. The Second Continental Congress takes various steps toward organizing an American government, appointing George Washington commander-in-chief (June 14), Benjamin Franklin postmaster general (July 26) and creating a Continental Navy (October 13) and a Marine force (November 10) as landing troops for it, but as yet the 13 colonies have not declared independence, and both the British (June 12) and American (July 15) governments make laws. On July 6, Congress issues the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms and on August 23, King George III of England declares the American colonies in rebellion, announcing it to parliament on November 10. On June 17, two months into the colonial siege of Boston, at the Battle of Bunker Hill, just north of Boston, British forces are victorious, but only after suffering severe casualties and after Colonial forces run out of ammunition, Fort Ticonderoga is taken by American forces in New York Colony's northern frontier, and American forces unsuccessfully invade Canada, with an attack on Montreal defeated by British forces on November 13 and an attack on Quebec repulsed December 31.", "The first act of armed rebellion in America against the British Crown was the boarding and burning of the Revenue Schooner Gaspee in Narragansett Bay on June 10, 1772. The idea of a Continental Congress was first proposed at a town meeting in Providence on May 17, 1774. Rhode Island elected the first delegates (Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward) to the Continental Congress on June 15, 1774. The Rhode Island General Assembly created the first standing army in the colonies (1,500 men) on April 22, 1775. On June 15, 1775, the first naval engagement of the American Revolution occurred between a Colonial Sloop commanded by Capt. Abraham Whipple and an armed tender of the British Frigate Rose. The tender was chased aground and captured. Later in June, the General Assembly created the first American Navy when it commissioned the Sloops Katy and , armed with 24 guns and commanded by Abraham Whipple, who was promoted to Commodore. Rhode Island was the first Colony to declare independence from Britain on May 4, 1776.", "19 April 1775 – The American Revolution begins when Lexington Militia Captain John Parker collects his “Minutemen” and engages British troops, first on Lexington Common and then along the five mile “Battle Road Trail” to Concord.", "As troubles flared and escalated into the American Revolution, New Yorkers were divided in their loyalties. About one third of all the military engagements of the American Revolution took place in New York state. The first major military action in the state was the capture (May, 1775) of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen Allen, Ethan,", "What: The first military engagements of the revolutionary war in which New England minutemen and militia fired upon redcoats as they marched to Boston. When: April 19th, 1775 Where: Lexington and Concord Did what: This was a very serious escalation in the level of hostilities that showed the Americans resolve to fight was not based solely on the assumption that it was going to be easy, or even that they would win. So what: This showed the bravery of New England troops that would be essential to our success in the revolutionary war", "American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain ’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America . The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect . Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire , but afterward it became an international war as France (in 1778), Spain (in 1779), and the Netherlands (in 1780) joined the colonies against Britain . From the beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown .", "But Saratoga was not the turning point of the war. Protracted conflicts—the Revolutionary War was America’s longest military engagement until Vietnam nearly 200 years later—are seldom defined by a single decisive event. In addition to Saratoga, four other key moments can be identified. The first was the combined effect of victories in the fighting along the Concord Road on April 19, 1775, and at Bunker Hill near Boston two months later, on June 17. Many colonists had shared Lord North’s belief that American citizen-soldiers could not stand up to British regulars. But in those two engagements, fought in the first 60 days of the war, American soldiers—all militiamen—inflicted huge casualties. The British lost nearly 1,500 men in those encounters, three times the American toll. Without the psychological benefits of those battles, it is debatable whether a viable Continental Army could have been raised in that first year of war or whether public morale would have withstood the terrible defeats of 1776.", "The American Revolutionary War (17751783), also known as the American War of Independence and the Revolutionary War in the United States, was the armed conflict between Great Britain and thirteen of its North American colonies, which had declared themselves the independent United States of America. Early fighting took place primarily on the North American continent. France, eager for revenge after its defeat in the Seven Years' War, signed an alliance with the new nation in 1778 that proved decisive in the ultimate victory. The conflict gradually expanded into a world war with Britain combating France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Fighting also broke out in India between the British East India Company and the French allied Kingdom of Mysore.", "From 1765, a series of disputes with Parliament over taxation led to the American Revolution, first to informal committees of correspondence among the colonies, then to coordinated protest and resistance, with an important event in 1770, the Boston Massacre. A standing army was formed by the United Colonies, and independence was declared by the Second Continental Congress on 4 July 1776.", "The first battle of the war, Lexington marked the beginning of the American Revolution. Although Lexington and Concord were considered British military victories, they gave a moral boost to the American colonists.", "call to arms with the Minutemen and fought in the “Battle of Lexington.” The next day Menotomy was the field of some of the fiercest battles that occurred during the first days of the American Revolution. Samuel�s father participated in those events, and later was injured in the Battle of Bunker Hill.", "With the other colonies watching intently, Massachusetts led the resistance to the British, forming a shadow revolutionary government and establishing militias to resist the increasing British military presence across the colony. In April 1775, Thomas Gage, the British governor of Massachusetts, ordered British troops to march to Concord, Massachusetts, where a Patriot arsenal was known to be located. On April 19, 1775, the British regulars encountered a group of American militiamen at Lexington, and the first shots of the American Revolution were fired.", "1782 - The British navy won its only naval engagement against the colonists in the American Revolution at the Battle of Saints, off Dominica.", "In April, 1775, British troops at Lexington exchanged fire with armed colonists and the American Revolution had begun.", "The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought near Boston in the USA on the 17th of June 1775 between nearly 3,000 British and 5,000 Americans. The Americans were compelled to retreat after a fierce conflict. This was the first battle of the American War of Independence.", "At dawn the next day, 19 April , the Regulars marched into town and found themselves facing (at a distance of some 60 or 70 yards) about 70 minutemen—a special sub-set of the militia trained to be ready to march at the shortest notice—lined up on the Lexington Green. (Many men were just getting word of the alarm that morning, and were still mustering to Lexington from surrounding towns). British major John Pitcairn, who was convinced that \"burning two or three of their towns, will set everything to rights,\" rode onto the Green and ordered the Americans to disperse, calling them \"rebels\" and \"villains.\" 124 The colonists had begun backing away, but then someone—to this day, no one knows who—fired a single shot. Witnesses on both sides later confessed that they simply did not know who fired, and it didn't help matters that the British Regulars were shouting \"huzza! huzza! huzza!\" the battle cry of the British infantry. 125 But that shot—the \"shot heard round the world\"—began the first battle of the Revolutionary War. British troops then charged the minutemen with bayonets, spilling the first blood of the Revolution on Lexington Green . Eight colonials died and ten more were wounded. As historians George Tindall and David Shi later recounted, \"One wounded American patriot, whose wife and son were watching the spectacle, crawled 100 yards to die on his front doorstep.\" 126", "A series of acts in 1774 further angered the colonies; activists called for a general congress and they agreed to meet in Philadelphia. The First Continental Congress was held in September in Carpenters' Hall. After the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775 following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress met in May at the Pennsylvania State House. There they also met a year later to write and sign the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Philadelphia was important to the war effort; Robert Morris said,", "Although the scope of this military action was relatively minor, it had significant strategic importance. It impeded communication between northern and southern units of the British Army, and gave the nascent Continental Army a staging ground for the invasion of Quebec later in 1775. It also involved two larger-than-life personalities in Allen and Arnold, each of whom sought to gain as much credit and honor as possible for these events. Most significantly, artillery from Ticonderoga would be dragged across Massachusetts to the heights commanding Boston harbor, forcing the British to withdraw from that city.", "The beginnings of the American Revolutionary War began in Northampton County on December 21, 1774 when a Committee of Observation for Northampton County was formed by American patriots. At the time, there were 54 homes in Northampton (Allentown), and the number of inhabitants was around 330. With the Declaration of Independence, the Colonial British government began to break down and militias took control. Frontier justice replaced the rule of law as zealous patriots preoccupied themselves not with fighting the British but with seizing local political power and persecuting their pacifist neighbors. Patriots pressured Tories out of Northampton County, and plans were made for the raising of a militia. The burden of supplying a military force logistically fell upon the people, and requisitions for food, grain, cattle, horses and cloth became commonplace. ", "Initiated the Revolutionary War between the American colonists and the British. British governor Thomas Gage sent troops to Concord to stop the colonists who were loading arms. The next day, on April 19, 1775, the first shots were fired in Lexington, starting the war.", "Revolutionary soldier to shed British blood at the Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 was Solomon Brown from New Haven, Vermont, who thus fired the first effective shot in the Revolutionary War.", "* December 5 – American Revolution: Henry Knox begins his journey to Cambridge, Massachusetts with the artillery that has been captured from Fort Ticonderoga.", "In order to debate a response to the Intolerable Acts, all American colonies except for Georgia sent delegates to the First Continental Congress at Philadelphia. The Congress met in September 1774 and issued a Declaration of Rights and Grievances. When the Congress adjourned, it stipulated another Congress would meet if King George III did not meet the demands of the Declaration. When the Second Congress did meet, the military hostilities of the Revolutionary War had already begun, and the issue of Independence, rather than a redress of grievances, dominated the debates.", "* In 1777, British officers fired 13 guns, once at morning and again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island. Philadelphia celebrated the first anniversary in a manner a modern American would find quite familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews and fireworks. Ships were decked with red, white and blue bunting.", "     On 08 August 1775, Lafayette meets the Duke of Gloucester, brother of King George III, while on maneuvers at Metz, France. Here the young Frenchman learns about the rebellious Colonists in America who are defying their king to protest a system of taxation. He also learns that the Continental Congress has appointed General George Washington commander-in chief of the Continental Army, and about the Battle of Lexington and the taking of Fort Ticonderoga. He decides to enlist as a volunteer in the Continental army and fight for the independentists.", "American Revolutionary War in 1778, and assisted in the victory of the Americans seeking independence from Britain. The ", "Which were the first battles in the US War of Independence, occurring on April 19, 1775?", "The outbreak of open fighting between the colonists and British soldiers in April 1775 rendered moot any attempt to indirectly change British policies. In this regard, the Association failed to determine events in the way that it was designed—Britain did not cave to American demands but instead tried to tighten its grip, and the conflict escalated to war. However, the true long-term success of the Association was in its effective direction of collective action among the colonies and expression of their common interests. This recognition of union by the Association, and its firm stance that the colonies and their people had rights that were being infringed by Britain, made it a direct precursor to the 1776 Declaration of Independence, which by contrast repudiated the authority of the king once it was clear that no other solution would preserve the asserted rights of the colonies.", "The First Continental Congress took place from September 5 through October 26, 1774. Delegates from each colony, except Georgia , met at Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They discussed the current situation with Britain including the Intolerable Acts, which the British Parliament had imposed on Boston as punishment for the Boston Tea Party .", "the war for independence fought in the late 1700s by the American colonies against Great Britain" ]

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[ "In 1135, Adela's son, Stephen, moved quickly on the death of his uncle, Henry I, to seize the crown of England. Henry had designated his daughter, the Empress Matilda , as his successor, and had his nobles declare loyalty to her. But with Stephen's action, a protracted civil war began in England.", "Henry I (b. 1068 or 1069) was king of England from 1100 until his death in 1135. Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror (1028-1087), but managed to succeed to the throne when his older brother, William II (William Rufus) was killed by an arrow in a hunting accident, and their other living brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, was still away, having gone on the First Crusade (1096-1099).", "Henry I (1068-1135) King of England from 1100. Youngest son of William the Conqueror, he succeeded his brother William II. He won the support of the Saxons by granting them a charter and marrying a Saxon princess. An able administrator, he established a professional bureaucracy and a system of travelling judges. He was succeeded by Stephen. � Copyright Helicon Publishing Ltd 1996 [The Hutchinson Encyclopedia]", "known as the Empress Maud. 1102--67, only daughter of Henry I of England and wife of Geoffrey of Anjou. After her father's death (1135) she unsuccessfully waged a civil war with Stephen for the English throne; her son succeeded as Henry II", "Stephen (c. 1092/6 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois ( Old French : Estienne de Blois), was a grandson of William the Conqueror . He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife . Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy , a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda . He was succeeded by Matilda's son, Henry II , the first of the Angevin kings.", "Stephen (c. 1092/6 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda. He was succeeded by Matilda's son, Henry II, the first of the Angevin kings.", "Stephen (c. 1092/6 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda. He was succeeded by Matilda's son, Henry II, the first of the Angevin kings.", "In order to secure Matilda's succession to the royal throne, she and her new husband needed castles and supporters in both England and Normandy, but if they succeeded, there would be two authorities in England: the king and Matilda. Henry prevented the conflict by refusing to hand over any castles to Matilda as well as confiscating the lands of the nobles he suspected of supporting her. By 1135, major disputes between Henry I and Matilda drove the nobles previously loyal to Henry I against Matilda. In November, Henry was dying; Matilda was with her husband in Maine and Anjou while Stephen , brother of the Count of Blois and Champagne , who was Matilda's cousin and another contender for the English and Norman thrones, was in Boulogne . Stephen rushed to England upon the news of Henry's death and was crowned King of England in December 1135. [34]", "The Anarchy is the preferred name in English history (external - login to view) that pertains to the period of civil war and unsettled government, often known as The Nineteen Year Winter, that occurred during the reign (1135 (external - login to view)–1154 (external - login to view)) of King Stephen of England (external - login to view). Stephen was a favourite nephew of King Henry I of England (external - login to view) (reigned 1100 (external - login to view)–1135 (external - login to view)), whose only legitimate son died in 1120 (external - login to view) in the \"White Ship (external - login to view)\" disaster. Henry then named his daughter Matilda (external - login to view) as heir to his throne. He forced his barons, including Stephen, to swear allegiance to her several times, but it went against the grain—no woman had ever ruled over all England (external - login to view) in her own right. To make matters worse, Matilda had married Geoffrey of Anjou (external - login to view), who did not enjoy a good reputation in England. This was mainly because he hailed from Anjou, whose rulers were resented by the Normans for their unashamed attempts to conquer the duchy of Normandy.", "Henry I, a son of William the Conqueror, ruled from 1100 to 1135. He reportedly died after eating lampreys, a kind of jawless fish. He ascended to the throne after the death of his elder brother William II. Henry has been described as a usurper because he seized the crown while another elder brother was away on a Crusade.", "Henry I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death. Henry was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts. On William's death in 1087, Henry's elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, but Henry was left landless. Henry purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but William and Robert deposed him in 1091. Henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert. Henry was present when William died in a hunting accident in 1100, and he seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of William's less popular policies. Henry married Matilda of Scotland but continued to have a large number of mistresses, by whom he had many illegitimate children.", "Stephen of Blois was king of England from 1135 until his death in 1154. His reign was characterized by an intractable civil conflict known as \"the Anarchy.\"", "Henry II., King of England, first of the Plantagenet line, was the eldest son of Geoffrey, Earl of Anjou, and his wife, the ex-Empress Maud , daughter of Henry I. , and was born at Mans, in March, 1133. He received his education in England, under the care of his uncle Robert, Earl of Gloucester. On the death of his father, in 1151, he succeeded to the earldom of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, and in the following year, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France, he became possessor of the duchy of Aquitaine or Guienne. The same year he invaded England, but a treaty was concluded, in 1153, by which it was agreed that he should succeed to the throne of England on the death of Stephen . This event took place in October, 1154, and Henry was crowned without opposition at Westminster, in December. His first measures were directed to the redress of the disorders and anarchy which had prevailed in the reign of Stephen. He seized and destroyed most of the baronial castles; dismissed the foreign troops; renewed the charter granted by Henry I. ; and resumed most of the lands which had been alienated from the crown by Stephen.", "Henry II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189), also known as Henry Curtmantle (French: Court-manteau), Henry FitzEmpress or Henry Plantagenet, ruled as Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Nantes, King of England (1154–89) and Lord of Ireland; at various times, he also controlled Wales, Scotland and Brittany. Henry was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. He became actively involved by the age of 14 in his mother's efforts to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois, and was made Duke of Normandy at 17. He inherited Anjou in 1151 and shortly afterwards married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII of France had recently been annulled. Stephen agreed to a peace treaty after Henry's military expedition to England in 1153: Henry inherited the kingdom on Stephen's death a year later.", "Empress Matilda ( c. 7 February 110210 September 1167), also known as the Empress Maude, was the claimant to the English throne during the civil war known as the Anarchy . The daughter of King Henry I of England , she moved to Germany as a child when she married the future Holy Roman Emperor Henry V . She travelled with her husband into Italy in 1116, was controversially crowned in St. Peter's Basilica , and acted as the imperial regent in Italy. Matilda and Henry had no children, and when he died in 1125, the crown was claimed by Lothair II , one of his political enemies.", "10. x. HENRY 1 BEAUCLARK, KING OF ENGLAND (1100-1135) b. Sept 1068, d. Dec 1, 1135", "Henry I reunited the Anglo-French holdings of his father William the Conqueror by seizing Normandy from his older brother Duke Robert Curthose in 1106. Although he had about two dozen illegitimate children, his one legitimate son died in a boating accident in 1120, leaving only one legitimate offspring, his daughter Matilda, the young widow of the German Emperor Henry V. He married her in 1128 to his main continental rival, Geoffrey Plantagenet, son and heir of the Count of Anjou, and compelled the English barons to swear that they would support her succession to the throne. One of them, Henry I�s nephew Stephen of", "Henry VII (before accession known as Henry Tudor, 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), the first monarch of the House of Tudor, was King of England from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509. After a reign of nearly 24 years he was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.", "King of England from 1087, the third son of William (I) the Conqueror. He spent most of his reign attempting to capture Normandy from his brother Robert (II) Curthose , Duke of Normandy. His extortion of money led his barons to revolt. Malcolm II of Scotland twice invades England in 1091 and 1093 before Malcolm is defeated and killed at the Battle of Alnwick. William also had to deal with rebellions in Northumbria and along the Welsh border. He was killed in 1100 while hunting in the New Forest, Hampshire, and was succeeded by his brother Henry I.", "Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord , and later assumed the Kingship , of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty , succeeding his father, Henry VII .", "1100-1135 - Henry I of England. Henry I, the son of Willaim the Conqueror, institutes a system of representatives dedicated to travelling the country and administering justice. He dies in 1135.", "Henry III (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272), also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was only nine in the middle of the First Barons' War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the rebel barons to be a religious crusade and Henry's forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and protected the rights of the major barons. His early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had once belonged to his father, but the invasion was a debacle. A revolt led by William Marshal's son, Richard, broke out in 1232, ending in a peace settlement negotiated by the Church.", "Henry I, King of England (1100-1135) received his mother's land in Cotentin, Normandy. Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scots and Margaret, daughter of Edgar Atheling, and great-grand-daughter of Edmund Ironsides.", "In the year 1155, being the first year of the reign of king Henry, son of the empress Matilda, the said king laid siege to the castles of his enemies in England, and captured them; some of which he retained in his own hands, and some he leveled with the ground. After this, he crossed over into Normandy, and did homage to Louis, king of the Franks, for Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, with all their appurtenances. In the same year, died pope Anastasius, who was succeeded by Adrian.", "King Henry II was born March 5, 1133, in Le Mans, France. He reigned from 1154 to 1189 and founded the Plantagenet dynasty of English rulers. Henry's many innovations in civil and criminal procedure had a lasting effect upon english law and his expansion of the royal", "William I (Old Norman: Williame I; ; c. 1028Bates William the Conqueror p. 33 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. The descendant of Viking raiders, he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035. After a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son.", "\"Henry VII (Welsh: Harri Tudur; 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor.", "Henry II (1133–89), king of England (1154–89). The first of the Plantagenet kings of England was also one of the most able of all this country's monarchs. His achievements are the more remarkable since his responsibilities encompassed not just England, but also two-thirds of France as well, for Henry was also duke of Normandy, count of Anjou , and, by right of his wife Eleanor, duke of Aquitaine . England was but part of the vast Angevin empire , each constituent dominion requiring Henry's attention. The consequence was that Henry was frequently absent from England, as he was from his other lordships. Twice, indeed, he was absent for more than four years at a time, and it has been calculated that in the entire course of the reign he was in France for some 21 years.", "Henry I King of England was born about Sep 1068 in Selby, Yorkshire, England  and died on 1 Dec 1135 in St. Denis-Le-Fermont, Forest Angers, Near Rouen, Normandy about age 67.", "Henry, By the Grace of God, King of the English and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians, Count of the Angevins and Lord of Ireland. (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189)", "SS-4 When his father died in 1035 while returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he was proclaimed duke. His youngest son became Henry the First, King of England, in 1100 A.D. Who defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings to take the throne of England in 1066?", "Henry I was crowned at Westminster on 1st August, 1100 and granted a popular coronation charter, promising to reform the abuses of his brother’s reign. He imprisoned the despised Ranulf Flambard, Rufus’ chief justiciar, thereby evoking the popular support of the English people." ]

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[ "The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War , fought April 6–7, 1862, in southwestern Tennessee . A Union army under Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing on the west bank of the river. Confederate forces under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Grant there. The Confederates achieved considerable success on the first day but were ultimately defeated on the second day.", "The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7, 1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union army under Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing on the west bank of the river. Confederate forces under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Grant there. The Confederates achieved considerable success on the first day, but were ultimately defeated on the second day.", "The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7, 1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union army under Major General Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee on the west bank of the river, where Confederate forces under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Pierre G. T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Grant's army. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting; Beauregard, who thus succeeded to command of the army, decided against pressing the attack late in the evening. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch an unexpected counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day.", "1862: In the US Civil War, despite great losses and a relatively unprepared force, General Ulysses Grant forced the Confederate troops to retreat at the Battle of Shiloh.", "Confederate attempt to defeat Grant’s army of 40,000 before a second force of 25,000 under Buell could join it. The first day of the battle saw Grant nearly defeated, but on the second day Buell arrived and Grant was able to counterattack, forcing the Confederates from the field. General A.S. Johnson, the Confederate commander, was killed during the battle. Shiloh was the first of the really big battles of the Civil War.", "Civil War: Confederate surprise attack on Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's (1822-1885) unprepared troops at Shiloh on the Tennessee River results in a bitter struggle with 13,000 Union killed and wounded and 10,000 Confederates.", "Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and Kentucky in 1861. He served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the battles of Forts Henry and Donelson, the Battle of Shiloh, the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River, and the Chattanooga Campaign, which culminated with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war. He proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. Sherman's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy's ability to continue fighting. He accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865, after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater.", "The Battle of Shiloh , on April 6-7, 1862, was fought in Tennessee and produced massive casualties. On the Union side, 13,000 were killed or wounded, on the Confederate side 10,000 killed or wounded. Accounts of the horrendous violence at Shiloh startled the nation.", "The two-day battle of Shiloh, the costliest in American history up to that time, resulted in the defeat of the Confederate army and frustration of Johnston's plans to prevent the joining of the two Union armies in Tennessee. Union casualties were 13,047 (1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 missing); Grant's army bore the brunt of the fighting over the two days, with casualties of 1,513 killed, 6,601 wounded, and 2,830 missing or captured. Confederate casualties were 10,699 (1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded, and 959 missing or captured). The dead included the Confederate army's commander, Albert Sidney Johnston; the highest ranking Union general killed was W.H.L. Wallace. Both sides were shocked at the carnage. None suspected that three more years of such bloodshed remained in the war and that eight larger and bloodier battles were yet to come. Grant came to realize that his prediction of one great battle bringing the war to a close was probably not destined to happen. The war would continue, at great cost in casualties and resources, until the Confederacy succumbed or the Union was divided. Grant also learned a valuable personal lesson on preparedness that (mostly) served him well for the rest of the war.", "The two-day battle of Shiloh, the costliest in American history up to that time, resulted in the defeat of the Confederate army and frustration of Johnston's plans to prevent the two Union armies in Tennessee from joining together. Union casualties were 13,047 (1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 missing); Grant's army bore the brunt of the fighting over the two days, with casualties of 1,513 killed, 6,601 wounded, and 2,830 missing or captured. Confederate casualties were 10,699 (1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded, and 959 missing or captured). The dead included the Confederate army's commander, Albert Sidney Johnston; the highest ranking Union general killed was W. H. L. Wallace. Both sides were shocked at the carnage. Three more years of such bloodshed remained and eight larger and bloodier battles were yet to come. Grant later came to realize that his prediction of one great battle bringing the war to a close would probably not occur. The war would continue, at great cost in casualties and resources, until the Confederacy succumbed or the Union was divided. Grant also learned a valuable personal lesson on preparedness that (mostly) served him well for the rest of the war. ", "In Shiloh’s aftermath, the Northern press criticized Grant for high casualties and for his alleged drunkenness during the battle. [84] Shiloh was the costliest battle in American history to that point, with total casualties of about 23,800. [85] Halleck arrived at Pittsburg Landing on April 9, and removed Grant from field command, proceeding to capture Corinth . Discouraged and disappointed, Grant considered resigning his commission, but Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman , one of his division commanders, convinced him to stay. [86] Lincoln overruled Grant’s critics, saying “I can’t spare this man; he fights.” Ordered to Washington, Halleck on July 11 reinstated Grant as field commander of the Army of the Tennessee. [87] On September 19, Grant’s army defeated Confederates at the Battle of Iuka , then successfully defended Corinth , inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy. [88] On October 25, Grant assumed command of the District of the Tennessee. [89] In November, after Lincoln’s preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , Grant ordered units under his command, headed by Chaplain John Eaton , to incorporate contraband slaves into the Union war effort, giving them clothes, shelter, and wages for their services. [90]", "After Lincoln's election to the US presidency, Mississippi became, on 9 January 1861, the second southern state to secede. When the war began, Mississippi occupied a central place in Union strategy. The state sat squarely astride the major Confederate east-west routes of communication in the lower South, and the Mississippi River twisted along the state's western border. Control of the river was essential to Union division of the Confederacy . The military campaign fell into three phases: the fight for northeastern Mississippi in 1862, the struggle for Vicksburg in 1862–63, and the battle for east Mississippi in 1864–65. The Union advance on Corinth began with the Battle of Shiloh (Tenn.) in April 1862. The first Union objective was the railroad that ran across the northeastern corner of Mississippi from Corinth to Iuka and linked Memphis , Tenn., to Atlanta, Ga. Losses in the ensuing battle of Shiloh, which eventually led to the occupation of Corinth by Union troops, exceeded 10,000 men on each side.", "Beauregard next served in the war’s Western Theater under General Albert Sidney Johnston . At the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862, Beauregard assumed command of Confederate forces after Johnston was killed. Early Confederate attacks had placed Union General Ulysses S. Grant’s forces on their heels, but Beauregard made the controversial decision to delay a second offensive until the following day. This allowed the Union Army to gain reinforcements and then launch a counterattack that drove the Confederates from the field. The battle resulted in over 23,000 total casualties, and Beauregard’s army was pursued to Corinth, Mississippi , where a month-long siege ensued. Faced with a Union force twice the size of his own, Beauregard elected to withdraw to Tupelo, Mississippi, in May 1862.", "Virginia experienced the most fighting during the Civil War—more than 2,100 events, followed by Tennessee (1,400) and Missouri (1,100).[4]", "The same week the Union took Fort Pulaski, General Ulysses S. Grant won a costly but decisive victory at Shiloh , Tennessee on the Tennessee River, the bloodiest battle of the war so far (over 23,000 casualties from only 100,000 soldiers), chasing the Confederacy out of western Tennessee. Over the course of the next year, Union campaigns fought southward from Memphis , Tenessee (captured June 6, 1862) and northward from New Orleans. Vicksburg , Mississippi, the last southern city on river, surrendered after a three-month siege on July 4, 1863. The Trans-Mississippi states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas were permanently cut off from the rest of the Confederacy.", "In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. [155] They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson , and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh , (Pittsburg Landing) in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederate made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory – the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. [156]", "His 1862 triumphs at Fort Henry and  Fort Donelson in western Tennessee won him the nickname “Unconditional Surrender” Grant, and placed him before the public eye.  However, when a surprise attack by Confederate forces at the  Battle of Shiloh yielded devastating casualties during the first day's fighting, President Abraham Lincoln received several demands for Grant's removal from command. Nevertheless, Lincoln refused, stating, “I can’t spare this man. He fights.”  The following day, Grant's Army - bolstered by troops under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell  - fended off Confederate advances and ultimately won the day. ", "Chancellorsville (a major battle in the American Civil War (1863); the Confederates under Robert E. Lee defeated the Union forces under Joseph Hooker)", "The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh ; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.", "At Shiloh, Tennessee in April of 1862, a Confederate surprise attack backfires when the Union holds firm at the \"Hornet's Nest.\"", "In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory – the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. In April 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederates abandoned the city, which gave the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.", "In the months after First Bull Run, Beauregard assisted in developing the Confederate Battle Flag to aid in recognizing friendly troops on the battlefield. Entering winter quarters, Beauregard vocally called for an invasion of Maryland and clashed with Davis. After a transfer request to New Orleans was refused, he was dispatched west to serve as A.S. Johnston's second-in-command in the Army of Mississippi. In this role, he took part in the Battle of Shiloh on April 6-7, 1862. Attacking Major General Ulysses S. Grant 's army, Confederate troops drove back the enemy on the first day.", "In August, with officers like Sherman vouching for him, Thomas was promoted to brigadier general. Posted to the Western Theater, he provided the Union with one its first victories in January 1862, when he defeated Confederate troops under Major General George Crittenden at the Battle of Mill Springs in eastern Kentucky. As his command was part of Major General Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio, Thomas was among those who marched to Major General Ulysses S. Grant 's aid during the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862.", "In the six months prior to the Battle of Shiloh, Yankee troops had been working their way up the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. Kentucky was firmly in Union hands, and the U.S. Army controlled much of Tennessee, including the capital at Nashville. General Ulysses S. Grant scored major victories at forts Henry and Donelson in February, forcing Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston (1803-62) to gather the scattered Rebel forces at Corinth in northern Mississippi . Grant brought his army, 42,000 strong, to rendezvous with General Don Carlos Buell (1818-98) and his 20,000 troops. Grant’s objective was Corinth, a vital rail center that if captured would give the Union total control of the region. Twenty miles away, Johnston lurked at Corinth with 45,000 soldiers.", "Encamped on the western bank of the Tennessee River, Grant’s Army of the Tennessee , now numbering about 45,000 troops, prepared to attack a Confederate army of roughly equal strength at Corinth, Mississippi , a vital railroad junction. The Confederates, led by Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard , struck first on April 6, 1862, attacking five divisions of Grant’s army bivouacked at Pittsburg Landing, not far from the Shiloh meetinghouse. [78] Grant’s troops were not entrenched and were taken by surprise, falling back before the Confederate onslaught. [79] At day’s end, the Confederates captured one Union division, but Grant’s army was able to hold the Landing. [80] The remaining Union army might have been destroyed, but the Confederates halted due to exhaustion, confusion, and a lack of reinforcements. [81] Grant, bolstered by 18,000 fresh troops from the divisions of Major Generals Don Carlos Buell and Lew Wallace , counterattacked at dawn the next day. [82] The Northerners regained the field and forced the rebels to retreat back to Corinth. [83]", "On his way to defeat the Confederate forces, Grant and his commanders set up a campground at Pittsburg Landing, anchored by a humble church called Shiloh. Sherman refuses to believe intelligence reports that Johnston will emerge from Corinth and attack the strategic encampment in force, which he does on April 6, 1862. Beauregard prematurely believes the rout of the Union forces resulted in a Confederate victory. On April 7 -- reinforced by fresh troops led by Lew Wallace and Buell -- Sherman and Grant are of a different opinion and they counterattack, forcing the Confederates to retreat to Corinth. In an afterword, Shaara describes the pursuit of the fleeing Confederate forces, as well as what happens to the major characters in the book.", "The Union loss at shiloh was 1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded and 2,885 captured or missing. Most of the captured belong to Prentiss' division. On the Confederate side the loss was reported as being 1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded and 959 missing. The effect of the battle is well summed up by Gen. M.F. Force in his \"From Fort Henry to Corinth,\" wherein he says: \"The battle sobered both armies. The force at Pittsburg Landing saw rudely dashed aside the expectation of a speedy entry into Corinth. The force at Corinth, that marched out to drive Grant into the river, to scatter Buell's force in detail, and return in triumph to Nashville, was back in the old quarters, foiled, disheartened.\"", "Sherman served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River and culminated with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the western theater of the war. He proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of President Abraham Lincoln. Sherman's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy's ability to continue fighting. He accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865.", "Sherman served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River and culminated with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the western theater of the war. He proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of President Abraham Lincoln . Sherman's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy's ability to continue fighting. He accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865.", "The first inland clash between significant bodies of troops occurred on the morning of June 3, 1861, when 3,000 Union volunteers surprised 800 Confederates at Philippi in (West) Virginia. Lasting less than half an hour, the affair would barely qualify as a skirmish later in the war, but the Union victory there and subsequent ones in the region elevated the reputation of Major General George B. McClellan , commander of the Department of the Ohio.", "In the spring of 1864, Nathan Bedford Forrest began an expedition that reached Paducah, Kentucky, on the Ohio River before rampaging against Federal installations in West Tennessee. Stories that his men massacred Union soldiers, particularly members of the United States Colored Troops captured at Fort Pillow , a poorly designed Mississippi River fort north of Memphis, gained instant credence in the North, but two official inquiries were unable to reach a conclusion about what had actually happened. At New Johnsonville, Tennessee, Forrest gained the distinction of commanding the only cavalry group ever to defeat gunboats, when they sunk or frightened crews into scuttling four ships.", "1863 – Union Generals Alexander M. McCook and Thomas Crittenden lose their commands and are ordered to Indianapolis, Indiana, to face a court of inquiry following the Federal defeat at Chickamauga, Tennessee." ]

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[ "The League of Nations, created by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, was an organization formed to promote diplomacy and preserve world peace.", "The Paris Peace Conference, that sought a lasting peace after World War I, approved the proposal to create the League of Nations ( French : Société des Nations, German : Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919 . The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles . On 28 June 1919 , the Covenant was signed by 44 states, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919, the United States did not join the League. Opposition in the U.S. Senate , particularly from Republicans politicians Henry Cabot Lodge and William E. Borah, together with Wilson's refusal to compromise, ensured that the United States would not ratify the Covenant.", "The 1919 treaty of versailles ended World War I and imposed disarmament, reparations, and territorial changes on Germany. The treaty also established the League of Nations, an international organization dedicated to resolving world conflicts peacefully. Wilson, however, was unable to convince the U.S. Senate to ratify the treaty, because it was opposed to U.S. membership in the League of Nations.", "Formed by the victorious powers in 1919, the League of Nations was designed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles and the other peace agreements that concluded World War I. It was intended to replace secret deals and war, as means for settling international disputes, with open diplomacy and peaceful mediation. Its charter also provided a mechanism for its members to take collective action against aggression.", "The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to the 23 February 1935 , it had 58 members. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members imposing the sanctions and given the pacifist attitude following World War I, countries were reluctant to take military action. Benito Mussolini stated that \"The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out.\"", "In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations. This organization successfully resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN. However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935, the 1937 Japanese invasion of China, and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in World War II.", "After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany, and building on Wilson's 14th point , brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. [145] [146]", "The League of Nations, formed in 1919 in the wake of the First World War , and the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War of 1928 signed in Paris, France, demonstrated that world powers were seriously seeking a means to prevent the carnage of another world war. Nevertheless, these powers were unable to stop the outbreak of the Second World War , so the United Nations (UN) was established following that war in a renewed attempt to prevent international aggression through declarations of war.", "After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany, and building on Wilson's 14th point , brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. [169] [170]", "The armistice to end World War I is signed on 11 November, and the Treaty of Versailles is concluded in June 1919. The Treaty of Versailles creates the Covenant of the League of Nations, and is signed by Prime Minister William Hughes and Minister for the Navy, Joseph Cook . This is the first political treaty signed by Australian officials, and the first negotiated with direct participation by Australian Government delegates after Hughes insisted on Australia’s right to attend the Peace Conference in its own right rather than be represented by Britain. He also persuades leaders from New Zealand, South Africa, Canada and the United Kingdom to oppose Japan’s bid for a racial equality clause to be inserted in the Covenant of the League of Nations.", "The League of Nations (LON) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended World War I, and was the precursor to the United Nations. The League was the first permanent international security organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League's primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing war through collective security, disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, trafficking in persons and drugs, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed August 12-14, 2011.)", "The Treaty of Versailles ( French : le Traité de Versailles) was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I . It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers . It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties. [1] Although the armistice signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919, and was printed in The League of Nations Treaty Series .", "Despite Wilson's efforts to gain public support for the League of Nations, the United States government failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , the final agreement of the ending of World War I, and therefore, did not join the League. The lack of United States participation and financial backing forever plagued the League, hampering its efficacy and political influence. United States abstention from the League drew ire from some nations, and made others suspicious of the organization itself. Britain expressed dissatisfaction with the League, but ratified the treaty with the League of Nations provisions simply to avoid extended negotiation on reforming the already delayed peace settlement. Despite U.S. reservations, over 30 other nations joined the League in 1920 when the Treaty of Versailles went into effect on January 10: Australia , Belgium , Bolivia , Brazil , Britain, Canada , China , Cuba , Czechoslovakia , Ecuador , France , Greece , Guatemala , Haiti , Hejaz, Honduras , Italy, India , Japan , Liberia , New Zealand , Nicaragua , Panama , Peru , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Serb-Croat-Sloven State (later, Yugoslavia ), Siam, South Africa , and Uruguay .", "World War I: The Treaty of Versailles is signed, officially ending World War I. Part 1, Articles 1 to 26 of this and other Peace Treaties contain the Covenant of the League of Nations.", "The aftermath of World War One left many issues to be settled between nations, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied Powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the first three years of the 1920s, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil that resulted from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.", "League of Nations, former international organization, established by the peace treaties that ended World War I. Like its successor, the United Nations , its purpose was the promotion of international peace and security. The League was a product of World War I in the sense that that conflict convinced most persons of the necessity of averting another such cataclysm. But its background lay in the visions of men like the duc de Sully and Immanuel Kant and in the later growth of formal international organizations like the International Telegraphic Union (1865) and the Universal Postal Union (1874). The Red Cross, the Hague Conferences, and the Permanent Court of Arbitration (Hague Tribunal) were also important stepping-stones toward international cooperation.", "The mandate system was established by Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, drafted by the victors of World War I. The article referred to territories which after the war were no longer ruled by their previous sovereign, but their peoples were not considered \"able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world\". The article called for such people's tutelage to be \"entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility\".", "The First World War (1914-18) caused horrible slaughter and destruction in the countries of Europe and Asia. It produced a horror of war and created an idea to set up an international organisation which would prevent the outbreak of wars in future. As a result of such ideas, and as a result of the discussion in the Peace Conference in Paris, in 1919, an agreement was reached by the victorious Governments to set up an international body, to be called the League of Nations.", "The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the early interwar period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.", "..... Click the link for more information.  and was the chief figure in the establishment of the League at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The basis of the League was the Covenant, which was included in the Treaty of Versailles and the other peace treaties.", "The League of Nations formally came into being when the Covenant of the League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in 1919, took effect.", "At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Lloyd George, American President Woodrow Wilson and French premier Georges Clemenceau made all the major decisions. They formed the League of Nations as a mechanism to prevent future wars. They sliced up the losers to form new nations in Europe, and divided up the German colonies and Ottoman holdings outside Turkey. They imposed what appeared to be heavy financial reparations (but with in the event were of modest size). They humiliated Germany by forcing it to declare its guilt for starting the war, a policy that caused deep resentment in Germany and helped fuel reactions such as Nazism. Britain gained the German colony of Tanganyika and part of Togoland in Africa, while its dominions added other colonies. Britain gained League of Nations mandates over Palestine, which had been partly promised as a homeland for Jewish settlers, and Iraq. Iraq became fully independent in 1932. Egypt, which had been a British protectorate since 1882, became independent in 1922, although the British remained there until 1952. ", "While the First World War was still underway, a number of governments and groups had already started developing plans to change the way international relations were carried out in order to prevent a repetition of the war. Template:Sfn United States President Woodrow Wilson and his advisor Colonel Edward M. House enthusiastically promoted the idea of the League as a means of avoiding any repetition of the bloodshed seen in World War I, and the creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace . Template:Sfn Specifically the final point provided: \"A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.\" [8]", "After WWI the League of Nations was created to promote international order the brain-child of Jan Smuts, a South African leader.", "A permanent international security organization formed in the aftermath of WW1. The league was supplanted by the UN after WW2 and was dissolved in 1946", "In 1946, the League of Nations was officially dissolved with the establishment of the United Nations. The United Nations was modeled after the former but with increased international support and extensive machinery to help the new body avoid repeating the League’s failures.", "The League of Nations in the 1920's - The League of Nations in the 1920's The League of Nations was an organisation set up after world war 1, to which many different countries joined. The main aims were to keep the peace, or prevent war, and to improve working conditions and wages for member states. In the 1920's I think that the League wa quite successful, because they managed to prevent any major wars, and they did improve working conditions. So they did mostly achieve they set out to do. One of the main aims of the League was to stop war....   [tags: Papers]", "The League of Nations was also set up, a kind of proto-United Nations, where all states could gather and discuss their problems, solve them diplomatically, and enforce international treaties. However, the United States did not join ( ironic , since the League was conceived by then-President Woodrow Wilson) as it did not like the idea of foreign scrutiny of its informal empire in Latin America, instead turning inward to run its own affairs and avoid \"foreign entanglements\". The non-involvement of the US was crucial, as the United States accounted for a fifth of world GDP at the time; this was a touch more than Britain, France and all their dependencies combined. Furthermore, the new state of the Soviet Union was refused entry because they were a poor and backwards country of Dirty Communists to be despised by all civilised peoples. As a result, the League's success and implementation was limited. Despite this, the Allies were satisfied with their work and went home, each confidently declaring that there would be no more war.", "The situation of the United States during World War I brought respectability for the first time to the proposition that, given its changed world position, the United States might best protect its interests by more active cooperation with other nations, even through commitments and alliances not in keeping with the traditional policy. Wilson's espousal of such ideas led him to propose a League of Nations, which required full-fledged American participation in a system of collective security. Others with similar views joined together in June 1915 to found the League to Enforce Peace, an American counterpart to the Netherlands-based Organisation Centrale pour une Paix Durable. Among the leaders of the new organization were former president William Howard Taft, President A. Lawrence Lowell of Harvard, and Hamilton Holt, the influential editor of the Independent.", "The League of Nations was created. This did happen even if Germany was initially excluded from it.", "In 1926, Germany joined the League of Nations. The League was one of the major means that Europeans ensured peace during the time.", "to acquire its �guarantee� of their �territorial integrity�(Crowe) and in the fall of 1921 all three countries were admitted.  The League of Nations was intended to be a worldwide peacekeeping organization but this later proved unsuccessful as it did nothing to stop the annexation of the Baltic States by the" ]

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[ "The Korean War (in South Korean , \"Korean War\"; in North Korean , \"Fatherland Liberation War\"; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China, with assistance from the Soviet Union, came to the aid of North Korea. The war arose from the division of Korea at the end of World War II and from the global tensions of the Cold War that developed immediately afterwards.", "The Korean War was a conflict between Communist and non-communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953.", "Korean War, conflict between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) and the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) in which at least 2.5 million persons lost their lives. The war reached international proportions in June 1950 when North Korea, supplied and advised by the Soviet Union , invaded the South. The United Nations , with the United States as the principal participant, joined the war on the side of the South Koreans, and the People’s Republic of China came to North Korea’s aid. After more than a million combat casualties had been suffered on both sides (see the table of casualties ), the fighting ended in July 1953 with Korea still divided into two hostile states. Negotiations in 1954 produced no further agreement, and the front line has been accepted ever since as the de facto boundary between North and South Korea.", "1. The Korean War was a conflict fought between June 1950 and July 1953. It saw involvement from North and South Korea, the People’s Republic of China and a United Nations force led by the United States.", "The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when communist North Korea invaded South Korea. Almost immediately, the United States secured a resolution from the United Nations calling for the military defense of South Korea against the North Korean aggression. In a matter of days, U.S. land, air, and sea forces had joined the battle. The U.S. intervention turned the tide of the war, and soon the U.S. and South Korean forces were pushing into North Korea and toward that nation’s border with China. In November and December 1951, hundreds of thousands of troops from the People’s Republic of China began heavy assaults against the American and South Korea forces. The war eventually bogged down into a battle of attrition. In the U.S. presidential election of 1952, Republican candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower strongly criticized President Harry S. Truman’s handling of the war. After his victory, Eisenhower adhered to his promise to “go to Korea.” His trip convinced him that something new was needed to break the diplomatic logjam at the peace talks that had begun in July 1951. Eisenhower began to publicly hint that the United States might make use of its nuclear arsenal to break the military stalemate in Korea. He allowed the Nationalist Chinese government on Taiwan to begin harassing air raids on mainland China. The president also put pressure on his South Korean ally to drop some of its demands in order to speed the peace process.", "On June 25, 1950 the North Korean People's Army under the command of dictator  IM Il Sung invaded South Korea, precipitating the outbreak of the Korean War. Poorly trained and equipped, without tanks or air support, the South Korean Army was rapidly pushed backwards, quickly losing the capital, Seoul.", "This division of Korea, after more than a millennium of being unified, was seen as controversial and temporary by both regimes. From 1948 until the start of the civil war on June 25, 1950, the armed forces of each side engaged in a series of bloody conflicts along the border. In 1950, these conflicts escalated dramatically when North Korean forces invaded South Korea, triggering the Korean War. The North overran much of the South until pushed back by a US-led United Nations intervention. The UN forces then occupied most of the North, until Chinese forces intervened and restored Communist control of the North.", "On Sunday, June 25, 1950, the Korean War was precipitated when North Korean Communist forces invaded the Republic of South Korea, crossing the 38th parallel at several points. Truman at once summoned an emergency conference and on June 27 announced that he would pledge American armed strength for the defense of South Korea. By September 15, American troops, supported by other forces of the United Nations, were taking the offensive in Korea. Truman held firm in the costly war that ensued but hesitated to approve a major counteroffensive across the Yalu River. In April 1951, amid national frustration over the war, he courageously dismissed Gen. Douglas MacArthur as head of the Far East Command of the U.S. Army. He took this action on the grounds that MacArthur had repeatedly challenged the Far Eastern policies of the administration, thus overriding the basic American principle that the military must always be subordinate to the civil arm of the government, and that MacArthur had recommended the use of bombs against Chinese forces north of the Yalu River in a way which might well provoke open war with Russia and cost the United States the support of important allies in the war.", "Note: The Korean War began in 1950, when North Korean forces invaded South Korea . Supplied by the Soviets, and eventually joined by the Chinese, North Korea fought forces of South Korea and the United Nations .", "The war began on June 25, 1950, when North Korean forces crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. For the first time in history, the United Nations (UN) sent a multinational force to help the Democratic South defend itself against the Communist North. Twenty-One UN member nations contributed to the effort. Sixteen sent combat units while five others provided medical and other support services. The war lasted from 1950 to 1953 and ended in stalemate.", "In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry. During the Korean War (1950–53) more than one million people died and the three years of fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities. The war ended in an Armistice Agreement at approximately the Military Demarcation Line.", "The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea. [238] During the Korean War , Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post–Cold War research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[ citation needed ]", "The Korean War begins: Exhausted U.S. Marines retreated after a surprise attack by Red Chinese hordes on the Korean Peninsula in December 1950. Separation of the peninsula into Allied and Soviet zones in 1945 -- a division opposed by Korean leaders -- resulted in the creation of a Communist North and a nominally democratic South, each of which claimed national sovereignty. On June 25, 1950, thousands of North Korean troops poured across the 38th parallel intent on reuniting Korea by force. United Nations forces came to South Korea's defense, but the fighting dragged on into 1953 after Communist China entered on the North's side. An armistice finally reestablished the status quo, leaving the two hostile states still divided along the 38th parallel.", "The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea. During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post-Cold War research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin. ", "** American troops occupy southern Korea, while the Soviet Union occupies the north, with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea which will lead to the Korean War in 1950.", "On 25 October 1950, the Korean War took a grim new turn. The sudden intervention of Communist Chinese forces dashed hopes of a quick end to the war. The Chinese were attacking in force. They had tanks; waves of soldiers and fearsome weapons of the Soviet's; rockets. On 24 November, General MacArthur launched a counteroffensive of 100,000 UN troops. The 1st Cavalry and the ROK 6th Divisions moved up from their reserve positions and slammed into the attack. The Chinese penetrated the front companies of 1st and 2nd Battalions, 7th Cavalry and tried to exploit the gap. At 0200 they were hit by elements of the 3rd Battalion reinforced by tanks. Red troops were stopped and retreated back into an area previously registered for artillery fire. Enemy losses were high and the shoulder was held.", "On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded the South. The Korean War drew in the Americans in support of South Korea and the Chinese in support of the North.", "In 1949, after American educated strongman Syngman Rhee was elected President of the Republic of Korea (South Korea), the United States withdrew its occupying forces, except for a small advisory command. Soviet forces had withdrawn from the North in 1948. In 1950 North Korean Communist leader Kim Il-sung met with Soviet and Chinese Communist leaders and proposed to take over all of Korea by force. He met no objections from either nation and was offered their support. China repatriated 50,000 Korean soldiers who had fought for the Communists in China’s Civil War, and they became an important element of the North Korean People’s Army.  Thus the struggle for control of Korea broke out when the North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel in force in 1950.", "1952 – Korean War: The U.S. Eighth Army reached the 38th parallel in Korea, the original dividing line between the two Koreas.", "The conflict between Communist and non-Communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South Korean) zones of occupation. In 1948 rival governments were established: The Republic of Korea was proclaimed in the South and the People's Democratic Republic of Korea in the North. Relations between them became increasingly strained, and on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea.", "1951 - During the Korean conflict, North Korean and Communist Chinese forces captured the city of Seoul.", "In the opening months of the war, the U.S.-led U.N. forces rapidly advanced against the North Koreans, but Chinese communist troops entered the fray in October, throwing the Allies into a hasty retreat. In April 1951, Truman relieved MacArthur of his command after he publicly threatened to bomb China in defiance of Truman’s stated war policy. Truman feared that an escalation of fighting with China would draw the Soviet Union into the Korean War.", "Amphibious invasion and battle of the Korean War that resulted in a decisive victory and strategic reversal in favor of the United Nations. September 15, 1950, and ended September 19.", "General MacArthur of the United States orchestrated the first attack on North Korea, recapturing Seoul, the capital of South Korea. He then crossed the 38th Parallel, advancing into provinces of North Korea. Fearing the United States would use North Korea to attack Manchuria, the Chinese army sent troops across the Yalu River to attack United States forces. President Truman replaced MacArthur with Lt. General Ridgeway to develop a more tactful strategy. Ridgeway successfully held off the Communists just north of the 38th Parallel. A peace treaty was signed in 1953 that ended the Korean War, but did little to end Cold War tensions (Elsey).", "1950 – Korean and American troops landed at Incheon, Korea, in an amphibious assault, starting the Battle of Incheon, a decisive United Nations military forces victory during the Korean War.", "1951 – Korean War: Eighth Army units retook Inchon and Kimpo airfield. U.N. patrols entered Seoul.", "With what is widely considered the crowning example of his military genius, MacArthur completely changed the course of the war overnight by ordering -- over nearly unanimous objections -- an amphibious invasion at the port of Inchon, near Seoul. Evidence has indicated that the Chinese Communists, having studied MacArthur's tactics in World War II, warned the North Koreans to expect such an attack. Still, they were not prepared. The Americans quickly gained control of Inchon, recaptured Seoul within days, and cut the North Korean supply lines. American and ROK forces broke out of the Pusan Perimeter and chased the retreating enemy north. On September 27, after Washington had consulted with its allies regarding war aims, MacArthur received permission to pursue the enemy into North Korea. ROK forces crossed the 38th parallel on October 1, opening a fateful new chapter in the conflict.", "Armed forces from communist North Korea smash into South Korea, setting off the Korean War. The United States, acting under the auspices of the United Nations, quickly sprang to the defense of South Korea and fought a bloody and frustrating war for the next three years.", "On August 8 , two days after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the Soviet Union, having renounced its nonaggression pact with Japan in April, attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe . The attack was made by three Soviet army groups. In less than two weeks, the Japanese army in Manchuria, consisting of over a million men, had been destroyed by the Soviets. The Red Army moved into North Korea on August 18 . Korea was subsequently divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet and U.S. zones.", "On August 8, two days after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the Soviet Union, having renounced its nonaggression pact with Japan in April, attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe. The attack was made by three Soviet army groups. In less than two weeks, the Japanese army in Manchuria, consisting of over a million men, had been destroyed by the battle-hardened Soviets. The Red Army moved into North Korea on August 18. Korea was subsequently divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet and U.S. zones.", "Communist North Korean troops launch a full-scale invasion of the South, beginning the open military phase of the Korean War. North Korean tanks and infantry surge across the 38th parallel into South Korean territory, quickly overrunning the defensive positions of overmatched South Korean forces. The Communists continue their southward advance, meeting little resistance in the countryside.", "The Cold War escalated when communist North Korea invaded South Korea in what was seen as a global military challenge. As the head of U.N. forces, Army General Douglas MacArthur relied on the amphibious capabilities of the Marine Corps to reclaim South Korea's occupied capital, Seoul." ]

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[ "Elysée Palace is the official residence of the President of France. It was built 1718-1722 and came into the king's own in 1764. Through a time lived prominent guests here. In 1805 moved Napoleon's brother in law, Joachim Murat, in, and he left the palace rebuild. After changing purpose and ownership in 1800-century, it achieved the current status in 1873.", "The Palais de l’Elysee is the official residence of the President of the French Republic where foreign dignitaries meet, and located close to the Champs Elysees , this heavily guarded palace has a rich history and impressive architecture.", "The official residence and office of the president is the Élysée Palace in Paris. Other presidential residences include:", "As you can no doubt imagine, this is a heavily guarded mansion house and palace in Paris that has the same role since the 1800s, as the official residence of the President of France and therefore is a place not normally open to the public.", ", palace in Paris, on the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré. Built in 1718 and once the property of Mme de Pompadour, it has been since 1873 the official residence of the presidents of France.", "As the capital of France, Paris is the seat of France's national government. For the executive, the two chief officers each have their own official residences, which also serve as their offices. The President of the French Republic resides at the Élysée Palace in the 8th arrondissement, while the Prime Minister's seat is at the Hôtel Matignon in the 7th arrondissement. Government ministries are located in various parts of the city; many are located in the 7th arrondissement, near the Matignon.", "Palácio da Alvorada (Palace of Dawn) - The President's official residence. Its arches are icons of the capital.", "2) on the plan is the PALAIS DE L�ÉLYSÉE, which is the official home of the President of France. Colourful but casual sentries always on duty. ", "On 14 March 2012, the then French President Nicolas Sarkozy awarded her the Officier de la Légion d'honneur. The decoration was presented to her at a ceremony held at the president's official residence, the Elysee Palace on that day. ", "The President appoints a prime minister (currently - 2015 - Manuel Valls ) , who forms a government. The residence of the French Prime Minister is at Matignon House (l'Hôtel Matignon) in Paris.", "The palace, however, still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament—consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists); January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), and in March 2003 (specifying the \"decentralized organization\" of the French Republic).", "François Hollande, in full François Gérard Georges Hollande (born August 12, 1954, Rouen , France), French politician who was president of France (2012– ). He earlier served as first secretary of the Socialist Party (1997–2008).", " This district on the south bank of the Seine is largely administrative and residential. It contains, among other things, the Eiffel Tower , the Hotel des Invalides, the French National Assembly (parliament building), the residence of the Prime Minister (Hôtel Matignon), and the Musée d'Orsay.", "The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. It has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in 1800. The term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in \"The White House announced that...\". ", "This is a picture taken on the front lawn of their 'White House' equivalent, the house where the president lives.", "As a former President, he is entitled to a lifetime pension and personal security protection, and is ex-officio a member for life of France's constitutional council. He also became a lifetime member of the Constitutional Council of France. He sat for the first time in the Council on 15 November 2007, six months after leaving the French Presidency. Immediately after Sarkozy's victory, Chirac moved into a 180 square meters duplex on the Quai Voltaire in Paris lent to him by the family of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. During the Didier Schuller affair, the latter accused Hariri of having participated to the illegal funding of the RPR's political campaigns, but the justice closed the case without further investigations. ", "Trierweiler has been living with Hollande, 59, since 2007 and she currently resides in the so-called \"madame wing\" of the presidential palace. Hollande has four children from a previous relationship with fellow socialist politician Ségolène Royal.", "The White House in Washington D.C. has been the official residence of the President of the United States since 1800.", "The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., it was built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the late Georgian style and has been the residence of every U.S. President since John Adams. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the home in 1801, he expanded the building outward, creating two colonnades which were meant to conceal stables and storage. Today, the White House Complex includes the Executive Residence (in which the First Family resides), the West Wing (the location of the Oval Office, Cabinet Room, and Roosevelt Room), and the East Wing (the location of the office of the First Lady and White House Social Secretary), as well as the Old Executive Office Building, which houses the executive offices of the President and Vice President. -Wikipedia. Model created by CS3Design.", "François Hollande is the 24th president of France, and a member of the Socialist Party. He succeeded Nicolas Sarkozy in 2012.", ", 1932–, French political leader, president of France (1995–2007), b. Paris. He attended the National School of Administration, joined the civil service, and began his political career in 1961 working for Premier Georges Pompidou.", "\"The National Capital Commission's Official Residences division is ensuring that the Prime Minister-designate and his family will be accommodated in a comfortable and appropriate setting while details regarding the 24 Sussex Drive residence are finalized,\" reads the statement from Jean Wolff.", "The six-story Executive Residence serves as the president's living quarters and entertaining area. Notable rooms include the Diplomatic Reception Room where President Franklin D. Roosevelt held fireside chats, Lincoln Bedroom that was once the namesake's office, East Room which hosts large ceremonies and State Dining Room for formal dinners. The impressive kitchen is equipped to serve dinner for up to 140 guests and hors d'oeuvres to over 1,000.", "One Observatory Circle . The house at One Observatory Circle in Washington, DC is the official residence of the Vice-President of the United States.", "The official presidential guest house; used for foreign heads of state and heads of government, as well as to host the President-elect during transition", "Mexico's President Enrique Pena Nieto attends a welcoming ceremony at the Hotel National des Invalides in Paris, France, July 13, 2015.", "Deneuve possesses two homes: a country house in France and an apartment in the luxe Parisian neighborhood of Saint-Germain-de-Pr�s.", "General Charles de Gaulle came to the United States as a guest of the government and was welcomed with all the ceremony customarily accorded to the head of a foreign nation. He was flown from Algiers in an upholstered Army plane, was greeted in Washington with a seventeen-gun salute and was whisked to the White House where he met the President and his cabinet (top) where he is shown being greeted by Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, while Secretary of State Cordell Hull, President Roosevelt and Mrs. John Boettiger, the President's daughter, look on. Afterwards he visited General John J. Pershing in the General's suite at Walter Reed Hospital (bottom).", "The home is 12,000 square feet, with 34 rooms and four floors. It has all the amenities one would expect the residence of the prime minister to have. There is the appropriate number of studies, libraries and bedrooms. The residence also has a formal dining room, bedrooms, and expansive kitchen. Situated along the Ottawa River, the home is situated near the French embassy, and Rideau Hall, the residence of the Governor General. Rideau Hall is located at 1 Sussex Drive. The residence was built in 1866 by MP Joseph Merril Currier, as a wedding gift to his wife. The federal government purchased the home in 1949, and the first prime minister moved in in 1951.", "3. Pal Sarkozy, father of the French President, is a native of which country, having been born in its capital city in 1928?", "They also get personnel, an apartment and/or office, and other amenities, though the legal basis for these is disputed. In 2008, according to an answer by the services of the Prime Minister to a question from member of the National Assembly René Dosière, these facilities comprised: a security detail, a car with a chauffeur, office or housing space, maintained by the State. Two people service this space. In addition, the State funds 7 permanent collaborators.", "The 21-gun is accorded to the President of the French Republic, forming part of his \"military honors\" (honneurs militaires). The salute is given during the inauguration ceremony (by two 75mm guns) and during naval visits. These honors are extended to foreign heads of state when in State visit." ]

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[ "Mein Kampf (, \"My Struggle\") is an autobiography by the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess. ", "While in prison, Hitler wrote his book Mein Kampf, in which he set out his political ideas and developed his antisemitic ideas.", "Mein Kampf (German, \"My Struggle\") is an autobiographical manifesto written by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler while imprisoned following the failed Beer Hall Putsch of November 1923. In the manifesto - which includes two volumes and fifteen chapters - Hitler outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany .", "Mein Kampf (German \"My Struggle\") is a book written by Adolf Hitler, exposing Hitler's political ideology, National Socialism.", "autobiographical manifesto by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926", "Mein Kampf, in essence, lays out the ideological program Hitler established for the German revolution, by identifying the Jews and \"Bolsheviks\" as racially and ideologically inferior and threatening, and \"Aryans\" and National Socialists as racially superior and politically progressive. Hitler's revolutionary goals included expulsion of the Jews from Greater Germany and the unification of German peoples into one Greater Germany. Hitler desired to restore German lands to their greatest historical extent, real or imagined.", "While in prison Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), a rambling book that was both an autobiography and a declaration of his political beliefs. He made his intentions plain: If he was to assume control of Germany, he would seek to conquer much of Europe and he would destroy the Jewish race. He rejected democracy and called for a dictatorship that would be able to withstand an assault by communism.", "Mein Kampf (My Struggle) - A book written by Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology of nazism.", "While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office.", "In the six years preceding World War II, Adolf Hitler , leading the Nazi Party, took power in Germany and eliminated its democratic government, the Weimar Republic . As stated in Mein Kampf , an autobiographical book outlining his plans for the future, Hitler's goal was to invade and conquer lands around Germany, and to make them German. He railed against Communists and ethnic minorities, such as Jews . After taking power, he prepared Germany for another war with large political rallies and speeches.", "Download Mein Kampf , Adolf Hitler’s book about Germany, race and politics. The first part of it is written mainly during his captivity in 1924 in the Landsberg am Lech prison. The first part of Mein kampf was published in 1925, the second part in 1927. The book has been translated into various languages, (Germany, English, Française, Nederlands)  which you can download on this site.", "Hitler combined elements of autobiography with an exposition of his racist political ideology in Mein Kampf (\"My Struggle\"), which was written while Hitler was in prison after his failed putsch attempt of 1923, and published between 1925 and 1927. According to the biographer Ian Kershaw, the reflections Hitler himself provided in Mein Kampf are \"inaccurate in detail and coloured in interpretation\", information that was given during the Nazi period is \"dubious\", as can be the postwar recollections of family and acquaintances. Laurence Rees described the thrust of the work as \"bleak nihilism\" revealing a cold universe with no moral structure other than the fight between different people for supremacy: \"What's missing from Mein Kampf\", wrote Rees—\"and this is a fact that has not received the acknowledgement it should—is any emphasis on Christianity\"—though Germany, Rees noted, had been Christian for a thousand years. So, concluded Rees, \"the most coherent reading of Mein Kampf is that whilst Hitler was prepared to believe in an initial creator God, he did not accept the conventional Christian vision of heaven and hell, nor the survival of an individual \"soul\"... we are animals and just like animals we face the choice of destroying or being destroyed.\" William Shirer made similar remarks. ", "The racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf. In his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from his allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying \"the weak\" in order to provide the proper space and purity for the \"strong\". ", "    In 1919, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party and stayed with it as it transformed to the National Socialist Workers Party, better known as the Nazis.  He greatly admired and further pushed the Nazi ideal of anti-Marxism, anti-Semitism, and anti-big business theories, and participated in a failed coup to overthrow the Weimar Republic in 1923.  While in jail, he wrote one of the most influential books of the 20th century, entitled Mein Kampf, which outlined his basic principles of Nazism and his hopes for government and society in the future.  ", "In terms of political theories, Hitler announced his hatred in Mein Kampf toward what he believed to be the twin evils of the world: Communism and Judaism, and he stated that his aim was to eradicate both from the face of the earth. He also announced that Germany needed to obtain new soil called lebensraum which would properly nurture the \"historic destiny\" of the German people; this goal explains why Hitler invaded Europe, both East and West, before he launched his attack against Russia. Hitler presented himself as the \"Übermensch\", frequently rendered as the crude \"Superman\" (overman is the more appropriate term in its original context), that the basically a-political Friedrich Nietzsche had referred to in his writings, especially in his book, 'Thus Spoke Zarathustra'. It is doubtful that Hitler read any Nietzsche beyond a superficial level, as Nietzsche did not refer to his overman in the way in which Hitler would refer to him. For Nietzsche it was a man who could overcome himself (hence overman and not superman) by controlling his impulses and would be able to channel this energy into something creative. The nationalism and anti-semitism that was indeed growing in Nietzsche's time was something which Nietzsche despised and wrote about continuously: there is probably no other writer from Germany that insulted the Germans more than Nietzsche. Since Hitler blamed the current parliamentary government for much of the ills against which he raged, he announced that he wanted to completely destroy that type of government.", "All of this had been outlined in his book, Mein Kampf, first published in 1925. In it, Hitler stated his fundamental belief that Germany’s survival depended on its ability to acquire vast tracts of land in the East to provide room for the expanding German population at the expense of the inferior peoples already living there, justified purely on racial grounds. Hitler explained that Nazi racial philosophy “by no means believes in an equality of races…and feels itself obligated to promote the victory of the better and stronger, and demand the subordination of the inferior and weaker.”", "Mein Kampf was the manifesto from which all of Hitler's atrocities stemmed, a tinderbox of a book that may have disappeared from the annals of history had the author not actually gone on to carry out the ideas presented in his tirade against all things non-German.", "Hitler's Mein Kampf of 1923 set an ultimate aim of invading the Soviet Union, both to overcome the threat from a Jewish-Bolshevik Communism, and to gain expanded territory for the German race. In 1935 Hermann Göring welcomed Britain as a potential ally against communism.", "The German journalist Konrad Heiden, an early critic of the Nazi Party, observed that the content of Mein Kampf is essentially a political argument with other members of the Nazi Party who had appeared to be Hitler's friends, but whom he was actually denouncing in the book's content – sometimes by not even including references to them.", "Hitler in Mein Kampf directly attacked both left-wing and right-wing politics in Germany. However, a majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as being a far-right form of politics. When asked in an interview whether he and the Nazis were \"bourgeois right-wing\" as alleged by their opponents, Hitler responded that Nazism was not exclusively for any class, and indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved \"pure\" elements from both \"camps\", stating: \"From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism.\"", "As early as 1925, Hitler suggested in Mein Kampf that he would invade the Soviet Union , asserting that the German people needed Lebensraum (\"living space\", i.e., land and raw materials) and that these should be sought in the East. Nazism viewed the Soviet Union (and all of Eastern Europe) as populated by \" Untermensch \" Slavs, ruled by \" Jewish Bolshevik \" masters. [33] [34] Mein Kampf said Germany's destiny was to turn \"to the East\" as it did \"six hundred years ago\" and \"the end of the Jewish domination in Russia will also be the end of Russia as a State.\" [35] Thereafter, Hitler spoke of an inescapable battle against \"pan-Slav ideals\", in which victory would lead to \"permanent mastery of the world\", although he also said they would \"walk part of the road with the Russians, if that will help us\". [36] Accordingly, it was stated Nazi policy to kill, deport, or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land with Germanic peoples (see Generalplan Ost ). Verification of the belief in German ethnic predominance is discernible in official German records and by pseudo-scientifically validated articles in German periodicals at the time, works which covered matters like ‘how to deal with alien populations’ in the eastern areas to be ceded to Germans for the sake of Lebensraum. [37]", "In Mein Kampf, Hitler effectively supported mercantilism, in the belief that economic resources from their respective territories should be seized by force; he believed that the policy of Lebensraum would provide Germany with such economically valuable territories. He argued that the only means to maintain economic security was to have direct control over resources rather than being forced to rely on world trade. He claimed that war to gain such resources was the only means to surpass the failing capitalist economic system.", "Many of the beliefs later espoused in “Mein Kampf” were seen in the 25 points, a document released by the Nazi Party in 1920 . It called for the reunification of a Germany for Germans only; Jews and foreigners would not be granted the rights of citizens. It also included many socialist concepts in order to appeal to the German working class.", "Hitler gave his early impression of Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer in Mein Kampf (1925): \"Herr Drexler... was a simple worker, as speaker not very gifted, moreover no soldier. He had not served in the Army, and was not a soldier during the war, because his whole being was weak and uncertain, he was not a soldier during the war, and because his whole being was weak and uncertain, he was not a real leader for us. He (and Herr Harrer) were not cut out to be fanatical enough to carry the movement in their hearts, nor did he have the ability to use brutal means to overcome the opposition to a new idea inside the party. What was needed was one fleet as a greyhound, smooth as leather, and hard as Krupp steel.\" (99)", "His political testament recited familiar themes first stated in his book Mein Kampf back in 1925. In addition, he blamed the Jews for everything, including the war. He cited the extermination threat he had made on January 30, 1939, followed by a veiled reference to the gas chambers, labeling them a “humane means” of making the Jews atone for the guilt of causing the war.", "Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) was leader of the National Socialist (Nazi) Party , and führer (leader) of Germany. At the core of his beliefs was that the \"Aryan\" race, typified by the German people, was superior to all others. His aim was the reunification of the Germanic peoples and the expansion of territory in order to provide lebensraum (\"living space\") for these \"chosen\" people. Alongside this went his extreme hatred of the Jews. In 1939 Hitler plunged the world into a war that would leave millions of people dead, including the 6 million Jews who were killed in the Holocaust .", "What does “Mein Kampf” tell us about Hitler’s beliefs? The following are extracts from the book:", "One of the most significant ideological influences on the Nazis was the German nationalist Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose works had served as inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi members, including Dietrich Eckart and Arnold Fanck. In Speeches to the German Nation (1808), written amid Napoleonic France's occupation of Berlin, Fichte called for a German national revolution against the French occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French, and stressing the need for action by the German nation to free itself. Fichte's nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need of a \"People's War\" (Volkskrieg), and put forth concepts similar to those the Nazis adopted. Fichte promoted German exceptionalism and stressed the need for the German nation to be purified (including purging the German language of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon rising to power).", "That the German people love uniforms, parades, military formations, and submit easily to authority is no secret. Führer Hitler's own hero is Frederick the Great. That admiration stems undoubtedly from Frederick's military prowess and autocratic rule rather than from Frederick's love of French culture and his hatred of Prussian boorishness. But unlike the polished Frederick, Führer Hitler, whose reading has always been very limited, invites few great minds to visit him, nor would Führer Hitler agree with Frederick's contention that he was \"tired of ruling over slaves.\"*", "Heinrich Himmler, one of the main architects of the Holocaust, preferred that the matter not be discussed in public. Despite this, in an editorial in his newspaper Das Reich in November 1941 Goebbels quoted Hitler's 1939 \"prophecy\" that the Jews would be the loser in the coming world war. Now, he said, Hitler's prophecy was coming true: \"Jewry,\" he said, \"is now suffering the gradual process of annihilation which it intended for us ... It now perishes according to its own precept of 'an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth'!\"", "Tipton notes that Ludendorff was a Social Darwinist who believed that war was the \"foundation of human society,\" and that military dictatorship was the normal form of government in a society in which every resource must be mobilized. The historian Margaret Lavinia Anderson notes that after the war, Ludendorff wanted Germany to go to war against all of Europe, and that he became a pagan worshiper of the Nordic god Wotan (Odin); he detested not only Judaism, but also Christianity, which he regarded as a weakening force. ", "Goebbels was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of Hitler aggressively pursuing Germany’s expansionist policies sooner rather than later. At the time of the Reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936, Goebbels summed up his general attitude in his diary: “Now is the time for action. Fortune favors the brave! He who dares nothing wins nothing.”" ]

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[ "Ronald Reagan was born in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911 and passed away on June 5, 2004. He served as President from 1981-1989. His running mate and Vice President for both of his four-year terms was George Herbert Walker Bush, who succeeded Reagan and served as America's 41st President. Reagan defeated the 39th President, Jimmy Carter, in 1980, and former Vice President Walter Mondale in 1984.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 — June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989 . He was the sixteenth from the Republican Party, serving between Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush . Reagan is well-known for moving the country to the right politically, socially, and economically, accidentally causing the biggest World War III scare since 1962 (in the 1983 Able Archer Crisis), and his successful diplomatic initiative to negotiate a peaceful end to the Cold War by working together with Mikhail Gorbachev . He also was the last President to be in office during a war in which the United States officially declared itself to be neutral: namely the Falklands Conflict between the United Kingdom and Argentina.", "Vice-president George H.W. Bush succeeded Ronald Reagan as president following the 1988 election. Before him, the last incumbent vice-president who was directly elected president rather than succeeding a president who died in office was", "Beginning as a radio sports announcer, Ronald W. Reagan (born 1911) enjoyed success as a motion picture actor and television personality before embarking on a political career. After two terms as governor of California (1967-1975), he defeated incumbent Democrat Jimmy Carter for the presidency in 1980 and was easily re-elected over Walter Mondale in 1984.", "The Republican conservative movement had begun with Senator Goldwater in the 1960s. A conservative candidate with real vote gathering abilities emerged in tge person of California Govenor Ronald Reagan. Ronald Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination in 1980 and chose as his running mate former Texas Congressman and United Nations Ambassador George Bush. Voters troubled by inflation and by the year-long confinement of Americans in Iran swept the Republican ticket into office. Reagan won 489 electoral votes to 49 for President Jimmy Carter. The seizure as hostages of the U.S. embassy staff in Iran dominated the news during the last 14 months of the administration. The consequences of Iran's holding Americans captive, together with continuing inflation at home, contributed to Carter's defeat in 1980.", "Former Governor Ronald Reagan was the odds-on favorite to win his party's nomination for president after nearly beating incumbent President Gerald Ford just four years earlier. He won the nomination on the first round at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit, Michigan, in July, then chose George H. W. Bush, his top rival, as his running mate.", "The United States presidential election of 1980 was the 49th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 4, 1980. The contest was between incumbent Democratic President Jimmy Carter and his Republican opponent, former California Governor Ronald Reagan, as well as Republican Congressman John B. Anderson, who ran as an independent. Reagan, aided by the Iran hostage crisis and a worsening economy at home marked by high unemployment and inflation, won the election in a landslide, receiving the highest number of electoral votes ever won by a non-incumbent presidential candidate.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). Born in Tampico, Illinois , Reagan moved to Los Angeles, California in the 1930s, where he was an actor , president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), and a spokesman for General Electric (GE). His start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party , he switched to the Republican Party in 1962, at the age of 51. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater 's presidential candidacy in 1964 , he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970 . He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976 , but won both the nomination and election in 1980 .", "Reagan was born in Tampico in Whiteside County, Illinois, reared in Dixon in Lee County, Illinois, and educated at Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. Upon his graduation, Reagan first moved to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster and then in 1937 to Los Angeles, California. He began a career as an actor, first in films and later television, appearing in over 50 movie productions and earning enough success to become a famous, publicly recognized figure. Some of his most notable roles are in Knute Rockne, All American and Kings Row. Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and election, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan served as president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. A former radio announcer, screen actor, and governor of California, Reagan's conservative political philosophy challenged the role that the federal government played in U.S. society. An avowed opponent of big government, Reagan proposed to return power to the states and to strip the federal government of many of its regulatory functions. Although he was not successful on all fronts, Reagan changed the political landscape that had remained virtually untouched since the presidency of franklin d. roosevelt.", "The answer is A, Bill Clinton, who was elected president in 1992 having been governor of Arkansas. B is Gerald Ford who became vice-president to Richard Nixon in 1973, and became president in 1974 after Nixon resigned over Watergate. C is George Bush Senior, who was Ronald Reagan's vice-president from 1981 to 1989 and then president until 1993.", "In the presidential election of 1988 , Reagan campaigned actively for the Republican nominee, Vice President Bush. In large part because of Reagan’s continued popularity, Bush defeated Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis by 53 percent to 46 percent in the popular vote; the vote in the electoral college was 426 to 111. Reagan retired to his home in Los Angeles, where he wrote his autobiography, An American Life (1990). In 1994, in a letter to the American people, Reagan disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer disease , a degenerative brain disorder.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan ( / ˈ r ɒ n əl d ˈ w ɪ l s ən ˈ r eɪ ɡ ən / ; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989). Prior to his presidency, he served as the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975), and was a radio, film and television actor.", "\"On March 30, 1981, just 70 days into his presidency , Ronald Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr., a deranged drifter who had briefly stalked President Jimmy Carter.\" -Arizona Daily Star", "Ronald Wilson Reagan /ˈrɑnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪgən/ (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989), the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975) and prior to that, an actor.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the United States and served two terms from 1981 to 1989.", "George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 , 1924 ) is an American politician who served as the 41st President of the United States (1989–93), and the 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–89). A Republican , he previously served as a congressman , an ambassador, and Director of Central Intelligence . He is the oldest living former President and Vice President. He is also the last living former President who is a veteran of World War II . He is married to Barbara Bush , and is the father of George W. Bush .", "Ronald Reagan appointed Kennedy to the Supreme Court in 1988.  The same Ronald Reagan who had dinner with Pilgrims Society member David Rockefeller. Reagan�s patron, billionaire publisher Walter Annenberg, was also a member of The Pilgrims.  The image above, which did not appear with", "Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) was the only actor ever elected President, and his talent as a speaker earned him the moniker \"the great communicator.\" An affable Republican who wooed many Roosevelt Democrats, the staunchly anti-communist Reagan is seen as having played a large part in the collapse of the Soviet Union.", "-- Ronald Reagan, former US President, Washington press conference, February 13th, 1983, as quoted by John Pilger in 'Heroes'", "* July 16 – Former California Governor and actor Ronald Reagan is nominated for U.S. President, at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit. Influenced by the Religious Right, the convention also drops its long standing support for the Equal Rights Amendment, dismaying moderate Republicans.", "Ronald Reagan—the incumbent president—was the assured nominee for the Republican Party, with only token opposition. The popular vote from the Republican primaries was as follows: ", "Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois in 2002, pending federal purchase of the property. On May 16 of that year, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the president and herself. ", "*January 20, 1985 – Ronald Reagan is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States", "Ronald Reagan , the Hollywood actor who became one of the most popular presidents of the 20th century and transformed the political landscape of an era with his vision of conservative government, died Saturday at his home in the Bel-Air neighborhood of Los Angeles. He was 93.His wife, Nancy, his...", "40. Ronald Reagan (January 20, 1981—January 20, 1989). Republican. Prior to becoming a politician Ronald Reagan had been a radio broadcaster and actor. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology and economics. As president, Reagan implemented new economic policies that became known as “Reaganomics.”", "** U.S. President Ronald Reagan becomes the first American chief executive to address a joint session of Parliament.", "As chief executive Reagan maintained generally high ratings in public-opinion polls. He was wounded in March 1981 when John Hinckley attempted to assassinate him, an event that boosted public support still further. Although he irritated his most conservative supporters when, in 1981, he appointed the first female Supreme Court justice, Sandra", "As the country winds down its celebration of the Ronald Reagan Centennial, there seems to be a growing consensus that Reagan was, for better or worse, a significant president. Personally I am convinced that he is vastly underrated, and I have more than seven billion reasons to support my argument, though not a single one of them is related to his eight years as U.S. president. Let me explain.", "Reagan's skills in persuasion led the nation toward a far more conservative brand of government. Indeed, his leadership made the mold for the conservative movement in national politics, and has been the model for the two Republican leaders since his Presidency. His dogged determination to expand the military might of the United States is often credited as being the action that resulted in the breakup of the Soviet Union. Despite the many problems of these troubled times, Ronald Reagan's ability to instill confidence in his leadership through convincing oratory was without equal in our history.", "Ronald Reagan was sworn into office on January 20, 1981. In his inaugural address, Reagan famously said of America’s then-troubled economy, “In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem.”", "He was a frequent guest at the White House throughout the 1980s, addressing the inauguration of President Ronald Reagan on Tuesday, January 20th, 1981." ]

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[ "Home Rule was finally enacted in 1914, with the provision that Ulster could remain in the union for six more years, but the act was suspended for the duration of World War I and never went into effect. In both Ulster and Catholic Ireland militias were formed. The Irish Republican Brotherhood, a descendent of the Fenians, organized a rebellion on Easter Sunday, 1916; although unsuccessful, the rising acquired great propaganda value when the British executed its leaders.", "Partition of Ireland, first mooted in 1912, was introduced with the enactment of the Government of Ireland Act 1920, which gave a form of \"Home rule\" self-government to two areas, Southern Ireland, with its capital at Dublin, and \"Northern Ireland\", consisting of six of Ulster's central and eastern counties, both within a continuing United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Dissatisfaction with this led to the Irish War of Independence, which formally ceased on 11 July 1921. Low-level violence, however, continued in Ulster, causing Michael Collins in the south to order a boycott of Northern products in protest at attacks on the Nationalist community there. The Partition was effectively confirmed by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 6 December 1921. One of the primary stipulations of the treaty was the transformation of Ireland into a self-governing British dominion called the Irish Free State (which later became the sovereign Republic of Ireland), but with the option of a continuation of the home rule institution of Northern Ireland, still within the United Kingdom, if the Northern Ireland Parliament (already in existence) chose to opt out of the Irish Free State. All parties knew that this was certain to be the choice of the Ulster Unionists who had a majority in the parliament, and immediately on the creation of the Free State they resolved to leave it.", "Partition of Ireland , first mooted in 1912, was introduced with the enactment of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 , which gave a form of \"Home rule\" self-government to two areas, Southern Ireland , with its capital at Dublin , and \" Northern Ireland \", consisting of six of Ulster's central and eastern counties, both within a continuing United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Dissatisfaction with this led to the Irish War of Independence , which formally ceased on 11 July 1921. Low-level violence, however, continued in Ulster, causing Michael Collins in the south to order a boycott of Northern products in protest at attacks on the Nationalist community there. The Partition was effectively confirmed by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 6 December 1921. One of the primary stipulations of the treaty was the transformation of Ireland into a self-governing British dominion called the Irish Free State (which later became the sovereign Republic of Ireland ), but with the option of a continuation of the home rule institution of Northern Ireland, still within the United Kingdom, if the Northern Ireland Parliament (already in existence) chose to opt out of the Irish Free State. All parties knew that this was certain to be the choice of the Ulster Unionists who had a majority in the parliament, and immediately on the creation of the Free State they resolved to leave it.", "Norman invasions began in the early 12th century and set in place Ireland's uneasy position within England's sphere of influence. The Act of Union that came into force on 1 Jan 1801 — in which Catholics, 90% of the Irish population, were excluded from Parliament — saw Ireland joining the United Kingdom. Some bars to non-Anglican civic participation were removed in the 1820s, but in the latter half of the 19th century and early 20th century the subject of Irish home rule was a major debate within the British parliament. After several failed attempts, a Home Rule bill finally passed through parliament in 1914 although the start of the first world war saw its indefinite postponement. A failed rebellion on Easter Monday in 1916 showed a hint of things to come with years of war to follow, beginning with the Irish War of Independence (1919-1921) and continuing with the Irish Civil War (1922-1923).", "The end of the war, in November 1918, was followed in Ireland by the December 1918 general election, the majority of seats being won by the republican separatist Sinn Féin party, then in January 1919 by the Irish War of Independence, so that the Act was never implemented. The future of Home Rule was determined by the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It established Northern Ireland, with a functional government, and Southern Ireland, whose governmental institutions never fully functioned. Southern Ireland, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, became the Irish Free State.", "Northern Ireland was created in 1922 from the six protestant-dominated counties of the Irish province of Ulster (the remaining three Ulster counties being catholic). After centuries of conflict with Britain, in which the 'Irish question' was a major political issue, demands for home rule for Ireland were met by establishing two separate parliaments subordinate to Westminster (the Government of Ireland Act 1920: text on BAILII). This proved unacceptable to the South and after negotiations leading to the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 (on the National Archives of Ireland website), the 26 counties of Southern Ireland left to form the Irish Free State, now known as the Republic of Ireland. The six predominantly protestant counties of the province of Ulster retained their own parliament under Westminster jurisdiction.", "Counties also are subdivisions of provinces, and people living in a province owed allegience to the ruling family of that province. Ulster has nine counties, six of which opted to remain in the United Kingdom at the time of the split in 1921, while the remaining three elected to join what is now the Republic of Ireland. The six counties that remained in the United Kingdom are: Antrim, Down, Armagh, Fermagh, Londonberry and Tyrone, which now comprise Northern Ireland. The other three: Donegal, Monaghan, and Cavan are part of the Republic of Ireland.", "Northern Ireland's relatively distinct history began in the early 17th cent., when, after the suppression of an Irish rebellion, much land was confiscated by the British crown and \"planted\" with Scottish and English settlers. Ulster took on a Protestant character as compared with the rest of Ireland; but there was no question of political separation until the late 19th cent. when William Gladstone presented (1886) his first proposal for Home Rule for Ireland. The largely Protestant population of the north feared domination under Home Rule by the Catholic majority in the south. In addition, industrial Ulster was bound economically more to England than to the rest of Ireland.", "Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres (8,321 sq mi). Its biggest city, Belfast , has an urban population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city in Ireland and the 10th largest urban area in the UK. Six of Ulster's nine counties , Antrim , Armagh , Down , Fermanagh , Londonderry and Tyrone , including the former parliamentary boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry , form Northern Ireland which remained part of the United Kingdom after the partition of Ireland in 1921. Three Ulster counties – Cavan , Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland . About half of Ulster's population lives in counties Antrim and Down. Across the nine counties, according to the aggregate UK 2011 Census for Northern Ireland, and the ROI 2011 Census for counties Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan, there is a Roman Catholic majority over Protestant of 50.8% to 42.7%. [3]", "In 1922, most of Ireland left the United Kingdom to form the Irish Free State following the Irish Civil War. The Irish Free State retained the British monarch as a Sovereign, but functioned as a Dominion of the Crown, with its own Government and Legislature. Six counties in the Irish province of Ulster remained in the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. In 1927, the name of the country was changed from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "The Third Home Rule Bill was introduced by British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in 1912, sparking the Home Rule Crisis. Although nationalists, who were in a majority in the country, supported home rule, Protestant unionists, led by Sir Edward Carson, opposed it, as they did not want to be ruled by a Catholic-dominated Irish government. To prevent home rule, in January 1913 they formed the Ulster Volunteers (UVF), the first paramilitary group to be founded in 20th-century Ireland.", "In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led members of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster in the 1918 British general election , to establish an Irish assembly in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration. [136] The Anglo-Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty , creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown. [137] Northern Ireland , consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act , immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom. [138]", "On 6 December 1922, exactly a year after the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed, the entire island of Ireland effectively seceded from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, forming a new dominion of the British Empire, the Irish Free State. As expected, the area known as \"Northern Ireland\" (six counties in Ulster), immediately exercised its right under the Anglo-Irish Treaty to opt out of the new state. On 7 December 1922, the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State, the Parliament of Northern Ireland made an address to King George V to opt out of the Irish Free State, which the King accepted. The surviving Union of Great Britain with part of Ireland was renamed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and is known by this name to the present time. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 formally amended the name of the UK Parliament to the \"Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\".", "Some moderate nationalists advocated for home rule, under which Ireland would remain part of the United Kingdom but also have some form of self-government. Several home rule bills were defeated in Parliament in the late 1800s before one finally passed in 1914. However, implementation of home rule was suspended due to the outbreak of World War I (1914-18).", "The Treaty was given legal effect in the  United Kingdom  through the  Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 . That Act established, on 6 December 1922, the new  Dominion  for the whole island of Ireland. Legally therefore, on 6 December 1922, Northern Ireland became an autonomous region of the newly created Irish Free State. However, the Treaty and the laws which implemented it also allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the Irish Free State. Under Article 12 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland could exercise its opt out by presenting an address to the  King  requesting not to be part of the Irish Free State. Once the Treaty was ratified, the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had one month (dubbed the Ulster month) to exercise this opt out during which month the Irish Free State Government could not legislate for Northern Ireland, holding the Free State’s effective jurisdiction in abeyance for a month.", "Northern Ireland was created in 1921 when the British government split Ireland into two autonomous territories.  It comprises six of the nine counties of Ulster (one of the four ancient Irish provinces), with the remaining three (Monaghan, Cavan and Donegal) staying in what is now the modern day Republic of Ireland . For this reason Ulster is a popular colloquial alternative name for Northern Ireland, even if it is not in the strictest sense historically accurate.", "The definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a definitive shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired . This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland , particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy and John de Courcy . Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920 . Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland , with the border passing through the province. \"Southern Ireland\" was to be all of Ireland except for \"the parliamentary counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone, and the parliamentary boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry [the city of Derry ]\" which were to constitute \"Northern Ireland\". The area of Northern Ireland was seen as the maximum area within which Ulster Protestants / unionists could be expected to have a safe majority, despite counties Fermanagh and Tyrone having slight Roman Catholic/ Irish nationalist majorities. While these six counties and two parliamentary boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan , Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State .", "The Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the political union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland with the Acts of Union 1707 on 1 May 1707 under Queen Anne. In 1801, under a new Act of Union, this kingdom merged with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After the Irish War of Independence (1919â1921) most of Ireland seceded from the Union, which then became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "A series of uprisings and the growth of various movements aimed at home rule or outright independence led gradually to many reforms, but the desire for complete independence continued to grow. After the bloodshed and political maneuvers that followed the Easter Uprising of 1916 and the proclamation of an Irish Republic by Irish members of Parliament in 1919, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed in 1921, establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status in the British Commonwealth. Violent opposition to dominion status and to a separate government in Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland precipitated a civil war lasting almost a year. The Free State was officially proclaimed and a new constitution adopted in 1922, but sentiment in favor of a reunified Irish Republic remained strong, represented at its extreme by the terrorist activities of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Powerful at first, the IRA lost much of its popularity after Éamon de Valera, a disillusioned supporter, took over the government in 1932. During the civil violence that disrupted Northern Ireland from the late 1960s on, the Irish government attempted to curb the \"provisional wing\" of the IRA, a terrorist organization that used Ireland as a base for attacks in the north. Beginning in 1976, the government assumed emergency powers to cope with IRA activities, but the terrorist acts continued, most notably the assassination on 27 August 1979 of the British Earl Mountbatten.", "1919 The Government of Ireland Act of Power (Home Rule for Ireland) came into being. It was signed by King George V. Ireland was divided into two parts, each with its own parliament.", "During this time the formal government of Ireland remained with Westminster. In an attempt to settle the Irish question, the United Kingdom Parliament passed the Government of Ireland Act in December 1920. The Act created a separate state of Northern Ireland, consisting of the six north-eastern counties of Ulster, and proposed separate parliaments for Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland.", "The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1 January 1801 created a new state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form a single political entity. The English capital of London was adopted as the capital of the Union.", "Charles Stewart Parnell   © Between 1801 and 1922 Ireland formed a constituent part of the United Kingdom.", "^ In 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland , which had been under English rule since King Henry II , became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland following the Act of Union , which lasted until the secession of Ireland in 1922 and the subsequent renaming of the state to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "(1921) Anglo-Irish Treaty signed. Northern Ireland partitioned off to remain part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Northern Ireland, division of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (2011 pop. 1,810,863), 5,462 sq mi (14,147 sq km), NE Ireland. Made up of six of the nine counties of the historic province of Ulster in NE Ireland, it is frequently called Ulster. The capital is Belfast .", "Asquith introduced a Government of Ireland bill against intense opposition from the unionists. It allowed for Home Rule and did not permit control of the Royal Irish Constabulary for six years. In the face of marching and drilling by Unionists in Ulster, the alternative of having an exemption for Ulster emerged. Both the Irish Party and the Unionists discussed this in private. Partition was not discussed.", "When it appeared that Home Rule would be achieved, Unionists in Ulster formed a militia called the Ulster Volunteers to fight anyone who might try and coerce them into a democratic self-governed Ireland dominated by a Catholic majority. Arthur Griffith founded Sinn Fein as a monarchist party which envisaged a future for Ireland whereby an Irish parliament would have more power than mere Home Rule but would retain the British monarch as head of state.", "Northern Ireland formed by the union of six counties of ‘Londonderry’, ‘Armagh’, ‘Down’, ‘Fermanagh’, ‘Tyrone’ and ‘Antrim’. Antrim falls within the historic ‘Ulster’ province and is located close to the biggest inland water body in Ireland, ‘Lough Neagh’. It also covers a considerable portion of Northern Ireland’s capital city; ‘Belfast’ and records a population density of 203 individuals per square kilometre.", "London felt compelled to hold onto six counties in the northeast corner of Ireland, centered around Belfast. Whereas the rest of Ireland was almost totally Catholic, three centuries of Scottish immigration and missionary activity had converted most of Ulster's inhabitants to Protestantism, and they preferred British rule to becoming a minority in a Catholic country. Until now Catholic nationalists had ignored the wishes of the Protestants, causing much resentment in the north. At first the six counties were given the option of staying with the new Irish Free State or rejoining the United Kingdom; all of them voted to go with the UK.", "The boundary between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) is established.", "The Scotch-Irish trace their ancestry to Scotland, but through Northern Ireland, which also belongs to the British Empire. Northern Ireland, which is composed of six counties—Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Down, Monaghan, and Tyrone, occupies an area of 5,452 square miles (14,121 square kilometers), or a territory somewhat larger than the state of Connecticut. Its capital and largest city is Belfast, where approximately one-fifth of the country's population of 1,594,000 resides." ]

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[ "The Commons is chaired by the Speaker. Unlike the Speaker in the US House of Representatives, the post is non-political and indeed, by convention, the political parties do not contest the Parliamentary constituency held by the Speaker.", "In the USA, both houses of the legislature - the Senate and the House of Representatives - are directly elected. In the UK, the House of Commons is directly elected, but the House of Lords is largely appointed (making it unique in the democratic world).", "The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker. There are also three Deputy Speakers, with the titles of Chairman of Ways and Means, First Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means, and Second Chairman of Ways and Means.", "The Houses of Parliament, is the government building of Great Britain, also known as The Palace of Westminster. It has been split up in the two Houses of Parliament called the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Commons is made up of elected Members of Parliament (MP's) from different political parties (Labor, Liberal Democrats, Conservative, etc). The party with the most Members of parliament forms the Government of England, with its leader becoming Prime Minister of England. Members of parliament from other parties make up the Opposition.", "Both houses of the British Parliament are presided over by a speaker, the Speaker of the House for the Commons and the Lord Speaker in the House of Lords.", "The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster.", "In both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the majority party chairs all committees which have considerable power. In the two chambers of the British legislature, committee chairperships are allocated between the different parties, roughly in proportion to the size of the party in the House, and the committees are much less powerful than in the US Congress.", "Like the speaker in the U.S. House of Representatives, the leader of the House of Commons chairs debates and wields great influence over who and what gets heard in the chamber. The post is technically a nonpartisan one.", "Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C-SPAN since March 19, 1979. ", "In a formal sense Parliament is the absolute summit of power, since there exist no juridical limitations whatsoever upon its powers, but in fact the adoption of laws and the budget is carried out by the government. The legal rights enjoyed by the two houses of Parliament are different. Financial bills may only be introduced in the House of Commons, and their adoption does not require the concurrence of the House of Lords. However, the House of Lords retains the right to postpone final approval of other bills. Thus, although the House of Lords occupies a subordinate position in the legislative process, under specific circumstances it can slow bills that have been adopted by the House of Commons. The procedure for passing bills in both houses is approximately the same; however, the chairman of the House of Commons, the speaker, has broad powers and can decisively affect the entire course of its work, whereas the lord chancellor, who presides in the House of Lords, is deprived of these powers. The monarch has the right to finally reject a law (the so-called absolute veto), but this right has not been utilized since the beginning of the 18th century. The legislative initiative lies almost completely with the government.", "The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster . The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Crossbenchers , sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack. [7]", "Parliament is the national legislature of the United Kingdom. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom, according to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. It is bicameral, composed of the elected House of Commons and the un-elected House of Lords , whose members are mostly appointed. The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two houses. The House of Commons has 646 members who are directly elected from single-member constituencies based on population. The House of Lords has 724 members (though this number is not fixed), constituted of hereditary peers, life peers, and bishops of the Church of England. The Church of England is the established church of the state in England.", "The Chamber of the House of Commons is at the northern end of the Palace of Westminster; it was opened in 1950 after the Victorian chamber had been destroyed in 1941 and re-built under the architect Giles Gilbert Scott . The Chamber measures 14 by 20.7 metres (46 by 68 ft) [19] and is far more austere than the Lords Chamber; the benches, as well as other furnishings in the Commons side of the Palace, are coloured green. Members of the public are forbidden to sit on the red benches, which are reserved for members of the House of Lords. Other parliaments in Commonwealth nations, including those of India , Canada , Australia and New Zealand , have copied the colour scheme under which the Lower House is associated with green, and the Upper House with red.", "The Chamber of the House of Commons is at the northern end of the Palace of Westminster; it was opened in 1950 after the Victorian chamber had been destroyed in 1941 and re-built under the architect Giles Gilbert Scott . The Chamber measures 14 by 20.7 metres (46 by 68 ft) [39] and is far more austere than the Lords Chamber; [116] the benches, as well as other furnishings in the Commons side of the Palace, are coloured green. Members of the public are forbidden to sit on the benches. Other parliaments in Commonwealth nations, including those of India , Canada , Australia and New Zealand , have copied the colour scheme under which the Lower House is associated with green, and the Upper House with red.", "US President Barack Obama (right) in the Members' Lobby during a tour of the Palace in May 2011. With him are, from the left: the Lord Great Chamberlain , the Marquess of Cholmondeley , holding his white staff of office; the Lord Speaker, Baroness Hayman ; and the Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow .", "On May 25th, 2011, British Parliament Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow gave a great introduction of President Barack Obama before President Obama addressed Parliament. See below photo of his introduction:", "In the late 1700s, when the US was declaring Independance, then later writing its own Constitution, the Parliament in the UK was controlled mostly via the mechanism of the House of Lords; the ‘very undemocratic’ upper house. Further, many of the people in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom were the sons of the high-aristocracy, or minor nobles, or the seriously rich. There were also extensive numbers of Rotten and pocket boroughs throughout the land. Many Members essentially ‘bought’ their seats. Edmund Burke was such a novelty in the Commons in this era because he was (for a time) the member for Bristol; which had a (gasp!) open election!", "*Members of the House of Representatives are similarly styled in writing as \"The Honorable [full name].\" Orally they are traditionally addressed as \"Mr./Ms. [name],\" but as a practice are sometimes addressed as \"Representative [name]\" or \"Congressman/Congresswoman [name]\" when it is necessary or desirable to specify the member's status. Follow the preference of the individual official. Following precedence in Westminster style of Parliament, when writing their own names, especially on stationery and franks, Representatives have upon occasion followed their names with \"M.C.\" (Member of Congress). Senators similarly are addressed in writing as \"The Honorable [full name]\" and orally as \"Senator Smith.\" Where Representatives may have used \"M.C.\", Senators have used \"U.S.S.\" (United States Senator). However neither form is currently used by members in Washington, DC. On the actual floor of the houses during debate, members commonly refer to one another as the gentleman/gentlewoman \"from such-and-such a state\" – \"As my friend, the distinguished gentleman from Ohio, just said...\" or \"I yield three minutes to the gentleman from New York, Mr. Smith\". In debate, senators sometimes refer to colleagues as the junior or senior senator from a state, as in \"I disagree with my dear friend, the junior senator from Ohio...\". Senators also commonly use \"my friend from X\" and \"the distinguished senator from X\".", "Commons is a democratically elected body, currently composed of 650 members: 533 from England, 40 from Wales, 59 from Scotland, and 18 from Northern Ireland. The membership is elected from single-member constinuencies that are periodically redrawn and increased or decreased. The speaker, a generally nonpartisan presiding officer, is elected by members of the party in power. The prime minister must, by modern tradition, be a member of Commons; all other ministers of the cabinet cabinet,", "The Lord Speaker is the speaker of the House of Lords in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The office is analogous to the Speaker of the House of Commons: the Lord Speaker is elected by the members of the House of Lords and is expected to be politically impartial.", "The House of Lords and the House of Commons meet in the Houses of Parliament, located next to the River Thames in London.", "The House of Commons was established in the second half of the 13th century when representatives from towns and counties began showing up at Parliament with their grievances. They ended up forming their own House. 'The House of Commons used to be quite subordinate to the House of Lords,' Sir Arthur explains with a touch of annoyance, 'but today it is actually more powerful. The House of Commons can actually override vetoes from the House of Lords! The horror of it!'", "Over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons. Their names are inscribed in gold leaf around the upper walls of Room C of the House of Commons Library. The three most recent Speakers have been notable for a series of firsts. Betty Boothroyd, elected in 1992, was the first woman Speaker. Michael Martin, elected in 2000, was the first Roman Catholic Speaker since the Reformation. John Bercow, elected in 2009, is the first Jewish Speaker.", "Almost all the other members of today's House of Lords are what we call life peers. This means that they have been chosen by the Queen, on the advice of the Government, to sit in the House for as long as they live, but afterwards no member of their family has the right to sit in the House. Almost 200 are former Members of Parliament. Others are distinguished figures in fields such as education, health and social policy.", "The full, formal title of the House of Lords is The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.", "In the course of the past century, the House of Commons has not succeeded as a parliamentary Chamber capable of legislating as well as it should. That is a problem for the other place and one which the other place alone can resolve. It is because it has failed in that respect that your Lordships’ House has with great distinction developed this role as an advising and revising Chamber, which it has shown with exemplary quality and patience in the course of the Bill.", "The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled", "  JOSEPH HUME . Q. You are a member of the House of Commons - A. Yes.", "The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Department for Communities and Local Government (Baroness Williams of Trafford) (Con): My Lords, it gives me great pleasure to open this debate to mark International Women’s Day, our annual opportunity to pause, to take stock and to reflect on how far women have come in social, economic, cultural and political life, and how far we still have to go.", "Learn about the evolution of the House of Commons, the role of its members, and how those members …", "In Britain, United States President Reagan became the first American chief executive to address a joint session of the British Parliament in London.", "is a Liberal Democrat politician. She is a Life Peer and former chair of the London Assembly.The results of those elections saw the Conservative Party and Liberal Democrats enter into a similar agreement as existed between Labour and Lib Dems previously." ]

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[ "British House of Commons , House of Commons - the lower house of the British parliament", "The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster.", "The House of Commons of the United Kingdom is the lower house of the country's parliament . Like the upper house , the House of Lords , it meets in the Palace of Westminster .", "The House of Commons is the lower chamber of the Houses of Parliament, and the House of Lords forms the upper chamber.", "The House of Commons, Parliament's lower house, is made up of about 650 elected Members of Parliament (MPs), one for each region of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The MPs are elected by the popular vote of citizens age 18 and over. The Prime Minister is actually a member of the House of Commons, too.", "House of Commons, also called Commons, popularly elected legislative body of the bicameral British Parliament . Although it is technically the lower house, the House of Commons is predominant over the House of Lords , and the name “Parliament” is often used to refer to the House of Commons alone.", "While sometimes described as the \"lower house\", the House of Commons is by far the most important of the two Houses of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons are known as Members of Parliament, or MPs.", "In British politics , the House of Lords is the unelected upper house of the United Kingdom Parliament . (The lower house is the House of Commons .) The House of Lords is unique in combining both legislative and judicial functions in the one body: it is both the upper house of Parliament and the highest court of appeal for criminal cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil cases in the whole of the United Kingdom. The House of Lords is located in the Palace of Westminster , and is used for the State Opening of Parliament , as by convention, the Sovereign may not enter the elected House of Commons.", "the Parliament of the United Kingdom , with 650 members elected to the (lower) House of Commons , referred to as Members of Parliament, abbreviated to MP;", "The House of Commons is one of the two chambers of the bicameral Parliament of the United Kingdom, the other being the House of Lords.", "The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons. However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons. Instead, the Queen requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House, normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, to form a government. So that they may be accountable to the Lower House, the Prime Minister and most members of the Cabinet are, by convention, members of the House of Commons. The last Prime Minister to be a member of the House of Lords was Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home, who became Prime Minister in 1963. To adhere to the convention under which he was responsible to the Lower House, he disclaimed his peerage and procured election to the House of Commons within days of becoming Prime Minister.", "This handbook presents a factual snapshot of the current position in each elected parliamentary chamber in the UK. All elected women are listed alongside tables showing representation by party. The positions of each of the parties represented in the chambers in relation to candidate selection for Westminster and the devolved chambers have been summarised in essays on each parliament/assembly. The handbook brings together information that is otherwise available but dispersed. On-line publication aims to ease wider circulation of the handbook which will be circulated to the political parties and to organisations with an interest in equal opportunities.", "The Liberal Democrats are a federal party of the parties of England, Scotland and Wales. The English and Scottish parties are further split into regions. The parliamentary parties of the House of Commons, the House of Lords, the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly form semi-autonomous units within the party. The leaders in the House of Commons and the Scottish Parliament are the leaders of the federal party and the Scottish Party; the leaders in the other two chambers, and the officers of all parliamentary parties, are elected from their own number. Co-ordination of all party activities across all federated groups is undertaken through the Federal Executive. Chaired by the party leader, its 30+ members includes representatives from each of the groups and democratically elected representatives. ", "The State Opening of Parliament is a ceremony loaded with historical ritual and symbolic significance for the governance of the United Kingdom. In one place are assembled the members of all three branches of government, of which the Monarch is the nominal head in each case: the Crown-in-Parliament, (the Queen, together with the House of Commons and the House of Lords), constitutes the legislature; Her Majesty's Ministers (who are members of one or other House) constitute the executive; Her Majesty's Judges, although not members of either House, are summoned to attend and represent the judiciary. Therefore, the State Opening demonstrates the governance of the United Kingdom but also the separation of powers. The importance of international relations is also represented through the presence in the Chamber of the Corps Diplomatique.", "The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red; thus, the House of Lords is sometimes referred to as the \"Red Chamber\". The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; supporters of the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Neutral members, known as Cross-benchers, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.", "The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.", "As a constituency of the House of Commons, it is traditionally a battleground between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. The current Member of Parliament Andrew Turner is a Conservative, and his predecessor Dr Peter Brand was a Liberal Democrat.", "The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the administration of the House. He or she chairs the House of Commons Commission, a body that appoints staff, determines their salaries, and supervises the general administration of those who serve the House. Furthermore, the Speaker controls the parts of the Palace of Westminster used by the House of Commons. Also, the Speaker is the ex officio Chairman of the four Boundary Commissions (for England , Wales , Scotland , and Northern Ireland ), which are charged with redrawing the boundaries of parliamentary constituencies to reflect population changes. However, the Speaker normally does not attend meetings of the Boundary Commissions; instead, the Deputy Chairman of the Commission (usually a judge) normally presides.", "Much of the work of Parliament is done in Committees rather than on the floor of the chamber. The House of Commons has two types of committee:", "The cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister's party or coalition and mostly from the House of Commons but always from both legislative houses, the cabinet being responsible to both. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, and become Ministers of the Crown. The current Prime Minister is Theresa May, who has been in office since 13 July 2016. May is also the leader of the Conservative Party. For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, each electing a single member of parliament (MP) by simple plurality. General elections are called by the monarch when the prime minister so advises. Prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 required that a new election must be called no later than five years after the previous general election. ", "Debates in the House of Commons are chaired by the Speaker. This person is the chief officer of the House of Commons. The Speaker is neutral and does not represent a political party, even though he or she is an MP, represents a constituency and deals with constituents’ problems like any other MP. The Speaker is chosen by other MPs in a secret ballot.", "The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general.", "The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the UK Parliament, the British Parliament or Parliament, is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories. It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom (currently Queen Elizabeth II) and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, London.", "London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is often referred to as the \"Mother of Parliaments\" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems. There are 73 Members of Parliament (MPs) from London, who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As of May 2015, 45 are from the Labour Party, 27 are Conservatives, and one is a Liberal Democrat. ", "Lord Low of Dalston (CB): My Lords, perhaps I might be permitted to say a word about the Commons rejection of my amendment. Despite the Minister’s best efforts to soften the impact of the £30 cut in the incomes of disabled people in the employment and support allowance WRAG, which I readily acknowledge, this is a black day for disabled people. The Commons have spoken decisively and we must bow to their wishes, but we do so under protest. Do not let anyone kid you that this is democracy in action. There is more to democracy than just being elected. Questions of representativeness, accessibility, openness and responsiveness all come into it as well. From these standpoints, this House, though unelected, is much more democratic. Organisations representing the needs of poor and dispossessed people find it much easier to get their point across and have it taken on board in the House of Lords than in the House of Commons, which is more politicised and subservient to the Whips—and the Whips were certainly working overtime last Wednesday night in the House of Commons, going round handing out bribes and blandishments like there was no tomorrow.", "The Speaker presides over the House's debates, determining which members may speak. The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, and may punish members who break the rules of the House. Unlike presiding officers of legislatures in many other countries, the Speaker remains strictly non-partisan, and renounces all affiliation with his or her former political party when taking office. The Speaker does not take part in debate nor vote (except to break ties, and even then, subject to conventions that maintain his or her non-partisan status). Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions, and remains a constituency Member of Parliament (MP). The Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker's House at the Palace of Westminster.", "The Northern Ireland Assembly (, Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlan Assemblie) is the devolved legislature of Northern Ireland. It has power to legislate in a wide range of areas that are not explicitly reserved to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and to appoint the Northern Ireland Executive. It sits at Parliament Buildings at Stormont in Belfast.", "Since 1999 both Scotland and Wales have assumed some regional governmental powers through the institution of a parliament and an assembly, respectively. In addition, Northern Ireland has had home rule through a parliament or assembly at various times since the early 20th cent. The introduction of Scottish and Welsh representative assemblies has raised the question of whether England should have its own parliament, separate from that of the United Kingdom, with powers similar to those of the Scottish body, or of whether Scottish and Welsh members of the British parliament should be barred from voting on matters that affect England only. The issue is controversial, with some fearing that the establishment of a parliament for England would ultimately lead to the dissolution of the United Kingdom.", "During the creation of the Devolved Administrations of Scotland and Wales, the idea of an English Parliament or Regional Assemblies were discussed but ultimately not implemented. This created an issue where the UK Parliament is acting as a de facto English Parliament on matters devolved to the national assemblies. MPs from all regions were free to debate and vote on issues which did not effect their constituencies or constituents.", "The current Member of Parliament is Nick Clegg, the former leader of the Liberal Democrats and Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. He won the seat after the outgoing LibDem MP Richard Allan stood down at the 2005 general election. After Sir Menzies Campbell's resignation in October 2007 as leader of the Liberal Democrats, Clegg contested the resulting leadership election and was elected leader on 18 December 2007.", "There are also local government authorities responsible for services at a local level. Each constituency votes for a local MP (Member of Parliament) who then goes to sit in Parliament and debate and vote.", "Mr Speaker, the result of the 21 August election is a salutary reminder that parliament is not a creature of the executive and that every piece of legislation will require, and should be given, careful and thoughtful deliberation. It is also a reminder that our colleagues on the crossbench have their own rights as legislators which must be protected and upheld. For the government’s part we accept these realities and welcome the opportunity for reform that they present. We want this parliament to be productive both in its rules and procedures but also in its outcomes for the nation, and we pledge to uphold the spirit of consensus and goodwill at every possible turn. [241]" ]

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[ "The Single Transferable Vote (STV) is a form of proportional representation  which produces a proportional parliament with local representation and the direct election of individuals. Each constituency sends a team of MPs that represent the diversity of opinion in that constituency to parliament. ", "There are two PR voting systems: party list PR and the single transferable vote (STV). Mixed member proportional representation (MMP), also known as the Additional Member System, is a hybrid Mixed Electoral System that uses party list PR as its proportional component. MMP has the potential to be proportional or semi-proportional depending on a number of factors such as the ratio of FPTP seats to PR seats, the existence or nonexistence of compensatory seats to make up for overhang seats, and election thresholds. ", "* The system must be a form of proportional representation, under either the party list or Single Transferable Vote system.", "When the single transferable vote (STV) system is applied to a single-winner election it becomes IRV. Some Irish observers mistakenly call IRV \"proportional representation\" based on the fact that the same ballot form is used to elect its president by IRV and parliamentary seats by STV, but IRV is a winner-take-all election method.", "The voting system for the European elections is by proportional representation - closed list - voting for a party or an independent candidate. For Northern Ireland the Single Transferable Vote is used (ranking the candidates in order of preference). The system is explained here:", "Prior to 1997, and the Labour Party government of Tony Blair, there were only three types of elections: general elections, local government elections, and elections to the European Parliament. Most elections were conducted under the First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system, though in Northern Ireland local government and European elections were conducted under the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system. The constitutional reforms of Labour drastically changed elections, introducing elected regional assemblies and elected mayors in certain cities. Proportional Representation (PR) was introduced outside of Northern Ireland for the first time.", "Single Transferable Vote - voting system, as defined by Ordinances, used within the University for elections to certain Councils, Boards,etc.", "Australia uses preferential voting in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In the House it is used in single member electorates. However, in the Senate, it used for multi-member constituencies, as it is in four state upper houses, and the lower house in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. This system of preferential voting in multi-member electorates is best referred to as Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote, and overseas is often simply called Single Transferable Vote. In Australia, it has in the past often been called Quota Preferential Voting, as a candidate requires a quota to be elected, and preferences play a part in a candidate achieving a quota. Two main variants are used in Australia, the Senate voting system, and a system used for the Tasmanian and Australian Capital Territory assemblies known as Hare-Clark . While some minor counting differences occur between the two systems, the main differences relate to the way more weight is given to vote for candidates in Hare-Clark compared to party vote in the Senate system.", "Mixed member proportional representation (MMP), also called the additional member system (AMS), is a hybrid, two-tier, mixed member system combining a non-proportional Plurality/Majoritarian election and a compensatory regional or national party list PR one. Voters have two votes, one for their single-member district and one for the party list, the party list vote determining the balance of the parties in the elected body. Biproportional apportionment, first used in Zurich in 2006, is a two-tier method for adjusting an election's result to achieve overall proportionality. ", "In the parliamentary elections held on April 9-10, 2006, a full-blown proportional representation [PR] electoral system replaced the mixed one. Each elector cast one vote for a closed party list, from which electors cannot choose individual candidates. The PR system used in 2006 also brought with it a \"majority prize\". It awarded \"bonus\" seats to winners on a national basis in the lower house and regionally in the Senate. Take the lower house for example, the bonus meant that a party or a coalition, obtaining the most votes but still short of 55 percent of parliament seats, will be given extra seats till its number of seats increases to 340, or 55 percent, out of a total of 618 seats.", "The extent to which an electoral system is PR-based depends on the number of candidates elected per constituency and the existence of any thresholds for successful election. A number of electoral systems combine elements of both, such as the single non-transferable vote and cumulative voting systems.", "The other option permitted under the Local Electoral Act 2001, but not currently used in Nelson, is the Single Transferable Vote system. Electors vote by ranking candidates in order of preference by placing a number beside each candidate's name. The elector can vote for one or up to the total number of candidates on the paper. The number of votes required for a candidate to be elected, the quota, depends on the number of positions to be filled and the number of valid votes.", "The traditional single transferable vote system is used. Candidates are listed in alphabetical order on the ballot paper. Each voter casts his vote for one candidate and in addition indicates in order of preference the candidates to whom his vote should be given if the candidate of his first choice has already received more than the number of votes necessary for election, or has obtained too few votes and has thus been eliminated.", "Australia is the only nation with a long record of using IRV for the election of legislative bodies. IRV produces representation very similar to those produced by the plurality system, with a two party system in parliament similar to those found in many countries that use plurality and two round systems . A significant difference is that a smaller third party, the National Party of Australia , can co-exist with its coalition partner the Liberal Party of Australia , and can compete against it without fear of losing seats to other parties due to vote splitting. [23] In the November 2007 elections, at least four candidates ran in every constituency, with an average of seven, but every constituency was won with an absolute majority of votes. [24]", "Australia is the only nation with a long record of using IRV for the election of legislative bodies. IRV produces representation very similar to those produced by the plurality system, with a result similar to a two party system in parliament like those found in many countries that use plurality and two round systems . A significant difference is that a smaller third party, the National Party of Australia , can co-exist with its coalition partner the Liberal Party of Australia , and can compete against it without fear of losing seats to other parties due to vote splitting. [35] In the November 2007 elections, at least four candidates ran in every constituency, with an average of seven, but every constituency was won with an absolute majority of votes. [36]", "The voters mark their paper by placing the figure ' 1 ' opposite the name of the candidate of their first choice. They may then place the figure '2' opposite the name of their second choice and so on. Under the single transferable vote system the elector is in effect telling the returning officer: 'I wish to vote for A, but if A does not need my vote or has no chance of being elected, transfer my vote to B. If B in turn does not need my vote or has no chance of election, transfer my vote to C, and so on'.", "Party list voting has a number of advantages over plurality-majority voting.  It assures accurate representation of parties in legislatures.  It gives voters more choices of parties at the polls, increases voter turnout, and wastes far fewer votes. This form of PR also reduces the creation of manufactured majorities and the opportunity for gerrymandering.  In addition, it assures fair representation for third parties, racial minorities, and women.  On the other hand, some forms of party list PR use very large districts and do not ensure local geographical representation. Closed party list systems give voters little power over which party candidates win office. Like all PR systems, party list PR usually results in coalitions governments, not single-party governments.  ", "Elections for both assemblies are held in May 1999, on a system of proportional representation. About two thirds of the candidates are returned on a first-past-the-post basis, with the other third added from party lists to achieve the required balance.", "A party list proportional representation system was devised and described in 1878 by Victor D'Hondt in Belgium. D'Hondt's method of seat allocation, the D'Hondt method, is still widely used. Victor Considerant, a utopian socialist, devised a similar system in an 1892 book. Some Swiss cantons (beginning with Ticino in 1890) used the system before Belgium, which was first to adopt list PR in 1900 for its national parliament. Many European countries adopted similar systems during or after World War I. List PR was favoured on the Continent because the use of lists in elections, the scrutin de liste, was already widespread. STV was preferred in the English-speaking world because its tradition was the election of individuals.", "Proportional representation electoral systems – in contrast to plurality/majority systems – generally award legislative seats to political parties in approximate proportion to the number of votes each receives. For example, in a 100-member legislature, if Party A receives 50 percent of the total vote, Party B, 30 percent, and Party C, 20 percent, then Party A would be awarded 50 seats, Party B 30 seats, and Party C 20 seats. There are various forms of proportional representation and the degree of reaching proportionality varies. Some forms of proportional representation are focused solely on achieving the proportional representation of different political parties and voters cast ballots only for political parties, whereas in other forms, voters cast ballots for individual candidates within a political party.", "The electoral registration system in Great Britain changed from 10 June 2014. The new system is called Individual Electoral Registration (or IER).", "AMS is a hybrid voting system, part First Past The Post and part closed party list, the party list element added on to make the result more proportional. Outside the UK it is more commonly referred to as Mixed Member Proportional (MMP).The exact proportion of constituency representatives and list representatives varies from country to country; the constituency element usually makes up between 50 and 80 per cent. Voters typically have two votes - one for a candidate and one for a party.", "The parliamentary system uses proportional representation, with voters voting for political parties rather than for candidates. Proportional representation allows for smaller parties to have a chance of acquiring seats in parliament, although these parties often combine in order to have a stronger voice within the political system, especially against the ANC. The Independent Electoral Commission is charged with keeping elections fair, regular, and equal. Parties submit closed lists of candidates to the IEC, and the IEC fills the seats allotted to individual parties using the candidate lists after election results come in. The electoral system has seen little corruption since 1994. An average of 30% of Africans have admitted to selling their votes between 2015 and 2016, while only 15% of South Africans have admitted to this. ", "* The voter may vote for a party list, one of the candidates on a party list, or an independent candidate.", "The most recent substantial revision of the election law came in February 2015, and was partially upheld by the Constitutional Court in September 2015. An element of preferential voting was introduced by letting voters choose not only for a list of candidates, but also a single member of the same list. If the percentage of votes for a candidate exceeds 10%, they are elected as if it was an open list system. The list ranking is maintained for those candidates that do not meet this quota. ", "During the 1980s and ’90s, electoral-reform movements pressed for changes in voting systems. In Britain proportional representation was adopted for elections to the European Parliament and for some local elections in London and Northern Ireland (though not for elections to the House of Commons ). Several other countries—notably Italy, which adopted a modified constituency-based system to reduce the number of political parties in the legislature and to create more stability in the cabinet—have altered their national voting systems.", "In these systems, parties make lists of candidates to be elected, and seats get allocated to each party in proportion to the number of votes the party receives. Voters may vote directly for the party, as in Albania, Argentina, Turkey, and Israel; or for candidates whose vote total will pool to the party, as in Finland, Brazil and the Netherlands; or for a list of candidates, as in Hong Kong. ", "Under compulsory preferential, a ballot paper must have a complete and sequential ordering of preferences. Even if the primary vote on the ballot paper was for a candidate who finished in the final two-candidate preferred count, the ballot paper was informal if higher preferences were invalid. This was the case even if these higher preferences would never be counted. As a result, the Electoral Act was amended before the 1984 election so that votes with all squares numbered, but where a numbering error occurred, could remain in the count, with preferences valid up until the point where the error occurred. The Parliament did not intend that this to become a form of optional preferential voting, so publicising this form of voting was made illegal. However, a Melbourne political activist, Albert Langer, chose to encourage people to vote deliberately in this way, say to vote 1,2,2,2, etc to deny the major parties preferences. He was eventually ordered by the Electoral Commission to stop encouraging these votes, and when he defied the order, was briefly gaoled. As a result, this form of voting has become known as 'Langer voting'. The provision which allowed duplicate numbering to be formal was removed after the 1998 election, and all Langer-style ballot papers are again informal.", "The use of the first-past-the-post to elect members of Parliament is unusual among European nations. The use of the system means that when three or more candidates receive a significant share of the vote, MPs are often elected from individual constituencies with a plurality (receiving more votes than any other candidate), but not an absolute majority (50 percent plus one vote).", "The votes are counted in stages. In the first round only first preferences are counted. Anyone who reaches the quota is elected. Any votes received over the quota are not needed by the elected candidate and so are transferred to the second preference. If not enough candidates have then reached the quota, the candidate with the lowest number of votes is eliminated and all of their votes are passed to the next preference on the ballot papers.", "The votes are counted in stages. In the first stage only first preferences are counted. Anyone who reaches the quota is elected. Any votes received over the quota are not needed by the elected candidate and so are transferred to the second preference.", "The votes are counted in stages. In the first round only first preferences are counted. Anyone who reaches the quota is elected. Any votes received over the quota are not needed by the elected candidate and so are transferred to the second preference." ]

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[ "Albert Arnold \"Al\" Gore, Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States (1993--2001), under President Bill Clinton. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for President and lost the 2000 U.S. presidential election despite winning the popular vote. Gore is currently an author and environmental activist. He has founded a number of non-profit organizations, including the Alliance for Climate Protection, and has received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work in climate change activism.", "Albert Arnold “Al” Gore, Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States (1993–2001), under President Bill Clinton. He was the Democratic Party’s nominee for President and lost the 2000 U.S. presidential election despite winning the popular vote. Gore is currently an author and environmental activist. He has founded a number of non-profit organizations, including the Alliance for Climate Protection, and has received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work in climate change activism.", "The end of the Cold War in 1990 left the United States in search of a \"new world order,\" while major economic and social transformations suggested the need for a new domestic agenda, and the 1992 campaign occurred in a time of great change. These strains produced high levels of disaffection with politics and government. Republican President George Bush's popularity after the Persian Gulf War reduced the number of contenders for the Democratic nomination. Arkansas Gov. William J. (Bill) Clinton emerged early as the front-runner, and a unified national convention nominated another southerner, Tennessee Sen. Albert Gore, for the vice presidency.", "Albert Arnold \"Al\" Gore, Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He was Clinton's running mate in their successful campaign in 1992, and was re-elected in 1996. At the end of Clinton's second term, Gore was picked as the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election. After leaving office, Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist, whose work in climate change activism earned him (jointly with the IPCC) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.", "George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 41st President of the United States (1989–1993). A Republican, he had previously served as the 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–1989), a congressman, an ambassador, and Director of Central Intelligence . He is the oldest former President and Vice President, and the last former President who is a veteran of World War II . Bush is often referred to as \"George H. W. Bush\", \"Bush 41\", \"Bush the Elder\", and \"George Bush, Sr.\" to distinguish him from his son, former President George W. Bush . Prior to that son's fame or notability, he was widely known simply as George Bush.", "*Richard \"Dick\" Cheney (born 1941), American politician, Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Wyoming (1979-1989), Secretary of Defense (1989-1993) and Vice President (2001-2009)", "Albert Arnold Al Gore, Jr. born March 31, 1948 is an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States 1993�2001, under President Bill Clinton. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for President and lost the 2000 U.S. presidential election despite winning the popular vote. Gore is currently an author and environmental activist. He has founded a number of non-profit organizations, including the Alliance for Climate Protection, and has received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work in climate change activism.", "Albert Arnold \"Al\" Gore Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. Chosen as Clinton's running mate in their successful 1992 campaign, he was reelected in 1996. At the end of Clinton's second term, Gore was the Democratic Party's nominee for President in 2000. After leaving office, Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist, whose work in climate change activism earned him (jointly with the IPCC) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.", "QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan), (father of Ben Quayle), a Representative and a Senator from Indiana and a Vice President of the United States; born in Indianapolis, Marion County, Ind., February 4, 1947; attended the public schools of Phoenix, Ariz., and Huntington, Ind.; graduated, DePauw University, Greencastle, Ind., 1969; graduated, Indiana University, Indianapolis 1974; admitted to the Indiana bar in 1974 and commenced practice in Huntington; served in the Indiana National Guard 1969-1975; associate publisher of the Huntington Herald Press; elected as a Republican to the Ninety-fifth Congress in 1976; reelected to the Ninety-sixth Congress (January 3, 1977-January 3, 1981); was not a candidate in 1980 for reelection to the House of Representatives, but was elected to the United States Senate; reelected in 1986 and served from January 3, 1981, until January 3, 1989, when he resigned to become Vice President of the United States; chairman, Select Committee to Study the Committee System (Ninety-eighth Congress); elected Vice President of the United States in 1988 with President George Herbert Walker Bush and was inaugurated January 20, 1989; unsuccessful candidate for reelection as Vice President in 1992; is a resident of Paradise Valley, Ariz.", "For his efforts as Vice President, Bush was the uncontested Republican presidential nominee in 1988. One of Bush's weaknesses was, despite all of his public appearances, he never became much of an orator. Where Ronald Reagan was the Great Communicator, Bush disliked public speaking, and he often came across as flat. At the convention, however, he shined. When he was given the nomination, his acceptance speech was one of his finest. He called for \"A Thousand Points of Lights,\" hit the road running, and named Dan Quayle, a Senator from Indiana, as his Vice Presidential candidate. They campaigned vigorously and won the election against Democrats Dukakis and Bentsen.", "The second, George H.W. Bush, also was a candidate for the vice presidency when he visited International Headquarters for the World Series in 1980. Vice President Bush, who coached his sons in Little League in Texas, followed Ronald Reagan into the White House, as the 41st President of the United States.", "With his political future seeming dismal, Bush sold his house in Houston and bought his grandfather's estate in Kennebunkport , Maine, known as \"Walker's Point\". [29] At the Republican Convention, however, Reagan selected Bush as his Vice Presidential nominee, placing him on the winning Republican presidential ticket of 1980.", "President Bush's approval rating reached an impressive 89 percent in 1991 after the international coalition he forged against Iraq achieved victory in the Persian Gulf War. However, a recession that began in 1990, combined with the electorate's growing concern with domestic issues in the aftermath of the Cold War and public impatience with \"gridlock\" in the government, counted against him in his reelection bid. Led by Bill CLINTON, the Democrats in 1992 captured the presidency (with 370 ELECTORAL votes to Bush's 168) and solid majorities in both houses of Congress. In 1994, having blocked Clinton's legislative agenda and mounted an aggressive counterattack in that year's mid-term election campaign, Republicans seized control of both houses of Congress.", "Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the fortieth Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. He was the first person appointed to the vice-presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment, and became President upon Richard Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974. Ford was the fifth U.S. President never to have been elected to that position, and the only one never to have won any national election. Currently, he is also the longest-lived president in U.S. history, living to age 93.", "He was the vice president of Carter and when he won the democratic nomination he was defeated by a landslide by Reagan. He was the first presidential candidate to have a woman vice president, Geraldine Ferraro.", "Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 — June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989 . He was the sixteenth from the Republican Party, serving between Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush . Reagan is well-known for moving the country to the right politically, socially, and economically, accidentally causing the biggest World War III scare since 1962 (in the 1983 Able Archer Crisis), and his successful diplomatic initiative to negotiate a peaceful end to the Cold War by working together with Mikhail Gorbachev . He also was the last President to be in office during a war in which the United States officially declared itself to be neutral: namely the Falklands Conflict between the United Kingdom and Argentina.", "Lyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969, assuming the office after serving as the 37th Vice President of the United States under President John F. Kennedy, from 1961 to 1963. Johnson was a Democrat from Texas, who served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two as Senate Majority Whip.", "Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the fortieth Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. He was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under", "During the 1976 Republican National Convention, Rumsfeld received one vote for Vice President of the United States, although he did not seek the office, and the nomination was easily won by Ford's choice, Senator Bob Dole. During the 1980 Republican National Convention he also received one vote for Vice President. Economist Milton Friedman later noted that he, Friedman, regarded Reagan's pick of Bush as \"the worst decision not only of his campaign but of his presidency,\" and that Rumsfeld was instead his preference. \"Had he been chosen,\" Friedman said, \"I believe he would have succeeded Reagan as president and the sorry Bush-Clinton period would never have occurred.\" ", "*Dick Cheney (born 1941), American politician (46th Vice President of the United States), transplant in 2012", "George Herbert Walker Bush was born on June 12, 1924, in Milton Massachusetts. He served as the 41st president of the United States from 1989 to 1993. Bush’s parents Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush moved the family to Greenwich, Connecticut when he was a young boy. Though his family was wealthy, the children were raised to be modest, engage in public service, and be charitable according to the Miller Center. In his teens, Bush left home to attend Phillips Academy Andover boarding school in Massachusetts, where he was an active sportsman and student leader. After graduating from the academy on his 18th birthday he enlisted on the same day to the United States Navy .", "1990 — President George H. W. Bush announces a planned summit in Washington D.C. with Soviet leader Mikhail S. Gorbachev.", "Clinton served as the 42nd President of the United States, from 1993 to 2001. He was the third-youngest president; only Theodore Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy were younger when entering office. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and as he was born in the period after World War II, he is known as the first Baby Boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. She was previously a United States Senator from New York, and also candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. Both are graduates of Yale Law School.", "Spiro Theodore Agnew (; November 9, 1918 – September 17, 1996) was an American politician who served as the 39th Vice President of the United States from 1969 to 1973, under President Richard Nixon.", "Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States (1969–1974) and is the only president to resign the office. He was also the 36th Vice President of the United States (1953–1961).", "The 2000 Republican presidential nominee, George W. Bush , announced he had chosen his vice presidential running mate on July 25, 2000. He was Dick Cheney, who had served as White House chief of staff to President Gerald Ford , congressman and Secretary of Defense. Bush made the announcement about one week before that year's Republican National Convention, held in late July and early August of 2000.", "Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974 when he became the only U.S. president to resign the office. Nixon had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.", "Colin Luther Powell (; born April 5, 1937) is an American statesman and a retired four-star general in the United States Army. He was the 65th United States Secretary of State, serving under U.S. President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2005, the first African American to serve in that position. During his military career, Powell also served as National Security Advisor (1987–1989), as Commander of the U.S. Army Forces Command (1989) and as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), holding the latter position during the Persian Gulf War. Born in Harlem as the son of Jamaican immigrants, Powell was the first, and so far the only, African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the first of two consecutive black office-holders to serve as U.S. Secretary of State.", "Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–1974) and the only American president to resign from that office. He was also Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.", "Clinton tried, rather unsuccessfully, in 1987 and 1989 to raise new taxes for education, but after a resounding victory in the 1990 election over a well-financed Republican opponent, Sheffield Nelson , and the defeat of several key legislative opponents, he had major success in 1991. He had called a news conference in 1988 to announce plans to run for president but changed his mind at the last minute, explaining that the campaign and the job would be too hard on his wife and daughter, Chelsea Victoria, who was eight. Although he had promised during the 1990 campaign that he would complete his four-year term, he decided to run for president in 1992. His education reforms and his leadership of several national organizations, including the National Governors’ Conference and the Democratic Leadership Council—a group of moderate Democratic officeholders and businesspeople who sought to alter the liberal bent of the national Democratic Party —strengthened his national stature and gave him important connections.", "Bill Clinton is an American politician from Arkansas who served as the 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001). He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby-boomer generation President.", "Bill Clinton is an American politician from Arkansas who served as the 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001). He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby-boomer generation President. " ]

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[ "Sir Edward Richard George Heath, KG, MBE (9 July 1916 � 17 July 2005), often known as Ted Heath, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 to 1975. Heath's accession represented a change in the leadership of the Conservative party, from aristocratic figures such as Harold Macmillan and Lord Home to the self-consciously meritocratic Heath, and later, Margaret Thatcher. He is most remembered as being the Prime Minister who took Britain into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973. His premiership was also marked by an escalation of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, and industrial disputes, which led to the \"three-day week\" in 1974. Early life Ted (or \"Teddy\" as he was known as a young man) Heath was born the son of ...", "In 1973, facing growing economic decline, Great Britain sought entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), predecessor to today’s European Union (EU). Before Britain’s entry, the six member states were Belgium, France, Luxembourg, West Germany and the Netherlands. Up until 1973, France’s President Charles de Gaulle had repeatedly blocked U.K. membership to the EEC, fearing British membership would weaken the French voice in Europe and increase America’s influence. Following de Gaulle’s 1969 resignation, British Prime Minister Edward Heath took the U.K. into the EEC in 1973 with the Queen’s blessing, joining with Denmark and Ireland to bring the total number of member states up to nine. In 1975, newly elected Prime Minister Harold Wilson held a referendum on Britain’s continued membership; 66 percent voted to stay in the European Community.", "The Conservative Prime Minister, Edward Heath, took the UK into the EEC in January 1973 after President de Gaulle of France had blocked UK membership twice in the 1960s. This brought EEC membership to nine.  In a referendum in 1975 the UK electorate voted to stay in the EEC under renegotiated terms of entry.", "In response, Britain formed the European Free Trade Area, consisting of seven members (the Scandinavian countries and Switzerland) in 1959. Britain attempted to join the EEC in 1961 and 1967, but both applications were vetoed by French president Charles de Gaulle. Following the election of a Conservative government in 1970, Prime Minister Edward Heath re-opened negotiations with the EEC and, in 1973, Britain became a member of the Community, along with the Irish Republic and Denmark.", "There has also been a counter-tradition of seeing Britain as part of Europe. Prime Minister Edward Heath, who led the UK into the EU in 1973, said, “We are part of Europe by geography, tradition, history, culture, and civilization. We shall continue to work with our friends in Europe for the true unity and strength of this continent.”", "Following his victory in the 1970 election (and helped by de Gaulle’s fall from power in 1969), the new prime minister Edward Heath negotiated Britain admission to the EC, alongside Denmark and Ireland in 1973. The Labour Party in opposition continued to be deeply divided on the issue, and risked a major split. Leading opponents of membership included Richard Crossman, who was for two years (1970-72) the editor of the New Statesman magazine, at that time the leading left-of-center weekly journal, which published many polemics in support of the anti-EC case. Prominent among Labour supporters of membership was Roy Jenkins.", "Following his victory in the 1970 election (and helped by de Gaulle's fall from power in 1969), the new prime minister Edward Heath negotiated Britain's admission to the EC, alongside Denmark and Ireland in 1973. The Labour Party in opposition continued to be deeply divided on the issue, and risked a major split. Leading opponents of membership included Richard Crossman , who was for two years (1970–72) the editor of New Statesman , at that time the leading left-of-centre weekly journal, which published many polemics in support of the anti-EC case. Prominent among Labour supporters of membership was Roy Jenkins .", "In 1952, when the European Coal and Steel Community was instituted, the United Kingdom decided not to become a member. The UK was still absent when the Treaty of Rome was signed, creating the European Economic Community (the Common Market). However, in the late 1950s the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan dramatically changed its attitude and appointed Edward Heath, later prime minister, to submit an application and lead negotiations for Britain to enter the Common Market. But at a meeting in January 1963 the French president Charles de Gaulle rebuffed and vetoed Macmillan's request to join the Common Market. Despite the veto, Britain restarted talks with the EEC in 1967; and in April 1970, during the 1970 general election campaign, Edward Heath said that further European integration would not happen \"except with the full-hearted consent of the Parliaments and peoples of the new member countries\". Heath became Prime Minister, and personally led many of the negotiations: he struck up a friendship with the new French president Georges Pompidou who oversaw the lifting of the veto, which paved the way for UK membership. No referendum was held when Britain agreed to an accession treaty on 22 January 1972 together with the EEC states, Denmark, and Ireland, or when the European Communities Act 1972 went through the legislative process. Britain joined the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973, along with Denmark and Ireland. This later became the European Union.", "Claiming continental European solidarity, de Gaulle again rejected British entry when they next applied to join the community in December 1967 under the Labour leadership of Harold Wilson. During negotiations, de Gaulle chided Britain for relying too much on the Americans, saying that sooner or later they would always do what was in their best interests. Wilson said he then gently raised the spectre of the threat of a newly powerful Germany as a result of the EEC, which de Gaulle agreed was a risk. After de Gaulle left office the United Kingdom applied again and finally became a member of the EEC in January 1973. ", "Under the Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, there was a UK referendum on continued membership of the EEC in 1975. The electorate voted ‘Yes’ by 67.2% to 32.8% to stay in Europe.", "Sir Edward Richard George \"Ted\" Heath, KG, MBE, PC (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1970–74) and as Leader of the Conservative Party (1965–75).", "Heath became the first elected Leader of the Conservative Party while in Opposition in 1965, and succeeded Home as prime minister in 1970. In 1971, Britain signed the Treaty of Accession, joining the European Community. Heath was awarded the European Prize for Statesmanship. He was defeated in the general election of 1974, some think as a result of his opposition to striking minors as a tactic to keep inflation under control. After losing the second General Election of 1974 Heath was challenged and defeated by Margaret Thatcher who was initially viewed as a no hope \"stalking horse\" candidate. He was critical of Thatcher's policies especially her stand against full participation in the European Community.", "These two maverick politicians were to complicate the question of Britain’s entry when it finally became possible, with the removal of office from de Gaulle in 1969 and the unexpected victory of Edward Heath in 1970, the most pro-European, arguably the only really pro-European Prime Minister ever to have sat in Downing Street, and the only one who really, I suspect, shared the aims of the original six for an ever-closer union, and both Powell and Benn were to complicate Heath’s attempt to join Europe, and when he did join Europe, they were to bring him down and Heath was to prove yet another victim of the European Union. I suspect he is not the last political victim of the European Union, but I shall describe that in my next lecture.", "Britain initially spurned the European Economic Community, founded in the Treaty of Rome in 1957, on the grounds that the UK was a global power with horizons beyond the European continent. When Britain applied to join in 1963, the then French president, Charles de Gaulle, said \"non\" – a view he repeated in 1967 – on the grounds that Britain was hostile to European integration. Britain eventually joined the EEC in January 1973.", "Shortly before Heath became prime minister in 1970, the third British application to join the Common Market had been submitted by Labour's Harold Wilson. But Wilson's singleness of purpose was in doubt. Heath's was not. On October 28 1971, the Commons voted with a 112 majority to go into Europe.", "He took Britain into what was then the European Economic Community, but lost his leadership of the Tory party to Margaret Thatcher in 1975.", "Furthermore, in 1975 he took a leading part in the referendum on Europe, the only one we have ever had on Europe, which took place after we were in the European Community. We joined in 1973, but the referendum in 1975 was concerned with whether we should stay on the terms re-negotiated by Harold Wilson. This was largely a cosmetic re-negotiation and the referendum was won for the pro-Europeans by two to one. Jenkins worked with people from other parties in that referendum - Conservative pro-Europeans such as Edward Heath and William Whitelaw - but perhaps more important for the future was the Liberal Leader, David Steel. He rather enjoyed working with members of other parties, even against some in his own Party. ", "Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born May 6 , 1953 ) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 2, 1997 to June 27, 2007. He was an employment law barrister before being elected to Parliament as Labour Party MP for the constituency of Sedgefield in 1983. Becoming Labour Party leader in 1994, he adopted moderate pro-free market policies and won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election . His decision to send UK forces to assist in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was highly controversial and surrounding scandals tarnished his image, although he was re-elected in 2005.", "Sir John Major KG CH PC ACIB (born March 29, 1943), is a British politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the British Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He was Prime Minister at a time of great change including the transition following the end of the Cold War, the Gulf War and the further integration of the European Union. His willingness to compromise and engage in talks with the IRA advanced the peace process in Northern Ireland which, after he left office, resulted in the Good Friday Agreement .", "As prime minister from 1990 to 1997, John Major entered the scene as a pro-European, bent on being at the heart of Europe , in contrast to his predecessor Margaret Thatcher . He negotiated the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, his proud claim being to have obtained opt-out s from the final stage of EMU and from the Social Chapter . Indeed, at the time little more could have been achieved to protect the UK 's position, which differed for good reason from that of its Continental partners.", "Among the most challenging political dilemmas Wilson faced in opposition and on his return to power was the issue of British membership of the European Community (EC), which had been negotiated by the Heath administration following de Gaulle's fall from power in France. The Labour party was deeply divided on the issue, and risked a major split. Wilson showed political ingenuity in devising a position that both sides of the party could agree on. Labour's manifesto in 1974 thus included a pledge to renegotiate terms for Britain's membership and then hold a referendum (a constitutional procedure without precedent in British history) on whether to stay in the EC on the new terms. A referendum on the retention was duly held on 5 June 1975 . Rather than the normal British tradition of the government taking a position which all its members were required to support publicly, members of the Government were free to present their views on either side of the question. In the event, continued membership passed.", "The Conservative Party won the 1970 General Election with a majority of 30 seats. Heath now became prime minister and immediately made the third British application to join the European Economic Community (ECC). On 28th October, 1971, the House of Commons voted with a 112 majority to go into Europe. However, many in his party was unhappy with this policy and it created deep divisions that lasted for over thirty years.", "In 1960 Macmillan appointed Heath Lord Privy Seal with responsibility for the negotiations to secure the UK's first attempt to join the Common Market (as the European Community was then called). After extensive negotiations, involving detailed agreements about the UK's agricultural trade with Commonwealth countries such as New Zealand , British entry was vetoed by the French President, Charles de Gaulle , at a press conference in January 1963 - much to the disappointment of Heath, who was a firm supporter of European common market membership for the United Kingdom. However, he would oversee a successful application when serving in a higher position a decade later. [5]", "Upon entering office in June 1970, Heath immediately set about trying to reverse Wilson's policy of ending Britain's military presence East of Suez. In January 1972, on arriving at the Egmont Palace in Brussels to sign the treaty admitting the UK to the European Communities, he was spattered with ink by a protester. Heath took the United Kingdom into Europe with the European Communities Act 1972 in October (21 Eliz. II c.68). He publicly supported the massive US bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong in April 1972. ", "A carpenter's son who broke the tradition of blue bloods leading the Conservative Party, his major achievement was to negotiate Britain's 1973 entry into the European Community. The entry overturned years of resistance both domestically and by France, which had vetoed Britain's entry in 1967.", "..... Click the link for more information.  became the first leader chosen through election. Heath led a Conservative government from 1970 to 1974 that faced the problems of a stagnant economy and a declining international political position. In response, the party moved to curb the power of trade unions and encouraged more economic self-reliance. In foreign affairs, it continued the policy of restricting Great Britain's Commonwealth and international roles while expanding ties with Western Europe, as demonstrated by Britain's entry (1973) into the European Community (now the European Union European Union", "By 1961 the United Kingdom indicated its willingness to join the Common Market if allowed to retain certain tariff structures which favored trade between Britain and its Commonwealth. Negotiations between the EEC and the United Kingdom began, but insurmountable differences arose and Britain was denied access to the Common Market in 1963. Following this setback, however, the Common Market countries worked to strengthen the ties between themselves, culminating in the merger of the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom to form the European Community (EC) in 1967. In the interim the importance of the Commonwealth to the British economy waned considerably and by 1973 Britain, Denmark, and the Republic of Ireland had joined the EC. Greece followed suit in 1981, followed by Portugal and Spain in 1986 and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in 1995.", "HAROLD MACMILLAN made the first, failed, attempt to get Britain to join the Common Market. The move was eventually vetoed by the French President, Charles de Gaulle, in 1963.", "In the Labour Government of 1974 Benn was Secretary of State for Industry and as such increased nationalised industry pay, provided better terms and conditions for workers such as the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and was involved in setting up worker cooperatives in firms which were struggling, the best known being at Meriden, outside Coventry, producing Triumph Motorcycles. In 1975 he was appointed Secretary of State for Energy, immediately following his unsuccessful campaign for a \"No\" vote in the referendum on the UK's continued membership of the European Community (Common Market). Later in his diary (25 October 1977) Benn wrote that he \"loathed\" the EEC; he claimed it was \"bureaucratic and centralised\" and \"of course it is really dominated by Germany. All the Common Market countries except the UK have been occupied by Germany, and they have this mixed feeling of hatred and subservience towards the Germans\". ", "British Labor politician and author. Jenkins served with distinction in the Second World War and was a leading member of the British Cabinet before becoming president of the European Community in 1977. He later was a founder of the Social Democratic Party.", "The British government and the British people have been through a searching debate during the last few years on the subject of their relations with Europe. The result of this debate has been our present application. It was a decision arrived at, not on any narrow or short-term grounds, but as a result of a thorough assessment over a considerable period of the needs of our own country, of Europe and of the free world as a whole. We recognise it as a great decision, a turning point in our history, and we take it in all seriousness. In saying that we wish to join the EEC, we mean that we desire to become full, whole-hearted and active members of the European Community in its widest sense and to go forward with you in the building of a new Europe.", "Great Britain declined to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, but soon regretted the decision. They joined a rival economic group, the European Free Trade Association, in 1960, and lobbied to join the EEC in the mid-1960s." ]

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[ "John Wilkes, a member of parliament and journalist, was charged with seditious libel for criticism of George III his paper 'The North Briton'. He was released and for the next 15 years campaigned for parliamentary reform. He was frequently in trouble with the authorities, and was expelled from the Commons a number of times, only to be re-elected. After his arrest in 1768, seven were killed in the 'Massacre of St George's Fields' when a crowd demanding his release was fired on by troops.", "Wilkes, John, a notable figure in the English political world of the 18th century, born in Clerkenwell, son of a distiller; was elected M.P. for Aylesbury in 1761; started a periodical called the North Briton, in No. 45 of which he published an offensive libel, which led to his arrest and imprisonment in the Tower, from which he was released—on the ground that the general warrant on which he was apprehended was illegal—amid general rejoicing among the people; he was afterwards prosecuted for an obscene production, an “Essay on Women,” and outlawed for non-appearance; he sought an asylum in France, and on his return was elected for Middlesex, but instead of being allowed to sit was committed to prison; this treatment made him the object of popular favour; he was elected Lord Mayor of London, re-elected for Middlesex, and at length allowed to take his seat in the House; he was for years the cause of popular tumults, the watchword of which was “Wilkes and Liberty”; the cause of civil liberty certainly owes something to him and to the popular agitations which an interest in him stirred up (1727-1797).", "** 10 May: John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for The North Briton severely criticising King George III. This action provokes protesters to riot; in Southwark, troops fire on the mob, killing seven, the Massacre of St George's Fields. ", "Typical of the new breed of English papers was The Daily Advertiser (1730–1807), which offered advertising space along with news of a political, commercial, and social nature. An important gap in the political pages was filled from 1771, when the right to publish proceedings in Parliament had been granted. This right was not won lightly, for illicit accounts of debates in the House had appeared in the monthly Political State of Great Britain (1711–40) and every effort had been made to stop them. But campaigners such as the political reformer John Wilkes (with the North Briton, 1762) eventually won out. Politicians of both Whig and Tory sympathies ran their own often scurrilous newspapers or simply bribed journalists with occasional handouts and annual stipends, but later in the century there emerged a more sophisticated reader who demanded, and received, an independent viewpoint. Eminent newspapers of the time included the Morning Post (1772), The Times (from 1788, but started as the Daily Universal Register in 1785), and The Observer (1791). Censorship continued in the guise of frequent libel prosecutions, and as late as 1810 the radical political essayist William Cobbett was imprisoned and fined for denouncing flogging in the army, but the principle of a free press, at least in peacetime conditions, had been firmly established.", "The first English periodical essay was published in the Tatler. John Wilkes , the 18th-century outspoken journalist, challenged Parliament's efforts to punish the press for the reporting of Parliamentary debates. After Wilkes's successful battle for greater freedom of the press, British newspapers began to reach the masses in the 19th cent. Of several present-day London papers born in the 18th cent., The Times, founded in 1785 by John Walter, the Manchester Guardian, now printed in London, and the Financial Times are internationally known. Other prominent London newspapers include the Independent, the Daily Telegraph, and the Daily Mail.", "To stem the tide of adverse criticism, and endeavour to win Englishmen to view more favourably the advent of Lord Bute to power, The Briton was started, and Smollett was chosen as editor, inasmuch as his was the keenest pen on the Tory side. On hearing of the appointment of his friend to the post, John Wilkes, with a generosity that was quite in keeping with many of the actions of that strangely constituted man, remarked that ‘Lord Bute, after having distributed among his adherents all the places under Government, was determined to monopolise the wit also [104] .’ A few days subsequent, the Whigs proposed that, to encounter The Briton, which had gone off with a great flourish of trumpets, as well as with some very bitter political writing, Mr. Wilkes should publish a paper, to be called ‘The Englishman.’ He agreed to the proposal, except that he did not adopt the title recommended, but chose another, that of The North Briton—the first number of which appeared on the 5th June 1762, or exactly a week after The Briton.", "The treatment of Wilkes caused a furore in Parliament, with Lord Camden denouncing the action as a contravention of Magna Carta. Wilkes made the issue a national one and the populace took up the issue. All over the country, there were prints of him being arrested whilst teaching his son about Magna Carta. He received the support of the Corporation of London, which had long sought to establish its supremacy over Parliament, based on the Charter.", "Grenville prosecuted John Wilkes and the printers and authors for treason and sedition for publishing a bitter editorial about King George III's recent speech in \"The North Briton\" a weekly periodical. After losing the case Grenville lost favor from the public who regarded the act as an attempt to silence or control the press. ", "..... Click the link for more information.  secured a $5,000 verdict against him for libel in 1799, and shortly afterward Cobbett returned to England. As the threat of French Jacobinism dwindled, Cobbett's Tory patriotism gave way to a deep concern for the condition of the working classes, especially rural workers, in the rapidly industrializing English society, and by 1807 he had become a Radical. His Political Register, begun in 1802 and published intermittently throughout the remainder of his life, was one of the greatest reform journals of the period and achieved an unparalleled influence among the working classes. For his attacks on the use of flogging as military punishment he was fined and imprisoned (1810–12). Severe financial difficulties forced him to sell his Parliamentary Debates to Hansard's printing firm (see Hansard Hansard", "..... Click the link for more information. , the 18th-century outspoken journalist, challenged Parliament's efforts to punish the press for the reporting of Parliamentary debates. After Wilkes's successful battle for greater freedom of the press, British newspapers began to reach the masses in the 19th cent. Of several present-day London papers born in the 18th cent., The Times, founded in 1785 by John Walter, the Manchester Guardian, now printed in London, and the Financial Times are internationally known. Other prominent London newspapers include the Independent, the Daily Telegraph, and the Daily Mail.", "The King felt personally insulted and ordered the issuing of general warrants for the arrest of Wilkes and the publishers on 30 April 1763. Forty-nine people, including Wilkes, were arrested, but general warrants were unpopular and Wilkes gained considerable popular support as he asserted their unconstitutionality. At his court hearing he claimed that parliamentary privilege protected him, as an MP, from arrest on a charge of libel. The Lord Chief Justice ruled that parliamentary privilege did indeed protect him and he was soon restored to his seat. Wilkes sued his arresters for trespass. As a result of this episode, people were chanting, \"Wilkes, Liberty and Number 45\", referring to the newspaper. Parliament swiftly voted in a measure that removed protection of MPs from arrest for the writing and publishing of seditious libel.", "Perhaps Defoe’s most remarkable achievement during Queen Anne’s reign, however, was his periodical, the Review. He wrote this serious, forceful, and long-lived paper practically single-handedly from 1704 to 1713. At first a weekly, it became a thrice-weekly publication in 1705, and Defoe continued to produce it even when, for short periods in 1713, his political enemies managed to have him imprisoned again on various pretexts. It was, effectively, the main government organ, its political line corresponding with that of the moderate Tories (though Defoe sometimes took an independent stand); but, in addition to politics as such, Defoe discussed current affairs in general, religion, trade, manners, morals, and so on, and his work undoubtedly had a considerable influence on the development of later essay periodicals (such as Richard Steele and Joseph Addison’s The Tatler and The Spectator) and of the newspaper press.", "Wilkes pre-empted the government and forced the Warden of the King's Bench prison to gaol him for the poem \"Essay on Woman\". He said that he wanted to stand trial to:", "British garrison troops fired at a mob that was protesting the imprisonment of John Wilkes , whose crime was criticizing King George III . [40]", "60 . See The Late John Wilkes's Catechism of a Ministerial Member; Taken from an Original Manuscript in Mr. Wilkes's Handwriting, Never Before Printed, and Adapted to the Present Occasion (London: William Hone, 1817); The Sinecurist's Creed, or Belief, as Used Throughout the Kingdom, in Hone's Weekly Commentary, no. 11 (London, 1817); and The Political Litany, Diligently Revised; To Be Said or Sung, Until the Appointed Change Come, Throughout the Dominion of England and Wales, and the Town of Berwick upon Tweed (London: William Hone, 1817). I am grateful to the Houghton Library for permission to view these materials and three pamphlets containing the trial testimony showing that Hone used for his defense religious satire by Church divines (beginning with Martin Luther). He was acquitted.", "In August 1763 Sandwich became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, in the government of George Grenville who had replaced Bute. While filling this office he took a leading part in the successful prosecution of the radical M.P. John Wilkes for obscene libel. Although he had been allegedly associated with Wilkes in the notorious Hellfire Club (also known as the Monks of Medmenham), recent scholarship has suggested that the two had a more distant but cordial relationship than the friendship which was popularly portrayed at the time. John Gay's The Beggar's Opera was played in Covent Garden shortly thereafter, and the similarity of Sandwich's conduct to that of Jemmy Twitcher, betrayer of Macheath in that play, permanently attached to him that appellation. Wilkes was eventually expelled from the House of Commons.", "Wilkes's political enemies, foremost among them John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, who was also a member of the Hellfire Club, obtained the parody. Sandwich had a personal vendetta against Wilkes that stemmed in large part from embarrassment caused by a prank of Wilkes involving the Earl at one of the Hellfire Club's meetings; he was delighted at the chance for revenge. Sandwich read the poem to the House of Lords in an effort to denounce Wilkes's moral behaviour, despite the hypocrisy of his action. The Lords declared the poem obscene and blasphemous, and it caused a great scandal. The House of Lords moved to expel Wilkes again; he fled to Paris before any expulsion or trial. He was tried and found guilty in absentia of obscene libel and seditious libel, and was declared an outlaw on 19 January 1764.", "The physical cause which rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the infrequency of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In 1763 he spoke against the unpopular tax on cider , imposed by his brother-in-law, George Grenville , and his opposition, though unsuccessful in the House, helped to keep alive his popularity with the country, which cordially hated the excise and all connected with it. When next year the question of general warrants was raised in connexion with the case of Wilkes , Pitt vigorously maintained their illegality, thus defending at once the privileges of Parliament and the freedom of the press.", "In 1681, a grand jury refused to indict the Earl of Shaftesbury. Then in 1688, a jury acquitted the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other Anglican bishops of seditious libel. Juries continued, even in non-criminal cases, to act in defiance of the crown. In 1763 and 1765, juries awarded �4,000 and �300 to John Wilkes and John Entick, respectively, in separate suits for trespass against the crown's messengers. In both cases, messengers were sent by Lord Halifax to seize allegedly libelous papers.[citation needed]", "Not all the colonial newspapers were on the side of the anti-British Sons of Liberty. James Rivington's New York Gazetteer, one of the best edited, most attractive papers in the colonies, gave voice to the Tory, or pro-British, as well as the \"Patriot\" side in the ongoing conflict, in what he called his \"Ever Open and Uninfluenced Press.\" Despite their professed allegiance to the principle of a free press, the Sons of Liberty were infuriated by Rivington's paper, and he responded by taking more openly Tory positions. A group of members of the Sons of Liberty wrecked Rivington's printing plant, and, after the Revolutionary War began, he was arrested and forced to sign a statement of loyalty to the Continental Congress.", "Walcott named Henry Care, publisher of the Weekly Pacquet which was a leading anti-Catholic and Whig paper of the time; Care ceased publishing the Pacquet on 13 July, and began co-operating with the court. Among those later informing against Walcott was Zachary Bourne. Bourne was a conspirator, arrested trying to leave the country with the nonconformist ministers Matthew Meade, for whom an arrest warrant was issued on 27 June, and Walter Cross; he informed against another minister, Stephen Lobb, who was prepared to help recruiting for an uprising. On 6 July the arrest of Lobb was ordered, and he was picked up in August. ", "William Cobbett (1763–1835), a noted radical and publisher, began publishing Parliamentary Debates as a supplement to his Political Register in 1802, eventually extending his reach back with the Parliamentary History. Cobbett's avocation for the freedom of the press was severely punished by the British Government. On June 5, 1810 William Cobbett stood trial for seditious libel for an article he wrote against the British Government which was published by Thomas Curson Hansard. Cobbett was found \"guilty, upon the fullest and most satisfactory evidence\". The court sentence read: \"The court do adjudge that you, William Cobbett pay to our Lord the King a fine of £1000; that you be imprisoned in His Majesty's gaol of Newgate for the space of two years, and that at expiration of that time you enter into a recognizance to keep the peace for seven years—yourself in the sum of £3000, and two good and sufficient sureties in the sum of £1000; and further, that you be imprisoned till that recognizance be entered into, and that fine paid\". This sentence is aptly described by J.C Trewin as \"vindictive\". The Court argued that Thomas Curson Hansard, who had \"seen the copy before it was printed, ought not to have suffered it to have been printed at all\" and was sentenced to three months imprisonment in the King's Bench Prison.", "Review (1704-13), produced by Daniel Defoe, in which the writer's opinion on current political topics was given the first editorial. Defoe was imprisoned, in 1702, for his pamphlet \"The Shortest Way with Dissenters,\" but many eminent British writers were being attracted to the newspapers.", "During these successive waves of protest against the British in America, newspapers appeared with woodcuts of divided snakes, to represent the weakness of the colonies if they remained divided, with woodcuts of coffins (designed by Paul Revere) to represent the victims of the Boston Massacre; they published list of those \"Enemies to their Country\" who continued to import boycotted British goods; they serialized radical essays by John Dickinson and, in 1776, Thomas Paine. They called British officials and their supporters \"serpents,\" \"guileful betrayers,\" diabolical Tools of Tyrants\" or \"Men totally abondoned to Wickedness.\" The Boston Tea Party -- a protest against Parliament's decision to allow the East India Company to market its tea directly in American, with a price advantage over local merchants -- was organized in the house of a newspaper editor, Benjamin Edes of the Boston Gazette in 1773. Among the other leading newspapers in this struggle against British policies were Isaiah Thomas's Massachusetts Spy and John Holt's New York Journal. One of these newspapers, the Providence Gazette, was published during some of these crucial years by two women: Sarah and Mary Katherine Goddard.", "the felons in Carlisle Jail make a break for freedom, ten having got off their irons, five soon recaptured, four-five others all named still at large (7cm. column space, page 2, column 3); Yesterday forty deserters sent under escort to Gravesend to be shipped as \"marines\" on the Botany Bay Fleet (3 lines only, page 2, column 1), both in an original and complete issue of THE NEWCASTLE CHRONICLE dated 20th January 1787�200-300", "When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of “ Silence Dogood “, a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood’s letters were published, and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant’s readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood (quoting Cato’s Letters ) proclaim: “Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech.” [14] Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother’s permission, and in so doing became a fugitive . [15]", "During these years Steele served as the chief Whig propagandist; as the principal journalist of the Whigs in opposition, he was the antagonist of Jonathan Swift, who held the corresponding job for the Tories. Steele's writings frequently made his political career perilous. Appointed commissioner of stamps in 1710, he was forced to resign from this office in 1713. That same year he was elected to Parliament from Stockbridge, but he was expelled in 1714 on a charge of sedition.", "Returning to the study of the law, Fielding was admitted to the bar in 1740. He also established the satirical periodical Champion (1739–1741). In 1741 his debts caused him to be detained in a bailiff's sponging-house (a preliminary detention center before prison), where he wrote Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews, an attack on novelist Samuel Richardson's concept of \"virtue rewarded\" in his novel Pamela (1740). Shamela parodied Richardson's epistolary style, revealing Shamela's \"virtue\" or \"vartue\" to be a weapon of self-interest and gain.", "Newspapers: John Peter Zenger (1697-1746), printer and publisher of the \"New York Weekly Journal,\" is acquitted of seditious libel in a landmark trial for freedom of the press.", "New Jersey Quaker born Benjamin Lundy establishes the first American anti-slavery newspaper, The Genius of Universal Emancipation, in Mt. Pleasant, Ohio. From September 1829 until March 1830, William Lloyd Garrison assists the paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy establishes and another anti-slavery weekly in Philadelphia, The National Enquirer. This paper becomes The Pennsylvania Freeman with John Greenleaf Whittier as one of its later editors.", "Joseph Addison (1672-1719) was responsible for much of the content of the periodicals the Tatler, the Guardian and the Spectator, wrote an account of his travels in Italy, an account of the lives of the English poets, several plays and an opera, Rosamunde.", "A prominent Whig politician and author, George Lyttelton was satirized by author Tobias Smollett in his novel The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751). He was also a friend of notable writers of his day including Alexander Pope and Henry Fielding . His most famous satirical work, Dialogues of the Dead was published in 1760.[VW][RD]" ]

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[ "The Peasants' Revolt, also called Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years War , and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex on 30 May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in the town of Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the south-east of the country. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records and opening the local gaols. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom and the removal of the King's senior officials and law courts.", "The Peasants' Revolt, also called Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex on 30 May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the south-east of the country. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records and opening the local gaols. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom and the removal of the King's senior officials and law courts.", "Yet, for the lesser gentry in the Commons, this was not the victory that it seemed. In the very next year, John of Gaunt used the last Parliament of Edward III's reign to institute the most regressive tax ever witnessed in later medieval England. In response to a threatened French/Spanish armada menacing the realm, Parliament levied a one-off poll tax of 4 pence on every adult over the age of 14. This was followed up in 1379 by another poll tax, and then in 1380, a third poll tax was levied which sparked the Peasants' Revolt.", "The rallying-point for the rebellion was the poll tax of 1380-81, a tax that, as an anonymous poet phrased it, \"has tenet [harmed] us alle.\" Worse, this was the third such poll tax, and it was enforced by much-hated commissions of inquiry, which investigated whether all persons were complying with the tax. The unpopular levy of 1377 was followed by the graduated tax of 1379, the latter a failure that resulted in the replacement of the Chancellor, Richard Scrope. In 1380, Parliament allowed the king, through his new Chancellor, Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, to assess a tax of three groats (one shilling) on every man and woman over the age of fifteen. The early 1380s were generally a time of economic hardship, when a miller \"hath ygrounde smal, smal, smal\" (Ball's Letter); and many elements of society, especially the artisan class, bitterly resented the regressive poll tax, which ruthless collectors extracted and then -- so it was alleged -- diverted to their own coffers: \"The kyng therof had smalle.\"", "The rising of the English peasantry in June 1381, the result of economic, social, and political discontent. It was sparked off by the attempt to levy a new poll tax in the village of Fobbing, Essex, three times the rates of those imposed in 1377 and 1379. The poll tax was a common tax, paid by all, which badly affected those least able to pay. Led by Wat Tyler and John Ball, rebels from southeast England marched on London and demanded reforms. The authorities put down the revolt by pretending to make concessions and then using force.", "The Peasants' Revolt, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England . Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball , Wat Tyler and Jack Straw , are still familiar in popular culture , although little is known of them.", "The Peasants' Revolt, Tyler’s Rebellion, or the Great Rising of AD 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England . Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion ever to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball , Wat Tyler and Jack Straw , are still familiar even though very little is actually known about these individuals.", "The Peasants' Revolt, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England . Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion ever to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball , Wat Tyler and Jack Straw , are still familiar in popular culture even though next to nothing is known about them.", "1381 - Peasants' Revolt in England. The presence of the Black Death in England works to the advantage of English peasants, causing a shortage of labor, a freeing of serfs, a rise in salary and a decrease in rent. The aristocratic class, however, passes legislation that lowers wages to the amount before the plague and that requires lower wages for laborers without land. The peasants rise against this oppression in what is called the English Peasants' Revolt when a national tax is levied for every individual in England. The peasants march into London, murder the lord chancellor and treasurer and are met by Richard II. Richard promises the abolition of serfdom and a lower of rent. After the peasants leave, Richard has the peasant groups followed and murdered.", "The middle years of Edward's reign were a period of significant legislative activity. Perhaps the best-known piece of legislation was the Statute of Labourers of 1351, which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death. The statute fixed wages at their pre-plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had first claim on their men's services. In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute, it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour. The law has been described as an attempt \"to legislate against the law of supply and demand\", which made it doomed to fail. Nevertheless, the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and the greater landowners of the House of Lords. The resulting measures angered the peasants, leading to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. ", "The [Black Death] that ravaged England in 1348 and 1349 had greatly reduced the labour force, and consequently the surviving labourers could demand higher wages and fewer hours of work. Some asked for their freedom. They often got what they asked for: the lords of the manors were desperate for people to farm their land and tend their animals. Then, in 1351, King Edward III summoned parliament to pass the Statute of Labourers . The Statute attempted to curb the demands for better terms of employment by pegging wages to pre-plague levels and restricting the mobility of labour; however the probable effect was that labourers employed by lords were effectively exempted, while labourers working for other employers, both artisans and more substantial peasants, were liable to be fined or held in the stocks. The enforcement of the new law angered the peasants greatly and formed another reason for the revolt.", "In June, 1381, two large groups of peasants marched on London to protest perceived unfairness in English justice and taxes. A group from Kent, led by Wat Tyler, entered the city from the south and peasants from Essex under Jack Straw entered from the east. The three-week period of unrest was called the English Peasants' Revolt. King Richard II (then 14 years old) met the men of Essex and promised tax relief and the abolition of serfdom. The rioters demanded further concessions, however, and in an attack on the Tower of London, murdered Simon of Sudbury, the Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury, and Robert de Hales, the Lord Treasurer. At a meeting the next day, the Lord Mayor of London, William Walworth killed Wat Tyler as the rebel leader met with the King. The authorities came down hard on the rebels and the revolt was quickly put to rest and the concessions granted by Richard II were canceled.", "The Black Death that ravaged England in 1348 and 1349 had greatly reduced the labour force, and consequently the surviving labourers could demand higher wages and fewer hours of work. Some asked for their freedom. They often got what they asked for: the lords of the manors were desperate for people to farm their land and tend their animals. Then, in 1351, King Edward III summoned parliament to pass the Statute of Labourers . The Statute attempted to curb the demands for better terms of employment by pegging wages to pre-plague levels and restricting the mobility of labour; however the probable effect was that labourers employed by lords were effectively exempted, while labourers working for other employers, both artisans and more substantial peasants, were liable to be fined or held in the stocks. The enforcement of the new law angered the peasants greatly and formed another reason for the revolt.", "Medieval England experienced few revolts but the most serious was the Peasants’ Revolt which took place in June 1381. A violent system of punishments for offenders was usually enough to put off peasants from causing trouble. Most areas in England also had castles in which soldiers were garrisoned, and these were usually enough to guarantee reasonable behaviour among medieval peasants.", "During the years before the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, relations between the landed gentry and the lower classes of society were extremely poor.  The Black Death of 1349 had so decimated the English population that the few able-bodied workers available were able to command high wages from their employers (Saul, 59).  In response, the upper classes, with the support of the government, enacted a series of measures adverse to the interests of the peasantry.  The aim of much of this legislation was the restoration of wages to their pre-plague levels.  In addition to this legislation, landowners began to enforce their manorial privileges strictly, making certain that they received their full amount of \"villein dues, and in particular labour obligations\" (Saul, 60).  In effect, as Nigel Saul states in his book Richard II, \"From these cases we can see that lords were using all the powers at their disposal to strengthen their hold over their tenants.  In effect they were maintaining their living standards at the expense of those beneath them in the hierarchy\" (60).  Such practices effected an overall sense of deep discontent among the populace, heightening traditional tensions between lord and peasant.", "The landowners were rattled by this threat to the social order.  In response a draconian Statue Of Labourers was introduced in 1351 that reinforced the restrictions on serfs and most significantly limited wage levels to pre-plague levels. As a result the next thirty years saw social conflict with peasants, craftsman and merchants forced into an alliance by laws that penalised both worker and master who agreed to higher wages than those specified. At the same time the life of the medieval court, based on lavish conspicuous consumption made increasing demands in terms of taxation. In 1381 the uncle of the teenage king and the effective power behind the throne, John Of Gaunt, raised a poll tax, a flat levy on every person over the age of 15. It was the third such levy in a short number of years, and was to prove the catalyst for rebellion across South Eastern England.", "The Peasants' Revolt was fed by the economic and social upheaval of the 14th century. At the start of the century, the majority of English people worked in the countryside, as part of a sophisticated economy that fed the country's towns and cities and supported an extensive international trade. Across much of England, production was organised around manors, controlled by local lords – including the gentry and the Church – and governed through a system of manorial courts. Some of the population were unfree serfs, who had to work on their lords' lands for a period each year, although the balance of free and unfree varied across England, and in the south-east there were relatively few serfs. Some serfs were born unfree and could not leave their manors to work elsewhere without the consent of the local lord; others accepted limitations on their freedom as part of the tenure agreement for their farmland. Population growth led to pressure on the available agricultural land, increasing the power of local landowners. ", "The Peasants' Revolt has been widely studied by academics. Late 19th-century historians used a range of sources from contemporary chroniclers to assemble an account of the uprising, and these were supplemented in the 20th century by research using court records and local archives. Interpretations of the revolt have shifted over the years. It was once seen as a defining moment in English history, but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history. The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years' War, by deterring later Parliaments from raising additional taxes to pay for military campaigns in France. The revolt has been widely used in socialist literature, including by the author William Morris, and remains a potent political symbol for the political left, informing the arguments surrounding the introduction of the Community Charge in the United Kingdom during the 1980s.", "Son of Edward, he needed to pay for the war so he imposed heavy taxes on the peasants.  He forced them to work hard and took away their rights.  This led to a peasant rebellion into the city of London in 1381 led by Wat Tyler.  Unfortunately the rebellion didn't last long as Wat was killed by the English army and the King forced them to return to his ways. ", "An agrarian revolution began in England. Not satisfied with seizing communal lands, the large-scale landowners forcefully evicted peasants from their lands, destroyed their houses and entire villages. Enclosures received strong new impetus at the time of the Reformation during the reign of Henry VIII (ruled 1509-47). His government’s laws cruelly persecuted those unfortunate people who were left without land and were thus deprived of the means of existence; these people wandered about the country looking for work as hired hands or for alms. The peasants responded to expulsion from the lands with resistance, which, at times, grew into uprisings (Robert Ket’s Revolt of 1549 and others).", "Wat Tyler, byname of Walter Tyler (died June 15, 1381, London), leader of the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, the first great popular rebellion in English history; his leadership proved one of the chief factors in the success of protest against the harsh taxation of the poorer classes.", "The authorities responded to the chaos with emergency legislation, the Ordinance of Labourers , passed in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers of 1351. [13] These attempted to fix wages at pre-plague levels, making it a crime to refuse work or to break an existing contract, imposing fines on those who transgressed. [14] The system was initially enforced through special Justices of Labourers and then, from the 1360s onwards, through the normal Justices of the Peace, typically members of the local gentry. [15] Although in theory these laws applied to both labourers seeking additional wages and to employers tempted to outbid their competitors for workers, they were in practice applied only to labourers, and then in a rather arbitrary fashion. [16] The legislation was strengthened in 1361, with the penalties increased to include branding and imprisonment. [17] The royal government had not intervened in this way before, or allied itself with the local landowners in quite such an obvious or unpopular way. [18]", "In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth.", "Over the next few decades, economic opportunities increased for the English peasantry. Some labourers took up specialist jobs that would have previously been barred to them, and others moved from employer to employer, or became servants in richer households. These changes were keenly felt across the south-east of England, where the London market created a wide range of opportunities for farmers and artisans. Local lords had the right to prevent serfs from leaving their manors, but when serfs found themselves blocked in the manorial courts, many simply left to work illegally on manors elsewhere. Wages continued to rise, and between the 1340s and the 1380s the purchasing power of rural labourers increased by around 40 percent. As the wealth of the lower classes increased, Parliament brought in fresh laws in 1363 to prevent them from consuming expensive goods formerly only affordable by the elite. These sumptuary laws proved unenforceable, but the wider labour laws continued to be firmly applied. ", "In the 15th century, the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years' War and beset with social, political and economic problems. Popular revolts were commonplace, triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms. English nobles raised private armies, engaged in private feuds and openly defied Henry VI.", "An industrial revolution was precipitated on the island by the Great Pestilence of 1348. The necessities of life rose enormously in value. Large tracts of land passed back from the smaller tenants into the hands of the landowners of the gentry class. The sheep and the cattle, as a contemporary wrote, \"strayed through the fields and grain, and there was no one who could drive them.\"  The serfs and villeins found in the disorder of society an opportunity to escape from the yoke of servitude, and discovered in roving or in independent engagements the joys of a new-found freedom. These unsettled conditions called forth the famous statutes of Edward III.’s reign, 1327–1377, regulating wages and the prices of commodities.", "By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism. Their influence was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade. Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished. ", "In 1376, in what came to be called The Good Parliament, the Commons within the Parliament took an unprecedented initiative to impeach close confidantes of the king.  John of Gaunt was the effective ruler of the kingdom, as both Edward III and his son the Black Prince were too ill to be active (he died in June of 1376).   Alice Perrers was among those targeted by the Parliament; also targeted were Edward’s chamberlain, William Latimer, Edward’s steward, Lord Neville, and Richard Lyons, a notorious London merchant.  Parliament petitioned John of Gaunt with their assertion that “certain councilors and servants … are not loyal or profitable to him or the kingdom.”", "In 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's guidance had Hugh le Despenser and his son banished. This inspired Edward to act. In 1322 he recalled the Despensers from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances because they encroached upon the rights of the crown. From this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward in Edward II's reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon became corrupt. Their first thought was for themselves, and they stirred up universal indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France.", "This time Edward moved more quickly than in 1469. He left London on 6 March. On 7 March he learnt that Lord Welles's son Sir Robert had issued a proclamation in which he declared himself to be the 'great captain of the commons of Lincolnshire' and had raised a sizable army. Edward summoned Lord Welles and Sir Thomas Dymmock and then continued to advance north at great speed. On 9 March Welles and Dymmock were questioned and confessed their part in the revolt. Edward got Lord Welles to write a letter to his son ordering him to stand down, otherwise Welles and Dummock would be executed.", "In early 1321, Lancaster mobilised a coalition of the Despensers' enemies across the Marcher territories. [196] Edward and Hugh the Younger became aware of these plans in March and marched west, hoping that negotiations led by the moderate Earl of Pembroke would defuse the crisis. [197] This time, however, Pembroke made his excuses and declined to intervene, and war broke out in May. [198] The Despensers' lands were quickly seized by a coalition of the Marcher Lords and the local gentry, and Lancaster held a high-level gathering of the barons and clergy in June which condemned the Despensers for having broken the Ordinances. [199] Edward attempted reconciliation, but in July the opposition occupied London and called for the permanent removal of the Despensers. [200] Fearing that he might be deposed if he refused, Edward agreed to exile the Despensers and pardoned the Marcher Lords for their actions. [201]", "King John was very unpopular with the nation's magnates, the barons, whom he taxed. A particularly resented tax was the scutage, a penalty paid by barons who failed to supply the King with military resources. In 1215, after John had been defeated in France, several barons rebelled. Later in that year, John compromised and signed the Magna Carta, or Great Charter. It guaranteed political liberties and provided for a church free from domination by the monarchy. These liberties and privileges, however, were not extended to the common man; rather, they were granted to the barons. Nonetheless, the document is immensely significant in English constitutional history as it is a major indication of a limitation on the power of the Crown." ]

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[ "Pol Pot (; ; 19 May 1925 – 15 April 1998), born Saloth Sar (), was a Cambodian revolutionary who led the Khmer Rouge from 1963 until 1997. From 1963 to 1981, he served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea. As such, he became the leader of Cambodia on 17 April 1975, when his forces captured Phnom Penh. From 1976 to 1979, he also served as the prime minister of Democratic Kampuchea.", "Born as Saloth Sar in 1928 in the village of Preb Sbauk, Pol Pot was the communist leader of Cambodia and the head of the Khmer Rouge between the years of 1975-1979. Sar was not a very successful student in his youth, but a scholarship sent him to Paris, France in 1949 to pursue studies in radio electronics where he became enchanted with the ideas of Marxism. Upon returning to Cambodia in 1952, Sar became affiliated with a number of local Communist organizations and most notably became the leader of the Kampuchean People’s Revolutionary Party (KPRP) in the early 1960’s. Known as “Khmer Rouge” because of its Communist leanings and its Khmer descent, the philosophies of the regime borrowed much from those of Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution, which idealized rural society that was free from the institutions of modern life. Following political upheaval in Cambodia and the overthrow of ruling leader Prince Sihanouk, the Khmer Rouge seized the moment and waved the flag for Cambodian independence. Once in power, they imposed their ideas with brute force, and murdered and tortured those who did not comply or were not deemed fit to be a part of their society, whether they were Muslims, Buddhists or Laotians. While the Khmer Rouge regime are alone accountable for the deaths of approximately 1.7 million people, Pol Pot was never tried for the egregious crimes of his party after they were defeated in 1979.", "Saloth Sar  better known as Pol Pot,  was the leader of the Cambodian communist movement known as the Khmer Rouge and was Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea from 1976–1979. His time as the leader of Cambodia, in which he attempted to “cleanse” the country, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.7 to 2.5 million people.", "Pol Pot became leader of Cambodia in mid-1975.[2] During his time in power, Pol Pot imposed a version of agrarian collectivization, forcing city dwellers to relocate to the countryside to work in collective farms and forced labor projects, toward a goal of \"restarting civilization\" in a \"Year Zero\". The combined effects of slave labor, malnutrition, poor medical care, and executions resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.7 to 2.5 million people, approximately 21% of the Cambodian population.[8]", "Saloth Sar (May 19, 1928 – April 15, 1998), better known as Pol Pot, (Khmer: ប៉ុល ពត), was the leader of the Cambodian communist movement known as the Khmer Rouge[7] and was Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea from 1976–1979.", "* On April 17, 1975, the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, took over Cambodia's capital Phnom penh", "In 1979, after the invasion of Cambodia by neighbouring Vietnam in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War , Pol Pot fled into the jungles of southwest Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge government collapsed. [11] From 1979 to 1997 he and a remnant of the old Khmer Rouge operated from the border region of Cambodia and Thailand , where they clung to power and United Nations recognition as the rightful government of Cambodia.", "In 1979, after the invasion of Cambodia by neighbouring Vietnam in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War , Pol Pot fled into the jungles of southwest Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge government collapsed. [11] From 1979 – 1997 he and a remnant of the old Khmer Rouge operated from the border region of Cambodia and Thailand , where they clung to power and United Nations recognition as the rightful government of Cambodia.", "January 5, 1976 - In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot announced a new constitution which legalized the Communist government and renamed the country as Kampuchea. During the reign of Pol Pot, over 1 million persons died in \"the killing fields\" as he forced people out of the cities into the countryside to create an idyllic agrarian society. Educated and professional city people were especially targeted for murder and were almost completely annihilated. In January of 1979, the Pol Pot was overthrown by Cambodian rebels and Vietnamese troops.", "Saloth Sar (May 19, 1928� April 15, 1998), better known as Pol Pot, was the leader of the Cambodian communist movement known as the Khmer Rouge [7] and was Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea from 1976�1979.", "In 1979, after the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, Pol Pot relocated to the jungles of southwest Cambodia, and the Khmer Rouge government collapsed. From 1979 to 1997, he and a remnant of the old Khmer Rouge operated near the border of Cambodia and Thailand, where they clung to power, with nominal United Nations recognition as the rightful government of Cambodia. Pol Pot died in 1998, while under house arrest by the Ta Mok faction of the Khmer Rouge. Since his death, rumours that he committed suicide or was poisoned have persisted. ", "From April 17, 1975 until January 7, 1979, the brutal, ultra-Communist Khmer Rouge regime (i.e. the Red Khmer) controlled the whole of Cambodia, then known as 'Democratic Kampuchea.' The Khmer Rouge was headed by Saloth Sar, nom de guerre Pol Pot. During their short reign between one and two and a half million Cambodians perished, some killed outright, others dying from disease, malnutrition, neglect and mistreatment.", ", widely known as Pol Pot, was the leader of the Cambodian communist movement known as the Khmer Rouge and was Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea from 1976–1979.", "Pol Pot became the de facto leader of Cambodia in mid-1975.[ citation needed ] During his time in power, Pol Pot imposed a version of agrarian collectivization , forcing city dwellers to relocate to the countryside to work in collective farms and forced labour projects, toward a goal of \"restarting civilization\" in \" Year Zero \". The combined effects of slave labour, malnutrition, poor medical care, and executions resulted in the deaths of an estimated 750,000 to 1.7 million people, approximately 26% of the Cambodian population. [10]", "In April 1975, the Khmer Rouge captured the Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh. Led by Pol Pot, they reset the calendar to 'Year Zero' and attempted to transform Cambodia into their vision of a communist, rural society. All inhabitants of Cambodian cities and towns were expelled to work in agricultural communes. Money, private property and religion were abolished. Thousands were murdered in special detention centres and thousands more died from starvation and overwork.", "As head of the Khmer Rouge, Pol Pot oversaw an unprecedented and extremely brutal attempt to remove Cambodia from the modern world and establish an agrarian utopia. While attempting to create this utopia, Pol Pot created the Cambodian Genocide, which lasted from 1975 to 1979 and caused the deaths of at least 1.5 million Cambodians out of a population of approximately 8 million.", "After five years of civil war, the Khmer Rouge was finally able to capture Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh, on April 17, 1975. This ended Lon Nol’s rule and began the five-year reign of the Khmer Rouge. It was at this time that Saloth Sar began calling himself “brother number one” and took Pol Pot as his nom de guerre. (According to one source, “Pol Pot” comes from the French words “politique potentielle.”)", "In 2009, the first of five “Khmer Rouge leaders will appear before a tribunal next week for committing war crimes against humanity in Cambodia from 1975 to 1979.” Although Pol Pot died in 1998, many of the Khmer Rouge leaders are still alive today. These are the people who were responsible for the deaths of hundreds and thousands of people. People will never forget what the Khmer Rouge did to their families.", "* Pol Pot Former Premier of Cambodia. He was deposed when Vietnam attacked Cambodia in 1978.", "Pol Pot is a pseudonym for the Cambodian guerrilla commander Saloth Sar, who organized the Communist guerrilla force known as the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge ousted General Lon Nol in 1975, establishing a brutal Communist regime that ruled until 1979.", "The Khmer Rouge are led by an unknown figure named Pol Pot, who eagerly capitalizes on the enormous prestige and popularity of Prince Sihanouk to increase support for his Khmer Rouge movement among Cambodians. Pol Pot will later violently oust Lon Nol then begin a radical experiment to create an agrarian utopia, resulting in the deaths of 25 percent of the country's population (2,000,000 persons) from starvation, overwork and systematic executions.", "The Khmer Rouge reached Phnom Penh and took power in 1975. Led by Pol Pot, they changed the official name of the country to Democratic Kampuchea. The new regime modelled itself on Maoist China during the Great Leap Forward, immediately evacuated the cities, and sent the entire population on forced marches to rural work projects. They attempted to rebuild the country's agriculture on the model of the 11th century, discarded Western medicine and destroyed temples, libraries, and anything considered Western.", "The Khmer Rouge had a policy of state atheism. Pol Pot the leader of the Khmer Rouge and Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea was an ardent atheist. ", "The Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh on April 17, 1975. As the leader of the Communist Party, Saloth Sar was the designated leader of the new regime. He took the name \"brother number one\" and declared his nom de guerre Pol Pot, from Politique potentielle, the French equivalent of a phrase supposedly coined for him by the Chinese leadership.[citation needed] [16]", "** Mass-murdering Cambodian leader Pol Pot (born Saloth Sar) supposedly took his ''nom de guerre'' from \"'''pol'''itique '''pot'''entielle\" (= potential politician), a French rendering of a phrase that the Chinese communist leaders used to describe him.", "Under the leadership of Pol Pot , cities were emptied, organized religion was abolished, and private property, money and markets were eliminated. [11] An unprecedented genocide campaign ensued that led to annihilation of about 25% of the country's population, with much of the killing being motivated by Khmer Rouge ideology which urged \"disproportionate revenge\" against rich and powerful oppressors. [12] [13] [14] Victims included such class enemies as rich capitalists, professionals, intellectuals, police and government employees (including most of Lon Nol's leadership), [15] along with ethnic minorities such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Lao, and Cham . [5]", "Pol Pot died in 1998 while held under house arrest by the Ta Mok faction of the Khmer Rouge. Since his death, rumours that he was poisoned have persisted. [11]", "In 1997, after a power struggle within the Khmer Rouge, Pol Pot was arrested by former colleagues and sentenced to life under house arrest. He died on 15 April 1998.", "The Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh on 17 April 1975. As the leader of the Communist Party, Saloth Sar became the de-facto leader of the country. He adopted the title \"brother number one\" and used the nom de guerre \"Pol Pot\". Philip Short offered an explanation for the origin of Pol Pot's name, stating that Saloth Sar announced that he was adopting the name in July 1970. Short suspects that it derives from pol: \"the Pols were royal slaves, an aboriginal people\", and that \"Pot\" was simply a \"euphonic monosyllable\" that he liked. This Khmer word pol, however, is derived from Sanskrit bala ‘army, guard’ and the Khmer spelling differs from the spelling of Pol Pot's name. The name has no particular meaning in Khmer. ", "Pol Pot died in 1998 while held under house arrest by the Ta Mok faction of the Khmer Rouge. Since his death, rumours that he was poisoned have persisted.", "      When Ranariddh began negotiating with Khmer Rouge factions in the spring of 1997, Hun Sen accused his co-prime minister of illegally and unilaterally making a devil's pact with the enemy. In June Ranariddh announced that the Khmer Rouge was in its death throes and that its notorious leader, Pol Pot, was on the run from a breakaway Khmer Rouge faction. (Few believed this until August, when Pol Pot was sentenced to life in prison at a jungle trial held by his erstwhile followers.) In October Pol Pot was interviewed in prison and expressed no remorse for his role in the Khmer Rouge rule; he also stated that the genocide figures had been exaggerated.", "What was the name given to the Genocide committed by Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge?" ]

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[ "The United States Constitution stipulates that a presidential election is to be held once every fourth year. The process of electing a president and vice-president, however, begins long before election day.", "For federal offices (President, Vice President and United States Congress), Election Day occurs only in even-numbered years. Presidential elections are held every four years, in years divisible by four, in which electors for President and Vice President are chosen according to the method determined by each state. Elections to the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate are held every two years; all Representatives serve two-year terms and are up for election every two years, while Senators serve six-year terms, staggered so that one-third of Senators are elected in any given general election. Many state and local government offices are also elected on Election Day as a matter of convenience and cost saving, although a handful of states hold elections for state offices (such as governor) during odd-numbered “off years”, or during other even-numbered “midterm years”.", "The United States has a presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. Congressional and presidential elections take place simultaneously every four years, and the intervening Congressional elections, which take place every two years, are called Midterm elections.", "The presidential election is held every four years on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. You help choose your state’s electors when you vote for President because when you vote for your candidate you are actually voting for your candidate’s electors.", "These presidential elections occur quadrennially, with registered voters casting their ballots on Election Day, which since 1845 has been the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, coinciding with the general elections of various other federal, state, and local races. The next U.S. presidential election, the 58th quadrennial U.S. Presidential Election is scheduled for November 8, 2016.", "The Constitution requires the president to be a native-born American citizen at least 35 years of age. Candidates for the presidency are chosen by political parties several months before the presidential election, which is held every four years (in years divisible evenly by four) on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, limits the president to two terms of office.", "The Constitution lists only three qualifications for the Presidency — the President must be 35 years of age, be a natural born citizen, and must have lived in the United States for at least 14 years. And though millions of Americans vote in a presidential election every four years, the President is not, in fact, directly elected by the people. Instead, on the first Tuesday in November of every fourth year, the people elect the members of the Electoral College. Apportioned by population to the 50 states — one for each member of their congressional delegation (with the District of Columbia receiving 3 votes) — these Electors then cast the votes for President. There are currently 538 electors in the Electoral College.", "The United States Electoral College is the institution that elects the President and Vice President of the United States every four years. Citizens of the United States do not directly elect the president or the vice president; instead they elect representatives called \"electors\", who usually pledge to vote for particular presidential and vice presidential candidates.", "The president is now elected every five years, changed from seven by a constitutional referendum in 2000, to reduce the probability of cohabitation due to former differences in the length of terms for the National Assembly and Presidency. The President is elected in a two-round system: the first round is open to all candidates and will establish a president if any candidate gets an overall majority; if there is no winner in the first round, the two candidates with the greatest number of votes go to a second round.", "The President is elected by direct vote every six years, usually on the second Monday of May.", "is the institution that officially elects the President and Vice President of the United States every four years. The President and Vice President are not elected directly by the voters. Instead, they are elected by \"electors\" who are chosen by popular vote on a state-by-state basis; the number of electors in each state is equal to the number of members of Congress to which the state is entitled", "Every four years, the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. The citizens there, however, do not vote in the general election for U.S. President.", "The electors of all 50 states and the District of Columbia — a total of 538 persons — make up what is known as the electoral college. Under the terms of the Constitution, the electoral college never meets as a body. Instead, the electors in each state gather in their state capital shortly after the election and cast their votes for the candidate with the largest number of popular votes in their state. To be successful, a candidate for the presidency must receive 270 electoral votes out of the possible 538. The Constitution stipulates that if no candidate has a majority, the decision shall be made by the House of Representatives, with all members from a state voting as a unit. In this event, each state and the District of Columbia would be allotted one vote only.", "The typical periods of the presidential election process are as follows, with the dates corresponding to the 2016 general election:", "Even though the aggregate national popular vote is calculated by state officials, media organizations, and the Federal Election Commission, the people only indirectly elect the president, as the national popular vote is not the basis for electing the president or vice president. The President and Vice President of the United States are elected by the Electoral College, which consists of 538 presidential electors from the fifty states and Washington, D.C.. Presidential electors are selected on a state-by-state basis, as determined by the laws of each state. Since the election of 1824, most states have appointed their electors on a winner-take-all basis, based on the statewide popular vote on Election Day. Maine and Nebraska are the only two current exceptions, as both states use the congressional district method. Although ballots list the names of the presidential and vice presidential candidates (who run on a ticket), voters actually choose electors when they vote for president and vice president. These presidential electors in turn cast electoral votes for those two offices. Electors usually pledge to vote for their party's nominee, but some \"faithless electors\" have voted for other candidates.", "The president is chosen by a simple majority vote. In the election of October 20, 1982, the country was divided into twenty-two election districts (the Constitution provides for a maximum of twenty-four electoral districts). Citizens could mark their ballots for a maximum of three presidential candidates in order of preference. Under this \"single transferable vote system,\" if no candidate received more than half the votes, all but the two candidates with the largest percentages of the total votes cast would be eliminated. Persons who voted their top preference for a candidate who had been eliminated would have their second or third preferences counted if they had chosen one of the top two vote-getters. In the 1982 balloting, six candidates contested the presidency but it was reported that only a small number of voters indicated a second or third preference on their ballots.", "However, federal law does specify that all electors must be selected on the same day, which is \"the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November,\" i.e. a Tuesday no earlier than November 2 and no later than November 8. Today, the states and the District of Columbia each conduct their own popular elections on Election Day to help determine their respective slate of electors. Thus, the presidential election is really an amalgamation of separate and simultaneous state elections instead of a single national election run by the federal government.", "• Out of the last 16 presidential elections, Ohio voted for the winning Democratic candidate seven times, while voting for the winning Republican candidate nine times, dating back to 1948.", "The date of the federal election is always the second Tuesday in November. In the 2016 presidential election, voters also choose 34 of the 100 members of the U.S. Senate and all 435 members of U.S. House of Representatives . The political makeup of Congress will likely change.", "the Presidential elections and being re-elected as a the President of the United States of America.", "Remarkably, this money will be concentrated on a relatively small number of American states. An American president is not elected by the national popular vote, but by electors chosen from each of the individual states, with no state allocated fewer than three Electoral College votes. It takes an outright majority of 270 out of 538 Electoral College votes to win the presidency. Most states have adopted a winner-take-all system in which the winner of the popular vote in a state gains all of the state’s Electoral College votes. In the 2000 presidential election, for example, Republican George W. Bush beat Democrat Al Gore in the state of Florida by 537 votes out 6 million votes cast, but he still won all of Florida’s 25 Electoral College votes, which gained him the presidency with a bare majority of 271 Electoral College votes. Bush won the presidency even though he lost the national popular vote to Gore by some 500,000 votes.", "United States presidential election of 1984, American presidential election held on November 6, 1984, in which Republican Ronald Reagan was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat Walter Mondale , a former U.S. vice president. Reagan won 49 states en route to amassing 525 electoral votes to Mondale’s 13—one of the biggest landslides in U.S. election history. The election was also notable for being the first time a major party had a woman on its ticket— Geraldine Ferraro , Mondale’s running mate.", "During the general election, Americans head to the polls to cast their vote for President. But the tally of those votes—the popular vote—does not determine the winner. Instead, Presidential elections use the Electoral College . To win the election, a candidate must receive a majority of electoral votes. In the event no candidate receives the majority, the House of Representatives chooses the President and the Senate chooses the Vice President.", "In the 1984 presidential election, Ronald Reagan received both the highest number of popular votes  and the highest number of electoral votes in the history of U.S. presidential elections. These numbers have yet to be surpassed by another presidential candidate[3]", "The eleven most populous states, representing 56% of the population, currently have a majority of the Electoral College votes, enough to elect the president, although these eleven states have not voted for the same candidate in any presidential election since 1984.", "Reagan’s 525 electoral votes (out of 538) is the highest total received by a presidential candidate. His showing ranks fifth by percentage of electoral votes received (97.58%) out of total available electoral votes, just shy of the 523 out of 531 (98.49%) received by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936. Mondale’s 13 electoral votes is also the second-fewest received by a second-place candidate, second only to Alf Landon ‘s 8 in 1936 . In the national popular vote, Reagan received 58.8% to Mondale’s 40.6% and the percentage of his margin of victory ranks 7th of all presidential elections. No candidate since then has managed to equal or surpass Reagan’s 1984 electoral result. Also, no post-1984 Republican candidate has managed to match Reagan’s electoral performance in the Northeastern United States and in the West Coast states . At 73, Reagan was the oldest president and oldest presidential candidate to win a presidential election.", "The people of the nation voted on November 7, 1848. It was the first time a presidential election was held on the same day in all parts of the country. Zachary Taylor won both the popular and electoral votes. He became the 12th president of the United States.", "An incumbent President seeking re-election usually faces no opposition during their respective party's primaries, especially if they are still popular. For Presidents Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, for example, their respective paths to nomination became uneventful and the races become merely pro forma; all four then went on to win a second presidential term. Serious challenges are rare, but then generally presage failure to win the general election in the fall. During the 1976 Republican Party primaries, then-former California Governor Reagan carried 23 states while running against incumbent President Gerald Ford; Ford then went on to lose the Presidential election to Jimmy Carter. Senator Ted Kennedy then carried 12 states while running against Carter during the 1980 Democratic Party primaries; Reagan then defeated Carter in the fall. Pat Buchanan captured a decent percentage of a protest vote against George H.W. Bush during the 1992 Republican primaries, but only received a handful of delegates; Bush too subsequently went on to lose in the general election to Clinton.", "Due to the winner-takes-all nature of most states’ presidential voting systems, it is possible for a candidate to win the presidency while losing the popular vote. This has happened twice – in the 1888 election of Benjamin Harrison and in the 2000 election of George W. Bush. To understand how this can happen, consider the states of New Hampshire and Rhode Island, both of which had 4 electors. Bush won New Hampshire by 7211 votes, but Gore won Rhode Island by 118,953 votes. Although the tally in the Electoral College was a 4-4 tie, the popular vote was a very lopsided 404,114 to 515,856 in Gore’s favor.", "Incumbent President Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an electoral and popular vote landslide, winning 49 states. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and received 58.8 percent of the popular vote.", "This is the most recent election in which the incumbent president was defeated in two elections in a row. The only other time this happened was in 1892.", "In November 1984, Ronald Reagan was reelected in a landslide, defeating Walter Mondale and his running mate Geraldine Ferraro (1935-), the first female vice-presidential candidate from a major U.S. political party. Reagan, who announced it was “morning again in America,” carried 49 out of 50 states in the election and received 525 out of 538 electoral votes, the largest number ever won by an American presidential candidate." ]

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[ "David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973) was the chief statesman and political leader of the modern State of Israel . As Israel's first prime minister, Ben-Gurion led the country during the War of Independence and, except for a two-year period from 1953-1955, served as premier from 1948 to 1963.", "Born in Poland in 1886, David Ben-Gurion was Israel's first prime minister (1948-53, 1955-63) and defense minister (1948-53; 1955-63). It was Ben-Gurion who, on May 14, 1948, delivered Israel's declaration of independence. His charismatic personality won him the adoration of the masses, and, after his retirement from the government and the Knesset, he was revered as the \"Father of the Nation.\" Ben-Gurion died in Israel in 1973.", "The intensification of domestic reaction was accompanied, beginning in the late 1950’s, by a sharp struggle for power within the bourgeois militarist clique. D. Ben-Gurion (prime minister between 1948 and 1953 and from 1955 to 1963, with an interruption in 1961) and his associates, representing the most extreme forces, strove to consolidate his personal power and strengthen the dictatorship of the Jewish Zionist big bourgeoisie. The influence of the clergy (the rabbinate) on Israel’s domestic and foreign policy increased.", "After leading Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Ben-Gurion was elected Prime Minister of Israel when his Mapai (Labour) party won the largest number of Knesset seats in the first national election, held on 14 February 1949. He would remain in that post until 1963, except for a period of nearly two years between 1954 and 1955. As Prime Minister, he oversaw the establishment of the state's institutions. He presided over various national projects aimed at the rapid development of the country and its population: Operation Magic Carpet, the airlift of Jews from Arab countries, the construction of the National Water Carrier, rural development projects and the establishment of new towns and cities. In particular, he called for pioneering settlement in outlying areas, especially in the Negev. Ben-Gurion saw the struggle to make the Negev desert bloom as an area where the Jewish people could make a major contribution to humanity as a whole. He believed that the sparsely populated and barren Negev desert offered a great opportunity for the Jews to settle in Palestine with minimal obstruction of the Arab population, and set a personal example by settling in kibbutz Sde Boker at the centre of the Negev.", "Because President Truman was often annoyed by the tone and fierceness of the pressure exerted on him by American Zionists, he left some people with the impression he was ambivalent about the events of May 1948. This was not true: he never wavered in his belief that he had taken the right action. He felt particularly warmly toward Chaim Weizmann, Israel’s first President, and David Ben-Gurion, its first Prime Minister. In 1961, years after he left the White House, former President Truman met with Ben-Gurion in New York. Ben-Gurion’s memory of that meeting is revealing:", "May 14, 1948: late morning eastern standard time (late afternoon in Palestine): David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, reads a \"Declaration of Independence,\" which proclaims the existence of a Jewish state called Israel beginning on May 15, 1948, at 12:00 midnight Palestine time (6:00 p.m., May 14, 1948,eastern standard time).", "Once in Palestine, Golda Meir played key roles in advocating for a Jewish state, including raising money for the cause. When Israel declared independence in 1948, Golda Meir was one of the 25 signers of this historic document. After serving as Israel’s ambassador to the Soviet Union, minister of labor, and foreign minister, Golda Meir became Israel's fourth prime minister in 1969.", "Ben-Gurion's passion for Zionism, which began early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader and Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization in 1946. As head of the Jewish Agency, and later president of the Jewish Agency Executive, he became the de facto leader of the Jewish community in Palestine, and largely led its struggle for an independent Jewish state in Palestine. On 14 May 1948, he formally proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence, wh David Ben-Gurion (About this sound pronunciation (help·info); Hebrew: דָּוִד בֶּן-גּוּרִיּוֹן, born David Grün; (16 October 1886 – 1 December 1973) was the primary founder and the first Prime Minister of Israel.", "A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset, met first in Tel Aviv then moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections. The Socialist-Zionist parties Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively), but not an outright majority. Mapai's leader, David Ben-Gurion, was appointed Prime Minister. The Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as the first (largely ceremonial) President of Israel. Hebrew and Arabic were made the official languages of the new state. All governments have been coalitions—no party has ever won a majority in the Knesset. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment, predecessors of the Labour Party. In those years Labour Zionists, initially led by David Ben-Gurion, dominated Israeli politics and the economy was run on primarily socialist lines.", "A Zionist statesman and political leader, David Ben-Gurion was the first prime minister and defense minister of Israel.", "Ben-Gurion established a strong Israeli defense, which would prove resilient to advances by neighboring Arab states that would give him and Israel little rest over his tenure. He briefly retired in 1953, but returned to positions of power in 1955 and led the Israeli government until 1963, when he suddenly retired, citing personal reasons.", "Israeli History: Israel Declaration Independence 1948 with Original MP3 Recordings of David Ben-Gurion Reading Declaration Independence", "David Ben-Gurion declares the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948 and becomes the first PM. The Jewish state is immediately invaded by the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq and the Israeli Independence War starts. The Jewish forces are outnumbered by 301 to 1. The Arab forces are armed and supplied by the British, while the West imposes an arms embargo on Israel. Israel carries out Operation Balak to smuggle arms from Europe into Israel. Tons of leftover malfunctioning Wehrmacht arms and Luftwaffe airplanes are thus imported from Czechoslovakia.", "On May 14, 1948, at the end of the British mandate, the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, declared the creation of the State of Israel.", "Yitzhak Rabin was the prime minister of Israel from 1974 to 1977 and again from 1992 until his death in 1995. For 26 years, Rabin had been a member of the Palmach (part of the Jewish underground army before Israel became a state) and the IDF (the Israeli army) and had risen up the ranks to become the IDF's Chief of Staff. After retiring from the IDF in 1968, Rabin was appointed the Israeli Ambassador to the United States.", "In 1948, David Ben-Gurion appointed Golda Meir to be a member of the Provisional Government. A few days before the Declaration of Independence , BenGurion sent her disguised as an Arab on a hazardous mission to persuade King Abdullah of Jordan not to attack Israel . But the King had already decided his army would invade the Jewish state following the British departure.", "- David Ben-Gurion, in Israel's Proclamation of Independence, read on May 14, 1948, moments before the 6 surrounding Arab armies, trained and armed by the British, invaded the day-old Jewish microstate, with the stated goal of extermination.", "Golda Meir Golda Meir became Prime Minister of Israel on March 17 1969 after serving as... View the full answer", "Yitzhak Rabin became chief of staff for the Israeli military in 1964, and directed the armed forces during the Six-Day War of 1967. He succeeded Golda Meir as Prime Minister in 1974, but resigned in 1977. He became the leader of the Labour Party, served as Defense Minister in the late 1980s and was elected Prime Minister in 1992. A proponent of Middle East peace, Rabin shared the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize with Yasser Arafat and Shimon Peres. In 1995 he was shot to death by an Israeli law student who claimed Rabin intended to \"give our country to the Arabs.\"", "Unable to contain Arab and Jewish violence, Britain withdrew its forces from Palestine in 1948, leaving responsibility for resolving the competing claims to the newly created United Nations. The U-N presented a partition plan to create independent Jewish and Arab states in Palestine. Most Jews in Palestine, led by David Ben Gurion, accepted the partition. Most Arabs, including the now exiled Grand Mufti, did not. In 1948, the Jews declared Israel's independence, quickly winning recognition from the United States, Soviet Union, and France. But the declaration prompted surrounding Arab states to attack. After more than a year of back and forth fighting, Israel controlled about 50 percent more territory than originally envisioned UN partition plan. Jordan, however, controlled the West Bank and Jerusalem's holy sites, and Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip.", "Ben-Gurion's passion for Zionism, which began early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader and Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization in 1946. As head of the Jewish Agency from 1935, and later president of the Jewish Agency Executive, he was the de facto leader of the Jewish community in Palestine, and largely led its struggle for an independent Jewish state in Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, he formally proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence, which he had helped to write. Ben-Gurion led Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and united the various Jewish militias into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Subsequently, he became known as \"Israel's founding father\". ", "Ben-Gurion again resigned as Prime Minister of July 5, 1959, following a cabinet dispute over the sale of arms to West Germany, which had been approved by the Knesset and supported by Ben-Gurion. On July 7 he appointed Finance Minister Levi Eshkol Acting Premier of a caretaker cabinet. Unable to form a new cabinet, Ben-Gurion resumed the Prime Ministership of July 21 until general elections, slated for the fall.", "On April 11, 1974, Golda Meir resigned. Her cabinet followed suit, including Dayan, who had previously offered to resign twice and was turned down both times by Meir. A new government was seated in June, and Yitzhak Rabin, who had spent most of the war as an advisor to Elazar in an unofficial capacity, became Prime Minister. ", "Following the United Nations ’ 1947 decision to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, and with the departure of the British in May 1948, he made the momentous decision to declare the establishment of the State of Israel, over the furious opposition of the right, which objected to the partition of Palestine and ceding parts of it to Arab sovereignty. He became the first prime minister of the State of Israel and guided the country during the War of Independence.", "Israeli statesman (born in Russia) who (as prime minister of Israel) negotiated a peace treaty with Anwar Sadat (then the president of Egypt) (1913-1992)", "He was the first Prime Minister of Israel. His passion for Zionism, which began early in life, culminated in his instrumental role in the founding of the state of Israel.", "Known as Bibi to his friends and enemies alike, he was the first Israeli leader to be born after the creation of the Jewish state.", "1948 Israel declared to be an independent state and a provisional government is established Immediately after the declaration, Israel was attacked by the neighboring Arab states", "1948 - The British Mandate in Palestine ends and the state of Israel is proclaimed by Jewish groups.", ", 1922–95, Israeli general and statesman, b. Jerusalem, the first native-born prime minister of Israel (1974–77, 1992–95). His extensive military experience began in 1940 when he joined the Haganah (Jewish militia) and thereafter fought in the", "in 1948. The morning after this pivotal historical date he became the first head of government of the Jewish state. A charismatic leader and founder of Mapai, the Israeli Labour party, he presided over the new state’s organisation and the establishment of its first diplomatic ties.", "Upon Eshkol’s death on Feb. 26, 1969, Meir, the compromise candidate, became prime minister. She maintained the coalition government that had emerged in June 1967. Meir pressed for a peace settlement in the Middle East by diplomatic means. She traveled widely, her meetings including those with Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania (1972) and Pope Paul VI at the Vatican (1973). Also in 1973, Meir’s government was host to Willy Brandt , chancellor of West Germany ." ]

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[ "In November 1990 following a contested leadership election, Margaret Thatcher resigned as leader of the Conservative Party and was succeeded as leader and Prime Minister by John Major. Most opinion polls had shown Labour comfortably ahead of the Tories for more than a year before Thatcher's resignation, with the fall in Tory support blamed largely on her introduction of the unpopular poll tax, combined with the fact that the economy was sliding into recession at the time.", "In November 1990 following a contested leadership election, Margaret Thatcher resigned as leader of the Conservative Party and was succeeded as leader and Prime Minister by John Major . Most opinion polls had shown Labour comfortably ahead of the Tories for more than a year before Mrs Thatcher's resignation, with the fall in Tory support blamed largely on her introduction of the unpopular poll tax , combined with the fact that the economy was sliding into recession at the time.", "Margaret Thatcher through the years – Thatcher takes over from Edward Heath as leader of the Conservative Party in 1975.", "Thatcher was replaced as Prime Minister and party leader by her Chancellor John Major , who oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading up to the 1992 general election and led the Conservatives to their fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992. [68] Thatcher favoured Major over Heseltine in the leadership contest, but her support for him weakened in later years. [69]", "Margaret Thatcher actively supported the Conservative general election campaign in 2001. In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, Lady Thatcher came out in support of Iain Duncan Smith because she believed he would \"make infinitely the better leader\" than Kenneth Clarke due to Clarke's \"old-fashioned views of the role of the state and his unbounded enthusiasm for European integration\".[14]", "Thatcher was replaced as Prime Minister and party leader by her Chancellor John Major, who prevailed over Heseltine in the subsequent ballots. Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading up to the 1992 general election and led the Conservatives to their fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992. Thatcher had favoured Major over Heseltine in the leadership contest, but her support for him weakened in later years. ", "In January 1975 Margaret Thatcher challenged Edward Heath for the leadership of the Conservative Party. On 4th February Thatcher defeated Heath by 130 votes to 119 and became the first woman leader of a major political party. Heath took the defeat badly and refused to serve in Thatcher's shadow cabinet. He considered Thatcher to be a right-wing authoritarian and like another former Conservative prime minister, Harold Macmillan , Heath constantly criticized her policies.", "Margaret Thatcher actively supported the Conservative general election campaign in 2001 . In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, Lady Thatcher came out in support of Iain Duncan Smith because she believed he would \"make infinitely the better leader\" than Kenneth Clarke due to Clarke's \"old-fashioned views of the role of the state and his unbounded enthusiasm for European integration\". [14]", "In November 1990 Margaret Thatcher was challenged as leader of the Conservative Party . She won the first round of the contest but the majority is not enough to prevent a second round. On 28th November, Thatcher resigned as prime minister and was replaced by John Major .", "In 1974, the Conservatives lost two elections and Heath was replaced as party leader by Margaret Thatcher , the first woman to lead the party. Thatcher was prime minister from 1979 to 1990, the longest uninterrupted government of the 20th cent. Her government dismantled much of Britain's postwar welfare state, and the party became identified with free-market economic policies. In 1990, Thatcher's leadership was challenged by members of the party; in the ensuing elections, she was succeeded by John Major . Under his leadership, the Conservatives won the 1992 general election. The party received a resounding defeat in the 1997 elections, and Major was replaced as party leader by William Hague . In 2001 the party, which had come to be seen as anti–European Union, was again trounced at the polls by Labour, leading Hague to resign. Iain Duncan Smith was chosen to succeed Hague but served only two years as party leader before he was replaced by Michael Howard . The party made gains in the 2005 elections, but Labour's majority, though reduced, remained secure. Following the elections Howard announced his resignation, and David Cameron was chosen to succeed him. Cameron moved the party more toward the center, and in 2010 the Conservatives won a plurality. They formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats , and Cameron became prime minister.", "The Leader of the Conservative Party is the most senior politician within the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom. The post is currently held by Theresa May, who succeeded David Cameron on 11 July 2016.", "In November of 1990, Margaret Thatcher's position as head of the party was challenged by Michael Heseltine, and thus a vote was called. Others joined the challenge. When Thatcher saw that she had failed on the first ballot, though none of her challengers won, she resigned as party head. John Major, who had been a Thatcherite, was elected in her place as prime minister. Margaret Thatcher had been prime minister for 11 years and 209 days.", "With the Labor Party no longer in power, Prime Minister James Callaghan resigned his position. As leader of the Conservatives, Margaret Thatcher became prime minister, making history once again — as both the first female prime minister of Great Britain and the first female leader of a western nation.", "Thatcher agreed with Sir Keith Joseph and the CPS that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy -- and had lost direction -- following its 1972 U-turn. After her party lost the second election of 1974, Joseph decided to challenge Heath's leadership but later withdrew. Thatcher then decided that she would enter the race on behalf of the Josephite/CPS faction. Unexpectedly she outpolled Heath on the first ballot, forcing him to resign the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor William Whitelaw, by 146 votes to 79, and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975. She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained bitter towards Thatcher to the end of his life for what he perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.", "Thatcher thought that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy —and had lost direction. After her party lost the second election of 1974 in October, Thatcher, determined to change the direction of the Conservative party, challenged Heath for the Conservative party leadership. She promised a fresh start, and her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee . Unexpectedly, she defeated Heath on the first ballot, and he resigned the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor, William Whitelaw , and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975. She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life for what he, and many of his supporters, perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925) is a retired British politician. She was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.[1]", "Mrs. Thatcher developed a close intellectual relationship with Keith Joseph, a wealthy Conservative MP and intellectual who in 1974 challenged former Prime Minister Heath for party leadership. Mrs. Thatcher was Joseph’s campaign manager. He proved a clumsy campaigner and dropped out, leaving Mrs. Thatcher to carry on in his place. On a second ballot Mrs. Thatcher became Britain’s first female leader of the opposition. To many Tories, she was a placeholder, awaiting a suitable male insider as choice for party leader and possibly prime minister.", "Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher in the garden of her London home with some of the men who could fill leading roles in her administration if she succeeds in her bid to become Britain's first woman Prime Minister. They are (from left) Angus Maude, James Prior, Humphrey Atkins, Lord Thorneycroft, Sir Keith Joseph, Lord Carrington, Francis Pym, Sir Ian Gilmour (back) and Sir Geoffrey Howe.", "Margaret Thatcher, in full Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven, née Margaret Hilda Roberts (born October 13, 1925, Grantham , Lincolnshire , England —died April 8, 2013, London ), British Conservative Party politician and prime minister (1979–90), Europe’s first woman prime minister. The only British prime minister in the 20th century to win three consecutive terms and, at the time of her resignation, Britain’s longest continuously serving prime minister since 1827, she accelerated the evolution of the British economy from statism to liberalism and became, by personality as much as achievement, the most renowned British political leader since Winston Churchill .", "      Margaret Thatcher [13 Oct 1925~], leader of the Conservative Party, is sworn in as Britain's first female prime minister. The Oxford-educated chemist and lawyer was sworn in the day after the Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in general parliamentary elections. Margaret Hilda Roberts was born in Grantham, England, in 1925. She was the first woman president of the Oxford University Conservative Association and in 1950 ran for Parliament in Dartford. She was defeated but garnered an impressive number of votes in the generally liberal district. In 1959, after marrying businessman Denis Thatcher and giving birth to twins, she was elected to Parliament as a Conservative for Finchley, a north London district. During the 1960s, she rose rapidly in the ranks of the Conservative Party and in 1967 joined the shadow cabinet sitting in opposition to Harold Wilson's ruling Labour cabinet. With the victory of the Conservative Party under Edward Health in 1970, Thatcher became secretary of state for education and science.", "Margaret Thatcher, leading conservative who won the first ballot for leadership which resulted in Prime Minister Edward Heath's resignation, speaks on Feb. 10, 1975, in London. Thatcher, 87, Britain's first female prime minister, died on April 8 from a stroke. ", "Margaret Thatcher, leader of the Conservative Party, became Prime Minister from 1979 until 1990. She was the first Western female leader of the modern era, and was faced with depression and \"stagflation\" - high unemployment and inflation resulting from high oil prices. Thatcher was closely allied with U.S. President Ronald Reagan and employed \"trickle-down\" supply-side economics, cutting taxes on the wealthy in hopes that they would spend the additional money to hire new workers and endorsing privatization and deregulation. Thatcher cut many other social programs including education, health care, and welfare, and sold off nationalized industries such as BritOil and British Airways. She also broke the power of the unions in Britain.", "Margaret Thatcher (born 1925) was elected Leader of the Conservative Party in 1975, the first woman to head a major UK political party, and became the UK's first female Prime Minister in 1979.", "Margaret Thatcher was the daughter of a grocer from Grantham in Lincolnshire. She trained as a chemist and lawyer. She was elected as a Conservative MP in 1959 and became a cabinet minister in 1970 as the Secretary of State for Education and Science. In 1975 she was elected as Leader of the Conservative Party and so became Leader of the Opposition.", "Margaret Thatcher, the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom who led the Conservative government from 1979 to 1990, died on this day in 2013 at the age of 87.", "Margaret Thatcher, party leader since 1975, became Britain's first female prime minister with a majority of 43 seats. The Conservatives won 43.9% of the votes and 339 seats, Labour 36.9% and 269 seats, and Liberals 13.8%. She came to power on the promise that the Conservatives would cut income tax, reduce public expenditure, make it easier for people to buy their own homes and curb the power of the unions.", "On this day in 2013, Margaret Thatcher, the first–and so far only–female prime minister of the United Kingdom, dies in London at age 87 from a stroke. Serving from 1979 to 1990, Thatcher was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century. She curbed the power of Britain’s labor unions, privatized state-owned industries, led her nation to victory in the Falklands War and as a close ally of U.S. President Ronald Reagan played a pivotal role in ending the Cold War. A polarizing figure, Thatcher, nicknamed the Iron Lady, was credited by her admirers with championing free-market, conservative policies that revitalized the British economy, while critics charged these initiatives hurt the nation’s lower classes.", "Lady Thatcher was Conservative prime minister from 1979 to 1990. She was the first woman to hold the role.", "Margaret Thatcher (1925 – 2013) Born in Grantham, Thatcher was British Prime Minister from 1979-1990. She oversaw a period of rapid social and economic change in Britain. She was a conviction politician unafraid to speak her mind and pursue her ideology.", "Anthony Charles Lynton \"Tony\" Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a former Labour Party Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . He was Prime Minister from May 1997 until June 2007 and was succeeded by the former Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown .", "Margaret Thatcher is elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. She is the first woman to become a prime minister in Europe.", "1925–2013, British political leader. Great Britain's first woman prime minister, nicknamed the \"Iron Lady\" for her uncompromising political stance, Thatcher served longer than any other British prime minister in the 20th" ]

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[ "Harold Wilson also said that “a week is a long time in politics”. But as history repeats itself it turns out 100 years isn’t long at all.", "Due to the fast-changing pace of the political landscape, the fortunes of a politician or political group can change drastically just in the course of a single week. The phrase is attributed to British Prime Minister Harold Wilson, c. 1964. The challenger is enjoying a surge in popularity after the debate, but there's still time before the election, and a week is a long time in politics.", "8. Q Which British Prime Minister first said ‘A week is a long time in politics’?", "Wilson had a knack for memorable phrases. He coined the term ‘Selsdon Man’ to refer to the anti-interventionist policies of the Conservative leader Edward Heath, developed at a policy retreat held at the Selsdon Park Hotel in early 1970. This phrase, intended to evoke the “primitive throwback” qualities of anthropological discoveries such as Piltdown Man and Swanscombe Man, was part of a British political tradition of referring to political trends by suffixing ‘man’. Another famous quote is “A week is a long time in politics”: this signifies that political fortunes can change extremely rapidly. Other memorable phrases attributed to Wilson include “the white heat of the [technological] revolution” and his comment after the 1967 devaluation of the pound: “This does not mean that the pound here in Britain in your pocket or purse is worth any less….”, usually now quoted as “the pound in your pocket”.", "Wilson had a knack for memorable phrases. He coined the term \" Selsdon Man\" to refer to the anti-interventionist policies of the Conservative leader Edward Heath, developed at a policy retreat held at the Selsdon Park Hotel in early 1970. This phrase, intended to evoke the \"primitive throwback\" qualities of anthropological discoveries such as Piltdown Man and Swanscombe Man , was part of a British political tradition of referring to political trends by suffixing man. Another famous quote is \"A week is a long time in politics\": this signifies that political fortunes can change extremely rapidly. Other memorable phrases attributed to Wilson include \"the white heat of the [technological] revolution\" and his comment after the 1967 devaluation of the pound: \"This does not mean that the pound here in Britain — in your pocket or purse — is worth any less....\", usually now quoted as \"the pound in your pocket\".", "Wilson coined the term ' Selsdon Man ' to refer to the anti-interventionist policies of the Conservative leader Edward Heath , developed at a policy retreat held at the Selsdon Park Hotel in early 1970. This phrase, intended to evoke the 'primitive throwback' qualities of anthropological discoveries such as Piltdown Man and Swanscombe Man , was part of a British political tradition of referring to political trends by suffixing 'man'. Another famous quote is \"A week is a long time in politics\": this signifies that political fortunes can change extremely rapidly. Other memorable phrases attributed to Wilson include \"the white heat of the [technological] revolution.\" In his broadcast after the 1967 devaluation of the pound, Wilson said: \"This does not mean that the pound here in Britain – in your pocket or purse – is worth any less....\", and the phrase \"the pound in your pocket\" subsequently took on a life of its own.", "The phrase \"a week is a long time in politics\" is a sort of snowclone , or frequently adapted phrase. After the first televised leaders' debate last week, we read \"Ninety minutes is a long time in politics\" (the debate lasted ninety minutes and it resulted in a surge of popularity for Nick Clegg and the Liberal Democrats), and sports reports often include phrases like \"an hour is a long time in a sports match\"; there's also the \"a week may be a long time in politics but it's an eternity in (football, sport etc)\". I am guilty myself of using it when teaching a language (\"a week may be a long time in politics but it's nothing when it comes to learning Russian\").", "One of the tiredest clichés is \"a week is a long time in politics\" and it is being bandied around a lot at the moment, as the parties' popularity swings up and down depending on the latest soundbite or tv interview.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts, 13 October 1925 - 8 April 2013) was a British politician, the longest-serving (1979–1990) Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the \"Iron Lady\", which became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented Conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "As quoted in The Rainmaker : A Passion for Politics (1986) by Keith Davey, p. 57; also in The Wordsworth Dictionary of Quotations (1998) by Connie Robertson, p. 439", "Powell's rhetorical gifts were also employed, with success, beyond politics. He was a poet of some accomplishment, with four published collections to his name: First Poems; Casting Off; Dancer's End; and The Wedding Gift. His Collected Poems appeared in 1990. He translated Herodotus ' Histories and published many other works of classical scholarship. He published a biography of Joseph Chamberlain , which treated the split with William Gladstone over Irish Home Rule in 1886 as the pivotal point of his career, rather than the adoption of tariff reform , and contained the famous line: \"All political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in failure, because that is the nature of politics and of human affairs\". His political publications were often as critical of his own party as they were of Labour, often making fun of what he saw as logical fallacies in reasoning or action. His book Freedom & Reality contained many quotes from Labour party manifestos or by Harold Wilson that he regarded as nonsensical.", "Eden was heavily influenced by Stanley Baldwin when he first entered Parliament. After earlier combative beginnings he cultivated a low-key speaking style which relied heavily on rational argument and consensus-building rather than rhetoric and party point-scoring, and which was often highly effective in the House of Commons. However, he was not always an effective public speaker, and his parliamentary performances sometimes disappointed many of his followers, e.g. after his resignation from Chamberlain's government. Churchill once even commented on an Eden speech that the latter had used every cliché except \"God is love\". This was deliberate: he often struck out striking phrases from speech drafts and replaced them with clichés. ", "Powell's rhetorical gifts were also employed, with success, beyond politics. He was a poet of some accomplishment, with four published collections to his name: First Poems; Casting Off; Dancer's End; and The Wedding Gift. His Collected Poems appeared in 1990. He translated Herodotus (The History of Herodotus) and published many other works of classical scholarship. He published a biography of Joseph Chamberlain , which treated the split with Gladstone over Irish Home Rule in 1886 as the pivotal point of his career, rather than the adoption of Tariff Reform, and which contained the famous line that \"all political careers, unless they are cut off at some happy juncture, end in failure\". Powell published many books on political matters too, which were often annotated collections of his speeches. His political publications were often as critical of his own party as they were of Labour, often making fun of what he saw as logical fallacies in reasoning or action. His book Freedom & Reality contained many quotes from Labour party manifestos or by Harold Wilson which he regarded as nonsensical.", "A jibe directed at Ramsay MacDonald , during a speech in the House of Commons, March 23, 1933 \"European Situation\" . This quote is similar to a remark (“He can compress the most words into the smallest ideas of any man I ever met”) made by Abraham Lincoln . [Frederick Trevor Hill credits Lincoln with this remark in Lincoln the Lawyer (1906), adding that ‘History has considerately sheltered the identity of the victim’.]", "55. Complete this quote by Enoch Powell – “All political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in…………what?.”", "At the funeral of Andrew Bonar Law, in Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1923, Herbert Asquith stated, with a certain satisfaction, that 'the unknown Prime Minister' was being buried by the side of the Unknown Soldier. The phrase has served as epitaph to the man who was prime minister for only 211 days, the shortest tenure in the twentieth century. Yet this dismissive remark should not lead us to underestimate the political importance of Bonar Law or to misunderstand the man.", "The all-time Commons record for non-stop speaking, six hours, was set by Henry Brougham in 1828, though this was not a filibuster. The 21st century record was set on December 2, 2005 by Andrew Dismore, Labour MP for Hendon. Dismore spoke for three hours and 17 minutes to block a Conservative Private Member's Bill, the Criminal Law (Amendment) (Protection of Property) Bill, which he claimed amounted to \"vigilante law.\" Although Dismore is credited with speaking for 197 minutes, he regularly accepted interventions from other MPs who wished to comment on points made in his speech. Taking multiple interventions artificially inflates the duration of a speech and thus may be used as a tactic to prolong a speech.", "The military failure in Norway heightens dissatisfaction in Britain with Chamberlain's conduct of the war. On May 7-8 he narrowly survives a censure debate in the house of commons (notable for Leo Amery's revival of Cromwell 's famous words 'You have sat too long here for any good you have been doing... In the name of God, go!'). Then, on May 10, alarming news from the continent sets the seal on his term as leader.", "Those words have a resonance for me, especially since they were written by Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., in 1973, in his book \"The Imperial Presidency,\" discussing the man who had the unfortunate characteristic of being a Republican. But nonetheless, I thought that was very interesting, and I would share it with you, because he's one of those 400 eminent historians whose view today has modulated somewhat.", "The same year that Berg's Pulitzer Prize winning bestseller Lindbergh was published, a book appeared by Pat Buchanan entitled A Republic, Not An Empire: Reclaiming America's Destiny. The book portrays Lindbergh and other pre-war isolationists as American patriots, who were smeared by interventionists during the months leading up to Pearl Harbor. Buchanan suggests that the backlash against Lindbergh highlights \"the explosiveness of mixing ethnic politics with foreign policy\".[42] The views expressed in the book caused considerable controversy that eventually led to Buchanan's departure from the Republican Party.", "Rudyard Kipling's outspoken views on the foreign and domestic policies of his day made him some powerful enemies and sometimes rattled his friends.  He coined the phrase, \"white man's burden,\" when he urged the United States to take a more active role in civilizing backward regions of the world.  He so vehemently criticized America's \"belated\" entry into World War I that the governments of Britain and France publicly disavowed his remarks.  He opposed compulsory military service but argued that a man who had never enlisted should lose the right to vote.  When his beloved cousin Stanley Baldwin became prime minister of Great Britain, Kipling chastised him as \"a socialist at heart.\"", "In the following newspaper articles from 27 June 1954, Churchill is quoted as saying “to jaw-jaw is always better than to war-war”: “Churchill urges Patience in Coping with Red Dangers” by W. H. Lawrence, New York Times, p. 1 and “‘Vigilance and Time’ Asked by Churchill by Walter Trohan, Chicago Daily Tribune, p. 1. —M.D., via email.", "One of the most influential Speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn. Rayburn was the longest-serving Speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Rayburn's successor, Democrat John William McCormack (served 1962–1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the Speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the Speaker.", "Two of Disraeli's central interests, patriotism and democracy, were important to George Bush's 2004 victory. In this nation the people and not the courts are meant to lay out the moral and social foundations of society, subject only to constitutional absolutes. When anti-democratic judges and elected officials decide to update America's moral code on their own authority, the people get upset. Democracy in America has been hurt badly where it counts most. Disraeli knew well and said often: Nothing counts more than society's moral foundations. Next to that, all other issues are small change.", "Because of his famous — or notorious — speech on immigration, delivered in Birmingham in April 1968, Powell’s wider achievements have been largely ignored. He served in the Cabinet for just 15 months, but his influence on politics and political thought is greater than that of any other Member of Parliament in the past century.", "Patrick Buchanan, who ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 1992, also used the theme \"America First.\" According to Ron Faucheux , \"Buchanan's enemies drew unflattering comparisons between his slogan and the same one that had been used a half-century earlier by the 'America First' committee, an isolationist group that opposed U.S. entry into World War II.\" The \"America First\" committee's goal had been to prevent the U.S. from entering World War II. ", "In commemoration to the Irish politician, known for his gift of oration, here are some of his best known quotes:", "Bartlet: Well, it's a discussion for serious men. They say a statesman is a politician who's been dead for fifteen years. I'd like us to be statesmen while we're still alive.", "Q: You have been personally involved with many of these people in the political arena for a long time. What was your impression about McCarthy and, Kennedy? Were they figuring out what was best politically or was it a matter of belief?", "This is a part of the lecture series, Making the Weather: Six politicians who shaped our age.", "ADLAI STEVENSON: “Let's talk sense to the American people. Let's tell them the truth, that there are no gains without pains, that we are now on the eve of great decisions, not easy decisions, like resistance when you're attacked, but a long, patient, costly struggle which alone can assure triumph over the great enemies of man — war, poverty, and tyranny — and the assaults upon human dignity which are the most grievous consequences of each.”", "In 1994 Republican Congressional candidates ran on a platform of major reforms of government with measures such as a balanced budget amendment and welfare reform. These measures and others formed the famous Contract with America, which represented the first effort to have a party platform in an off-year election. The Contract promised to bring all points up for a vote for the first time in history. The Republicans passed some of their proposals, but failed on others such as term limits." ]

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[ "At the end of the square is a statue of essayist, historian and statesman Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who lived at the Inn from 1576 until his death in 1626. As Lord Chancellor he has been credited with bringing greater fairness and impartiality to the English legal system. However, he was himself convicted of taking bribes, for which he was fined £40,000 and imprisoned in the Tower of London.", "Francis Bacon, 1561–1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman, b. London, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at Gray's Inn. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper to Queen Elizabeth I. Francis Bacon was a member of Parliament in 1584 and his opposition to Elizabeth's tax program retarded his political advancement; only the efforts of the earl of Essex led Elizabeth to accept him as an unofficial member of her Learned Council. At Essex's trial in 1601, Bacon, putting duty to the state above friendship, assumed an active part in the prosecution—a course for which many have condemned him. With the succession of James I, Bacon's fortunes improved. He was knighted in 1603, became attorney general in 1613, lord keeper in 1617, and lord chancellor in 1618; he was created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Albans in 1621. In 1621, accused of accepting bribes as lord chancellor, he pleaded guilty and was fined £40,000, banished from the court, disqualified from holding office, and sentenced to the Tower of London. The banishment, fine, and imprisonment were remitted. Nevertheless, his career as a public servant was ended. He spent the rest of his life writing in retirement.", "English philosopher, essayist, and statesman, b. London, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at Gray's Inn. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper to Queen Elizabeth I. Francis Bacon was a member of Parliament in 1584 and his opposition to Elizabeth's tax program retarded his political advancement; only the efforts of the earl of Essex led Elizabeth to accept him as an unofficial member of her Learned Council. At Essex's trial in 1601, Bacon, putting duty to the state above friendship, assumed an active part in the prosecution—a course for which many have condemned him. With the succession of James I, Bacon's fortunes improved. He was knighted in 1603, became attorney general in 1613, lord keeper in 1617, and lord chancellor in 1618; he was created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Albans in 1621. In 1621, accused of accepting bribes as lord chancellor, he pleaded guilty and was fined �40,000, banished from the court, disqualified from holding office, and sentenced to the Tower of London. The banishment, fine, and imprisonment were remitted. Nevertheless, his career as a public servant was ended. He spent the rest of his life writing in retirement.", "Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621. After having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with twenty-three separate counts of corruption. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether a confession was really his, he replied, \"My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed.\" He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by King James, to be committed to the Tower of London during the king's pleasure (his imprisonment lasted only a few days). More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. Narrowly, he escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing. Historians such as Nieves Mathews believe Bacon may have been innocent of the bribery charges; Bacon himself said that he pleaded guilty by force deliberately[citation needed] so to save the king from a worse political scandal, stating:", "His political career was highlighted by a heated rivalry with Edward Coke, and ended when he was took a bribe and was impeached from his position as Lord Chancellor. He wrote histories of the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VII, and compiled a list of scientific and natural trends from the past ten centuries in his Sylva Sylvarum, the third part of his unfinished project, the Magna Instauratio. He categorized the problems preventing man’s intellectual advancement into four idols, and created the utopian island of Bensalem in his New Atlantis. FTP, name this Elizabethan-era philosopher and author of the Novum Organum.", "Elizabethan politician, who opposed the government of Mary I and exiled himself to Germany. His friendship with Elizabeth I and William Cecil later secured him many offices. Though close to the government, he never resiled in his consistent championing of Puritanism.", "In 1621, on his sixtieth birthday, Bacon was at the height of his career. He celebrated the occasion with a party at York House on the Strand, his birthplace. Among the guests was Ben Jonson. Five days later Bacon was created Viscount St. Albans. Disaster struck soon after. He was convicted by the High Court of Parliament for accepting bribes, sentenced to a fine and imprisonment, and banned from public office and Parliament. Here again, the degree of Bacon's guilt, which he admitted, and its moral evaluation have raised controversy.", "In early May 1593 several bills were posted about London threatening Protestant refugees from France and the Netherlands who had settled in the city. One of these, the \"Dutch church libel,\" written in blank verse, contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed, \"Tamburlaine\". On 11 May the Privy Council ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels. The next day, Marlowe's colleague Thomas Kyd was arrested. Kyd's lodgings were searched and a fragment of a heretical tract was found. Kyd asserted that it had belonged to Marlowe, with whom he had been writing \"in one chamber\" some two years earlier.At that time they had both been working for an aristocratic patron, probably Ferdinando Stanley, Lord Strange.A warrant for Marlowe's arrest was issued on 18 May, when the Privy Council apparently knew that he might be found staying with Thomas Walsingham, whose father was a first cousin of the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's principal secretary in the 1580s and a man more deeply involved in state espionage than any other member of the Privy Council. Marlowe duly presented himself on 20 May but, there apparently being no Privy Council meeting on that day, was instructed to \"give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary\". On Wednesday 30 May, Marlowe was killed.", "In March 1640 Cromwell was elected to represent Cambridge in the House of Commons . It has been claimed that Cromwell was the \"least wealthy man\" who attended that Parliament. Cromwell took up the case of John Lilburne , who in February, 1638, had been found guilty and sentenced to be fined £500, whipped, pilloried and imprisoned for publishing Puritan books. The following month he was whipped from Fleet Prison to Old Palace Yard . It is estimated that Lilburne received 500 lashes along the way, making 1,500 stripes to his back during the two-mile walk. An eyewitness account claimed that his badly bruised shoulders \"swelled almost as big as a penny loaf\" and the wheals on his back were larger than \"tobacco-pipes.\" (22)", "In early May 1593 several bills were posted about London threatening Protestant refugees from France and the Netherlands who had settled in the city. One of these, the \"Dutch church libel\", written in rhymed iambic pentameter, contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed, \"Tamburlaine\". On 11 May the Privy Council ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels. The next day, Marlowe's colleague Thomas Kyd was arrested. Kyd's lodgings were searched and a fragment of a heretical tract was found. Kyd asserted that it had belonged to Marlowe, with whom he had been writing \"in one chamber\" some two years earlier. At that time they had both been working for an aristocratic patron, probably Ferdinando Stanley, Lord Strange. A warrant for Marlowe's arrest was issued on 18 May, when the Privy Council apparently knew that he might be found staying with Thomas Walsingham, whose father was a first cousin of the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's principal secretary in the 1580s and a man more deeply involved in state espionage than any other member of the Privy Council. Marlowe duly presented himself on 20 May but, there apparently being no Privy Council meeting on that day, was instructed to \"give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary\". On Wednesday 30 May Marlowe was killed.", "English playwright and contemporary of William Shakespeare who wrote moving, tragic plays in the new medium of blank verse. Born in Canterbury , he prepared for the ministry at the University of Cambridge. Some historical documents indicate that Marlowe was engaged by the minister Sir Francis Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of state, to serve as a spy in France . After earning a master's degree at Cambridge, he moved to London, where he joined the Lord Admiral's Company and soon ran into trouble with the law. He was arrested and jailed in 1589 for taking part in a deadly brawl. In 1593, he was arrested again under the charge of atheism.", "Sir Christopher Hatton (1540 – 20 November 1591) was an English politician, Lord Chancellor of England and a favourite of Elizabeth I of England.", "Even before 1640, ideas of popular sovereignty and contractual government circulated in England. The Elizabethan divine, Richard Hooker spoke of the \"original compact\", and his friend, Sir Edwin Sandys a leading critic of royal policy in Jacobean parliaments, talked in 1614 of the \"reciprocal conditions between King and people\".", "One poem, \"Pax Gulielmi Auspiciis Europae Reddita\" (Peace returned to Europe under William's auspices), compliments William III's ability as a monarch and celebrates the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, which ended the War of the Grand Alliance. A partisan of Protestantism and the Whigs, Addison in his earliest poetry supported the Protestant succession of William of Orange and Mary. \"Poem to his Majesty\" was dedicated to John Somers, an important Whig, and \"William's Peace\" was dedicated to Charles Montagu, Lord Halifax, the Whig treasurer. Montagu became Addison's patron and secured him a pension of £200 to undertake a grand tour on the Continent between 1699 and 1704. Addison toured several countries and studied French neoclassical literary theorists; his itinerary, particularly to places of classical literary interest, is recorded in Remarks upon Several Parts of Italy, published in 1705.", "Shakespeare’s literary and social aspirations are revealed at every turn. In his Petrarchism, for example, he adopts a mode that had become a staple of courtly discourse. Elizabethan politicians figured themselves and their personal and political conditions in Petrarchan terms. The inescapable and enduring frustrations of the courtier’s life were habitually figured via the analogy of the frustrated, confused, but devoted Petrarchan lover. Yet Shakespeare’s approach to this convention typifies the 1590s younger generation’s sense of its incongruity. Lines such as “the love-sick queen began to sweat” are understandably rare in Elizabethan courtly discourse. Power relations expressed through the gendered language of Elizabeth’s eroticized politics are reversed: “Her eyes petitioners to his eyes suing / ... Her eyes wooed still, his eyes disdain’d the wooing.” It is Venus who deploys the conventional carpe diem arguments: “Make use of time / ... Fair flowers that are not gath’red in their prime, / Rot, and consume themselves in little time”; she even provides a blason of her own charms: “Thou canst not see one wrinkle in my brow, / Mine eyes are grey, and bright, and quick in turning.”", "The compleat statesman, demonstrated in the life, actions, and politicks of that great minister of state, Anthony Earl of Shaftesbury: containing an historical account of his descent, his administration of affairs in the time of Oliver Cromwell, his unwearied endeavours to restore His most sacred Majesty, his zeal in prosecuting the horrid Popish Plot; several of his learned speeches during his being Ld. Chancellor, his two commitments to the Tower; the most material passages at his tryal: with many more considerable instances, unto His Lordships going for Holland.", "The Lancastrian regime was founded and legitimised by formal lying that was both public and official. This has been described as \"a series of unconstitutional actions\" based \"upon three major acts of perjury\". The historian K.B. McFarlane found it hard \"to think of another moment of comparable importance in medieval English political history when the supply of information was so effectively manipulated as it was by Henry IV on this occasion\". The Lancastrians patronised poets for panegyric purposes for years before Henry IV ascended the throne, including Geoffrey Chaucer who dedicated The Book of the Duchess to Blanche of Lancaster around 1368. In 1400, poets in the pay of Henry IV were directed to propaganda purposes. John Gower based his Cronica Tripertita on the official Lancastrian accounts of the usurpation:\"The Record and Process of the Deposition of Richard II\" from 1399. Gower also produced a number of further favourable works including \"In praise of peace\" which was dedicated to Henry IV.", "However, we should not assume that Morton’s politics had any profound impact upon More. Quite the opposite. Both men were enthusiastic Humanist scholars, but they parted ways with regard to the king’s prerogative. In 1504, More was elected to Parliament and one of his first acts was to oppose Henry VII’s request of a “grant” of three-fifteenths. It was More’s impassioned speeches against this large and unjust burden that made the king reduce it by more than two thirds. And the king was not pleased with the young lawyer; he promptly imprisoned More’s father in the Tower until he paid a substantial fine.", "Niccolò Machiavelli (May 3, 1469 – June 21, 1527) was a Florentine political philosopher, historian, musician, poet, and romantic comedic playwright. Machiavelli was also a key figure in realist political theory, crucial to European statecraft during the Renaissance.", "In contrast to these families giving long service to the town, others became increasingly reluctant to accept such responsibilities. This was perhaps not surprising for, as the discharge of official duties was both costly and arduous, only a comparatively small number of burgesses had the means and the time to uphold the dignity of office. During the earlier 16th century avoidance of office was probably not common. At that time there were no conventions about payments for exoneration: permission to pay such a fine was sometimes refused, and exemption, when granted, was only for a term of years, not for life. In 1577–8, however, the corporation agreed to allow freemen to fine for the offices of chamberlain, sheriff, or alderman, and before the Civil War a number took advantage of this arrangement, paying fines which varied between £20 and £100, according to the office and, perhaps, the means of the individual. (fn. 267) Occasionally the sum demanded was higher: in 1625, for example, John Barnard was chosen to serve a second time as sheriff but, although he had been away abroad for much of his first term, he refused to serve again and a heavy fine was imposed on him. (fn. 268)", "Andrew Marvell (; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song \"To His Coy Mistress\", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in \"Upon Appleton House\" and \"The Garden\", the political address \"An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland\", and the later personal and political satires \"Flecknoe\" and \"The Character of Holland\".", "Henry Marten�s career shows us that not all Parliamentarians were Puritans, or Godly, or Saints. His personal animosity with Charles I also provides evidence of the intimate and small-scale of political relations among the English ruling elite. These people knew each other, or at least knew of each other. Marten's own actions and ultimate fate show that many among the elite were capable of mercy and forgiveness of their enemies and opponents in spite of having lived through England�s very bloody, long, and acrimonious Civil Wars of the mid-seventeenth century.", "As is typical with lying Albino history, the important things are not those said, but those left unsaid. Such is the case with Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, (1485–1540), an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540. Geoffrey Elton in The Tudor Revolution (1953), featured him as the central figure in the Tudor revolution in government. Elton portrayed Cromwell as the presiding genius, much more so than the King, handling the break with Rome, and the laws and administrative procedures that made the English Reformation so important. Elton says that he was responsible for translating Royal supremacy into Parliamentary terms, creating powerful new organs of government to take charge of Church lands and largely removing the medieval features of central government. Whatever the case in that regard, he was certainly the main instrument in the Albinos destruction of all evidences of Blacks and Black Rule in Britain.", "443)Crime was ardently followed by punishment. Elizabethans had devised various ways to fine, humiliate, torture, and kill offenders. Which crime was punishable by death?", "If Cromwell had died in his fortieth year he would have made no mark on history, and would be unknown except to the antiquaries of Huntingdonshire. Yet from this lowly position he was to emerge as the most powerful figure in revolutionary times, and this made him loved and reviled in equal measure. He was in his own day, and has remained ever since, one of the most contended of Englishmen. He was a man born on the cusp of the gentry and the middling sort who became a head of state. He was a general whose brutal conquests of Scotland and (particularly) Ireland have cast a long dark shadow. He was a king-killer who agonized about whether to be king; a parliamentarian who used military force to break and to purge parliaments. He was a passionate advocate of religious liberty who stood by and let books be burnt and blasphemers be publicly tortured. He was an advocate of equitable justice who imprisoned not only those who challenged his powers to raise extra-parliamentary taxation but also the lawyers who had the temerity to represent them. To his admirers he overthrew tyranny and strove to promote liberty. To his detractors he was an ambitious hypocrite who betrayed the cause of liberty he claimed to represent. And it all began with his very surprising return to the parliaments of 1640 as MP for the city of Cambridge.", "Despite the defeat of the Armada, Elizabeth I's reign did not end on a triumphant note. Inflation and a lack of crown revenue created a difficult situation. Elizabeth preferred to cut public expenditure rather than reform the revenue system. Demands for additional taxation and attempts to raise funds by unpopular expedients—especially forced loans, ship money, and the sale of monopolies to manufacture or sell certain goods—led to bitter criticism in the Parliaments of 1597 and 1601. Tax demands were especially unwelcome because of harvest failures and related social tensions. There were problems—political, social, and economic—aplenty, the government had a stopgap feel to it, and Elizabeth was less adept and tolerant in her last years than she had been earlier in the reign.", "1584–1654, English jurist and scholar. He studied at Oxford, was called to the bar in 1612, and was elected to Parliament in 1623. He had already assisted in preparing the protestation of Commons in 1621, asserting to King James I Parliament's rights in the", "Edmund Spenser (c. 1552–13 January 1599) was an English poet and Poet Laureate. Spenser is a controversial figure due to his zeal for the destruction of Irish culture and colonisation of Ireland, yet he is one of the premier craftsmen of Modern English verse in its infancy.", "On October 30, 1648, Thomas Rainsborough was killed. He was a Member of Parliament and a Leveller leader who had spoken at the Putney Debates. His funeral was the occasion for a large Leveller-led demonstration in London, with thousands of mourners wearing the Levellers' ribbons of sea-green and bunches of rosemary for remembrance in their hats.", ", 1554?–1606, English dramatist and prose writer. An accomplished courtier, he also served as a member of Parliament from 1589 to 1601.", "In 1362, Parliament passed a statute decreeing that all pleas should hereafter be heard in English. This was undoubtedly an attempt to maintain some semblance of order in a system which had been severely dislocated by the death of so many of its educated clerks. From this time on, English replaced French as the official language of the country and many works were translated from Latin and French into the vernacular. At the same time, two great poets were writing in the vernacular: Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langland.", "In 1393 King Richard II compelled landlords to erect signs outside their premises. The legislation stated \"Whosoever shall brew ale in the town with intention of selling it must hang out a sign, otherwise he shall forfeit his ale.\" This was to make alehouses easily visible to passing inspectors, borough ale tasters, who would decide the quality of the ale they provided. William Shakespeare's father, John Shakespeare, was one such inspector." ]

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[ "Attlee, now aged 72, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden , which saw the Conservative majority increase. He retired as leader of the party on 14 December 1955, having led Labour for twenty years, and was succeeded by Hugh Gaitskell . [5]", "Attlee, now 72 years of age, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden, which saw the Conservative majority increase from seventeen to sixty. He retired as Leader of the Labour Party on 25 November 1955, having led Labour for twenty years, and was succeeded by Hugh Gaitskell.", "1955 Hugh Gaitskell was elected leader of the Labour Party, following the resignation of Clement Attlee.", "He continued leading the party as the Leader of Opposition and in the 1955 general election he lost to Anthony Eden. In November, he retired as the Leader of the Labour Party and was succeeded by Hugh Gaitskell.", "Clement Attlee was appointed leader of the Labour Party in succession to George Lansbury who had resigned due to a wish to maintain his Christian pacifist principles.", "Hugh Todd Naylor Gaitskell, CBE, PC (9 April 1906 – 18 January 1963) was a British Labour politician who held Cabinet office in Clement Attlee's governments. He won bitter leadership battles to become the Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 1955 until his death in 1963, when he was on the verge of becoming prime minister. He was loved and hated for his confrontational leadership and brutal frankness. He is best known as being founder of the right-wing revisionism in the Labour Party known as Gaitskellism. It was the Labour Party version of the Post-war consensus through which the major parties largely agreed on the main points of domestic and foreign policy until the 1970s. His Conservative Party counterpart was Rab Butler, so their common outlook was dubbed \"Butskellism.\" ", "Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party in opposition. His last four years as leader are widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods. The party became split between its right wing led by Hugh Gaitskell and its left led by Aneurin Bevan. One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison, whom Attlee disliked for political and personal reasons. Attlee had reportedly at one time favoured Bevan to succeed him as leader, but this became problematic after the latter split the party.", "Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.", "After the 1955 general election , Attlee retired as leader. Bevan contested the leadership against both Morrison and Labour right-winger Hugh Gaitskell but it was Gaitskell who emerged victorious. Bevan's remark that \"I know the right kind of political Leader for the Labour Party is a kind of desiccated calculating machine\" was assumed to refer to Gaitskell, although Bevan denied it (commenting upon Gaitskell's record as Chancellor of the Exchequer as having \"proved\" this). However, Gaitskell was prepared to make Bevan Shadow Colonial Secretary, and then Shadow Foreign Secretary in 1956. In this position, he was a vocal critic of the government's actions in the Suez Crisis , noticeably delivering high profile speeches in Trafalgar Square on 4 November 1956 at a protest rally, and devastating the government's actions and arguments in the House of Commons on 5 December 1956. That year, he was finally elected as party treasurer, beating George Brown .", "Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.", "Labour gained a narrow victory in the 1950 general election but lost another in October 1951. The party showed signs of running out of steam; the manifestos essentially defended its record in office. There then began a battle over future policy and the succession to Attlee. After leading the party to another election defeat in 1955, Attlee resigned at the age of 72. Supporters of Herbert Morrison claimed that Attlee's refusal to step down earlier was motivated by a determination to block their man. In retirement, Attlee described Morrison's appointment as Foreign Secretary as \"The worst appointment I ever made!\"", "Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. Attlee was the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, serving under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before going on to lead the Labour Party to a landslide election victory in 1945 and a narrow victory in 1950. He became the first Labour Prime Minister ever to serve a full five-year term, as well as the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament and remains the longest-ever serving Leader of the Labour Party.", "In 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley attacked his own government favouring Keynesian action against unemployment, and lost. Attlee got Mosley's old job as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster . He was Postmaster General in 1931, when most of the party's leaders lost their seats; this helped him win the deputy leadership under George Lansbury . Attlee, and Labour, opposed appeasement . He became leader in 1935 , and remained until 1955.", "Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee KG OM CH PC FRS (3 January 1883 � 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and was voted the greatest Prime Minister of all time in a 2004 poll of British politics professors. He was Deputy Prime Minister under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government and then won a landslide election victory in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term and the first to have a majority in Parliament.", "Lansbury resigned in 1935 and Attlee became the interim leader before the 1935 elections. Afterwards he won both the first and the second ballots and defeated Herbert Morrison and Arthur Greenwood to become the Leader of the Labour Party.", "Clement Attlee was leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955, and served as Britain’s Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951. As Prime Minister, he enlarged and improved social services and the public sector in post-war Britain, creating the National Health Service and nationalising major industries and public utilities. Attlee's government also presided over the decolonisation of India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon and Jordan, and saw the creation of the state of Israel upon Britain's withdrawal from Palestine.", "Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He served as Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, historian, writer, and artist. He is the only British Prime Minister who has ever received the Nobel Prize in Literature and only the second person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.", "Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He served as Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, historian, writer, and artist. He was the only British Prime Minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature and the first person to be recognised as an Honorary Citizen of the United States.", "Winston Churchill resigns as Britain's prime minister after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election. Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister.", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG , OBE , PC , FRS , FSS (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976.", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, (11 March 1916 - 24 May 1995) was a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976.", "The wartime government, led by Winston Churchill, had done its job. There was a general election in July 1945, and it was won by the Labour Party. Clement Attlee became Britain's new prime minister .", "Find out interesting Facts about Clement Attlee if you want to know the former British prime minister. He was in the office in 1945 until 1952. He was born on January 3rd, 1883 with the full name Clement Richard Attlee. He was considered as the first East Attlee. He died on October 8th, 1967. In 1935 until 1955, he became the leader of Labour Party in United Kingdom. Let’s check other interesting facts about Attlee below:", "Sir Winston Churchill was a British politician, known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II . He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century. Churchill served as Prime Minister twice from 1940-1945 and 1951-1955. He was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British Prime Minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.", "Rather than stay in the Liberal party when the Asquith and David Lloyd George branches were reunified in 1923, Wedgwood Benn senior joined Labour and served as Ramsay MacDonald's India secretary (1929-31) and Clement Attlee's air secretary (1945-46). In 1942, he reluctantly gave up his Commons seat when called upon to bolster the wartime coalition's Labour contingent in the Lords, accepting a hereditary peerage as Viscount Stansgate.", "Attlee was elected leader of the Labour party in 1935. Although initially against rearmament, Attlee came to recognise the threat of Hitler, and opposed the Munich Agreement negotiated by Chamberlain in 1938. Following Chamberlain’s resignation, Attlee served under Churchill as the first ever Deputy Prime Minister until the 1945 election.", "* Denis Healey, (1917-2015), a prominent Labour party politician who has previously served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Defence ", "James Ramsay MacDonald, FRS (12 October 18669 November 1937) was a British statesman who was the first Labour Party Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935.", "Clement Attlee (1883 - 1967), was one of the most influential British statesmen of the 20th century. Leading Labour to a surprise landslide in 1945, his government would found the National Health Service and comprehensive education system, significantly expand social security and housing provision, and bring several key industries into public ownership, shaping Britain for decades to come [Getty Images]", "Churchill resigned shortly after V-E Day, on May 8, 1945, but then formed a “caretaker” government that remained in office until after the parliamentary elections in July, which the Labour Party won overwhelmingly. The new government, formed by Clement R. Attlee, began a moderate socialist program.", "Sir Geoffrey Le Mesurier Mander, a member of the Mander family, was Liberal MP for Wolverhampton East from 1929 to 1945, distinguished for his stance against Appeasement and as a supporter of the League of Nations; known as \"the last of the Midland radicals\". More recent members have included the Conservative mavericks Enoch Powell and Nicholas Budgen. Powell was a member of Edward Heath's Tory shadow cabinet from 1964, until he was dismissed in April 1968 following his controversial Rivers of Blood speech in which he warned of massive civil unrest if mass immigration of black and Asian commonwealth inhabitants continued. In 2005, former Bilston councillor and MP for Wolverhampton South East, Dennis Turner entered the House of Lords as Lord Bilston.", "Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet (; 16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was a British politician, known principally as the founder of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). He was a Member of Parliament for Harrow from 1918 to 1924, and for Smethwick from 1926 to 1931, and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Labour Government of 1929–31, a position he resigned due to his disagreement with the Labour Government's unemployment policies. He then formed the New Party which merged with the BUF (which included the Blackshirts) in 1932. Mosley was interned in 1940 and the BUF was proscribed. He was released in 1943, and, politically disillusioned in Britain, he moved abroad in 1951, spending most of the remainder of his life in France." ]

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[ "The attack on the psychoanalytic denigration of women in The Second Sex helped to inspire subsequent feminist arguments against psychoanalysis, including those of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique, Kate Millett's Sexual Politics, and Germaine Greer's The Female Eunuch. Paglia, who has identified The Second Sex as one of the influences on her 1990 work of literary criticism Sexual Personae, writes that most modern feminists do not realize the extent to which their work has simply repeated or qualified its arguments. Millett commented in 1989 that she did not realize the extent to which she was indebted to Beauvoir when she wrote Sexual Politics. ", "Firestone emerged as a radical voice during a fertile era for feminist theory. Her \"Dialectic\" became a bestseller the same year as Kate Millett's \"Sexual Politics,\" a feminist critique of works by D.H. Lawrence, Henry Miller and Norman Mailer; and Germaine Greer's \"The Female Eunuch,\" which examined history, literature, biology and popular culture.", "Current feminist political philosophy is indebted to the work of earlier generations of feminist scholarship and activism, including the first wave of feminism in the English-speaking world, which took place from the 1840s to the 1920s and focused on improving the political, educational, and economic system primarily for middle-class women. Its greatest achievements were to develop a language of equal rights for women and to garner women the right to vote. It is also indebted to the second wave of feminism, which, beginning in the 1960s, drew on the language of the civil rights movements (e.g., the language of liberation) and on a new feminist consciousness that emerged through women's solidarity movements and new forms of reflection that uncovered sexist attitudes and impediments throughout the whole of society. As the entry on approaches to feminism notes, by 1970 feminism had expanded from activism to scholarship with the publication of Shulamith Firestone's The Dialectic of Sex (Firestone 1971); Kate Millett's Sexual Politics (Millett 1970); and Robin Morgan's Sisterhood is Powerful (Morgan 1970).", "Feminist science studies has developed new analytic tools for understanding and making political decisions about issues involving  gender and sexuality. Thinkers like Susan Oyama (The Ontogeny of Information, 2000) and Karen Barad (Meeting the Universe Halfway, 2005) have developed a way of approaching problems we call ï¿½feminist systemic thinking.� The papers on this panel use feminist systemic thinking to approach different issues involving gendered and sexualized bodies (transsexuality in children, pharmacological treatments for sexual dissatisfaction, fMRIs and the treatment of women with psychological distress, and the phenomenon of multiple births). In each paper, systemic thinking provides a novel way to approach and understand these issues and leads to new, and sometimes unexpected, political choices.", "The suffragist (i.e. moderate reformer, as opposed to suffragette) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman, cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments, 20th century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft's life story, rather than her texts, for inspiration; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new \"experiments in living\", as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft. However, there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a feminist who is critical of Islam's dictates regarding women, cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel, writing that she was \"inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights\".", "But The Second Sex, with its theme of woman as the Other, marks a radical departure even from Beauvoir's other post-war texts. Personal relationships are center stage, but the personal has been reconceived as political. Women are not simply free individuals, but members of an oppressed caste, defined as inferior by religion and science; socialized to a psychological dependency on men; and restricted in their political and economic activities by laws and social convention. Employing a sophisticated critique of Freudian determinism and Marxist economic reductionism, Beauvoir defines a radical feminist position, arguing that women must unite in a political struggle to overcome their oppression.", "Through much of the twentieth century, many political theorists in Europe, the United States, and Latin America drew on socialist and Marxist texts to develop theories of social change attentive to issues of class relations and exploitation in modern capitalist economies. After learning of the horrors of Stalinism, most Western Marxists and socialists were extremely critical of the communist systems in the Soviet Union and later in China. Western, mostly anti-communist, Marxist thought flourished in Italy (with Antonio Gramsci's work), England (with Stuart Hall and Raymond Williams' work), France (with the Socialisme ou Barbarie group), and the United States (but less so there after McCarthyism yet renewed somewhat in the 1960s with the New Left). Jaggar's 1983 book summed up well the way feminists were using socialist and Marxist ideas to understand the way women were exploited and their laboring and reproductive work devalued and unpaid though necessary for capitalism to function. In the entry on feminist perspectives on class and work , the authors point to much of the work that was going on in this field up through the mid-1990s.", " Socialist feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. Marxist feminism's foundation is laid by Friedrich Engels in his analysis of gender oppression in The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884). August Bebel's Woman under Socialism (1879), the \"single work dealing with sexuality most widely read by rank-and-file members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)\",. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonisation of men and supported a proletariat revolution that would overcome as many male–female inequalities as possible. As their movement already had the most radical demands in women's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai, counterposed Marxism against liberal feminism, rather than trying to combine them. Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, (\"Free Women\") linked to the , organised to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In 1972, the Chicago Women's Liberation Union published \"Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement,\" which is believed to be the first to use the term \"socialist feminism,\" in publication. ", "In Black Sexual Politics, one of America's most influential writers on race and gender explores how images of Black sexuality have been used to maintain the color line and how they threaten to spread a new brand of racism around the world today. ", "It’s a generation since the death of author, feminist, and existentialist, Simone de Beauvoir on 14 April 1986. A lover of Sartre – in both senses of the word, she was a sexually liberated bisexual whose disregard for sexual convention – including age of consent laws , caused her to lose her right to teach in France. Her 1949 defining work on the oppression of women, Le Deuxième Sexe – “ The Second Sex “, is widely considered a groundbreaking treatise on sex and gender for 20th-century feminism.", "Where liberal feminists inspired by John Rawls and democratic feminists inspired by Jürgen Habermas and/or John Dewey hold out the hope that democratic deliberations might lead to democratic agreements, agonistic feminists are wary of consensus as inherently undemocratic. Agonistic feminist political philosophy comes out of poststructural continental feminist and philosophical traditions. It takes from Marxism the hope for a more radically egalitarian society. It takes from contemporary continental philosophy notions of subjectivity and solidarity as malleable and constructed. Along with postmodern thought, it repudiates any notion of pre-existing moral or political truths or foundations (Ziarek 2001). Its central claim is that feminist struggle, like other struggles for social justice, is engaged in politics as ceaseless contestation. Agonistic views see the nature of politics as inherently conflictual, with battles over power and hegemony being the central tasks of democratic struggle. Advocates of agonistic politics worry that the kind of consensus sought by democratic theorists (discussed above) will lead to some kind of oppression or injustice by silencing new struggles. As Chantal Mouffe puts it, “We have to accept that every consensus exists as a temporary result of a provisional hegemony, as a stabilization of power, and that it always entails some form of exclusion” (Mouffe 2000, 104).", "A revolutionary work that touches the intimate and public lives of all African Americans, Black Sexual Politics brilliantly illuminates the subtle interplay of race, sex, and politics in American culture today.", "The first three are Christina Hoff Sommers' Who Stole Feminism? [Simon & Schuster, 1994], Camille Paglia's Sexual Personae [Vintage Books, 1991], and Warren Farrel's The Myth of Male Power [Simon & Schuster, 1993]. All three of these people themselves believe in a certain form of feminism, what Sommers has dubbed \"equity feminism,\" which is just the principle that there must be legal and political equality for women. Warren Farrel was actually on the national governing board of the National Organization for Women until he became disillusioned and decided that NOW was not fighting for the proper goals. The fourth book is the powerful recent Domestic Tranquility, A Brief Against Feminism by F. Carolyn Graglia [Spence Publishing, Dallas, 1998]. Graglia explicitly opposes feminism as such, except perhaps the \"social feminism\" of the 19th century, on the principle that identical laws for men and women, which were opposed by the \"social feminism,\" are harmful to women who chose a traditional domestic occupation. Graglia's argument is especially noteworthy in that it is not from a fundamentalist religious point of view, which is where defenses of the traditional domestic life of women usually, or are expected to usually, come from (\"bible-thumping retards\"), but the essentially secular and rational claims of someone, not unfamiliar with professional life (Columbia Law School, Wall Street law firm), who does not appreciate a legal regime that has become hostile to her and her family.", "“A contemporary reader,” Nina Baym writes, “may well be inclined to understand Edna’s sexual emancipation as a feminist issue. But such a reading would be somewhat anachronistic.” Because, Baym adds, of the “relatively crude forms of birth control and the enormous risks of childbearing in those days—every act of sexual intercourse was, for a woman, a literally life-endangering act.” Progressive women in Kate Chopin’s day, she concludes, “were more likely to perceive sexual freedom as being freedom from sex rather than freedom through sex. What they wanted for women was the right to say no, rather than the right to say yes whenever and wherever they pleased.”", "Ayn Rand (; born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum, ;  – March 6, 1982) was a Russian-born American novelist, philosopher, playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels, The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged, and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism. Educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful in America, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, The Fountainhead.", "Political theorists and feminists, in particular, have long criticized Arendt for the agonistic dimensions of her politics, charging that agonism is a masculinist, heroic, violent, competitive, (merely) aesthetic, or necessarily individualistic practice. For these theorists, the notion of an agonistic feminism would be, at best, a contradiction in terms and, at worst, a muddled and, perhaps, dangerous idea. Their perspective is effectively endorsed by Seyla Benhabib who, in a recent series of powerful essays, tries to rescue Arendt for feminism by excising agonism from her thought. (Honig 1995, 156)", "Shulamith Firestone, whose 1970 book \"The Dialectic of Sex\" became a feminist classic with its calls for a drastic rethinking of women's roles in the bearing and raising of children, was found dead Tuesday in her New York City apartment. She was 67.", "In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home limited their possibilities and wasted potential. Friedan described this as \"The Problem That Has No Name\". The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism. ", "Feminist theorist Marilyn Frye says that misogyny is, at its root, phallogocentric and homoerotic. In The Politics of Reality, Frye says that there is a misogynistic character to C. S. Lewis' fiction and Christian apologetics, and argues that such misogyny privileges the masculine as a subject of erotic attention. She compares Lewis' ideal of gender relations to underground male prostitution rings, contending that they share the quality of men seeking to dominate subjects seen as less likely to take on submissive roles by a patriarchal society, but do so as a theatrical mockery of women. ", "In The Sadeian Woman: And the Ideology of Pornography (1979), Angela Carter provides a feminist reading of Sade, seeing him as a “moral pornographer” who creates spaces for women. Similarly, Susan Sontag defended both Sade and Georges Bataille’s Histoire de l’oeil (Story of the Eye) in her essay “The Pornographic Imagination” (1967) on the basis their works were transgressive texts, and argued that neither should be censored. By contrast, Andrea Dworkin saw Sade as the exemplary woman-hating pornographer, supporting her theory that pornography inevitably leads to violence against women. One chapter of her book Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1979) is devoted to an analysis of Sade. Susie Bright claims that Dworkin’s first novel Ice and Fire, which is rife with violence and abuse, can be seen as a modern retelling of Sade’s Juliette.", "Sally J. Kenney and Helen Kinsella, eds. Politics and Feminist Standpoint Theories, New York and London, The Haworth Press, 1997", "is an American feminist icon, journalist, and social and political activist. Rising to national prominence in the 1970s, she became a leading political leader of the decade, and one of the most important heads of the second-wave of the women's rights movement.", "Helen Gurley Brown's bestselling book Sex and the Single Girl in 1962 made public (and also, perhaps, made possible) a major change in US mores: the admissibility of female sexual experience and experiment before, or even without, marriage. Brown, who has died aged 90, spent the rest of her life, 32 years of it as editor of Cosmopolitan magazine, disseminating her beliefs.", "Firestone, Shulamith. 1971. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution, rev. ed., New York: Bantam Books.", "In The Sadeian Woman: And the Ideology of Pornography (1979), Angela Carter provides a feminist reading of Sade, seeing him as a \"moral pornographer\" who creates spaces for women. Similarly, Susan Sontag defended both Sade and Georges Bataille 's Histoire de l'oeil (Story of the Eye) in her essay, \" The Pornographic Imagination \" (1967) on the basis their works were transgressive texts, and argued that neither should be censored.", "Marge Piercy, Sex Wars (2005), about Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull and their struggle to improve the lives of women.", "Cornell, Drucilla. 1998. At the Heart of Freedom: Feminism, Sex, and Equality, Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view that believes a persons' social position influences their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treats women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased. Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, incest, and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in some parts of Africa and the Middle East, as well as glass ceiling practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in a \"matrix of domination\".", "She was a leader in the modern feminist movement in the 1960s. She wrote \"The Feminist Mystique.\"", "–––. 2011. “Contested Questions, Current Trajectories: Feminism in Political Theory Today,” Politics & Gender, 7(1): 105-111.", "A Genealogy of Queer Theory probes the fierce debates among scholars and activists, weighing the charges that queer readings of texts and identity politics do not constitute and might inhibit radical social change. Written by a historian, it considers the implications of queer theory for historical inquiry and the distinction between philosophy and history. As such, the book will interest readers of gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender studies, intellectual history, political theory, and the history of gender/sexuality.", "Hall, Cheryl. 2005. The Trouble with Passion: Political Theory Beyond the Reign of Reason, New York: Routledge." ]

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[ "Monetarism is a macroeconomic school of thought that emphasizes (1) long-run monetary neutrality, (2) short-run monetary nonneutrality, (3) the distinction between real and nominal interest rates , and (4) the role of monetary aggregates in policy analysis. It is particularly associated with the writings of Milton Friedman , Anna Schwartz, Karl Brunner, and Allan Meltzer, with early contributors outside the United States including David Laidler, Michael Parkin, and Alan Walters. Some journalists—especially in the United Kingdom—have used the term to refer to doctrinal support of free-market positions more generally, but that usage is inappropriate; many free-market advocates would not dream of describing themselves as monetarists.", "Milton Friedman (1912 – 2006) American economist from the University of Chicago. Friedman rose to prominence for his advocacy of monetarism, which was adopted by US and UK governments in the 1980s. Friedman was critical of fiscal policy and government spending. Monetarism placed great faith in controlling the money supply to control inflation. He also supported free market reforms, such as privatisation and de-regulation.", "Monetarism is an economic theory that focuses on the macroeconomic effects of the supply of money and central banking. Formulated by Milton Friedman, it argues that excessive expansion of the money supply is inherently inflationary, and that monetary authorities should focus solely on maintaining price stability.", "There are also arguments linking monetarism and macroeconomics, and treat monetarism as a special case of Keynesian theory. The central test case over the validity of these theories would be the possibility of a liquidity trap, like that experienced by Japan. Ben Bernanke, Princeton professor and another former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve, argued that monetary policy could respond to zero interest rate conditions by direct expansion of the money supply. In his words, \"We have the keys to the printing press, and we are not afraid to use them.\" Progressive economist Paul Krugman has advanced the counterargument that this would have a corresponding devaluationary effect, like the sustained low interest rates of 2001–2004 produced against world currencies.", "In recent years more influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of Milton Friedman, which did include a full-scale monetary history of what he calls the \"Great Contraction.\" Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933, and in his memoirs said the relief programs were an appropriate response.", "Monetarism , a theoretical alternative to Keynesianism that is more compatible with laissez-faire, gained increasing prominence in the capitalist world, especially under the leadership of  Ronald Reagan  in the US and  Margaret Thatcher  in the UK in the 1980s. Public and political interest began shifting away from the so-called collectivist  concerns of Keynes’s managed capitalism to a focus on individual choice, called “remarketized capitalism.”  [38]", "Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money. Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory. Its origins can be traced back to the 16th-century School of Salamanca or even further; however, Friedman's contribution is largely responsible for its modern popularization. He co-authored, with Anna Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (1963), which was an examination of the role of the money supply and economic activity in the U.S. history. A striking conclusion of their research regarded the way in which money supply fluctuations contribute to economic fluctuations. Several regression studies with David Meiselman during the 1960s suggested the primacy of the money supply over investment and government spending in determining consumption and output. These challenged a prevailing, but largely untested, view on their relative importance. Friedman's empirical research and some theory supported the conclusion that the short-run effect of a change of the money supply was primarily on output but that the longer-run effect was primarily on the price level.", "Ben Shalom Bernanke ( ; born December 13, 1953) is an American economist at the Brookings Institution who served two terms as chairman of the Federal Reserve, the central bank of the United States, from 2006 to 2014. During his tenure as chairman, Bernanke oversaw the Federal Reserve's response to the late-2000s financial crisis.", "Paul Anthony Samuelson (May 15, 1915 – December 13, 2009) was an American economist , and the first American to win the Nobel Prize in Economics . The Swedish Royal Academies stated, when awarding the prize, that he \"has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory.\" [1] Economic historian Randall E. Parker calls him the \"Father of Modern Economics\", [2] and The New York Times considered him to be the \"foremost academic economist of the 20th century.\" [3]", "Friedman’s monetary theory and policy reflected his commitment to making sure that government was small and its discretion limited. The doctrine that he pushed, called monetarism, held that government should simply increase the money supply at a fixed rate (the rate of growth of output, equal to the rate of growth of the labor force plus the rate of growth of productivity).  That monetary policy could not be used to stabilize the real economy— that is, to ensure full employment— was not of much concern. Friedman believed that on its own the economy would remain at or near full employment. Any deviation would be quickly corrected as long as the government didn’t muck things up. (Id. at 257. Emphasis added.)", "Should each country have its own currency? This question, first analyzed in modern economics literature by Robert Mundell (1961), has been the subject of heated debate ever since. Mundell’s theory suggests that two countries should have a common currency if monetary efficiency gain outweighs economic stability loss from having a common currency. This will more likely be the case if the two countries are closely integrated through trade, capital, and labor mobility. Many economists believe that the European Monetary Union is not an optimum currency area because the economies that represent it are too diverse and are not sufficiently integrated. On the other hand, most economists agree that the United States is an optimum currency area, and that it would be costly for each state to use its own currency. Some believe that the world can benefit from the introduction of the single global currency, but most economists think it is not a good idea because independent monetary policy is important to stabilize both real goods and asset markets in conjunction with fiscal policy.", "Friedman was the main proponent of the monetarist school of economics. He maintained that there is a close and stable association between inflation and the money supply, mainly that inflation could be avoided with proper regulation of the monetary base's growth rate. He famously used the analogy of \"dropping money out of a helicopter.\", in order to avoid dealing with money injection mechanisms and other factors that would overcomplicate his models.", "In 1945, Milton Friedman worked for one year at the University of Minnesota, and in 1946 he took a faculty position at the University of Chicago to teach economic theory. Friedman and the University of Chicago began a long-term intellectual and professional relationship that would impact not only the economics program but also the University�s graduate business school and law school. Dr. Friedman began to study the role of money in the business cycle and founded the \"Workshop in Money and Banking\" (\"Chicago Workshop\"). He is now widely regarded as the leader of the Chicago School of monetary economics, which stresses the importance of the quantity of money as an instrument of government policy and as a determinant of business cycles and inflation. In 1950, Dr. Friedman spent an academic quarter in Paris serving as a consultant in connection with the Marshall Plan and the effort to rebuild the European economy. By 1951 Friedman had won the prestigious John Bates Clark Medal from the American Economic Association, which honors economists under age forty for outstanding achievement. From 1953-54, he was a Fulbright Visiting Fellow at Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge University. From 1957-58 he was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford.", "Bernanke has given several lectures at the London School of Economics on monetary theory and policy and has written three textbooks on macroeconomics, and one on microeconomics. He was the Director of the Monetary Economics Program of the National Bureau of Economic Research and the editor of the American Economic Review. He is among the [https://ideas.repec.org/top/top.person.all.html 50 most published economists] in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc.", "Friedman also argued for the cessation of government intervention in currency markets, thereby spawning an enormous literature on the subject, as well as promoting the practice of freely floating exchange rates. His close friend George Stigler explained, \"As is customary in science, he did not win a full victory, in part because research was directed along different lines by the theory of rational expectations, a newer approach developed by Robert Lucas, also at the University of Chicago.\" The relationship between Friedman and Lucas, or new classical macroeconomics as a whole, was highly complex. The Friedmanian Phillips curve was an interesting starting point for Lucas, but he soon realized that the solution provided by Friedman was not quite satisfactory. Lucas elaborated a new approach in which rational expectations were presumed instead of the Friedmanian adaptive expectations. Due to this reformulation, the story in which the theory of the new classical Phillips curve was embedded radically changed. This modification, however, had a significant effect on Friedman’s own approach, so, as a result, the theory of the Friedmanian Phillips curve also changed. Moreover, new classical Neil Wallace, who was a graduate student at the University of Chicago between 1960 and 1963, regarded Friedman’s theoretical courses as a mess. This evaluation clearly indicates the broken relationship between Friedmanian monetarism and new classical macroeconomics.", "In 2000, Alan Greenspan raised interest rates several times. These actions were believed by many to have caused the bursting of the dot-com bubble. In late 2001, as a decisive reaction to the September 11 attacks and the various corporate scandals which undermined the economy, the Greenspan-led Federal Reserve initiated a series of interest rate cuts that brought the Federal Funds rate down to 1% in 2004. His critics, notably Steve Forbes, attributed the rapid rise in commodity prices and gold to Greenspan's loose monetary policy, and by late 2004 the price of gold was higher than its 12-year moving average; these same forces were also blamed for excessive asset inflation and the weakening of the dollar . These policies of Alan Greenspan are blamed by the followers of the Austrian School for creating excessive liquidity, causing lending standards to deteriorate, and resulting in the housing bubble of 2004–2006.", "A year later, Milton and Rose were invited to speak at the New Orleans Gold Conference, an annual gathering of hard-money investors. After Milton spoke, he took questions from the audience. I tempted him with the question, “Who’s the better economist, Ludwig von Mises or John Maynard Keynes?” I knew Milton would answer straight; he didn’t care what gold bugs thought. “Keynes,” he proclaimed to a shocked audience. When asked who was the greatest economist ever, he didn’t say Adam Smith, but settled on Alfred Marshall, the British economist who invented supply and demand curves.", "Senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute and Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers under presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. From 1974 to 1984, he was the A. Willis Robertson Professor of Economics at the University of Virginia, where he formulated “Herbert Stein’s Law”; this stated, “If something cannot go on forever, it will stop,” meaning that if a trend cannot go on forever, there is no need for action or a program to make it stop; it will stop of its own accord. This notion gave him the reputation of being a pragmatic conservative, jokingly referred to as a “liberal’s conservative and a conservative’s liberal.” He was author of The Fiscal Revolution in America and was on the board of contributors of the Wall Street Journal. Dr. Stein received his B.A. from Williams College and Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Chicago.", "Finding Equilibrium explores the post-World War II transformation of economics by constructing a history of the proof of its central dogma--that a competitive market economy may possess a set of equilibrium prices. The model economy for which the theorem could be proved was mapped out in 1954 by Kenneth Arrow and Gerard Debreu collaboratively, and by Lionel McKenzie separately, and would become widely known as the \"Arrow-Debreu Model.\" While Arrow and Debreu would later go on to win separate Nobel prizes in economics, McKenzie would never receive it. Till Düppe and E. Roy Weintraub explore the lives and work of these economists and the issues of scientific credit against the extraordinary backdrop of overlapping research communities and an economics discipline that was shifting dramatically to mathematical modes of expression. Finding Equilibrium shows the complex interplay between each man's personal life and work, and examines compelling ideas about scientific credit, publication, regard for different research institutions, and the awarding of Nobel prizes. Instead of asking whether recognition was rightly or wrongly given, and who were the heroes or villains, the book considers attitudes toward intellectual credit and strategies to gain it vis-à-vis the communities that grant it. Telling the story behind the proof of the central theorem in economics, Finding Equilibrium sheds light on the changing nature of the scientific community and the critical connections between the personal and public rewards of scientific work.", "In the late 1970s and early 1980s, after a decade of increasing influence, monetarism’s reputation began to decline for three main reasons. One was the growing belief, based on plausible interpretations of experience, that money demand is in practice highly “unstable,” shifting significantly and unpredictably from one quarter to the next. The second was the rise of rational expectations economics, which split analysts antagonistic to Keynesian activism into distinct camps. (A majority of monetarists themselves soon embraced the rational expectations hypothesis.) The third was the Federal Reserve’s famous “monetarist experiment” of 1979–1982. The latter episode warrants an extended discussion.", "He was also essential in creating the Neoclassical synthesis , which incorporated Keynesian and neoclassical principles and still dominates current mainstream economics . In 2003, Samuelson was one of the 10 Nobel Prize winning economists signing the Economists' statement opposing the Bush tax cuts . [9]", "Dr. Friedman's most prominent contribution was to create an influential modern formulation of the quantity theory of money, including the short and long-term relationships between money supply, consumption, output, price levels, and inflation. As an outgrowth of his theory, he asserted that the Great Depression was largely caused by government mismanagement instead of any failure of the free-enterprise system. His ideas about currency markets and exchange rates, although eventually superseded, helped stimulate debate and creative new macroeconomic ideas within the economist intellectual community. Dr. Friedman also provided an important critique of the Phillips curve and championed the concept of the natural rate of unemployment.", "*Paul Samuelson (1915–2009), economist, recipient of the John Bates Clark Medal (1947) and the Nobel Prize (1970)", "It is with considerable reluctance that I criticize the monetarists, because, though I consider their proposed monetary policy unfeasible, they are after all much more nearly right in their assumptions and prescriptions than the majority of present academic economists.  The simplistic form of the quantity theory of money that they hold is not tenable; but they are overwhelmingly right in insisting on how much \" money matters,\" and they are right in insisting that in most circumstances, and over the long run, it is the quantity of money that is most influential in determining the purchasing power of the monetary unit.  Other things being equal , the more dollars that are issued, the smaller becomes the value of each individual dollar.  So at the moment the monetarists are more effective opponents of further inflation than the great bulk of politicians and even putative economists who still fail to recognize this basic truth .", "The “general equilibrium” concept is historically traced to Marie-Esprit-Léon Walras (1834-1910). We have seen in previous posts discussing Paul Krugman’s perception of a “mutilated economy” that mainstream neoclassical economists like Larry Summers and neo-Keynesian economists like Krugman are not yet ready to surrender their faith in general equilibrium theory, a faith that ought to be shattered by the mounting evidence of the extreme instability associated with income and wealth redistribution. ", "The world of economics is changing. Years of turmoil in the global economy mean that nothing will ever be quite the same again. This is the starting point and theme of this radically revised Economist books classic, now available for the first time in America. Richard Davies, economics editor ofThe Economist, takes us on a journey through the paper's own analysis of the state of the world's economies, how we reached this point and what to expect in the next decade. He explores: what's gone wrong since 2008, why it's happened and how we can stop it happening again; the shifting focus of economics from banking to labor economics; the future hopes and challenges for the world economy. Along the way, we encounter the global economy laid bare, from banks, panics, and crashes to innovative new policies to improve how markets function; from discussions around jobs, pay, and inequality to the promise of innovation and productivity; from the implications of emerging markets and the globalisation of trade through to the sharing economy and the economics of Google and eBay. The result is a fascinating review of the global economy and the changing role of economics in the new world order.", "In this book, Simon Bowmaker offers a remarkable collection of conversations with leading economists about research in economics. He has selected a broad sample of the great economists of our time, including people whose perspectives span most of the major subdivisions of economics research, from micro to macro, from theoretical to empirical, from rationalist to behavioralist. This innovative volume contains 25 interviews with practicing economists, presenting insightful personal accounts into an often-misunderstood field. Contributors to this volume were asked to reflect on their own experience in economics research, including their methods of working, the process of scientific discovery and knowledge creation, and the challenges of successfully disseminating their work. The unique and compelling interview format showcases each contributor's personal connection to his or her work, presenting a view of current economics research that is technical, comprehensive, and refreshingly human. Both students and current scholars in economics will find much to admire in this book's window into the inner workings of some of the brightest and best-known minds in the field.", "Franco Modigliani (June 18, 1918 – September 25, 2003) was an Italian economist naturalized American, a professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and MIT Department of Economics who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1985.", "Samuelson is considered to be one of the founders of neo-Keynesian economics and a seminal figure in the development of neoclassical economics . In awarding him the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences the committee stated:", "Professor at Columbia University. Recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2001 & the John Bates Clark Medal in 1979. Author of \"Freefall: America, Free Markets\", \"The Sinking of the World Economy\", \"Globalisation and its Discontents\" & \"Making Globalisation Work\".", "A large and varied group of criticisms has been directed against the Federal Reserve System. One critique, typified by the heterodox Austrian School , is that the Federal Reserve is an unnecessary and counterproductive interference in the economy. [108] According to this theory, interest rates should be naturally low during times of excessive consumer saving (because lendable money is abundant) and naturally high when high net volumes of consumer credit are extended (because lendable money is scarce). These critics argue that setting a baseline lending rate amounts to centralized economic planning; a hallmark of socialist and communist societies; and inflating the currency amounts to a regressive, incremental redistribution of wealth. [109]", "An English economist, whose ideas had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. He is particularly remembered for advocating interventionist government policy and government spending." ]

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[ "The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed 'constitutional' methods, continued to lobby during the war years, and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. On 6 February, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. About 8.4 million women gained the vote, not only in Britain but also throughout Ireland , the whole of which was part of the United Kingdom. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into Parliament . Having 30 as the age requirement for women to vote, as opposed to 21 for men, was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War. [2] The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men. [2]", "The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led to a suspension of all politics, including the militant suffragette campaigns. Lobbying did take place quietly. In 1918, a coalition government passed the Representation of the People Act 1918, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. Ten years later, in 1928, the Conservative government passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act giving the vote to all women over the age of 21.", "Women were not given the vote before the war. At the end of the war, in 1918, however, the Representation of the People Act gave women over 30 the vote, and in 1928 this was extended to all women over the age of 21.", "The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed \"constitutional\" methods, continued to lobby during the war years and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. On 6 February, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications as well as men over 21 – before this not all British men were enfranchised. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into parliament. The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms that men had gained ten years earlier. ", "The Representation of the People Act 1918 expanded the electorate to include all men over the age of 21 and most women over the age of 30. Later that year, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 gave women over 21 the right to stand for election as MPs. The first woman to become an MP was Constance Markievicz in 1918. However she declined to take up her seat, being a member of Sinn Féin. Nancy Astor, elected in 1919, was the second woman to become an MP, and the first to sit in the Commons. The Equal Franchise Act 1928 lowered the minimum age for women to vote from 30 to 21, making men and women equal in terms of suffrage for the first time. The Representation of the People Act 1949 abolished additional votes for graduates (university constituencies) and the owners of business premises.", "This Bill gave the vote to all women over the age of 21. There was little opposition to the bill in Parliament, and it became law on 2nd July 1928.", "In the United Kingdom full adult male suffrage was not achieved until the passage of the Representation of the People Act in 1884 and the franchise was not extended to women in 1918, for those aged 30 and over and in 1928 for those aged 21 and over.", "*Representation of the People Act 1928 – equal suffrage for women and men, with voting possible at 21 with no property restrictions.", "# The first election held under the Representation of the People Act 1918 in which all men over 21, and most women over the age of 30 could vote, and therefore a much larger electorate", "63 Representation of the People Act (1918) * Women over 30 got the right to vote. * All men gained suffrage. Property qualifications were completely eliminated! *Reform Act of 1928 Women over 21 years of age gained the right to vote at last!", "The 1918 Representation of the People Act was the start of female suffrage in Great Britain. The bill was passed by an overwhelming majority in the House of Commons (385 for to 55 against) – an element of support that surprised the Suffragettes and other suffragist movements. The 1918 Representation of the People Act gave women of property over the age of 30 the right to vote – not all women, therefore, could vote – but it was a major start.", "Women gained the right to vote with the passing of the Representation of the People Act 1918 after World War I. This gave the vote to women over the age of 30. However, the Speakers Conference which was charged with looking into giving women the vote did not have as its terms of reference, consideration to women standing as candidates for parliament. However, Sir Herbert Samuel, the former Liberal Home Secretary, moved a separate motion on 23 October 1918 to allow women to be eligible as Members of Parliament. The vote was passed by 274 to 25 and the government rushed through a Bill to make it law in time for the 1918 General Election. This Bill did not specify any age restriction, unlike the voting Bill. This later led to a number of incidents of women under the age of 30, who were not allowed to vote, standing for parliament, notably the 27-year-old Liberal Ursula Williams standing in 1923. ", "Women had become eligible to vote, and stand for Parliament, as a result of the 1918 Reform Act (if they were aged 30 or more – 21-year-old women only gained voting rights in 1928). A long campaign had been fought before the 1914-18 war under the slogan “Votes for Women” and there had been staunch opposition to the move, especially from British Conservatives.", "Suffragist militancy having largely lapsed after the outbreak of World War I, in October 1916 a Speaker's Conference was convened to consider the issue of women's franchise and make proposals for postwar legislation. While Bondfield, Lansbury and other prewar campaigners pressed for universal adult suffrage, Abrams, pp. 229–30 the conference recommended only a limited extension of the franchise. The subsequent Representation of the People Act, 1918, gave the vote to women over 30 who were property owners or the wives of property owners, or were university graduates. Bondfield described the Act, which excluded almost all working-class women, as \"mean and inadequate ... creating fresh anomalies\". ", "The First World War then pulled society together and took the focus away from political activism of this sort. It was not until 1928 with the passing of the Equal Franchise Bill, that women over 21 were finally allowed the vote.", "Full suffrage was not granted until ten years later, when The Equal Franchise Act 1928 lowered the voting age for women to 21, thus aligning it with males. Over 15 million women were now enabled to vote. Mrs Pankhurst, however, did not live to see the day; she had died just days before.", "In February 1918, the Government passed an act giving women the vote if they were over the age of 30 and either owned property or rented for at least £5/year, or were the wife of someone who did. As a result, 8.5 million women became entitled to vote in the General Election of 1918.", "On August 18, 1920, the 19th amendment to the Constitution was ratified , giving women the right to vote. The amendment came after more than 70 years of struggle for women suffragists.", "The 19th Amendment went to Congress in 1918 and was ratified by the states on August 18, 1920, earning American women the right to vote", "The Representation of the People Act granted women over 30 the right to vote, as long as they were married to or a member of Local Government Register. It also extended men’s suffrage to the right for all men to vote over the age of 21, and abolished most property qualifications for men.", "August 18, 1920 – The 19th Amendment to the Constitution is ratified, and women are given the right to vote.", "The right to vote was gained by some English women in 1918 and by some American women in 1920.", "The Representation of the People Act enfranchised all men over the age of 21, and propertied women over 30. The electorate increased to 21 million, of which 8 million were women, but it excluded working class women who mostly failed the property qualification.", "The Equal Franchise Act is passed giving women equal voting rights with men. All women aged over 21 can now vote in elections. Fifteen million women are eligible", "* February 6 – Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom: Representation of the People Act gives most women over 30 the vote. ", "The American suffragist movement scored its climactic victory shortly after World War I.� In 1919 Congress approved the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which provided that �The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.�� Ratified on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment became the law of the land.� See also League of Women Voters of the United States.", "On August 26, the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, granting women the right to vote in national elections.", "In response, the National Woman's Party urged citizens to vote against anti-suffrage Senators up for reelection in the 1918 midterm elections. Following those elections, most members of Congress were pro-suffrage. On May 21, 1919, the House of Representatives passed the amendment by a vote of 304 to 89 and the Senate followed suit on June 4, by a vote of 56 to 25.", "Immediately following the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, many legislators feared a powerful women's bloc would emerge as a result of female enfranchisement. The Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921, which expanded maternity care during the 1920s, was one of the first laws passed appealing to the female vote. ", "The Representation of the People Act gave the vote to women over 30 who occupied premises of a yearly value of not less than �5.", "The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, guaranteeing women the right to vote, is ratified by Tennessee, giving it the two-thirds majority of state ratification necessary to make it the law of the land. The amendment was the culmination of more than 70 years of struggle by woman suffragists. Its two sections read simply: \"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex\" and \"Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.\"", "The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, guaranteeing women the right to vote, is ratified by Tennessee , giving it the two-thirds majority of state ratification necessary to make it the law of the land. The amendment was the culmination of more than 70 years of struggle by woman suffragists. Its two sections read simply: \"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex\" and \"Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.\"" ]

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[ "[beˈnito mussoˈlini] ; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party , ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as Il Duce (\"the leader\"). Mussolini was one of the key figures in the creation of fascism. [1]", "[beˈnito mussoˈlini] ; [1] 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party , ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as Il Duce (“the leader”), Mussolini was one of the key figures in the creation of fascism . [2]", "Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, KSMOM GCTE (July 29, 1883, Predappio, Forlì, Italy – April 28, 1945, Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by 1925. After 1936, his official title was \"His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire\".[1] Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic.", "Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until he was ousted in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as Il Duce (The Leader), Mussolini was the founder of Italian fascism. ", "During the time of the regime of the National Fascist Party under the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini from 1922 to his ousting in 1943, the name often given by historians to the Kingdom of Italy during this period is Fascist Italy. Under fascism, the Kingdom allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943. In the remaining two years of World War II , the Kingdom of Italy switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini as Prime Minister and banned the Fascist party. The remnant fascist state that continued fighting against the Allies was a puppet state of Nazi Germany, the \" Italian Social Republic \", still led by Mussolini and his loyalist Fascists in northern Italy. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to a referendum in 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic , which is the present form of Italy today.", "The German Empire was dissolved in the  German Revolution of 1918–1919 and a Communist government, later known as the German Socialist Republic, was created with the help of the Soviet Union and Germany manage to stabilize its country while France was still crumbling. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Although Italy as an Entente ally made some territorial gains, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at forcefully forging Italy as a world power — a \"New Roman Empire\".", "In 1912 Mussolini was the leading member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). [3] Prior to 1914 he was a keen supporter of the Socialist International, starting the series of meetings in Switzerland [4] that organised the communist revolutions and insurrections that swept through Europe from 1917. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI due to his opposition to the party’s stance on neutrality in World War I . Mussolini denounced the PSI, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014. After destroying all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labor strikes, [5] Mussolini and his fascist followers consolidated their power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship . Within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943. A few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic , a German client regime in northern Italy; he held this post until his death in 1945. [6]", "After being ousted by the Italian Socialist Party for his support of Italian intervention, Mussolini made a radical transformation, ending his support for class conflict and joining in support of revolutionary nationalism transcending class lines. [30] He formed the interventionist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionari d'Azione Internazionalista (\"Revolutionary Fasci for International Action\") in October 1914. [25] His nationalist support of intervention enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. [32] Further funding for Mussolini's Fascists during the war came from French sources, beginning in May 1915. [33] A major source of this funding from France is believed to have been from French socialists who sent support to dissident socialists who wanted Italian intervention on France's side. [33]", "After the First World War (1914–18), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a \"Great Power\". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that \"slight\" to Italian nationalism, in presenting Fascism as best-suited for governing the country, by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism, and liberalism were failed systems. The PNF assumed Italian government in 1922, consequent to the Fascist Leader Mussolini's oratory and Blackshirt paramilitary political violence.", "Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the city-states of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under King Victor EMMANUEL. An era of parliamentary government came to a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the forefront of European economic and political unification, joining the European Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment, and the low incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.", "Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini formed the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana in Italian ) on September 23, 1943 , succeeding the Kingdom of Italy as a member of the Axis.", "The fascist government of Benito Mussolini's Italy had supported Zog since early in his presidency; that support had led to increased Italian influence in Albanian affairs. The Italians compelled Zog to refuse to renew the First Treaty of Tirana (1926), although Zog still retained British officers in the Gendarmerie as a counterbalance against the Italians, who had pressured Zog to remove them.", "After World War I, harsh conditions brought a wave of strikes and workers' protests. In 1920 the Lingotto Fiat factory was occupied. The Fascist regime put an end to the social unrest, banning trade unions and jailing socialist leaders, notably Antonio Gramsci. On the other hand, Benito Mussolini largely subsidised the automotive industry, to provide vehicles to the army. Turin was then a target of Allied strategic bombing during World War II, being heavily damaged in its industrial areas by the air raids. The Allied's campaign in Italy started off from the South and slowly moved northwards in the following two years, leaving the northern regions occupied by Germans and collaborationist forces for about a couple of years.", "As fascism took power in Italy led by Benito Mussolini, Ethiopia became a prime target of expanding the vision of a greater Italian Empire. In addition to creating a larger presence in East Africa by unifying Italy’s territory in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, Mussolini longed to avenge the military humiliation decades earlier.", "Benito Mussolini, an Italian World War I veteran and publisher of Socialist newspapers, breaks with the Italian Socialists and establishes the nationalist Fasci di Combattimento, named after the Italian peasant revolutionaries, or “Fighting Bands,” from the 19th century. Commonly known as the Fascist Party, Mussolini’s new right-wing organization advocated Italian nationalism, had black shirts for uniforms, and launched a program of terrorism and intimidation against its leftist opponents.", "As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France. This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated Alsace-Lorraine and Italy on Italian populated Nice and Corsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance was organized. The alliance was known as the Pact of Steel which obliged Italy to fight alongside Germany if war broke out against Germany. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe. Mussolini was repulsed by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to partition the Second Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent. ", "When Mussolini took power in Italy he turned with renewed interest to Albania. Italy began penetration of Albania's economy in 1925, when Albania agreed to allow it to exploit its mineral resources. That was followed by the First Treaty of Tirana in 1926 and the Second Treaty of Tirana in 1927, whereby Italy and Albania entered into a defensive alliance. The Albanian government and economy were subsidised by Italian loans, the Albanian army was trained by Italian military instructors, and Italian colonial settlement was encouraged. Despite strong Italian influence, Zog refused to completely give in to Italian pressure. In 1931 he openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 Treaty of Tirana. After Albania signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece in 1934, Mussolini made a failed attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania.", "Italian colonial policy was abruptly altered with the accession to power of Mussolini's fascist government in October 1922. Mussolini, the one-time critic of colonialism, wholeheartedly endorsed Volpi's policy of military pacification and, although accurate intelligence was lacking in Rome, he fully supported the decisions made in the field by army commanders. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne between the Allied Powers--including Italy--and Atat�rk's new government in Turkey made final the dismemberment of the old Ottoman Empire and provided conclusive international sanction for Italy's annexation of Libya.", "Following the end of the war and the Treaty of Versailles, in 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and syndicalist veterans who opposed the pacifist nature of the Italian Socialist Party. The Fascists initially had a platform far more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation, women's suffrage, and dividing private property held by estates. [78] On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence, when a group of members from the Fasci di Combattimento attacked the offices of Avanti! Recognizing the failures of the Fascists' initial revolutionary and left-leaning policy, Mussolini moved the organization away from the left and turned the revolutionary movement into an electoral movement in 1921 named the Partito Nazionale Fascista ( National Fascist Party ). The party copied the nationalist themes of D'Annunzio and rejected parliamentary democracy while still operating within to destroy it. Mussolini changed his original revolutionary policies, such as moving away from anti-clericalism to supporting the Catholic Church and abandoned his public opposition to the monarchy. [79] Fascist support and violence began to grow in 1921 and Fascist-supporting army officers began taking arms and vehicles from the army to use in counterrevolutionary attacks on socialists. [80]", "The Lateran Pacts signed by Mussolini on 11 February 1929, had three parts: a political treaty (giving the Vatican its own micro-state), a financial convention (giving the Vatican reparations) and a concordat (giving privileges within Italy, for instance by letting the Church influence public education). In return for all of this Mussolini received Vatican recognition of the Kingdom of Italy — of which he happened to be the dictator. Through the Lateran Pacts, as a contemporary account noted, “Mussolini has achieved a great diplomatic success, perhaps the greatest of his career.” [4] Four years later the Vatican would legitimise another dictator, Hitler, also for the price of a legal pact from which it still profits today. [5]", "After Francisco Franco's request and encouragement by Hitler, Benito Mussolini joined the war. While the conquest of Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War made Italy confident in its power, a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italian control of the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. The Royal Italian Navy () played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, the Aviazione Legionaria, and the Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV) to the Nationalist cause. The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply the Nationalists with 50,000 men. Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade of Nationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Málaga, Valencia, and Barcelona. In total, Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800 artillery pieces, 10,000 machine guns, and 240,000 rifles. ", "Following the end of the war and the Treaty of Versailles, in 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and syndicalist veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. The Fascists initially had a platform far more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation, women's suffrage (partly realized in 1925), and dividing private property held by estates. ", "foreign financiers and the Italin republic applauded Mussolini's decision but it had a damaging impact on the economy", "* As persuaded by the Nazis, Benito Mussolini established the capital of his Italian Social Republic in late 1943 in a villa in the town of Salò on its shores. It served as a nexus for military operations and communications for German troops who occupied northern Italy in late 1943 during World War II.", "In September 1923, Mussolini offered German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann a \"common policy\": he sought German military support against potential French military intervention over Italy's diplomatic dispute with Yugoslavia over Fiume, should an Italian seizure of Fiume result in war between Italy and Yugoslavia. The German ambassador to Italy in 1924 reported that Mussolini saw a nationalist Germany as an essential ally for Italy against France, and hoped to tap into the desire within the German army and the German political right for a war of revenge against France.", "The forces of the Italian Risorgimento conquered Rome and took control of Rome away from the Papacy, which saw itself henceforth as a prisoner in the Vatican. In 1929, as Italian Head of Government, Benito Mussolini concluded the unresolved Church–State conflict of the Roman Question (La Questione romana, pending since the Risorgimento, 1815–71) with the Lateran Treaty (February 1929), between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, establishing the Vatican City microstate in Rome. Upon ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the papacy recognized the state of Italy in exchange for diplomatic recognition of the Vatican City, territorial compensations, introduction of religious education into all state funded schools in Italy, and 50GBP Millions that was shifted from Italian bank shares into a Swiss company Profima SA. British wartime records from the National Archives in Kew also confirmed Profima SA as the Vatican's company which was accused during WW II of engaging in \"activities contrary to Allied interests\". John F. Pollard, a Cambridge historian, wrote in his book that this financial settlement ensured the \"papacy (...) would never be poor again.\" ", "In the late 19th century after the reunification, a nationalist movement grew around the concept of Italia irredenta which advocated the incorporation of Italian-speaking areas under foreign rule into Italy; there was a desire to annex Italian speaking areas in Dalmatia. Italy's Fascist regime's intention was to create a \" New Roman Empire \" in which Italy would dominate the Mediterranean Sea . In 1935-1936, Italy invaded and annexed Ethiopia . The League of Nations protested, however no serious action was taken, though Italy faced diplomatic isolation by many countries. In 1937 Italy left the League of Nations and in the same year joined the Anti-Comintern Pact which was signed by Germany and Japan the preceding year. In March/April 1939 Italian troops invaded and annexed Albania . Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel on May 22.", "In the 1920s, Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy that included an attack on the Greek island of Corfu, aims to expand Italian territory in the Balkans, plans to wage war against Turkey and Yugoslavia, attempts to bring Yugoslavia into civil war by supporting Croat and Macedonian separatists to legitimize Italian intervention, and making Albania a de facto protectorate of Italy, which was achieved through diplomatic means by 1927. In response to revolt in the Italian colony of Libya, Fascist Italy abandoned previous liberal-era colonial policy of cooperation with local leaders. Instead, claiming that Italians were a superior race to African races and thereby had the right to colonize the \"inferior\" Africans, it sought to settle 10 to 15 million Italians in Libya. This resulted in an aggressive military campaign known as the Pacification of Libya against natives in Libya, including mass killings, the use of concentration camps, and the forced starvation of thousands of people. Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica in Libya, from their settlements that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.", "* The \"Corpo Ausiliario delle Squadre d'azione di Camicie Nere\" (Italian: \"Auxiliary Corps of the Black Shirts' Action Squads\"), most widely known as the Black Brigades (Brigate Nere) was one of the Fascist paramilitary groups, organized and run by the Republican Fascist Party (Partito Fascista Repubblicano, PFR) operating in the Italian Social Republic (in northern Italy), during the final years of World War II, and after the signing of the Italian Armistice in 1943.", "Many Italians were encouraged to settle in Libya during the Fascist period, notably in the coastal areas. [22] The annexation of Libya's coastal provinces in 1939 brought them to be an integral part of metropolitan Italy that were the focus of Italian settlement. [23]", "* September 23 – WWII: The Italian Social Republic (\"Republic of Salò\") is founded in northern Italy as a puppet state of Nazi Germany.", "Albania had been in Italian orbit since the First World War when it was occupied by Italy as a \"protectorate\" in accordance with the London Pact . Italian troops were withdrawn after the war, but throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Albania became increasingly dependent on Italy. The Albanian government and economy were subsidised by Italian loans, the Albanian army was trained by Italian instructors, and Italian settlement was encouraged." ]

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[ "Amnesty International is probably the most well-known human rights group in the world. The international organisation was founded in 1961 by a British lawyer and works on a number of human rights causes including ending the death penalty, ensuring free trials and for the release of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience. These are people imprisoned for non-legal reasons, such as their religion or ethnicity. At Christmas, Amnesty International organises a greetings card campaign, where supporters send Christmas cards to political prisoners and prisoners of conscience, to remind them that they are not forgotten.", "16 June, Rev Joost de Blank presents a petition to the Secretary-General, on behalf of the World Campaign for the Release of South African Political Prisoners (sponsored by the Anti-Apartheid Movement in London). The petition was signed by 91,691 persons in 28 countries. The World Campaign informed the Secretary-General that the demand for the release of South African political prisoners has been supported by organisations with a membership of over 258 million.", "(Washington, D.C.) – Amnesty International USA welcomed news today that Myanmar released 50 political prisoners, including Amnesty International prisoners of conscience, U Myint Aye and Saw Kyaw Kywa Min, but said the authorities have \"miles to go\" to fulfill the promise of human rights protections in the country. In addition to the release of all political prisoners, the human rights organization is calling for independent monitoring of all detention facilities in Myanmar and an independent investigation into reports of torture and other ill treatment.", "Some international organizations avoid the \"political prisoner\" designation altogether as insufficiently objective. Human Rights Watch, for example, prefers in most instances to use the alternative term \"human rights defender\" in its campaigns.", "Amnesty International Cautiously Welcomes Release of Some Political Prisoners, but Continues to Call on Myanmar to Stop Brutalizing its Ethnic Minorities | Amnesty International USA", "International human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and the American Association for the Advancement of Science have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Myanmar. The Freedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes, \"The military junta has ... suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity.\" In July 2013, the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners indicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons. ", "(Washington, D.C.) -- Frank Jannuzi, the head of Amnesty International’s Washington office, issued the following statement in response to the release of a group of political prisoners from Insein prison in Yangon, Myanmar today:", "What started as a short appeal soon became a permanent international movement working to protect those imprisoned for non-violent expression of their views and to secure worldwide recognition of Articles 18 and 19 of the UDHR. From the very beginning, research and campaigning were present in Amnesty International’s work. A library was established for information about prisoners of conscience and a network of local groups, called ‘THREES’ groups, was started. Each group worked on behalf of three prisoners, one from each of the then three main ideological regions of the world: communist, capitalist and developing.", "What started as a short appeal soon became a permanent international movement working to protect those imprisoned for non-violent expression of their views and to secure worldwide recognition of Articles 18 and 19 of the UDHR. From the very beginning, research and campaigning were present in Amnesty International's work. A library was established for information about prisoners of conscience and a network of local groups, called 'THREES' groups, was started. Each group worked on behalf of three prisoners, one from each of the then three main ideological regions of the world: communist, capitalist and developing.", "International human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International] and the American Association for the Advancement of Science  have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Burma. TheFreedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes, “The military junta has … suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity.” In July 2013, the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners indicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons", "A Thailand-based rights group says it is aware of more than 1,600 political prisoners still in jail in Burma. Amnesty International researcher Benjamin Zawacki said on Monday that Burmese authorities should release the names of the remaining prisoners so the list can be cross-checked against those still believed to be jailed.", "Human Rights Watch urged ASEAN leaders to press the Burmese government to account for all 1,669 prisoners apparently being held for offenses related to peaceful political activity. The government should release all those imprisoned on politically motivated charges, whether they have been convicted under Burma's repressive political laws or for common criminal offenses. The situation needs to be carefully followed to ensure that those released are not later rearrested, as has happened in the past.", "The State Department found that “the government reportedly held political detainees, including as many as 100 associated with banned Islamic groups, in prisons throughout the country, but mainly in the Ayn Zara, Jadida, and Abu Salim Prisons in Tripoli. In an August 31 report, HRW claimed dozens of political prisoners remained in jails. The same report noted that ‘a number’ of political prisoners had been freed since 2008. In 2008 human rights organizations and foreign diplomats speculated there were 2,000 political detainees, many held for years without trial.”", "Amnesty International also uses the term \"political prisoner\" to describe any prisoner whose case has a political element -- either in the motivation of the prisoner's act, the act itself, or the motivation of the authorities in their response.", "Aung San Suu Kyi’s transfer to Insein prison has sparked international outcry, led by Amnesty International activists . The UN Special Rapporteur for human rights in Myanmar, Tomas Ojea Quintana, made the following statement yesterday : “I call on the government of Myanmar [Burma] to release Aung San Suu Kyi and her aides unconditionally”.", "Several prominent Israeli, Palestinian, and international human rights organizations issued a joint statement in June 2011 calling on Hamas to end its \"illegal\" and \"inhumane\" treatment of Shalit, including Amnesty International , B'Tselem, Bimkom , Gisha , Human Rights Watch, Palestinian Center for Human Rights , Physicians for Human Rights , Public Committee Against Torture in Israel , Rabbis for Human Rights , The Association for Civil Rights in Israel , Yesh Din ; [111] though Noah Pollak, writing in Commentary , noted that the statement did not call for the release of Shalit. [112]", "The organization has done good work struggling to end torture, political killings, the death penalty and \"disappearances.\" On many occasions it has fought for the release of prisoners of conscience. It has been an aggressive champion of human rights.", "KIEV, UKRAINE: \"Protesters outside parliament in Kiev on March 12 call for the release of 34 political prisoners arrested during demonstrations.\" - CNN's Dominique Van Heereden. Follow Dominique on Instagram at instagram.com/dominique_vh", "The United States and Europe have said freeing political prisoners is crucial to even considering lifting sanctions that have isolated the former British colony and, over the years, pushed it closer to China. A senior political adviser to President Thein Sein told Reuters hundreds more political detainees may soon be released.", "While the International Criminal Court and non governmental organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch work to bring perpetrators of genocide , crimes against humanity and war crimes to justice, it’s up to the rest of us to support their work and help repair the world.", "On Saturday, 22 September 2007, although still under house arrest , Suu Kyi made a brief public appearance at the gate of her residence in Rangoon to accept the blessings of Buddhist monks who were marching in support of human rights. [51] It was reported that she had been moved the following day to Insein Prison (where she had been detained in 2003), [52] [53] [54] [55] but meetings with UN envoy Ibrahim Gambari near her Rangoon home on 30 September and 2 October established that she remained under house arrest. [56] [57]", "The United Nations Working Group for Arbitrary Detention published an Opinion that Aung San Suu Kyi's deprivation of liberty was arbitrary and in contravention of Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, and requested that the authorities in Burma set her free, but the authorities ignored the request at that time. The U.N. report said that according to the Burmese Government's reply, \"Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has not been arrested, but has only been taken into protective custody, for her own safety\", and while \"it could have instituted legal action against her under the country's domestic legislation ... it has preferred to adopt a magnanimous attitude, and is providing her with protection in her own interests.\"", "Nelson Mandela Was Released From Prison After 27 Years. These 10 Political Prisoners Are Still Waiting | The Huffington Post", "Suu Kyi continues to be imprisoned under the 1975 State Protection Act (Article 10 b), which grants the government the power to imprison persons for up to five years without a trial, [29] and the Law to Safeguard the State Against the Dangers of Those Desiring to Cause Subversive Acts (Article 10 a), as Suu Kyi is “likely to undermine the community peace and stability” of the country. [30] She has appealed against her detention. [31] Many nations and figures have continued to call for her release and that of 2,100 other political prisoners in the country. [32] [33]", "Some specific aims are to: abolish the death penalty, end extra judicial executions and \"disappearances,\" ensure prison conditions meet international human rights standards, ensure prompt and fair trial for all political prisoners, ensure free education to all children worldwide, decriminalise abortion, fight impunity from systems of justice, end the recruitment and use of child soldiers, free all prisoners of conscience, promote economic, social and cultural rights for marginalised communities, protect human rights defenders, promote religious tolerance, protect LGBT rights, stop torture and ill-treatment, stop unlawful killings in armed conflict, uphold the rights of refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers, and protect human dignity.", "Some specific aims are to: abolish the death penalty, end extra judicial executions and \"disappearances,\" ensure prison conditions meet international human rights standards, ensure prompt and fair trial for all political prisoners, ensure free education to all children worldwide, decriminalise abortion, fight impunity from systems of justice, end the recruitment and use of child soldiers, free all prisoners of conscience, promote economic, social and cultural rights for marginalised communities, protect human rights defenders, promote religious tolerance, protect LGBT rights, stop torture and ill-treatment, stop unlawful killings in armed conflict, uphold the rights of refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers, and protect human dignity.", "Tiarma Siboro and Abdul Khalik, Jakarta -- The imprisonment of former East Timor governor Abilio Soares is maintaining the immunity of military top brass in the gross human rights violations in the former Indonesian province in 1999, a rights campaigner says.", "On December 22, several dozen protesters gathered in front of the Ministry of Justice in Paris to call for the liberation of Georges Ibrahim Abdallah, former leader of the Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Factions. The 60-year-old Abdallah has been imprisoned in southwestern France since 1984, despite the fact that he completed the minimum term of his sentence in 1999.", "Peaceful activists, critics of the government and many others remain in jail . Torture and other ill-treatment is rife. Hundreds have been sentenced to death and tens of thousands put behind bars for protesting or for their alleged links to the political opposition.", "Belarusian activist Ales Bialiatski, who is also currently jailed in his native Belarus, was also shortlisted for the prestigious human rights prize.", "In the 1980s, exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo, Mandela’s former law partner, led an international movement to free Mandela. Many countries imposed sanctions on South Africa for its apartheid policies.", "•           the treatment of detainees held at the Eastern Avenue Detention Centre, including allegations of human rights violations;" ]

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[ "The British Raj (Rule) of India began with the Government of India Act 1858 , actually entitled An Act for the Better Government of India. An Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & 22 Vict. c. 106) passed on August 2, 1858. Its provisions called for the liquidation of the British East India Company (who had up to this point been ruling India under the auspices of Parliament) and the transference of its functions to the British Crown. Lord Palmerston, then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, introduced a bill for the transfer of control of the Government of India from the East India Company to the Crown, referring to the grave defects in the existing system of the government of India.", "In 1773 Parliament, tired of the East India Company's abuses of power and its financial problems, passed a Regulating Act, which imposed some financial controls on the East India Company and created the new post of Governor-General of India. A few years later, in 1784, the India Act brought the Company under the direct control of the British government through a new Board of Control. This was a compromise arrangement, however, and the administration of India remained in the hands of the directors of the East India Company until 1858, when the British government took over the rule of India from the Company.", "Until this time all the British in India, including even the soldiers, have been employees of the East India Company . The India Act of 1858, passed by the Conservative administration of Lord Derby, places the Indian army and the Indian civil service under the direct control of the British government.", "1858 The British government took over control of the East India Company. All the company's territory became known as British India.", "In 1757, after the British victory in the Battle of Plassey, the rule of East India Company started in India. By 1858, the British Crown had assumed control over India. The situation after World War I was marked with suppressive and exploitative laws by the British. This led to revolutionary calls for independence, and sparked the phase of non-violent and non-cooperation movements followed by civil disobedience.", "The rebellion saw the end of the British East India Company 's rule in India. In August, by the Government of India Act 1858 , the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. A new British government department, the India Office , was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India , was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor-General of India gained a new title ( Viceroy of India ), and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization . The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.", "The Indian Rebellion of 1857 resulted in widespread devastation in India: many condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur. In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858, the British Government nationalised the Company. The Crown took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its armed forces.", "the Anglo-French war in India were battles fought by the British East India Company against the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales and Indian forces in order to establish the supremacy of Britain over Bengal and India. The East India Company was founded in 1600 and abolished in 1858 with the India act, when its powers were transferred to the Crown, represented by the Viceroy", "Before the 18th century, India's relationship with the West had been predominantly trade-related. All this changed, when the forces of the East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Calcutta. That signaled the arrival of the British as rulers. Until the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the East India Company, with the Governor General as its head, ruled the subcontinent. After that, the Crown took over the administration, with the Viceroy served as its representative.", "The British represented by the East India Company established their commercial control over vast areas in India, which very soon had an administrative dimension to it. The British rule in India was, however, formalised by the direct takeover of India by the British Crown, after the First War of Independence in 1857.", "During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773 , Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired. [93] The Company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion , a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys , Indian troops under British officers and discipline. [94] The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858 , establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India. [95] India became the empire's most valuable possession, \"the Jewel in the Crown\", and was the most important source of Britain's strength. [96]", "The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey and lasted until 1858 when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown assuming direct control of India in the form of the new British Raj.", "During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired. The Company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline. The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India. India became the empire's most valuable possession, \"the Jewel in the Crown\", and was the most important source of Britain's strength.Brown, p. 5.", "By the first half of the 19th century, the East India Company had brought major portions of India under its control.", "By the early 18th century, the British East India Company had a strong presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras , Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a President and a Council, appointed by the Court of Directors in England. The British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security. By then, all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese . The French had also established an East India Company under Louis XIV and had two important stations in India – Chandernagar in Bengal and Pondicherry on the Carnatic coast, both governed by the presidency of Pondicherry. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they quickly established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control. [2] [3]", "By the early 18th century, the British East India Company had a strong presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a President and a Council, appointed by the Court of Directors in England. The British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security. By then, all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese . The French had also established an East India Company under Louis XIV and had two important stations in India – Chandernagar in Bengal and Pondicherry on the Carnatic coast, both governed by the presidency of Pondicherry. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they quickly established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control. [2] [3]", "Following the uprising in India, the British government dissolved the company. Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858, which ended the company's role in India and declared that India would be governed by the British crown.", "an English company formed in 1600 to develop trade with the new British colonies in India and southeastern Asia; in the 18th century it assumed administrative control of Bengal and held it until the British army took over in 1858 after the Indian Mutiny", "By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts. The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies. Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials, and many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period. By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.", "During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, the Carnatic Wars , as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, the Compagnie française des Indes orientales , struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British, led by Robert Clive , defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India. [48] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India. [49] In the following decades the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian Army , the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys . [50]", "By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh also. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. ", "The reality is that by 1858, India under Company rule was actually controlled by the British Government. Desite the name and facade, the British government had already decisively inserted itself into the governance of India. Thefore, the British Government of India was hardly going to rebel against itself over a reorganisation.", "The cruel management of the company ultimately lead to the mutiny of 1857, after which its rule over India ended and the British Crown officially took over the administration in 1858.", "Although the British East India Company had earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its rule in India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar (in Bihar ), when the defeated Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II , granted control of Bengal , Bihar, and Orissa to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras: the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) led to control of most of India south of the Narmada River .", "By this time, the British East India Company had become more powerful than the British Government. In 1709, Parliament finally did move to control the royal company by replacing its entire management; the company simply refused to comply, and placed all the “new” management under its control. By 1850, the British East India Company had sole governing authority over one-fifth of the world’s population, expanding its reach into all of India, as well as parts of China, and enforced its rule with a private army of over a quarter of a million men—twice as large as the British Army. Parliament, which had once attempted to control the Company, was now controlled by it—fully one-third of the Members of Parliament owned East India Company stock. The King, meanwhile, became more and more dependent upon “loans” from the Company, in exchange for increased power and privileges.", "Citing widespread corruption and abuse of power, Parliament passed a Regulating Act in 1733, which set financial restrictions on the Company and imposed a Governor-General of India. In 1858, the British government assumed total control. 18 years later, Queen Victoria was crowned Empress of India: the ‘jewel in the crown’ of her empire.", "This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the Company. After this point, the Company functioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the Company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the Company's rule extended across most of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world's population was under its trading influence. In addition, Penang, one of the states in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement, a presidency, of the Company's Indian territories. ", "The East India Company had expounded the ”Doctrine of Lapse.” This declared that if a prince died without a male heir the realm would become a territory directly administered by the East India Company. In 1856 the East India Company assumed control over a large state on the Ganges called Oudh – now called as it is pronounced Awadh.", "Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm. In Punjab, only recently annexed by the East India Company, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, by not joining the rebellion, served, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as \"breakwaters in a storm\" for the Company.", "The proliferation of the Company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, which collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828), and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir, were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General); however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu, and thereby became a princely state. In 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh two years later.", "The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the company's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the company, which began to function more as an administrator and less as a trading concern.", "private organization that acted as an arm of the british government, monopolized south asia, had almost complete control in 1840s" ]

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[ "In 1988, Noriega was indicted by the United States on drug trafficking charges in Miami, Florida, and shortly thereafter, in the 1989 U.S. invasion of Panama he was removed from power, captured, detained as a prisoner of war, by the United States and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on eight counts of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering in April 1992. On September 16, 1992, he was sentenced to 40 years in prison (which was later reduced to 30 years).", "PANAMA — Nearly 22 years ago an American military plane whisked the de facto leader of this nation, Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega , off to Florida to face trial, and ultimately a prison sentence, for drug trafficking.", "9. In the 1989 invasion of Panama by the United States General Manual Noriega was removed from power, captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was later tried on eight counts of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering and sentenced to 40 years in prison. Read a book centered around drugs (DEA, drug kingpin, etc), a book with a home invasion OR a book somehow connected to prison.", "First a friend, then an enemy of the United States, Manuel Noriega, the strongman of Panama, was finally taken down by a U.S. military operation, captured, and brought to Miami for trial on drug charges in 1989.", "The president also received broad bipartisan congressional backing for the brief U.S. invasion of Panama on December 20, 1989, that deposed dictator General Manuel Antonio Noriega. In the 1980s, addiction to crack cocaine reached epidemic proportions, and President Bush put the \"war on drugs\" at the center of his domestic agenda. The United States had compelling evidence that Noriega was involved in drug smuggling operations and by means of the invasion sought to bring Noriega to justice. But there were other reasons. One of Bush's aims was to replace Noriega with a government headed by Guillermo Endara, who had won a presidential election that Noriega subsequently annulled. Bush also told reporters that he ordered U.S. troops to Panama to safeguard the lives of American citizens, to help restore democracy and to protect the integrity of the Panama Canal treaties. Noriega eventually turned himself over to U.S. authorities, and he was later tried and convicted in U.S. federal court in Miami, Florida, of drug trafficking and racketeering.", "1992 – A federal judge in Miami sentenced former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega, convicted of drug and racketeering charges, to 40 years in prison. However, a judge in March, 1998, cut Noriega’s sentence by ten years, meaning he could be eligible for parole in 2000.", "~1990 - In Panama, deposed leader Manuel Antonio Noriega surrendered to US authorities after spending 10 days under siege in the Vatican embassy following the US invasion. He was quickly shipped off to Florida to face charges of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering.", "Fighting continued for four days, with the United States losing hundreds of troops and the Panamanians losing thousands. Noriega escaped capture for a few days but was found hiding in the Papal Nunciature, a religious office. Under pressure from Vatican officials, Noriega surrendered to the Vatican Embassy in Panama City on January 3, 1990. In a deal worked out with the U.S.-created government headed by Guillermo Endara, U.S. authorities brought Noriega to Miami for trial, which was delayed into the early 1990s. He was convicted of several crimes including cocaine smuggling. He was sentenced to forty years in a Miami prison and ordered to pay $44 million to the Panamanian government. In 1999 a French court sentenced Noriega and his wife to ten years in jail along with a $33 million fine. Also in 1999 the Panamanian high court announced that it would seek to have Noriega returned to that country to make sure he served time there for murder.", "U.S. relations with Panama's Manuel Antonia Noriega were similar to U.S. relations with Iraq's Saddam Hussein. For years the U.S. governments tolerated Noriega's authoritarian attitude. President Bush even praised him. When the United States declared drugs as a major threat to American society, and a Florida court indicted Noriega for drug trafficking and money laundering, the U.S. found a reason to remove Noriega from power. Having received mixed signals from the U.S. government over the years and believing that Bush knew he could reveal information that exposed the CIA and U.S. involvement in covert activities, Noriega felt immune from attack. His arrogant attitude provoked the U.S. President. In the absence of cold-war considerations, the United States proceeded with full-scale military intervention against Panama and removed an insignificant leader from power. The invasion exhibited unnecessary brutality, demolishing impoverished Panamanian neighborhoods, where Noriega had major support and killing many civilians. On the high side, the Pentagon claimed 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, and an internal Army memo estimated the number at 1,000. Lower estimates by the United Nations and Americas Watch had 500 and 300 deaths respectively. The American military captured Noriega and the American judicial system convicted him and sentenced him to prison. The legality of all the operations is questionable.", "* July 10 – In Miami, Florida, former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison for drug and racketeering violations.", "**In Miami, former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison for drug and racketeering violations.", "Noriega was convicted in 1992 in the United States for protecting Colombian drug cartels shipping drugs to the United States, and sentenced to 30 years in prison. He was convicted in France in 1999 for laundering millions of dollars in alleged drug money. He faces a 10-year jail term there.", "1989/12/20 15 - U.S. forces invade Panama in an attempt to capture Gen. Manuel Noriega, who previously had been indicted in the U.S. on drug trafficking charges.", "*1992 – In Miami, former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison for drug and racketeering violations.", "These tensions became public in 1988 when Noriega was indicted in a US federal court on drug-trafficking charges.", "10/7/1992. Ex-President Noriega of Nicaragua, forcibly brought into the USA, was sentenced to 40 years on drugs charges.", "In August 2007, a US federal judge approved a request from the French government to extradite Noriega from the United States to France after his release. Noriega has also received a long jail term in absentia in Panama for murder and human rights abuses. Noriega appealed his extradition to France because he claims that country will not honor his legal status as a prisoner of war. In 1999, the Panamanian government sought the extradition of Noriega to face murder charges in Panama because he had been found guilty in absentia in 1995 and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. Under Panama’s legal system he may be sentenced to serve his sentence under house arrest due to his age.", "In 1999, Mr. Noriega was convicted in absentia of laundering $3 million in illicit funds for the Medellin drug cartel through international banks and into French accounts. The July 7 result came as he was retried on the same charge after his extradition from Miami.", "Noriega was then extradited to France to serve a separate sentence on money laundering charges. He returned to Panama in 2011, where he remains in jail for crimes committed during his rule.", "Noriega was declared a P.O.W. after his 1992 drug conviction by a Miami federal judge. In Miami, Noriega had separate quarters in prison, the right to wear his military uniform and insignia, access to a television and monitoring by international rights groups.", "The French government requested the extradition of Noriega after he was convicted of money laundering in 1999. The French claim Noriega laundered some $3 million in drug proceeds by purchasing luxury apartments in Paris. Noriega was convicted  in absentia , but France agreed to give him a new trial if he were extradited. He faced up to 10 years in French prison if convicted.", "At his trial, Noriega intended to defend himself by presenting his alleged crimes within the framework of his work for the US  Central Intelligence Agency . The government objected to any disclosure of the purposes for which the United States had paid Noriega because this information was  classified and its disclosure went against the interests of the United States. In pre-trial proceedings, the government offered to stipulate that Noriega had received approximately $320,000 from the United States Army and the Central Intelligence Agency. Noriega insisted that “the actual figure approached $10,000,000, and that he should be allowed to disclose the tasks he had performed for the United States”. The district court held that the “information about the content of the discrete operations in which Noriega had engaged in exchange for the alleged payments was irrelevant to his defense”. It ruled that the introduction of evidence about Noriega’s role in the CIA would “confuse the jury”.", "Noriega's attorneys say they believe that officials want to send the former leader to France, in an effort to spare Panama's President Martin Torrijos from any political embarrassment. Panama's government says it has filed several extradition requests in Washington, and says it wants to hold Noriega responsible for alleged crimes during his years in power.", "At his trial, Noriega intended to defend himself by presenting his alleged crimes within the framework of his work for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. The government objected to any disclosure of the purposes for which the United States had paid Noriega because this information was classified and its disclosure went against the interests of the United States. In pre-trial proceedings, the government offered to stipulate that Noriega had received approximately $220,000 from the United States Army and the Central Intelligence Agency. Noriega insisted that \"the actual figure approached $10,000,000, and that he should be allowed to disclose the tasks he had performed for the United States\". The district court held that the \"information about the content of the discrete operations in which Noriega had engaged in exchange for the alleged payments was irrelevant to his defense\". It ruled that the introduction of evidence about Noriega's role in the CIA would \"confuse the jury\".", "On April 26, 2010, Noriega was extradited to France. Noriega’s lawyers claim that the  La Santé prison , at which he is held, is unfit for a man of his age and rank; the French government has refused to grant him  prisoner of war status, which he had in the United States.", "On April 26, 2010, Noriega was extradited to France. Noriega's lawyers claimed the La Santé Prison, at which he was held, was unfit for a man of his age and rank; the French government refused to grant him prisoner of war status, as he had in the United States.", "Noriega’s prison sentence was reduced from 30 years to 17 years for good behavior. After serving 17 years in detention and imprisonment, his prison sentence ended on September 9, 2007. He was held under U.S. custody before being extradited to French custody. Noriega is incarcerated in the  La Santé Prison .", "On July 7, 2010, Noriega was convicted by the 11th chamber of the Tribunal Correctionnel de Paris and sentenced to seven years in jail. The prosecutor in the case had sought a ten-year prison term.", "On April 26, 2010, Mr. Noriega was put on an Air France flight for Paris after the State Department authorized his extradition. Mr. Noriega lost a court battle seeking to be returned to Panama after completing a federal prison term.", "30 What dictator was the first to be abducted prosecuted USA drugs? General Manual Noriega- Panama", "Arrival: Panama's former dictator Manuel Noriega seen next to police officers upon his arrival at Renacer prison, outside Panama City", "A version of this article appears in print on December 12, 2011, on Page A6 of the New York edition with the headline: Noriega Is Sent to Prison Back in Panama, Where the Terror Has Turned to Shrugs. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe" ]

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[ "In the United States, there are two major political parties , the Democratic Party and the Republican Party . There are also several minor parties, usually called third parties, who have not won a presidential election since 1864 . [7] Most media and public focus is on the two major parties.", "In the United States, there are two major political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. There are also several minor parties, usually called third parties, though most media and public focus is on the two major parties.", "Today in the United States there are two main political parties. The names of these two political parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. These two parties ...", "3) Two major political parties in the United States are the Democratic Party and Republican Party. Republican want less government intervention into society, lowered income tax and if could be removed. Subsidy the poor is removed and the government abolished all schools free of charge. Instead, Democrats want more government intervention into society, paying more civil servants, free schools, the poor and the unemployed receive the full subsidy by the government. But for all these things the Democratic Party needs funds which come from raising tax revenue.", "Two major political parties have dominated at both state and federal levels since the end of the Civil War: the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. Since the 1960s the Republican party has become generally the more right-wing or \"conservative\" party whereas the Democratic party is usually the more left-wing or \"liberal\" of the two parties. While smaller political parties exist, the winner-take-all electoral system means that they rarely succeed at any level. Although in most of the world red and blue indicates left and right leaning parties respectively, it is actually reversed in the U.S so that Republican is red and Democrat is blue.", "Political scientists and historians have divided the development of America's two-party system into five eras. The first two-party system consisted of the Federalist Party, who supported the ratification of the Constitution, and the Democratic-Republican Party or the Anti-Federalists, who opposed the powerful central government, among others, that the Constitution established when it took effect in 1789. The modern two-party system consists of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Several third parties also operate in the U.S., and from time to time elect someone to local office. The largest third party since the 1980s is the Libertarian Party.", "The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the Grand Old Party or the GOP, despite being the younger of the two major parties. In the U.S. political spectrum, the party's platform is generally considered center-right or right. Though its views are numerous and wide-ranging, the Party has long maintained a particular emphasis on preserving laissez-faire capitalism.", "The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. Tracing its heritage back to Thomas Jefferson's and James Madison's Democratic-Republican Party, the modern-day Democratic Party was founded around 1828, making it the world's oldest active party. ", "Democratic Party of the United States (English: Democratic Party) is one of the two major political parties in the United States; the other being the Republican Party. Democratic Party centrist / left social democrats even though his policies are not too left compared with the labor parties or social democratic in other countries. In the United States alone, the party is known as a party that is more “liberal”, although this refers to the meaning of liberalism in the United States.", "But, despite an active political presence, only two parties — the Democrats and Republicans — dominate the modern American political process, between them fielding all of the candidates that have become president since the mid-1800s.", "During the past century, national politics has been dominated by two major parties, the Liberals and the Progressive Conservatives. While these parties have adopted many traditions from their British counterparts, there are substantial differences. The Liberals correspond, in very general terms, to the Democratic Party in the U.S., while the Progressive Conservatives would be the rough equivalent of the Republican Party. Distinctions between the two parties, however, are increasingly blurred since both take a pragmatic approach to Canada's problems.", "is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP (Grand Old Party). The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S. political spectrum and is considered center-right, in contrast to the center-left Democratic Party.", "There is only one party in the United States, the Property Party...and it has two right wings: Republican and Democrat. Republicans are a bit stupider, more rigid, more doctrinaire in their laissez-faire capitalism than the Democrats, who are cuter, prettier, a bit more corrupt—until recently... and more willing than the Republicans to make small adjustments when the poor, the black, the anti-imperialists get out of hand. But, essentially, there is no difference between the two parties. [41]", "There is only one party in the United States, the Property Party...and it has two right wings: Republican and Democrat. Republicans are a bit stupider, more rigid, more doctrinaire in their laissez-faire capitalism than the Democrats, who are cuter, prettier, a bit more corrupt—until recently... and more willing than the Republicans to make small adjustments when the poor, the black, the anti-imperialists get out of hand. But, essentially, there is no difference between the two parties. [48]", "In the USA, there are only two parties represented in Congress and both are federal parties; there is no political party that only seeks votes in one state or a selection of states. In the UK, as well as political parties that seek votes throughout the entire country, there are nationalist political parties that field candidates only in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland respectively.", "Democratic Party - One of the two major political parties in the United States; the oldest of the two. It emerged in the late 1820s from a split in the Democratic-Republican Party, which had, in turn, developed from the Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson. The party has adhered to various policies over its history. Today, it is generally characterized as the more liberal of the two major parties and as being more favorably disposed toward the working class and the poor, with a greater tendency to favor government expenditures for social welfare programs. In the last decade, however, the party has moved toward the center of the political spectrum.", "Party politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay. The former evolved into the modern Democratic Party and the latter was replaced with the Republican Party as one of the two main parties in the 1850s.", "Republican Party - One of the two major political parties in the United States. The party was formed out of the antislavery movement and its first presidential candidate, John Charles Fremont, ran and lost the 1856 election on an antislavery platform. With a broader range of issues and a moderate position on slavery, the Republican candidate in 1860, Abraham Lincoln, defeated the candidates of a sectionally divided Democratic Party. The Republican Party has pursued various policies over its history, but it has been characterized generally in recent times as the more conservative party and as the party that is more favorably disposed toward the interests of conservative WASPs (white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants), business and the wealthy.", "Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered \"centre-right\" or conservative and the Democratic Party is considered \"centre-left\" or liberal, but members of both parties have a wide range of views. In a May 2008 poll, 44% of Americans described themselves as \"conservative,\" 27% as \"moderate,\" and 21% as \"liberal.\" On the other hand, that same month a plurality of adults, 41.7%, identified as Democrats, 31.6% as Republicans, and 26.6% as independents. The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states are relatively liberal-leaning—they are known in political parlance as \" blue states.\" The \" red states\" of the South and the Rocky Mountains lean conservative.", "The Democratic Party is the biggest and oldest political party in America. There are more than 72 million registered Democratic voters in the U.S. The Democratic Party was started in 1792.", "Along with the Democratic and Republican parties, three other parties nominated candidates with ballot access in enough states to win the minimum 270 electoral votes needed to win the election. These were the Constitution Party , the Green Party , and the Libertarian Party . The Constitution Party nominated writer, pastor, and conservative talk show host Chuck Baldwin for President, and attorney Darrell Castle of Tennessee for Vice President. [78] [79] While campaigning, Baldwin voiced his opposition to the Iraq war , the Sixteenth Amendment , Roe v. Wade , the IRS , and the Federal Reserve . [80]", "Although American politics have been dominated by the two-party system, several other political parties have also emerged throughout the country's history. The oldest third party was the Anti-Masonic Party and was formed in upstate New York in 1828; the party's creators feared the Freemasons, believing they were a powerful secret society that was trying to rule the country in defiance of republican principles. ", "A 2011 USA Today review of state voter rolls indicates that the number of registered Democrats declined in 25 of 28 states (some states do not register voters by party). During this time, Republican registration also declined, as independent or no preference voting was on the rise. Democrats were still the largest political party with more than 42 million voters (compared with 30 million Republicans and 24 million independents). But in 2011 Democrats numbers shrank 800,000, and from 2008 they were down by 1.7 million, or 3.9%. ", "According to a Pew Research poll, the Democratic Party has become more socially liberal and secular compared to how it was in 1987. Based on a poll conducted in 2014, Gallup found that 30% of Americans identified as Democrats, 23% as Republicans, and 45% as Independents. In the same poll, a survey of registered voters stated that 47% identified as Democrats or leaned towards the party; the same poll found that 40% of registered voters identified as Republicans or leaned towards the Republican party.", "Former President George W. Bush is the 19th and most recent Republican to hold that office. The party's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 presidential election was Mitt Romney, former Governor of Massachusetts, and their 2016 presidential nominee is to be businessman Donald Trump. Since the 2010 midterm elections, the Republicans have held a majority in the United States House of Representatives, and since the 2014 elections, the Senate.", "Several other candidates also ran for president in the November two thousand election. These minor or so-called third party candidates included activist Ralph Nader. He represented the Green Party. He criticized large corporations for having too much influence in America. Pat Buchanan, a conservative, ran as the Reform Party candidate.", "American political party; the oldest continuous political party in the United States. Origins in Jeffersonian Democracy", "both flirted with the American Party's presidential nomination in 1976, but both ultimately declined. The party won its strongest finish in the 1976 presidential election -- nominee Tom Anderson carried 161,000 votes (6th place) -- but has now largely faded into almost total obscurity. The party's 1996 Presidential candidate -- anti-gay rights activist and attorney Diane Templin -- carried just 1,900 votes. Former California GOP State Senator Don Rogers -- the 2000 nominee -- did even worse, as he failed to qualify for ballot status in any states. The party, which used to field a sizable amount of state and local candidates in the 1970s, rarely fields any candidates in recent years. Beyond the pro-life, pro-gun, anti-gay and anti-tax views that you'd expect to find, the American Party also advocates an end to farm price supports/subsidies, privatization of the US Postal Service, opposes federal involvement in education, supports abolition of the Environmental Protection Agency, supports repeal of NAFTA, opposes minimum wage laws, opposes land use zoning regulations and opposes convening a Constitutional convention. The AP also opposes the United Nations, the New World Order, communism, socialism and the Trilateral Commission . Note: This party is NOT associated with the American Party of South Carolina -- a one-state only party organization -- which is a moderate/centrist party.", "Formed in 1854 during the death of the Whig party, this party attracted former members of the Free-Soil party and some in the Democratic party who were uncomfortable with the Democratic position on slavery. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. For much of the twentieth century, the party was saddled with the label of being \"the party of big business,\" although Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and others did much to pull middle class and Southern voters into the party.", "In 1994 Republican Congressional candidates ran on a platform of major reforms of government with measures such as a balanced budget amendment and welfare reform. These measures and others formed the famous Contract with America, which represented the first effort to have a party platform in an off-year election. The Contract promised to bring all points up for a vote for the first time in history. The Republicans passed some of their proposals, but failed on others such as term limits.", "The American Party nominated Percy L. Greaves, Jr. for President and Frank L. Varnum for Vice President.", "Despite internal fractionalization, both traditional parties maintained the structures typical of more cohesive modern parties, including conventions, general assemblies, party steering committees, and caucuses. The fundamental units of the factions of both parties were the neighborhood clubs, guided and controlled by professional politicians." ]

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[ "The Home Office - In most countries, this would be called the Ministry of the Interior. It is responsible for criminal matters, policing, and immigration. The Head of the Home Office is called the Home Secretary and is currently Amber Rudd.", "* The Minister of the Interior, or the Inferior, as Alex refers to him. The government high-official who is determined that Ludovico's technique will be used to cut recidivism.", "The Home Secretary is responsible for the internal affairs of England and Wales, and for immigration and citizenship for the United Kingdom. The remit of the Home Office also includes policing in England and Wales and matters of national security, as the Security Service, MI5, is directly accountable to the Home Secretary. Formerly, the Home Secretary was the minister responsible for prisons and probation in England and Wales; however, in 2005 those responsibilities were transferred to the newly created Ministry of Justice under the Lord Chancellor.", "In the UK, the chief executive is the Prime Minister. Both the \"PM\" and other cabinet ministers are Members of Parliament. For many years, the great majority have been members of the House of Commons, though members of the House of Lords are also eligible and have held cabinet office on a number of occasions. A notable example during the Churchill era is that of Lord Halifax (see above) who served as Foreign Secretary from 1938 to 1940 while sitting in the Lords.", "Members of Parliament are MPs: of the Scottish Parliament, MSPs; and of the European Parliament, MEPs (not Euro-MPs). Except in the Britain section, use MP only after first spelling out member of Parliament in full (in many places an MP is a military policeman).", "and Leader of the House of Commons. He spent over twenty years in this role, although was not a Prime Minister in the modern sense, as he was chosen by the monarch, not Parliament. The existence of the role was denied by many, and only received official acknowledgement in 1905, as a member of the order of precedence, making Henry Campbell-Bannerman the first \"official\" PM. Legal recognition was only given by the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937, before then the \"Prime Minister\" was simply the most powerful member of the Cabinet, generally the Party Leader of the party with the most seats.", "There are several special members of Parliament, including the Prime Minister, other government ministers in the Commons, the Chief Whip of each party, Privy Counsellors, and the Speaker of the House.", "The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is, in practice, the political leader of the United Kingdom . He or she acts as the head of Her Majesty's Government and like other Prime Ministers in Westminster Systems is (along with his or her Cabinet) the de facto wielder of executive powers in the British Government, exercising many of the executive functions nominally vested in the Sovereign, often summed-up under the label of \"royal prerogative.\" According to constitutional convention, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (which he or she heads) are accountable for their actions to Parliament, of which (by convention) they are members.", "The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom and the leader of the executive branch of government. The Prime Minister is a Member of Parliament, and in his executive capacity, is accountable to Parliament. The post is generally acknowledged to have begun with Sir Robert Walpole on 4th April 1721 when he obtained the post of First Lord of the Treasury. The incumbent Prime Minister is Gordon Brown, who took over from Tony Blair on 27th June 2007.", "The Permanent Secretary, in most departments officially titled the Permanent Under-secretary of State or PUS (although the full title is rarely used), is the most senior civil servant of a British Government ministry, charged with running the department on a day-to-day basis.", "The current Home Secretary is Amber Rudd, appointed formally by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of her Prime Minister Theresa May on 13 July 2016. Mrs. May had been the previous encumbent, appointed on 12 May 2010 by Prime Minister, David Cameron, to serve in the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. May was reappointed by Cameron on 8 May 2015 to serve as Home Secretary in the Conservative government. She stood down from this role on 13 July 2016 upon assuming the office of Prime Minister, succeeding Cameron.", "In British politics , the Shadow Home Secretary is the person within the shadow cabinet who 'shadows' the Home Secretary ; this effectively means scrutinising government policy on home affairs including policing , national security , immigration , the criminal justice system , the prison service , and matters of citizenship . If the opposition party is elected to government, the Shadow Home Secretary often becomes the new Home Secretary though this is not always the case. The office was held by Labour MP Andy Burnham until 28 September 2016.", "Bonar Law was the shortest serving PM of the twentieth century. He is often referred to as “the unknown Prime Minister”, the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law’s funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.The stone in the centre of the Nave at Westminster simply reads:", "The Home Office (HO) is a ministerial department of the Her Majesty's Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for immigration, security, and law and order. As such it is responsible for the police, British Visas and Immigration, and the Security Service (MI5). It is also in charge of government policy on security-related issues such as drugs, counter-terrorism, and ID cards. It was formerly responsible for Her Majesty's Prison Service and Probation Service, but these have transferred to the Ministry of Justice.", "UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, Home Secretary David Blunkett and among others the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police and the Lord Mayor of Westminster.", "Member of Parliament can be the term (often a translation) for representatives in parliamentary democracies that do not follow the Westminster system and who are usually referred to in a different fashion, such as Deputé in France, Deputato in Italy, Deputat in Bulgaria, Parliamentario o Diputado in Spain and Spanish speaking Latin America, Deputado in Portugal and Brazil, Mitglied des (MdB) in Germany. However, better translations are often possible.", "Member of Parliament can be the term (often a translation) for representatives in parliamentary democracies that do not follow the Westminster system and who are usually referred to in a different fashion, such as Deputé in France, Deputato in Italy, Deputat in Bulgaria, Parliamentario in Spain and Spanish speaking Latin America, Diputado, Deputado in Portugal and Brazil, Mitglied des Bundestages (MdB) in Germany. However, better translations are often possible.", "Panicking, Prime Minister Clare enlists the help of Jack Sprat, the policeman on the door of No 10, and sets out to discover what the country really thinks of him. In disguise, they venture into the great unknown: the mean streets of Great Britain.", "Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home, Baron Home of the Hirsel, (; 2 July 1903 – 9 October 1995) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister from October 1963 to October 1964. He is notable for being the last Prime Minister to hold office while being a member of the House of Lords, before renouncing his peerage and taking up a seat in the House of Commons for the remainder of his premiership. His reputation, however, rests more on his two spells as the UK's foreign secretary than on his brief premiership.", "London — UNTIL his picture popped up on the front pages of every Australian and British newspaper last month, he was a powerful, discreet, but essentially faceless civil servant in Her Majesty's government. Few Britons even knew who he was, or what he did. Even fewer could guess how much their individual rights and freedoms in one of the Western world's most secretive societies are indirectly shaped by this head of the British civil service.", "Boris Johnson is a British politician who has served as the Mayor of London since 2008. He previously served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Henley from 2001 until 2008 and is serving as MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip since 2015. A member of the Conservative Party, the politician is also a popular historian and journalist. Born in New York City to English parents, he returned to the United Kingdom with his family as a child. Both his parents valued high-achievers and the young boy was raised to be competitive from a young age. A good student, he was awarded a King's Scholarship to study at the prestigious Eton College following which he read Classics at Balliol College, Oxford. He embarked on a career as a journalist with âThe Timesâ and found considerable success in this profession, taking the editorship of âThe Spectatorâ from 1999 to 2005. Along with journalism he was also deeply interested in politics and was elected to the House of Commons as MP for Henley in 2001. Soon a popular political figure, he went on to serve on the opposition front bench, first as Shadow Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries and then for Higher Education. He is considered a controversial figure in British politics and journalism due to his enigmatic personality, with his own share of both supporters and detractors.", "Historically, which title has been used most often for a cabinet minister who does not have an official function?", "Used to be the Earl of Home, but decided that he missed having a real name and renounced his earlship shortly after taking office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "Sometimes, however, in legislation the term \"British\" is used to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, especially in matters relating to the question of nationality.", "The United Kingdom has sometimes been called the 51st state due to the \"special relationship\" between the two countries, particularly since the close cooperation between Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill during World War II, and more recently continued during the premierships of Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair. ", "The political and psychological impact of the crisis's denouement had a fundamental impact on British politics. Anthony Eden, widely admired across the globe for his stand against appeasement of the fascists in the 1930s and then for his seemingly selfless toil as Winston Churchill 's understudy, suffered a mental breakdown[citation needed] and was quickly removed from office. His successor, Harold Macmillan , won office after convincing Conservative MPs he would defend Britain's imperial heritage but greatly accelerated decolonisation. Increasingly British foreign policy thinking turned towards European co-operation as opposed to acting as a great imperial power.", "Ramsay MacDonald (12 October 1866 – 9 November 1937) was a British statesman who was the first ever Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935.", "Scion of a famous Anglo-Irish family, he joined the Foreign Office, taking up posts as British ambassador in Luxembourg and minister at the British embassy in Paris. He was promoted after the 1997 election to the post of deputy secretary, defence and overseas, a grandiose title which conceals his real job as new Labour's spymaster-in-chief.", "In the 1924–1929 Conservative Government, Eden was first Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Home Secretary, Sir William Joynson Hicks , and then in 1926 to the Foreign Secretary Sir Austen Chamberlain . In 1931 he held his first ministerial office as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In 1934 he was appointed Lord Privy Seal and Minister for the League of Nations in Stanley Baldwin's Government.", "Several former heads of government have settled in Britain after their service and served in one of the Houses. ", "The first Prime Minister of Great Britain and Ireland in twenty-two years to not have a real name.", "Following his resignation as Prime Minister, Major briefly became Leader of the Opposition and remained in this post until the election of William Hague as leader of the Conservative Party in June 1997. His Resignation Honours were announced in August 1997." ]

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[ "The World Trade Organization In response to their suffering, British workers rioted for free trade. They demanded that the government repeal (withdraw) the Corn Laws and allow lower-priced grain into the country. In return, the workers agreed to pay for the imported grain with their labor, as manufacturers of bread. In June 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed by the British Parliament. In spearheading the effort to do this, Prime Minister Robert Peel lost his job. Nevertheless, as a result, the free-trade principle took a giant leap forward. It became the dominant economic reality throughout the world until the outbreak of the First World War, nearly 70 years later.", "Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet ( 5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850) was the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from December 10, 1834 to April 8, 1835, and again from August 30, 1841 to June 29, 1846. He helped create the modern concept of the police force while Home Secretary, oversaw the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party, and repealed the Corn Laws.", "Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, (born February 5, 1788, Bury , Lancashire, England —died July 2, 1850, London ), British prime minister (1834–35, 1841–46) and founder of the Conservative Party . Peel was responsible for the repeal (1846) of the Corn Laws that had restricted imports.", "Similar uncertainty surrounds the great issue of the 1840s, the repeal of the Corn Laws . Forced through parliament in 1846 by a Conservative prime minister, Robert Peel, the issue splits the party. Eventually Peel's own minority faction merges, after his death, with the Liberals.", "In 1839 John Bright and Richard Cobden formed an Anti-Corn Law League. Prime Minister Peel finally abolished the corn laws in 1846. (Robert Peel lived from 1788 to 1850. He was prime minister in 1834-35 and 1841-46).", "The failure of the potato crops also had other far reaching effects on English history. The Corn Law was passed in 1815, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The Corn Law imposed a heavy tariff on grains that were imported into Great Britain, thereby protecting the grains grown by the landowners, by keeping the price of imported grain high on the British market. The Whigs in Parliament had long argued that if this tax was removed the price of flour might be lowered to the level that would be affordable to the industrial workers. However, it would be Robert Peel, the head of the Tories, that would repeal the Corn Act, before the government changed from the Tory to Whig. As much as the repeal of the Corn Act displeased the landowners, this was the first step toward a policy of free trade and because of this Great Britain became, during the last half of the 19th. Century, the center of world trade market for all commercial goods.", "The Tory government of Robert Banks Jenkinson, Lord Liverpool, introduced the Corn Laws in a bid to protect British agriculture. Corn prices had halved following the end of the Napoleonic wars, creating a panic among farmers. The laws imposed heavy tariffs on imports of foreign grain. They were repealed in 1846.", "Earl Grey now called another general election and in the new reformed House of Commons , Grey had a majority of over a hundred. The Whigs were now able to introduce and pass a series of reforming measures. This included an act for the abolition of slavery in the colonies and the 1833 Factory Act . After the passing of the 1834 Poor Law Earl Grey decided to resign from office. Lord Melbourne was asked to became prime minister. Melbourne was not an ambitious man and had to be persuaded to take the post. William IV was now in a much stronger position and after four months the king dismissed the Whig government and appointed the Tory , Sir Robert Peel as his new prime minister.", "Lord John Russell had for a long time been a advocate of reforming the Corn Laws . This eventually became the policy of Lord Melbourne's government. However, when the proposed changes were defeated by thirty-six votes on 18th May, 1841, the government resigned. The following general election resulted in Sir Robert Peel becoming prime minister.", "On 4 December 1845 an announcement appeared in The Times that the government had decided to recall Parliament in January 1846 to repeal the Corn Laws. Lord Stanley resigned from the Cabinet in protest. The next day Peel resigned as Prime Minister because he did not believe he could implement his policy and so the Queen sent for Russell to form a government. Russell offered Cobden the post of Vice-President of the Board of Trade but he refused, preferring to remain an advocate of free trade outside the government. By 20 December Russell was unable to form a ministry and so Peel remained Prime Minister.", "However, the government's attempts to improve the situation in Ireland was severely damaged by the 1845 potato blight. The Irish crop failed, therefore depriving the people of their staple food. Robert Peel was informed that three million poor people in Ireland who had previously lived on potatoes would require cheap imported corn. Peel realised that they only way to avert starvation was to remove the duties on imported corn. Although the Corn Laws were repealed in 1846, the policy split the Conservative Party and Peel was forced to resign.", "In 1846 Disraeli’s opposition to the repeal of the Corn Laws brought about the downfall of Peel, and his own political ascendancy began. Novel-writing was abandoned as he became first leader of the Conservatives in the House of Commons, then leader of the House, then Chancellor of the Exchequer and finally, in 1868, Prime Minister.", "In 1845, when the combination of the Irish famine and the arguments of Richard Cobden convinced Peel to repeal the protective duties on foreign imported grain known as the Corn Laws, Disraeli found his issue. Young England could rally against Peel not only their own members but the great mass of the country squires who formed the backbone of the Conservative Party. As lieutenant to Lord George Bentinck , the nominal leader of the rebels, Disraeli consolidated the opposition to Peel in a series of brilliant speeches. His invective greatly embittered the battle and created lasting resentment among Peel’s followers. While Disraeli and his fellow protectionists could not stop the repeal of the Corn Laws because the Whigs also backed the bill, the rebels put Peel in the minority on another issue and forced him to resign in 1846.", "In the 1841 election Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister and Richard Cobden, a major proponent of free trade, was elected for the first time. Peel had studied the works of Adam Smith, David Hume and David Ricardo, and proclaimed in 1839: \"I have read all that has been written by the gravest authorities on political economy on the subject of rent, wages, taxes, tithes\". Nevertheless, he voted against repeal each year from 1837 to 1845. In 1842, in response to the Blue book published by Villiers' 1840 Committee on Import Duties, Peel offered a concession by modifying the sliding scale. He reduced the maximum duty to 20/- if the price were to fall to 51/- or less. In 1842, Peel's fellow-Conservative Monckton Milnes said, at the time of this concession, that Villiers was \"the solitary Robinson Crusoe sitting on the rock of Corn Law repeal\".", "His own party failed to support the bill, but it passed with Whig and Radical support. On the third reading of Peel's Bill of Repeal (Importation Act 1846) on 15 May, MPs voted 327 votes to 229 (a majority of 98) to repeal the Corn Laws. On 25 June the Duke of Wellington persuaded the House of Lords to pass it. On that same night Peel's Irish Coercion Bill was defeated in the Commons by 292 to 219 by \"a combination of Whigs, Radicals, and Tory protectionists\". Following this, on 29 June 1846, Peel resigned as prime minister. ", "Peel's second term as prime minister was nothing short of tumultuous. Economic depression, rising deficits, Chartist agitation, famine in Ireland and Anti-Corn League protests crowded in. A raft of legislation was created to stabilise the economy and improve working conditions. The Factory Act regulated work hours (and banned children under eight from the workplace), the Railway Act provided for cheap, regular train services, the Bank Charter Act capped the number of notes the Bank of England could issue and the Mines Act prevented women and children from working underground. But a failed harvest in 1845 provided Peel with his greatest challenge. There was an increasing clamour for repeal of the Corn Laws, which forbade the import of cheap grain from overseas. Powerful vested interests in the Tory Party opposed such a move, but in the end Peel confronted them and called for repeal. After nearly six months of debate, and with the Tories split in two, the Corn Laws were finally repealed. Defeated on a separate issue, Peel resigned the same day, but was cheered by crowds as he left the Commons. (The 'Peelite' faction of the Tories is widely recognised as the foundation of the modern Conservative.)", "This corn was then re-sold for a penny a pound. The corn when it arrived had not been ground and was inedible, and this task involved a long and complicated process if it was to be done correctly and it was unlikely to be carried out locally. In addition, before the Indian meal could be consumed, it had to be 'very much' cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints. Because of maize's yellow colour, and the fact that it had to be ground twice, it became known in Ireland as 'Peel's brimstone'. In 1846 Peel then moved to repeal the Corn Laws , tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high. The famine situation worsened during 1846 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in that year did little to help the starving Irish; the measure split the Conservative Party, leading to the fall of Peel's ministry. In March Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland but was forced to resign as Prime Minister on 29 June.\" This fall came on the 25 June, when he was defeated in the House of Commons on a motion that the Irish Coercion Bill be read a second time. According to Michael Doheny , the majority against him was seventy-three, and it was made of the \"Whig party, the extreme Conservatives, the ultra-Radicals and Irish Repealers.\" Ten days after, Lord John Russell assumed the seals of office.", "In 1844, the agitation subsided as there were fruitful harvests. The situation changed in late 1845 with poor harvests and the Great Famine in Ireland; Britain experienced scarcity and Ireland starvation. Peel argued in Cabinet that tariffs on grain should be rescinded by Order in Council until Parliament assembled to repeal the Corn Laws. His colleagues resisted this. Soon afterwards the Whig leader Lord John Russell declared in favour of repeal. ", "The President of the Board of Trade, William Gladstone, resigned from the cabinet over the Maynooth Grant. The Corn Laws imposed a tariff on imported wheat, protecting British farmers from foreign competition, but making the cost of bread artificially high. Peel hoped that the repeal of the Corn Laws and the resultant influx of cheaper wheat into Britain would relieve the condition of the poor, and in particular the suffering caused by successive failure of potato crops in Ireland—the Great Famine. ", "A Conservative, Disraeli opposed Peel's repeal of the Corn Laws (which had inflated the price of imported grain to support home farmers). He was three times Chancellor of the Exchequer and twice Prime Minister.", "On June 25, 1846, Peel pushed through the repeal of the corn laws, and Tories were furious at his betrayal. Disraeli spearheaded efforts to bring down Peel’s government, and on the very day that the corn laws were repealed, the House of Lords rejected Peel’s coercion bill to suppress violence in Ireland. Four days later, Peel resigned. Disraeli began the long process of rebuilding the Tory party.", "In 1841, Peel again formed a Conservative administration, and it was during this government that he oversaw the introduction of significant legislation such as the Mines Act of 1842, which forbade the employment of women and children underground and the Factory Act of 1844, which limited working hours for children and women in factories. In 1845, Peel faced the defining challenge of his career, when he attempted to repeal the Corn Laws which had been introduced to protect British agriculture. This was triggered by the need to free up more food for Ireland, where a potato famine was raging. Landowners resisted in the House of Commons what they perceived as an attack on their interests. Peel's Conservative Party would not support him, and the debate lasted for months. Eventually, in June 1846, with support from the Whigs and the Radicals, the Corn Laws were repealed. On the same day, Peel was defeated on another bill, and resigned. He never held office again.", "Agriculture remained a problem because good harvests between 1819 and 1822 had brought down prices and evoked a cry for greater protection. When the powerful agricultural lobby in Parliament demanded protection in the aftermath, Liverpool gave in to political necessity. Under governmental supervision the notorious Corn Laws of 1815 were passed prohibiting the import of foreign wheat until the domestic price reached a minimum accepted level. Liverpool, however, was in principle a free-trader, but had to accept the bill as a temporary measure to ease the transition to peacetime conditions. His chief economic problem during his time as Prime Minister was that of the nation's finances. The interest on the national debt, massively swollen by the enormous expenditure of the final war years, together with the war pensions, absorbed the greater part of normal government revenue. The refusal of the House of Commons in 1816 to continue the wartime income tax left ministers with no immediate alternative but to go on with the ruinous system of borrowing to meet necessary annual expenditure. Liverpool eventually facilitated a return to the gold standard in 1819.", "In 1813, a House of Commons Committee recommended excluding foreign-grown corn until domestically grown corn reached £4 (£2,520:2007) per quarter (a quarter is a unit of eight bushels ). The political economist Thomas Malthus believed this to be a fair price , and that it would be dangerous for Britain to rely on imported corn as lower prices would reduce labourers' wages , and manufacturers would lose out due to the fall in purchasing power of landlords and farmers. [3] However David Ricardo believed in free trade so Britain could use its capital and population to her comparative advantage . [3] With the advent of peace in 1814, corn prices dropped, and the Tory government of Lord Liverpool passed the 1815 Corn Law. This led to serious rioting in London [4] and - alongside the issue of suffrage - the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester.", "Please note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from Wikipedia or other free sources online. The Corn Laws were import tariffs designed to protect corn prices in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports between 1815 and 1846. The tariffs were introduced by the Importation Act 1815 (55 Geo. 3 c. 26 ) and repealed by the Importation Act 1846 (9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 ). These laws are often viewed as examples of British mercantilism, and their abolition marked a significant step towards free trade. The Corn Laws enhanced the profits and political power associated with land ownership.", "Though he knew repealing the laws would mean the end of his ministry, Peel decided to do so. It is possible that Peel merely used the Irish Famine as an excuse to repeal the Corn Laws as same he had been an intellectual convert to free trade since the 1820s. Blake points out that if Peel were convinced that total repeal was necessary to stave off the famine, he would have enacted a bill that brought about immediate temporary repeal, not permanent repeal over a three-year period of gradual tapering-off of duties.", "The downfall of the Russell government set the stage for another general election to Parliament to be held in July 1852. The July 1852 general election saw the election of 330 Conservatives and 324 Whigs to the Parliament. Neither of these figures represented a majority of the House of Commons because there were too minor parties and independents elected to the House of Commons and these minor parties and independents now held the balance of power in the new House of Commons. There were 38 members who were technically Conservatives, but were actually Peelites . The Peelites had deserted the Conservatives to vote for the repeal of the Corn Laws in June 1846. The Corn Laws had imposed a tariff on all cheap imported wheat and, thus, kept the price of wheat and the bread made from wheat high. This served the interests of landed aristocracy which was the important  body of support for the Conservative Party. However, the high price of wheat and bread added greatly to the desperation of poor and hungry in England and Ireland.", "Cody, D. (1987) Corn Laws , The Victorian Web: literature, history and culture in the age of Victoria, webpage accessed 16 September 2007* Coleman, B. (1996) \"1841–1846\", in: Seldon, A. (ed.), How Tory Governments Fall. The Tory Party in Power since 1783, London: Fontana, ISBN 0-00-686366-3", "Huskisson became president of the Board of Trade in 1823 and attempted to modify the Corn Laws, which were causing acute economic distress among agricultural workers. From 1827 Huskisson became Secretary for the Colonies and leader of the House of Commons, but he resigned in 1828.", "... were designed to protect English landholders by encouraging the export and limiting the import of corn when prices fell below a fixed point. They were eventually abolished in the face of militant agitation by the Anti-Corn Law League , formed in Manchester in 1839, which maintained that the laws, which amounted to a subsidy, increased industrial costs. After a lengthy campaign, opponents of the law finally got their way in 1846—a significant triumph which was indicative of the new political power of the English middle class .", "Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yield mixed results. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.", "When the Whig government fell in 1852 and the earl of Derby , leader of the Conservative Party, formed a short-lived minority government, Disraeli was chancellor of the Exchequer despite his protest that he knew nothing of finance. His budget in fact brought the government down in 1852, though Disraeli could hardly be blamed. The free-trade majority in the Commons was determined to defeat measures that relieved agriculture, even though the method chosen did not involve protection, yet Disraeli had to bring forward some such proposals to placate his followers. Again, until 1858, the Tories were in opposition. Then Derby again formed a minority government with Disraeli as chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli for some time had felt there was no reason to allow parliamentary reform to be a Whig monopoly, and so he introduced a moderate reform bill in 1859. The bill, however, seemed too obviously designed to help his party, and so it was defeated; the Tories again were out of office and remained so for six years." ]

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[ "Sebastian Newbold Coe, Baron Coe, KBE (born 29 September 1956, and often nicknamed \"Seb Coe\") [1] is a former athlete and politician from the United Kingdom . A middle distance runner , Coe won the 1500 m gold medal at the Olympic Games in 1980 and 1984 , and set eight outdoor and three indoor world records. He is widely considered to be amongst the greatest middle distance runners of all time. Following his retirement from athletics, he served as a Member of Parliament for the Conservative Party from 1992-97, and became a life peer in 2000. He was the head of the London bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics , and, after the International Olympic Committee awarded the games to London, became the chairman of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games . In 2007, he was also elected a vice-president of the International Association of Athletics Federations .", "1956 Birthday - Sebastian Coe, born in Chiswick, England, politician, Conservative party, former athlete, Olympic gold medalist 1980 and 1984, considered greatest middle distance runner ever", "Sebastian won four Olympic medals for middle distance running, including two Gold medals. One in 1980 and the other in the 1984 Olympia games for the 1500 metres, and set eleven world records in the middle distance events. After retiring from athletics, he served as a conservative MP in the 1990's and received a peerage in 2000. He headed the bid to bring the 2012 Summer Olympics to London, and following this success became the Chairman of the London Organising Committee for the 2012 Olympic Games.", "Coe won four Olympic medals and set eight outdoor and three indoor world records in middle distance track events (and also participated in a world record relay). His rivalries with fellow Britons Steve Ovett and Steve Cram dominated middle-distance racing for much of the 1980s. [2]", "Ovett, Steve British athlete, who, along with his great rival, Sebastian Coe, dominated middle-distance running in the early 1980s. The winner of gold and bronze medals at the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, Ovett set six world records. Ovett first attracted international...", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, ( Roberts; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.", "ENG: Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG OM PC FRS (née Roberts, 13 October 1925– 8 April 2013) was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century and is the only woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist called her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for ...", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, n�e Roberts (13 October 1925 (birth time source: Charles Harvey, Astrodatabank) � 8 April 2013), was a British politician, the longest-serving (1979�1990) Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist called her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname which became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented Conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatch...", "After retiring from athletics, Seb Coe became a parliament member for the Conservative Party for five years until 1997 and then a Life Peer in 2000. He has been successful to bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics in London while he also became the chairman of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. He also served terms as the vice-president of IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federations) before being elected president in 2015.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts, 13 October 1925 - 8 April 2013) was a British politician, the longest-serving (1979–1990) Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the \"Iron Lady\", which became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented Conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "Daley Thompson is regarded by some as the greatest decathlete of all time, having won the gold medal at the 1980 and 1984 Olympics, and broken the world record on four separate occasions. The Briton broke the world decathlon record shortly before the 1980 Games, but was denied the rivalry of his fiercest competitors, the West Germans, who supported the US boycott of Moscow.", "She was Conservative MP 1984-2005, Junior Minister of Environment 1985-86,  Minister of Overseas Development 1986-87, Foreign Office Minister 1987-88 and 1988 Junior Minister of Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1988-89 Environment Minister, 1989-92 Health Minister. She had posts in the Conservative Shadow Cabinets 1997-99. Created Baroness Bottomley of Surrey South in 2005. (b.1948-).", "Thatcher became a Conservative member of parliament for Finchley in North London in 1959, serving as its MP until 1992. Her first parliamentary post was junior minister for pensions in Harold Macmillan's government. From 1964 to 1970, when Labour were in power, she served in a number of positions in Edward Heath's shadow cabinet. Heath became prime minister in 1970 and Thatcher was appointed secretary for education.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime ministerof the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the “Iron Lady”, which later became associated with her uncompromising policies. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "Ralph Harold Metcalfe, Sr. (May 29, 1910 – October 10, 1978) was an American track and field sprinter and politician. He jointly held the world record in the 100-meter dash and placed second in that event in two Olympics, first to Eddie Tolan and then to Jesse Owens at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Germany. Metcalfe won four Olympic medals and was regarded as the world’s fastest human in 1934 and 1935. He later went into politics and in the city of Chicago and served in the United States Congress for four terms in the 1970s as a Democrat from Illinois.", "was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century and is the only woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist called her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. She was largely opposed to the reunification of Germany and spoke secretly to Gorbachev to postpone its happening as long as possible. Thatcher became closely aligned with the Cold War policies of United States President Ronald Reagan, based on their shared distrust of Communism.", "Conservative MP from 1997, Chairperson of the Conservative Party 2007-09, held a number of other shadow ministry posts and was appointed Second Church Estates Commissioner and member of the body managing the historic property assets of the Church of England in 2015. Given a Damehood in 2016. (b. 1958-).", "Tory though he is, Coe's ideological profile conforms more to the Liberal Democrats, the U.K.'s centrist third party. One of his briefs as an M.P. was Britain's National Health Service. He supported the sports boycott of apartheid South Africa. And in going to Moscow in 1980, he defied the wishes of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who wanted to call the Soviets to account for their invasion of Afghanistan by supporting the U.S.-led boycott; when 10 Downing Street sent pictures of dead Afghan children to British athletes, Coe denounced the tactic as \"grotesque.\" Pat Butcher, the longtime British track correspondent, recalls once walking with Coe past an airport newsstand festooned with copies of the Daily Mail, the doctrinaire Conservative newspaper, that blared salacious headlines about Coe's private life. \"I asked him why the Mail had it in for him,\" Butcher says, \"and he said, 'Because they don't think I'm a real Tory.'\"", "Neil Kinnock served as a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1970 until 1995, first for Bedwellty constituency and then for Islwyn. He was the Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 until the Labour Party leadership election in 1992, making him the longest-serving Leader of the Opposition in British political history to date, and the longest never to have become Prime Minister.", "Margaret Thatcher, born in 1925, was the longest-serving British prime minister in modern times and the first woman to lead a major Western democracy. She won three successive general elections and spent a total of 11 years in Downing Street, from May 1979 to November 1990.", "Michael Foot, 1913–2010, British politician. He joined the Labour party in the 1930s, entered Parliament in 1945, and served there until 1992. An superb debater and orator, he became an eloquent spokesperson for Labour's radical left wing. Editor of the party organ, the Tribune, Foot served as secretary of state for employment (1974–75) and as leader of the House of Commons (1976–79). He was also a founder of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. He succeeded James Callaghan as Labour party leader (1980–83). Foot was unsuccessful in his attempt to maintain the party's traditional policies in the face of opposition from more conservative members, who broke away and formed (1981) the centrist Social Democratic party , and in 1983 he led the Labour party to one of its worst electoral defeats. He wrote a number of books, notably biographies of Aneurin Bevan, Harold Wilson, H. G. Wells, and Lord Byron.", "MP 1959-90, Parliamentary Secretary of Pensions and National Insurance 1961-64, Secretary of State of Education 1970-74, Shadow Minister of Environment and Housing 1974-75, Shadow Special Minister of Finance and Public Expenditure 1975, Leader of The Conservative Party 1975-90, Leader of Her Majesty's Opposition 1975-79. As Prime Minister she was also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister of the Civil Service.  In 1990 she was Created Baroness Thatcher of Kestaven and became a member of the House of Lords. Mother of twins. She lived (1925-2013).", "Heath continued to serve as a back bench MP for the London constituency of Old Bexley and Sidcup and was, from 1992, the longest-serving MP (\" Father of the House \") and the oldest British MP. As Father of the House he oversaw the election of two Speakers of the Commons, Betty Boothroyd and Michael Martin . Heath was created a Knight of the Garter on 23 April 1992. [32] He retired from Parliament before the 2001 general election .", "Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn PC, GCOT (6 October 1910 � 3 May 2002) was a British left-wing politician, born Barbara Anne Betts in Chesterfield, Derbyshire (and brought up in Pontefract and Bradford, Yorkshire), who adopted her family's politics, joining the Labour Party. Elected to Parliament in 1945, she rose to become one of the most important Labour party politicians of the twentieth century. Until her record was broken in 2007 by Gwyneth Dunwoody, Barbara Castle held the record as the female MP with the longest continuous service. Early life Castle, the third of three children, was born in Chesterfield to Frank Betts and Annie Rebecca. Castle was introduced to socialist politics and beliefs from a young age, William Morris playing a profound role in her intel...", "He trained and qualified as a chartered accountant and was elected to Parliament in November 1970. In 1957 he had married Anne Jarvis. But shortly after beginning his political career he began a clandestine affair with his secretary, 16 years his junior, which was to last for 12 years. When the Conservatives returned to power in 1979, his rise was meteoric. At first a junior minister, he was appointed party chairman in 1981.", "In the general elections of 1955 and 1959 he fought with predictable lack of success as the Conservative candidate for his home constituency of Aberavon, a rock solid Labour seat, but in 1964 he was rewarded with the candidacy of the marginal seat of Bebington, Wirral, which he won but held for only two years. It was nevertheless a useful introduction to Westminster; he was on the opposition frontbench as a spokesman on labour and social services for a year and when he returned to the Commons for the safe Tory seat of Reigate (later Surrey East) in 1970, Heath immediately appointed him solicitor general and awarded him a knighthood.", "Nicknamed \"The Jarrow Arrow\", Cram set world records in the 1,500 metres, 2,000 metres and the mile during a 19-day period in the summer of 1985. He was the first man to run 1,500 metres under three minutes and 30 seconds. He won the 1,500 metres gold medal at the 1983 World Championships and the 1,500 metres silver medal at the 1984 Olympic Games.", "In recent years, Kipchoge has reaped the benefits of switching from long-distance track-running to long-distance road-running. The pinnacle of this event shift for Kipchoge came as recently as April 2016 when he won the London Marathon with the second fastest time ever on an eligible course. He finished just eight seconds outside the world record mark, crossing the line in 2:03:05.", "  Winner of gold medals in the 100 meter and 200 meter sprint events in the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympics", "The veteran Labour has been Labour MP for Birkenhead since 1979. The devout Christian from a working class background is a fervent admirer of Lady Thatcher and was a member of the Tory party in his youth.", "Here are some of the most interesting facts about the life of the former British Prime Minister" ]

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[ "Apartheid was an institutionalized system of racial segregation enforced by the National Party (Nasionale Party) government in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. The term apartheid comes from the Afrikaans word meaning “separateness.”", "Apartheid is the name of the racial institution that was established in 1948 by the National Party that governed South Africa until 1994.  The term, which literally means “apartness,” reflected a violently repressive policy designed to ensure that whites, who comprised 20% of the nation's population, would continue to dominate the country.", "The National Party () was a political party in South Africa founded in 1915 and first became the governing party of the country in 1924. It was in opposition during the World War II years but returned to power and was again in government from 4 June 1948 until 9 May 1994. At this time, it began implementing its policy of separate development, known as 'apartheid'. Members of the National Party were sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats. The policies of the party included apartheid, the establishment of a republic, and the promotion of Afrikaner culture.", "A system of legal racial segregation enforced by the National Party government in South Africa between 1948 and 1994, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and minority rule by whites was maintained.", "was a system of legal racial segregation enforced by the National Party government of South Africa between 1948 and 1994, under which the rights of the majority 'non-white' inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and minority rule by white people was maintained. The government of South Africa also practised the same discriminatory policies while occupying South West Africa, known after 1966 as Namibia.", "apartheid: [ap-art-hate] Literally “apart-ness” in Afrikaans, apartheid was the policy of racial separation, and the resulting oppression of the black majority, implemented by the National Party from 1948 to 1990.", "... Apartheid was developed after World War II by the Afrikaner- dominated National Party. By definition Apartheid is a system of racial segregation. The National Party (NP) governments enforced Apartheid, through legislation, in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. This new legislation classified inhabitants into four racial groups: black, white, coloured and Indian. (The Indian and coloured groups were further divided into...", "From 1910 to 1994, Afrikaners controlled South African government – a difficult social and political era that remains shrouded in controversy. Although racial segregation had been apparent in South Africa since European colonization began in the 17th century, the political segregation policy known as apartheid – literally meaning “separateness” in the Afrikaans language – was not enacted until after the general election of 1948.", "...Apartheid  (separateness) was a system of legal racial segregation enforced by the National Party government of South Africa between 1948 and 1993, under which the rights of the majority 'non-white' inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and minority rule by white people was maintained. Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times. However, apartheid as an...", "From 1948 to 1994, South African politics were dominated by Afrikaner nationalism centered around racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as apartheid, an Afrikaans word meaning \"separateness\". It was an extension of segregationist legislation enacted prior to the 1934 Union Act. On 27 April 1994, after decades of armed struggle and international opposition to apartheid, during which military and political support was provided primarily by the Soviet Union to the non-racial African National Congress (ANC), the ANC achieved victory in the country's first democratic election. Since then the ANC has dominated the politics of the country in an uneasy alliance with the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.", "In 1948, the Afrikaners regained control from the British and implemented a strict racial segregation policy known as Apartheid. Apartheid was a policy of separate development designed to guarantee political and social domination by the country's white minority over the nonwhite population. The system was hard to keep going for many reasons including the difficulty distinguishing between white and black people. The apartheid system left a profound impact on South African society. Whites enjoyed a standard of living comparable to those of most developed countries in the world, while all nonwhites, especially blacks, received a standard of living comparable to those of Third World countries. During this period there was urban migration to cities so people could find work. Blacks were able to work in white parts of the city only during the day and with a work permit, and then had to return to their townships at night.", "South Africa's population of forty million is three-quarters black (African) and about 15% white (European), with the remaining 10% comprised of people of mixed white, Malayan, and black descent and people of Asian (mostly Indian) descent. The African majority is composed of many different ethnic groups, the largest of which are Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, and Bapedi. Until very recently, the country's racial divisions were harshly enforced as part of the government's official policy of Apartheid, or apartness. Although the government began to dismantle apartheid in 1989 after prolonged resistance, protest, and international economic sanctions, racial inequality remains pronounced in South Africa.", "principle of racial segregation in the Republic of South Africa. It is the basis of the harshest possible policy of racial discrimination with respect to the Bantu African peoples and other ethnic groups of non-European or mixed origin. Apartheid became official state policy in 1948. Special reservations (renamed Bantustans in 1959) comprising only 12 percent of the country’s territory were set aside for the Africans. Non-Europeans were deprived of all rights. Violations of apartheid were subject to criminal prosecution. The policy of apartheid has aroused protests in all countries of the world; on a number of occasions it has been censured in decisions and resolutions of sessions of the General Assembly of the UN.", "It is from the election of 1948, that Apartheid, or the policy of racial segregation, is deemed to have become official policy in South Africa. The reality is however that segregation and the recognition and creation of Black tribal homelands had preceded 1948 by centuries.", "The Republic of South Africa has had a tumultuous 20th century. Africa's southernmost nation today is one of the most prosperous and developed in Africa. However, the unfortunate reality is that in spite of its successes it has borne the burden of unequal, unjust racial segregation for most of the past century. The foundation for the racial segregation policies that were to be called Apartheid ('apartness' in Afrikaans) was put into place in the 1913 Land Act when Black African citizens were prohibited from buying land outside of special reserves set aside for their use. This Act also provided for the eviction of black sharecroppers living on white land in order to be relocated to these special reserves (Apartheid 2011). The Act was not enforced thoroughly due to impracticality and political reasons at the time, but it set the stage for the 'Black Homelands' that were to come later", "In 1948, the extremist National Party was elected to government. It quickly began to implement a policy of apartheid, extending racial segregation and introducing other racist measures. Mandela sensed that South Africa would become a place of ‘tension and strife' for black South Africans. Their rights immediately came under sustained attack. Among other measures, every individual was categorised by race and it became illegal to marry across the colour line.", "The Ideology of Apartheid [separateness]. With the introduction of apartheid, the NP extended and systematized many of the features of entrenched racial discrimination into a state policy of white supremacy. Every person resident in South Africa was legally assigned, largely on the basis of appearance, to one racial group--white, African, coloured, or Asian. South Africa was proclaimed to be a white man's country in which members of other racial groups would never receive full political rights. Africans were told that eventually they would achieve political independence in perhaps nine or ten homelands, carved out of the minuscule rural areas already allocated to them, areas that even a government commission in the 1950s had deemed totally inadequate to support the black population.", "The government of South Africa did not extend the rights of citizenship to black South Africans. The National Party had risen to power on the promise of instituting a system of apartheid — complete separation of the races. All South Africans were legally assigned to an official racial group; each races was restricetd to separate living areas and separate public facilities. Only white South Africans were permitted to vote in national elections. Black South Africans were only represented in the local governments of remote “tribal homelands.” Interracial marriage was forbidden, blacks were legally barred from certain jobs and prohibited from forming labor unions. Passports were required for travel within the country; critics of the system could be banned from speaking in public and subjected to house arrest.", "Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the Black Consciousness Movement, students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1994, Nelson Mandela won in the first multiracial democratic election in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history.", "In 1948 the National Party narrowly won a Whites-only national election on the platform of a new policy of total racial segregation called  apartheid  (which literally means apartness). By that stage, Mandela was National Secretary of the ANCYL. Mandela, Sisulu and Tambo began lobbying the ANC to embark on militant mass action against a plethora of new laws that the Nationalists were drawing up to give effect to apartheid. The lobbying paid off as at the ANC’s annual conference in December 1949, the Youth League’s  Programme of Action  adopted by the parent organization. Perhaps more importantly for the influence of the ANCYL, Walter Sisulu was elected Secretary General of the ANC.", "governing political party in S Africa since 1994; ANC was dedicated to the nonviolent resolution of conflicts between ruling whites and the black minority during the apartheid; ANC was banned until 1990; Nelson Mandela was leader who became S Africa's 1st post-apartheid president in 1994", "Before apartheid,  South Africa had a long history of racial segregation.  In 1910 parliamentary membership was limited to whites, and legislation was passed in 1913 to restrict ownership of land by blacks.  The African National Congress (ANC) had been formed in 1910 to fight these policies.  In 1944, the ANC President Alfred B. Xuma started recruiting younger and more outspoken members like Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela, the first members of the ANC Youth League (ANCYL).", "Johannesburg is also a city built on a history of racial division that achieved its most dramatic form in the twentieth century policy of strict separation known as apartheid. This legacy is apparent in the racial divide between its various districts and suburbs, ranging from the teeming streets of Soweto to the posh mansions of the northern suburbs. The political changes of the 1990s can be seen most readily in the central city, which has become a bustling multicultural area where thousands of street traders earn their living in the shadow of the city's giant skyscrapers, and a blend of African and European languages evokes the city's unique cultural and social history.", "1948. After decades of conflict between gold and diamond-hungry Brits and Boers – and a rising nationalist movement headed by the African National Congress (ANC) – a policy of apartheid (separateness) is adopted when the National Party takes power.", "Following the dissolution and subsequent banning of the CPSA, former party members and, after 1953, members of the SACP, adopted a policy of primarily working within the ANC in order to reorient that organisation's programme from a nationalist policy akin to the CPSA's former Native Republic policy towards a non-racial programme which declared that all ethnic groups residing in South Africa had equal rights to the country. While black members of the SACP were encouraged to join the ANC and seek leadership positions within that organisation, many of its white leading members formed the Congress of Democrats which in turn allied itself with the African National Congress and other 'non-racial' congresses in the Congress Alliance on the basis of multi-racialism. The Congress Alliance committed itself to a democratic non-racial South Africa where the 'people shall govern' through the Freedom Charter. The Freedom Charter, having been developed by leading members of the Congress of Democrats, was adopted by the ANC leadership and has since remained the cornerstone of the ANC's programme throughout the years of repression.", "The National Party came to power in 1948 and it intensified the previously implemented segregation. Existing segregation laws were systemized. Despite being a minority, the white controlled the black majority.", "This law partitioned the country into different areas, with different areas being allocated to different racial groups. This law represented the very heart of apartheid because it was the basis upon which political and social separation was to be constructed.", "The NP that came to power in 1948 was two parties rolled into one. The one was a party for white supremacy that introduced apartheid, promising the electorate it would secure the political future of whites; the other a nationalist party that sought to mobilise the Afrikaner community by appealing to Afrikaans culture - their beliefs, prejudices and moral convictions, a sense of a common past and shared hopes and fears for the future.", "The National Party wins a majority of the seats in the 1989 South African General Election (South Africa's last race-based election).", "Black South Africans had long protested their inferior treatment through organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC; founded 1912) and the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union of Africa (founded 1919 by Clements Kadalie). In the 1950s and early 60s there were various protests against the National party's policies, involving passive resistance and the burning of passbooks; in 1960 a peaceful protest against the pass laws organized by the Pan-Africanist Congress (an offshoot of the ANC) at Sharpeville (near Johannesburg) ended when police opened fire, massacring 70 protesters and wounding about 190 others. In the 1960s most leaders (including ANC leader Nelson Mandela Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla", "In the mid-1950s, the government took the drastic step of overriding an entrenched clause in the 1910 Constitution of the Union so as to be able to remove coloured voters from the common voters' roll. It also enforced residential segregation, expropriating homes where necessary and policing massive forced removals into 'coloured group areas'.", "For the first time, the coloured people, who had always been subjected to informal discrimination, were brought within the ambit of discriminatory laws. In the mid-1950s, government took the drastic step of overriding an entrenched clause in the 1910 Constitution of the Union so as to be able to remove coloured voters from the common voters' roll. It also enforced residential segregation, expropriating homes where necessary and policing massive forced removals into coloured \"group areas\"." ]

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[ "The Nazi Party was a political party in Germany, led by Adolf Hitler from 1921 to 1945, whose central tenets included the supremacy of the Aryan people and blaming Jews and others for the problems within Germany. These extreme beliefs eventually led to World War II and the Holocaust . At the end of World War II, the Nazi Party was declared illegal by the occupying Allied Powers and officially ceased to exist in May 1945.", "Adolf Hitler ( 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945 ) was a German politician who led the Nazi party from 1921 to 1945. He served as Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 , and as dictatorial leader of the Third Reich from 1934 to 1945.", "Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889 – April 30, 1945, standard German pronunciation [ˈaː.dɔlf ˈhɪt.ləɐ] in the IPA) was the Führer (leader) of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) and of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. In that capacity he was Chancellor of Germany, head of government, and head of state, an absolute dictator.", "Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\"leader\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust.", "Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the Nazi Party. He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945.", "The executive committee of the DAP eventually backed down and Hitler's demands were put to a vote of party members. Hitler received 543 votes for and only one against. At the next gathering on July 29 , 1921 , Adolf Hitler was introduced as Führer of the National Socialist Party, marking the first time this title was publicly used. Hitler changed the name of the party to the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP ).", "A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and became its leader in 1921. Following his imprisonment after a failed coup in 1923, he gained support by promoting German nationalism, anti-semitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933, and quickly established and made reality his vision of a totalitarian, autocratic, single party, national socialist dictatorship. Hitler pursued a foreign policy with the declared goal of seizing Lebensraum (\"living space\") for Germany, directing the resources of the state toward this goal. His rebuilt Wehrmacht invaded Poland in 1939, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe.[2]", "Nazi Germany, also known as the Third Reich (), was a period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when the country was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Under Hitler's rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist totalitarian state which controlled nearly all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich (\"German Reich\", \"German Empire\" or \"German Realm\") from 1933 to 1943 and Großdeutsches Reich (Greater German Reich) from 1943 to 1945. Nazi Germany ceased to exist after the Allied Forces defeated Germany in May 1945, ending World War II in Europe.", "In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers’ (Nazi) Party assumed power in Germany and began plans for war. The party wanted to rid Germany, and eventually the world, of “impure” groups: Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and the handicapped, among others. Thus began a period of genocide.", "The year 1933 witnessed the rise to power of the nationalistic and racist National Socialist German Workers’ (Nazi) Party and its Führer, Adolf Hitler. Under the Nazi dictatorship, democratic institutions were dismantled and a police state was installed. Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, handicapped people, socialists, communists, unionists and other groups not fitting into the Nazis’ vision of a Greater Germany faced persecution, and ultimately murder in concentration camps. Europe’s Jews and Gypsies were marked for total extermination. Hitler’s militaristic ambitions to create a new German Empire in Central and Eastern Europe led to war, successively, with Poland, France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States – despite initial dazzling successes, Germany was unable to withstand the attacks of the Allies and Soviets on two fronts in addition to a smaller third front to the south of the Alps in Italy.", "1923 - Adolf Hitler, head of the National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) Party, leads an abortive coup in a Munich beer hall.", "Adolf Hitler advocated that the party should change its name to the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP). Hitler, therefore redefined socialism by placing the word \"National\" before it. He claimed he was only in favour of equality for those who had \"German blood\". Jews and other \"aliens\" would lose their rights of citizenship, and immigration of non-Germans should be brought to an end. In April 1920, the German Workers Party became the NSDAP. Hitler became chairman of the new party and Karl Harrer was given the honorary title, Reich Chairman. (105)", "In 1920, Hitler became the head of the German Workers Party, now renamed the National Socialist German Worker (Nazi) Party.", "Hitler rose through the ranks of Germany's small but powerful National Socialist (Nazi) political party to become its bombastic leader in the early 1920s. Believing that Germany's central Weimar government had let the country be ridiculed by a series of post-World War I punishments handed down by the victorious Allies, the Nazis attempted a coup d'etat in 1923. The famous \"Munich Beer Hall Putsch\" failed and sent Hitler to jail for high treason.", "In 1933, Adolf Hitler of the Nazi Party became leader of Germany. Under the Nazis, Germany began to rearm and to pursue a new nationalist foreign policy. By 1937, Hitler also began demanding the cession of territories which had historically been part of Germany, like the Rhineland and Gdansk.", "The Nazi Party was founded as the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP) to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf, written in 1924, Hitler outlined the antisemitism and anti-communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for parliamentary democracy and his belief in Germany’s right to territorial expansion.", "In 1920 the German Workers' party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers, or Nazi, party; in 1921 it was reorganized with Hitler as chairman. He achieved leadership in the party (and later in Germany) largely due to his extraordinary skill as a speaker, holding large crowds spellbound by his oratory. Hitler made the party a paramilitary organization and won the support of such prominent nationalists as Field Marshal Ludendorff . On Nov. 8, 1923, Hitler attempted the \"beer-hall putsch,\" intended to overthrow the republican government. Leading Bavarian officials (themselves discontented nationalists) were surrounded at a meeting in a Munich beer hall by the Nazi militia, or storm troopers, and made to swear loyalty to this \"revolution.\" On regaining their freedom they used the Reichswehr [army] to defeat the coup. Hitler fled, but was soon arrested and sentenced to five years in the Landsberg fortress. He served nine months.", "National Socialist German Workers' Party - The Nazi party which was led to power in Germany by Adolf Hitler in 1933.", "National Socialist German Workers Party in 1920, brought about the rise of Adolf Hitler who led the most significant German political party of... the twentieth century. By famous historians such as Alan Bullock, the Nazi Party is regarded as an organized conspiracy against the State which pursued power and position, for the sole object was to secure power by one means or another. Therefore, it may be misunderstood that Hitler and his Party gained considerable support, thereby controlled the Weimar Republic...", "On 5th January, 1919, not two months after the conclusion of the Armistice which ended the first World War, and six months before the signing of the Peace Treaties at Versailles, there came into being in Germany a small political party called the German Labour Party. On the 12th September, 1919, Adolf Hitler became a member of this party, and at the first public meeting held in Munich, on 24th February, 1920, he announced the party's programme . That programme, which remained unaltered until the party was dissolved in 1945, consisted of twenty-five points, of which the following five are of particular interest on account of the light they throw on the matters with which the Tribunal is concerned:", "September 1919 - Corporal Adolf Hitler is ordered by the German Army to investigate a small political group in Munich called the German Workers' Party. Hitler soon joins the group and begins to build it up, later changing its name to the National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) Party. The anti-democratic group vehemently opposes the Treaty of Versailles and claims the German Army was not defeated on the battlefield but was betrayed by a \"stab in the back\" wrought by disloyal politicians on the home front.", "July - Reichstag elections doubles NSDAP representation making it the strongest German political party. Hitler refuses Chancellor Franz von Papen�s offer to join the cabinent as vice-chancellor.", "With Hitler mostly back in charge the party focused on growing. To do this it adopted a proper party structure with various branches throughout Germany, and also created a number of offshoot organisations to better attract a wider range of support, like the Hitler Youth or the Order of German Women. The twenties also saw two key developments: a man called Joseph Goebbels switched from Strasser to Hitler and was given the role of Gauleiter (a regional Nazi leader) for the extremely difficult to convince and socialist Berlin. Goebbels revealed himself to be a genius at propaganda and new media, and would assume a key role in the party managing just that in 1930. Equally, a personal bodyguard of blackshirts was created, dubbed the SS: Protection Squad or Schutz Staffel. By 1930 it had two hundred members; by 1945 it was the most infamous army in the world.", "Hitler was discharged from the German army in February 1920. He continued to expand his influence in the party, and formed a private group of thugs that he used to quash disorder at party meetings, and later to break up rival parties' meetings. That group subsequently became the Sturmabteilung (SA) - Hitler's brown-shirted storm troopers. He also became the regular main speaker at party events and attracted large crowds at each meeting. Important Nazi Party members and Third Reich architechs, Heinrich Himmler, Hermann Goering and Rudolf Hess joined the party at this time.", "In September 1919, Hitler visited, as a V-Man, a meeting of the German Workers’ Party. The party name indicated that it had socialist leanings with its “workers'” tag. It was, in fact, an extreme, anti-Semitic, anti-communist, right wing nationalist party led by Anton Drexler. At Hitler’s visit, it only had 40 members. Hitler informed the army that it posed no threat to Germany. After this visit, Hitler joined the party as it seemed to represent all that he believed in. He quickly became the party’s propaganda officer.", "Hitler was formally elected party chairman on 28 July 1921, with only one opposing vote. The committee was dissolved, and Hitler was granted nearly absolute powers as the party's sole leader. This was a post he would hold for the remainder of his life. Hitler soon acquired the title Führer (\"leader\") and, after a series of sharp internal conflicts, it was accepted that the party would be governed by the Führerprinzip (\"leader principle\"). Under this principle, the party was a highly centralized entity that functioned strictly from the top down, with Hitler at the apex as the party's absolute leader. Hitler at this time saw the party as a revolutionary organization, whose aim was the overthrow of the Weimar Republic, which he saw as controlled by the socialists, Jews and the \"November criminals\" who had betrayed the German soldiers in 1918. The SA (\"storm troopers\", also known as \"Brownshirts\") were founded as a party militia in 1921, and began violent attacks on other parties.", "The German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, the region now known as the Czech Republic, and the territory known since 1919 as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum (\"living space\") for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being. Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union. ", "Hermann Wilhelm Göring  (12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946), was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the NSDAP. A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as the “Blue Max”.", "On 4 August, the second huge Nuremberg party rally is held. Hitler leads the battle against the Black-Red System with ever increasing force, and is the undisputed and most prominent leader of anti-democracy. All attempts to take the leadership of the party from his hands fail.", "The Party was run by an executive committee whose original members considered Hitler to be overbearing and even dictatorial . To weaken Hitler's position they formed an alliance with a group of socialists from Augsburg . Hitler rushed back to Munich and countered them by tendering his resignation from the Party on July 11 , 1921 . When they realized the loss of Hitler would effectively mean the end of the Party, he seized the moment and announced he would return on the condition that he was made chairman and given dictatorial powers. Infuriated committee members (including founder Anton Drexler ) held out at first. Meanwhile an anonymous pamphlet appeared entitled Adolf Hitler: Is he a traitor ?, attacking Hitler's lust for power and criticizing the violence-prone men around him. Hitler responded to its publication in a Munich newspaper by suing for libel and later won a small settlement.", "In 1922, Adolf Hitler discredited other nationalist and racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass populace, especially lower and working-class young people:", "Hitler took charge of party propaganda in early 1920, and also recruited young men he had known in the Army. He was aided in his recruiting efforts by Army Captain Ernst Röhm, a new party member, who would play a vital role in Hitler's eventual rise to power." ]

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[ "Eligibility to vote in general elections in the UK is subject to a number of criteria.  Primarily, the individual wishing to vote must be registered in the register of parliamentary electors for his or her relevant constituency. [49]   To be able to register his or her name in the register of parliamentary electors, the individual must be a British subject, which includes Commonwealth citizens, [50] or a citizen of the Republic of Ireland residing in Britain, [51] and be eighteen years or older.  A British citizen residing overseas can vote for up to fifteen years after he or she leaves the country. [52]", "There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until S.17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland , or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations . These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981 , but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701 , only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections (just as the Queen does not vote); however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the Queen, who cannot enter the chamber).", "There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until S.17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections (just as the Queen does not vote); however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the Queen, who cannot enter the chamber).", "A candidate to become a Member of Parliament must be a British or Irish or Commonwealth citizen, must be over 18, and must not be a public official or officeholder, as set out in the schedule to the Electoral Administration Act 2006 [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/20060022.htm] (this was a reduction in the lower age limit, as candidates needed to be 21 until the law came into effect in 2006).", "Every citizen who is at least 18 years of age by the election date is entitled to vote in general elections. With certain exceptions, such as military personnel on active duty, high judicial officials, the President of the Republic, and persons under guardianship, any voter may also stand as a candidate for Parliament. All registered parties are entitled to nominate candidates; individual citizens and independent electoral organizations must be endorsed by a sufficient number of voters to qualify.", "In Scotland, you can register to vote if you are 15 years old or over (and in some cases 14 years old). From 2016, you will be eligible to vote in Scottish Parliament and Scottish local government elections once you are 16. You will be eligible to vote in UK and European elections once you are 18.", "Moreover, a significant number of foreign nations now permit 18 year-olds to vote. This year, Great Britain lowered the voting age to 18. Even South Vietnam allows 18 year-olds to vote. I recognize that it may be difficult to rely on the experience of foreign nations, whose political conditions and experience may be quite different from our own. It is ironic, however, that at a time when a number of other countries, including Great Britain, have taken the lead in granting full political participation to 18 year-olds, the United States, a nation with one of the most well-developed traditions of democracy in the history of the world, continues to deny that participation.", "A candidate to become an MP must be a British or Irish or Commonwealth citizen, over 18 (reduced from 21 in 2006), and not be a public official or officeholder, as set out in the schedule to the Electoral Administration Act 2006. ", "In England and Wales, anyone who will be aged 18 or over on polling day and who is a national of the United Kingdom (all forms of British nationality but excluding British protected persons ), the Republic of Ireland, a Commonwealth country (including Fiji, Zimbabwe and the whole of Cyprus ) or a European Union member state can apply to the Electoral Registration Officer in the district in the UK where they reside with a 'considerable degree of permanence' to be listed in that area's Electoral Register.", "A candidate for a constituency must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from that constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one member, using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors (that is, anyone under the age of 18), members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become members of the House of Commons. To vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and a British citizen, or a citizen of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.", "an 18 year old could vote in an election to the legislature and be a member thereof (Electoral Act 1956);", "Since 1969, both males and females who have reached the age of 18 years have the right to vote and there is even some debate today about whether this age should be lowered to 16 years. Since the essence of a democracy is that of a system of government which promotes and encourages political change from its citizens, issues such as electoral reform, human rights and the promotion of equality continue to be debated and acted upon today as part of our democratic political culture in Britain.", "The House of Commons, Parliament's lower house, is made up of about 650 elected Members of Parliament (MPs), one for each region of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The MPs are elected by the popular vote of citizens age 18 and over. The Prime Minister is actually a member of the House of Commons, too.", "In the late 1980s, popular elections were held, in principle at regular intervals, for the office of president, members of Parliament, and positions on local government bodies such as municipal and urban councils, district development councils, and the mandalaya. The Constitution grants the right to vote to all citizens aged eighteen years and over who are of sound mind and have not been convicted of major crimes. All qualified voters have the right to run for Parliament unless they are members of the armed forces, police, or certain branches of the civil service, hold other positions that might result in a conflict of interest, or have been convicted of bribery while serving in a previous term in Parliament within the past seven years. The qualifications for running for president are similar, though there is a minimum age requirement of thirty.", "If you are not included on the electoral roll you will not be able to vote so it is important that you provide us with up to date information on the occupants of your address.  You can't vote until you reach the age of 18 but any 16 or 17 year olds in your household should be included on the form.  You should not include any children under the age of 16.", "Citizens of the European Union resident in the United Kingdom and aged 18 years or over are entitled to vote. Applications for entry on the electoral roll must be received by the local authority by 24 October. In order to exercise their right to vote in Northern Ireland, citizens of the European Union must have resided in the national territory for the three months prior to their entry on the electoral roll. Contrary to the practice in national elections, members of the House of Lords also have the right to vote. British citizens who have registered to vote in the United Kingdom within the last five years, but now reside abroad, have the right to vote on completion of a declaration (Representation of the People Act 1985) as have government officials and members of the armed forces. Candidates must be citizens of the European Union aged 21 years or over. Members of the House of Lords and clergymen may also stand for election.", "The UK Ministry of Justice published on 3 July 2007 a Green Paper entitled The Governance of Britain, in which it proposed the establishment of a \"Youth Citizenship Commission\". The Commission would examine the case for lowering the voting age. On launching the Paper in the House of Commons, PM Gordon Brown said: \"Although the voting age has been 18 since 1969, it is right, as part of that debate, to examine, and hear from young people themselves, whether lowering that age would increase participation.\" ", "After one final loophole was closed in 1948 - weirdly, up until that point, some seven per cent of the electorate had two votes per person - voting in the United Kingdom reached essentially its modern state in 1969, when Harold Wilson's government dropped the voting age for all citizens from 21 to 18. Further acts in 1983, 1985 and 2000 changed the laws on prisoners and overseas voters (essentially, convicted criminals may not vote while in prison; expatriates can still vote in their last constituency for 15 years after they left the country, and holidaymakers can vote by postal ballot or proxy). In 2000, a hoary constitutional prejudice against \"lunatics\" was weakened when psychiatric hospitals were allowed to be designated as registration addresses. 2 October 2000 British Human Rights Act The British Human Rights Act 1998 came into force. This makes the European Convention on Human Rights enforceable in UK courts. ( As an Englishman this is one of the worst drafted Acts in the history of the British Constitution.)", "The right to vote is an emotionally charged subject. In the UK, the right to vote is a birth-right for citizens of eighteen and above. But we must not forget that this was not always the case, and women had to fight harder to acquire this right.", "The votes (to elect choose mayors/councils, secretaries, ministers, representatives, senators, governors, president, prime minister, judges, magistrates, ministers of the Supreme Court...) are differentiated and proportional to the voters age: thus the vote by a voter 18 years old would be worth 0.18 votes; the vote by a voter 50 years old would be worth 0.50 votes, the vote by an elector 118 years old would be worth 1.18 votes, and so on ... For this computation, you should apply the rule of full years old of age of a given citizen in the election day, no fractions of year will apply.", "18 years of age; universal, plus other UK subjects who have been residents six months or more", "British citizens living overseas can register and vote in European and British parliamentary elections but not elections to the Scottish Parliament or local elections. If you've been living abroad for over 15 years, you might lose this right. Gibraltar nationals can vote only in European parliamentary elections in the UK.", "The date of a General Election is the choice of the Prime Minister, but traditionally, it tends to be a Thursday. Each candidate must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from the constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one Member, using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors, Members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become Members of the House of Commons. In order to vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom as well as a citizen of the United Kingdom , of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland , or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.", "Qualified voters must be US citizens, be at least 18 years of age, and have registered 50 days before a general election; absentee registration is not allowed.", "United Kingdom general elections are the elections held when the Members of Parliament (MPs) forming the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are elected. Following the Parliament Act 1911, parliamentary sessions last a maximum of five years, and are ended with the dissolution of Parliament. Therefore elections are not fixed, and the time is chosen by the governing party to maximise political advantage. The 2010 election will be on May 6, 2010.", "(1) Any Danish subject whose permanent residence is in the Realm, and who has the age qualification for suffrage provided for in Subsection (2) shall have the right to vote at Parliament elections,", "Much of the debate about lowering the voting age, particularly in Britain where it has progressed farthest, has been conducted in government reports or through independent committees. While many of these reports do present evidence to support their arguments, much of it is partial and does extend beyond public opinion on the issue. There is little scholarly evaluation of the impact of such a change on electoral participation and on party support. The remaining sections of this paper present the evidence in these various areas.", "This means that those who, for example, go to the UK to study or spend their gap year can register to vote, but not those who visit the UK on a short holiday.", "If you're a Commonwealth citizen or British Overseas Territories citizen who wishes to register to vote, you must either:", "state that you fulfil the nationality requirements (see under heading Can you register to vote ); and", "In the UK, you must be at least 17 years old to drive a car or motor cycle and you must have a driving licence to drive on public roads. To get a UK driving licence you must pass a driving test, which tests both your knowledge and your practical skills. You need to be at least 16 years old to ride a moped, and there are other age requirements and special tests for driving large vehicles.", "the age when a person can consent to have sexual intercourse. In the UK it is 16." ]

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