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[ "How many readings does an act of Parliament have in the House ofCommons before being given royal assent?", "If the bill was introduced in the Senate, it is sent to the House of Commons, which will examine it in a similar three-reading process. If the bill was introduced in the House of Commons and was not amended in the Senate, it is now ready for Royal Assent.", "In addition to the three readings a bill also goes through a committee stage where it is considered in great detail. Once the bill has been passed by one house it goes to the other and essentially repeats the process. If after the two sets of readings there are disagreements between the versions that the two houses passed it is returned to the first house for consideration of the amendments made by the second. If it passes through the amendment stage Royal Assent is granted and the bill becomes law as an Act of Parliament.", "Legislative powers in England and Wales are vested in Parliament.  Like the US, the legislature is bicameral.  Passing an Act of Parliament requires the consent of both Houses of Parliament—the House of Lords and House of Commons—and then the Act must be given Royal Assent. [71]  There are many stages that a Bill must pass through in each house of Parliament before it will receive Royal Assent and enter into law.  The various stages occur in each House.  The bill is first introduced and read and then debated.  It then passes to the committee stage, where it is examined in depth.  Once the committee stage is completed, the bill goes to the report stage and then back to be read and debated again before it is passed over to the other house, where this process occurs again.", "The tradition that a bill must be read three times in the Commons (and also in the Lords) before it can be voted on is based on the need to allow members adequate time to investigate the principles on which the bill is based and the details of its provisions. The first reading is purely formal, but the second reading provides the occasion for debate on the principles involved. The bill then goes into committee, where it is examined clause by clause. Most bills are sent to standing committees, each of which deals with bills belonging to a particular range of topics, with the committees reflecting in their makeup the respective strength of parties in the House. Having examined the bill, the committee then reports back to the House, and after further amendments may have been proposed in the course of more debate, the bill is read a third time and is then voted on. In addition to bills proposed by the government, a limited number of bills sponsored by individual members are considered by the House each session.", "READING -- Presentation of a bill before either chamber by the reading the bill, its title or its number. A formal procedure required by constitution and rules that indicates a stage in enactment process. Most often, a bill must receive three readings on three different days in each legislative body.", "In the United Kingdom, royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. Once a bill is presented to the sovereign or the sovereign's representative, he or she has three formal options: Firstly, the sovereign may grant royal assent, thereby making the bill an Act of Parliament. Secondly, the sovereign may withhold royal assent, thereby vetoing the bill. Finally, the sovereign may reserve; that is to say, defer a decision on the bill until a later time. ", "Bills are introduced by the administration or by individual MPs. Then, each bill receives three readings. The first reading is formal and introduces the bill to the MPs. After the bill is read a second time, the MPs debate it before sending it off to committee for more specialized debate and possible amendments. When the bill returns to the House, it is read a third time, and then the MPs vote. If the bill passes, it moves on to the House of Lords.", "Royal assent is the final stage in the legislative process for acts of the Scottish parliament. The process is governed by sections 28, 32, and 33 of the Scotland Act 1998. After a bill has been passed, the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament submits it to the monarch for royal assent after a four-week period, during which the Advocate General for Scotland, the Lord Advocate, the Attorney General or the Secretary of State for Scotland may refer the bill to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (prior to 1 October 2009, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council) for review of its legality. Royal assent is signified by letters patent under the Great Seal of Scotland in the following form which is set out in The Scottish Parliament (Letters Patent and Proclamations) Order 1999 (SI 1999/737) and of which notice is published in the London, Edinburgh, and Belfast Gazettes: ", "In Canada, the traditional ceremony for granting assent in parliament was regularly used until the 21st century, long after it had been discontinued in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. One result, conceived as part of a string of royal duties intended to demonstrate Canada's status as an independent kingdom, was that King George VI personally assented to nine bills of the Canadian parliament during the 1939 royal tour of Canada—85 years after his great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, had last granted royal assent personally in the United Kingdom. Under the Royal Assent Act 2002, however, the alternative practice of granting assent in writing, with each house being notified separately (the Speaker of the Senate or a representative reads to the senators the letters from the Governor-General regarding the written declaration of Royal Assent ), was brought into force. As the act also provides, royal assent is to be signified—by the governor general, or, more often, by a deputy, usually a Justice of the Supreme Court, at least twice each calendar year: for the first appropriation measure and for at least one other act, usually the first non-appropriation measure passed. However, the act provides that a grant of royal assent is not rendered invalid by a failure to employ the traditional ceremony where required.", "Under the Royal Assent Act 1967, royal assent can be granted by the sovereign in writing, by means of letters patent, that are presented to the presiding officer of each house of parliament. Then, the presiding officer makes a formal, but simple statement to the house, acquainting each house that royal assent has been granted to the acts mentioned. Thus, unlike the granting of royal assent by the monarch in person or by Royal Commissioners, the method created by the Royal Assent Act 1967 does not require both houses to meet jointly for the purpose of receiving the notice of royal assent. The standard text of the letters patent is set out in The Crown Office (Forms and Proclamations Rules) Order 1992, with minor amendments in 2000. In practice this remains the standard method, a fact that is belied by the wording of the letters patent for the appointment of the Royal Commissioners and by the wording of the letters patent for the granting of royal assent in writing under the 1967 Act (\"... And forasmuch as We cannot at this time be present in the Higher House of Our said Parliament being the accustomed place for giving Our Royal Assent...\"). ", "Bills being reviewed by Parliament are assigned numbers: 2 to 200 for government bills, 201 to 1000 for private member's bills, and 1001 up for private bills. They are preceded by C- if they originate in the House of Commons, or S- if they originate in the Senate. For example, Bill C-250 was a private member's bill introduced in the House. Bills C-1 and S-1 are pro forma bills, and are introduced at the beginning of each session in order to assert the right of each Chamber to manage its own affairs. They are introduced and read a first time, and then are dropped from the Order Paper.", "The Commons passed resolutions on 14 April that would form the basis for the Parliament Act: to remove the power of the Lords to veto money bills, to replace their veto of other bills with a power to delay, and to reduce the term of Parliament from seven years to five (the King would have preferred four). But in that debate Asquith hinted – to ensure the support of the nationalist MPs – that he would ask the King to break the deadlock \"in that Parliament\" (i.e. contrary to Edward's earlier stipulation that there be a second election). The Budget was passed by both Commons and Lords in April. ", "Generally, bills must originate in the Commons. Prior to The Parliament Act of 1911, passage in the Lords was also required before a measure could become law. This created a governmental crisis which was resolved when the Lords agreed (under duress from the Crown) to the passage of the 1911 act. This act provided that, when the Prime Minister \"invoked the Parliament Act,\" a bill which passed the Commons in three sessions two years apart became law despite failing to pass in the Lords. This was reduced to two sessions and one year by the Parliament Act of 1949.", "In the United Kingdom, for example, the Coroners and Justice Act in 2009 started as Bill 9 in the House of Commons. Then it became Bill 72 on consideration by the Committee, after that it became House of Lords Bill 33. Then it became House of Lords Bill 77, returned to the House of Commons as Bill 160 before finally being passed as Act no. 29. Parliament recommences numbering from one at the beginning of each session. This means that two different bills may have the same number. Sessions of parliament usually last a year. They begin with the State Opening of Parliament, and end with Prorogation.", "Third reading is the final chance for the Commons to debate the contents of a Bill. It usually takes place immediately after report stage as the next item of business on the same day.", "12.  The original Parliament Act is nearly a hundred years old. Section 2, which governs the delaying powers, is the most important in practice. Two of its subsections (sections 2(1), (4)) each consists of a single sentence, one of 180 words, and the other of 248 words. The language of section 2 is, unsurprisingly, not exactly pellucid. It is possible to extract from section 2 (as amended by the 1949 Act) six basic rules. These permit the House of Lords to delay the passage of a bill, but also ensure that the will of the House of Commons will prevail in the end. The term \"public bill\" embraces any bill, whether a government or private Member's bill, but with the exceptions already noted.", "The final stage is when the Crown formally assents to the Bill in order for it to pass into law. The Sovereign, as the third pillar of Parliament (along with the Commons and the Lords), must give consent to a Bill for it formally to become an Act. The last time Royal Assent was given by the Sovereign in person was in 1854.", "19.  A bill which is presented for Royal Assent under the Parliament Acts bears special words of enactment (1911 Act, section 4(1) as amended by the 1949 Act). Any alteration of a bill to give effect to those words of enactment does not constitute an amendment to the bill (section 4(2)).", "After appropriate notice, a Minister or a Member may introduce a bill, which will be given first reading immediately. The bill is then debated generally at the second reading stage and sent to a committee for clause-by-clause study.", "The third reading a Bill often follows on immediately after the report stage. It is generally quite short � unless it is of constitutional importance - and the bill is reviewed in its final form including amendments made at earlier stages. Substantive amendments cannot be made at this stage to a Bill in the Commons. Then the final version of the bill is approved and passed by hand - bound in green ribbon - to the Lords, when the Lords return the bill it is bound in red ribbon.", "Royal Assent - the Crown gives assent to the Bill which then becomes an Act, the provisions becoming law either immediately or at a date specified in the Act or at a date specified by what is called a Commencement Order Several points are worth noting about the legislative process:", "The legislative procedure starts with the first reading which is just a formality in both Houses.", "A member of either chamber could present a \"bill\" to parliament. Bills supported by the monarch were often proposed by members of the Privy Council who sat in parliament. In order for a bill to become law it would have to be approved by a majority of both Houses of Parliament before it passed to the monarch for royal assent or veto . The royal veto was applied several times during the 16th and 17th centuries and it is still the right of the monarch of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms to veto legislation today, although it has not been exercised since 1707 (today such exercise would presumably precipitate a constitutional crisis ).", "If the Bill started in the Commons it goes to the House of Lords for its first reading.", "Public General Acts are the Acts most commonly quoted. They are Public Bills which have received the Royal Assent. They are published separately and later cumulated in annual volumes. Numbering is by chapter number, abbreviated to c. Since 1963 chapter numbering has been within the calendar year, but before 1963 it was by parliamentary session, indicated by regnal year or years.", "The First Reading of a Bill is a formality, which involves a member reading the title of the Bill; the First Reading takes place without debate. The First Reading is essentially an announcement that the bill has been introduced. Soon after the first reading copies of the bill published are available for members to read, they are also made available on the Parliament website.", "A formal stage during the passage of a Bill in either the House of Keys or the Legislative Council.", "The Queen does not make laws. That is the job of Parliament . When the Queen opens Parliament, usually once a year, she reads a speech written for her by the government.", "In the Parliament of India, every bill passes through following stages before it becomes an Act of Parliament of India: ", "Home > About Parliament > How Parliament Works > The Parliamentary Process > How a Bill becomes an Act of Parliament", "The Bill was brought from the Commons, read a first time and ordered to be printed." ]

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[ "The influence of Marx’s ideas has been enormous. Marx’s masterpiece, Das Kapital , the “Bible of the working class,” as it was officially described in a resolution of the International Working Men’s Association, was published in 1867 in Berlin and received a second edition in 1873. Only the first volume was completed and published in Marx’s lifetime. The second and third volumes, unfinished by Marx, were edited by Engels and published in 1885 and 1894. The economic categories he employed were those of the classical British economics of David Ricardo , but Marx used them in accordance with his dialectical method to argue that bourgeois society, like every social organism, must follow its inevitable path of development. Through the working of such immanent tendencies as the declining rate of profit, capitalism would die and be replaced by another, higher, society. The most memorable pages in Das Kapital are the descriptive passages, culled from Parliamentary Blue Books, on the misery of the English working class. Marx believed that this misery would increase, while at the same time the monopoly of capital would become a fetter upon production until finally “the knell of capitalist private property sounds. The expropriators are expropriated.”", "Karl Marx was born in 1818 in Trier, Prussia. While attending university in Berlin he was influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Hegel and his critics, the Young Hegelians, but Marx eventually rejected both schools of thought. He quickly earned the reputation of a revolutionary and left Germany for Paris, where he met his lifelong friend and collaborator, Friedrich Engels. Together they wrote and published The Communist Manifesto, which was published in 1848, just before the first wave of revolutions in France. Marx returned to Germany but his radical activities led to expulsion, whereupon he moved to London. There, Marx and Engels collaborated on further works on economics and contemporary politics. Marx also wrote his major treatise, Das Kapital, but only the first volume was published in his lifetime. Marx died in poverty on March 14, 1883, and was buried in Highgate Cemetery. Friedrich Engels (1820-95) was the son of a Manchester factory owner. He wrote several groundbreaking essays on contemporary social and political conditions in Britain, including The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845), in which he criticised the working conditions and treatment of the urban poor. After Karl Marx' death, Engels completed and published the last two volumes of Das Kapital (1884, 1894) from his friend's surviving papers. show more", "Karl Marx was born in 1818, in the Rheinish city of Trier, the son of a successful lawyer. He studied law and philosophy at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, completing his doctorate in 1841. In Paris three years later, Marx was introduced to the study of political economy by a former fellow student, Frederick Engels. In 1848 they collaborated in writing The Communist Manifesto. Expelled from Prussia in the same year, Marx took up residence first in Paris and then in London where, in 1867, he published his magnus opus Capital. A co-founder of the International Workingmen's Association in 1864, Marx died in London in 1883. Frederick Engels was born in 1820, in the German city of Barmen, Brought up as a devout Calvinist he moved to England in 1842 to work in his father's Manchester textile firm. After joining the fight against the counter revolution in Germany in 1848 he returned to Manchester and the family business, finally settling there in 1850. In subsequent years he provided financial support for Marx and edited the second and third volumes of Capital. He died whilst working on the fourth volume in 1895. Eric Hobsbawm is Emeritus Professor of History at Birkbeck College, University of London. His many books include The Age of Revolution, The Age of Capital, The Age of Empire and the recently published The Age of Extremes. show more", "Karl Heinrich Marx (Berlin German pronunciation: [kaːɐ̯l ˈhaɪnʀɪç ˈmaːɐ̯ks], 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a Prussian-German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the establishment of the social sciences and the development of the socialist movement. He is also considered one of the greatest economists of all time. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894). He worked closely with his friend and fellow revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.", "Karl Marx was born in Trier, in the German Rhineland, in 1818. Although his family was Jewish they converted to Christianity so that his father could pursue his career as a lawyer in the face of Prussia’s anti-Jewish laws. A precocious schoolchild, Marx studied law in Bonn and Berlin, and then wrote a PhD thesis in Philosophy, comparing the views of Democritus and Epicurus. On completion of his doctorate in 1841 Marx hoped for an academic job, but he had already fallen in with too radical a group of thinkers and there was no real prospect. Turning to journalism, Marx rapidly became involved in political and social issues, and soon found himself having to consider communist theory. Of his many early writings, four, in particular, stand out. ‘Contribution to a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, Introduction’, and ‘On The Jewish Question’, were both written in 1843 and published in the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, written in Paris 1844, and the ‘Theses on Feuerbach’ of 1845, remained unpublished in Marx’s lifetime.", "Karl Marx, Grundrisse and Das Kapital, 28 Dean Street, W1. Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) arrived in England in 1849 and lived in a number of guest houses and rooms before moving here in early 1851. For a short time Marx, his wife Jenny, their maid Lenchen and their five children shared some rooms with Heinrich Bauer at 64 Dean Street. They had little money. Marx earnt some money by writing for the New York Tribune. He was also sent some cash by Engels. Poverty left its mark. One of their children (Foxchën) died of pneumonia while at No. 64, another (Franziska) in April 1852, and another died in the great cholera epidemic in the summer of 1854. (Over 6000 inhabitants of Soho lost their lives as a result of an infected water pump on the corner of Broad Street and Cambridge Street.) Relationships were hardly made easier when Marx embarked on an affair with Lenchen and she became pregnant. (To Jenny, he tried to blame this on Engels).", "Marx, Karl, was born on May 5, 1818 (New Style), in the city of Trier (Rhenish Prussia). His father was a lawyer, a Jew, who in 1824 adopted Protestantism. The family was well-to-do, cultured, but not revolutionary. After graduating from a Gymnasium in Trier, Marx entered the university, first at Bonn and later in Berlin, where he read law, majoring in history and philosophy. He concluded his university course in 1841, submitting a doctoral thesis on the philosophy of Epicurus. At the time Marx was a Hegelian idealist in his views. In Berlin, he belonged to the circle of “Left Hegelians” (Bruno Bauer and others) who sought to draw atheistic and revolutionary conclusion from Hegel’s philosophy.", "While living in Dean Street, Marx gave lectures in a room above the Red Lion pub on Great Windmill Street. However, his time in London will be best remembered for his association with the British Library Reading Room. There he began the research that led to his great works of political and economic analysis: Grundrisse der Kritik der politischen Ökonomie (1857-58) Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie (1859) and Das Kapital (Volume 1 1867 – two further volumes were added in 1884 and 1894). Later in 1855 Jenny received two small inheritances – and they were able to move to a small terraced house near Primrose Hill. For an assessment of Marx’s contribution to education see Barry Burke’s piece: Karl Marx and education.", "Das Kapital, ( German: Capital [3 vol., 1867, 1885, 1894]) one of the major works of the 19th-century economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818–83), in which he expounded his theory of the capitalist system, its dynamism, and its tendencies toward self-destruction. He described his purpose as to lay bare “the economic law of motion of modern society.” The second and third volumes were published posthumously, edited by his collaborator Friedrich Engels (1820–95).", "Marx then moved to France and it was in Paris that he met and began working with his life-long collaborator Friedrich Engels. After he was forced to leave Paris for his writings, he and Engels moved to Brussels.", "Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German political philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Marx's work in economics laid the basis for the current understanding of labor and its relation to capital, and has influenced much of subsequent economic thought. He published numerous works during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867–1894).", "Manchester is known for possessing a \"radical literary history\". In the 19th century, Manchester featured in works highlighting the changes that industrialisation had brought to Britain. These included Elizabeth Gaskell's novel Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life (1848), and studies such as The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, written by Friedrich Engels while living and working in Manchester. Manchester was the meeting place of Engels and Karl Marx. The two began writing The Communist Manifesto in Chetham's Library. The library was founded in 1653 and lays claim to being the oldest public library in the English-speaking world. Elsewhere in the city, the John Rylands Library holds an extensive collection of early printing. The Rylands Library Papyrus P52, believed to be the earliest extant New Testament text, is on permanent display in the library.", "For the most part, according to the editor’s introduction essay to the translation of Das Kapital, much of Marx’s observations of the thirty-year period were in England, which were at once the center of the industrial revolution (with all of its glory) as well as the epicenter of the urban degradation caused by rapid and  massive industrialization . While these theories about the nature of the worker, the work day, the capitalist, and economies in general were influential after their first publication, the same ideas still persist in general conversations about our modern economy—especially in terms of capitalism. In order to present the most succinct overview, analysis, and interpretation of Das Kapital ,it seems necessary to chronologically go through Das Kapital for this essay and examine some key points and themes, examine them within Marx’s context, and finally present them as templates for looking at modern capitalism society, industry, and economy.", "Paris was at the time a center for socialist thought, and Marx adopted the more extreme form of socialism known as communism, which called for a revolution by the working class that would tear down the capitalist world. In Paris, Marx befriended Friedrich Engels, a fellow Prussian who shared his views and was to become a lifelong collaborator. In 1845, Marx was expelled from France and settled in Brussels, where he renounced his Prussian nationality and was joined by Engels.", "Karl Marx (1818-1883) was born in Trier in the Prussian Rhineland. His alienation from his family when he had scarcely passed adolescence foreshadowed the social isolation of his later years.", "In September 1844, Frederick Engels came to Paris for a few days, and from that time on became Marx’s closest friend. They both took a most active part in the then seething life of the revolutionary groups in Paris (of particular importance at the time was Proudhon’s [4] doctrine), which Marx pulled to pieces in his Poverty of Philosophy , 1847); waging a vigorous struggle against the various doctrines of petty-bourgeois socialism, they worked out the theory and tactics of revolutionary proletarian socialism, or communism Marxism). See Marx’s works of this period, 1844-48 in the Bibliography. At the insistent request of the Prussian government, Marx was banished from Paris in 1845, as a dangerous revolutionary. He went to Brussels. In the spring of 1847 Marx and Engels joined a secret propaganda society called the Communist League; [5] they took a prominent part in the League’s Second Congress (London, November 1847), at whose request they drew up the celebrated Communist Manifesto , which appeared in February 1848. With the clarity and brilliance of genius, this work outlines a new world-conception, consistent with materialism, which also embrace the realm of social life; dialectics, as the most comprehensive and profound doctrine of development; the theory of the class struggle and of the world-historic revolutionary role of the proletariat—the creator of a new, communist society.", "\"The Communist Manifesto,\" originally known as \"The Manifesto of the Communist Party,\" was published by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, and is one of the most widely taught texts within sociology. The text was commissioned by the Communist League in London, and was originally published there, in German. While at the time it served as a political rally cry for the communist movement throughout Europe, it is so widely taught today because it offers a shrewd and early critique of capitalism and its social and cultural implications . For students of sociology, the text is a useful primer on Marx's critique of capitalism, which is presented in much more depth and detail in Capital, Volumes 1-3.", "The Communist Manifesto was a product of the social, economic and political turmoil that characterised Europe before 1850. Both of its authors, Marx and Engels, were touched by elements of this turmoil. Karl Marx, born in 1818, came from the Rhineland, an area occupied by the French during the Napoleonic Wars. During this period the French abolished feudal restrictions, introduced religious toleration and secularised the state. Many, like Marx’s father, benefited from this liberal regime. When, after Napoleon’s defeat, the Rhineland passed under Prussian control, Hirschel Marx, Karl’s father, abandoned Judaism for Christianity to retain the right to practise as a lawyer. Friedrich Engels, born in 1820, came from a family of German industrialists: he had, therefore, first-hand knowledge of the effects of rapid industrialisation. In 1842 Engels moved to Manchester to work at the family cotton mill. This took him to the heart of the world’s first industrial nation.", "'Zu ihrer entfernteren Verwandtschaft gehöre übrigens <mark>Jenny von Westphalen</mark>, Ehefrau von Karl Marx. Für zahlreiche Albersloher in der Gruppe war Höhepunkt der fünftägigen Reise die Visite der alten Kaiserstadt Quedlinburg. Diese Stadt führe zu Recht den'", "From 1867 to 1894, Marx created his greatest work, a three- volume treatise called \"Das Kapital\" (\"Capital\"), in which he used Dialectical Materialism to analyze and explain economic and social history. The first volume was published in 1876, and Marx worked on the other two for the rest of his life.", "1867. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Edited by Friedrich Engels and reprinted in 1906, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr. Reprinted in 1976, New York: Penguin Books. Available online (Charles Kerr, ed.): Vol. I: http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Marx/mrxCpA.html , Vol. II: http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Marx/mrxCpB.html , Vol. III: http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Marx/mrxCpC.html", "Bernard Marx recalls Karl Marx, the German author who wrote Das Kapital, a critique of capitalist society", "Without doubt, Shaw belongs to that small group of literary artists that includes Machiavelli, Shakespeare, 66 and Goethe, authors who had hands-on experience in either running or participating in the political and economic machinery of the societies in which they lived, and who then transferred those experiences to their respective aesthetic and cultural practices and works. Shaw stands head and shoulders above them all. And through its political and literary tendencies, Chicago proved itself as the American city most in touch with Shaw's values as both a socialist and [End Page 163] social reformer. Shaw's caustic yet witty anatomization of the mechanics of government, society, and economics, which forms the backbone of his lifelong commitment to the democratization of art, parallels the Chicago zeitgeist at the heart of which stands a diverse collection of artists and intellectuals who helped shape the representation of an urbanizing nation in the opening decades of the twentieth century.", "Thus, though modernism in the arts was no stranger to Chicago, its social and political orientations proved more congenial to Shaw's attitudes. It can be argued that as the decades progressed Shaw's own personal and artistic, but especially political, development followed more closely that of Chicago than that of New York, London, and Paris. Indeed his early experiences as a clerk in a Dublin land office, as a future admirer and disciple of social reformer Henry George in London in 1882, as a socialist propagandist and Fabian from 1884, as a participant in Bloody Sunday at Trafalgar Square in 1887, 65 and as a St. Pancras vestryman from 1897 to 1903, grounded Shaw in the political and economic realities of urban life. The culmination of this education resulted in the two most amusing books on economics ever written: The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (1928) and Everybody's Political What's What (1944).", "Like Frenhofer, Marx was a modernist avant la lettre. His famous account of dislocation in the Communist Manifesto - \"all that is solid melts into air\" - prefigures the hollow men and the unreal city depicted by TS Eliot, or Yeats's \"Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold\". By the time he wrote Das Kapital, he was pushing out beyond conventional prose into radical literary collage - juxtaposing voices and quotations from mythology and literature, from factory inspectors' reports and fairy tales, in the manner of Ezra Pound's Cantos or Eliot's The Waste Land. Das Kapital is as discordant as Schoenberg, as nightmarish as Kafka.", "In the autumn of 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months in Berlin , partly to rebel against English repressiveness. In Berlin, he said, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects. [8]", "Yet how many people would think of including Marx in a list of great writers and artists? Even in our postmodern era, the fractured narrative and radical discontinuity of Das Kapital are mistaken by many readers for formlessness and incomprehensibility. Anyone willing to grapple with Beethoven, Goya or Tolstoy should be able to \"learn something new\" from a reading of Das Kapital - not least because its subject still governs our lives. As Berman asks: how can Das Kapital end while capital lives on? It is fitting that Marx never finished his masterpiece. The first volume was the only one to appear in his lifetime, and the subsequent volumes were assembled by others after his death, based on notes and drafts found in his study. Marx's work is as open-ended - and thus as resilient - as the capitalist system itself.", "The period from 1870 onward in western Europe saw the swift growth ofindustrialization and urbanization, the two crucial elements of modern society. This expansion of industrial power and of economic growth andwealth, which was due largely to two technological innovations—theimprovement of steel metallurgy and the application of electrical energyto factory, city, and home– seemed to confirm a number of Marx’spredictions regarding the development of capitalism (see Marx 1867-1879, vol. 1, chapter 25, and vol. 3, chapter 23). Capitalism was undergoing remarkable changes. The expansion of the joint stock company (the prototype of the modern corporation) was forcing a separation of ownership and management, which in many areas resulted in the industrial manager’staking the place of the capitalist as the central person of theorganization, and the large-scale enterprise began employing hundreds and even thousands of workers under a single roof. More important, the “amalgamation” movements of the 1880s and 1890s—the rise of trusts, cartels, and monopolies—and the consequent elimination of hundreds of smaller businesses seemed to bear out Marx’s predictions about the centralization of capital and the socializing of the processes of production.", "The city is typical of Gesellschaft in general. It is essentiallya commercial town and, in so far as commerce dominates its productivelabor, a factory town. Its wealth is capital wealth which, in theform of trade, usury, or industrial capital, is used and multiplies.Capital is the means for the appropriation of products of labor orfor the exploitation of workers. The city is also the center ofscience and culture, which always go hand in hand with commerce andindustry. Here the arts must make a living; they are exploited in acapitalistic way. Thoughts spread and change with astonishingrapidity. Speeches and books through mass distribution become stimuliof far-reaching importance.", "Friedrich Engels ( November 28 , 1820 – August 5 , 1895 ) was a 19th-century German political philosopher who developed communist theory alongside his better-known collaborator, Karl Marx , co-authoring The Communist Manifesto (1848).", "The population growth of the capitalist cities occurred primarily through migration to these cities from outside (mainly the destitute rural population); immigration from Europe was a significant source of growth in overseas American and Australian cities. The large capitalist city became the center of polarization of the class forces of capitalism, and it was there that the contradictions inherent in the capitalist order—between labor and capital and between luxury and poverty—manifested themselves most acutely. The growth of the capitalist city and the appearance of giant cities was followed by the appearance of a number of specifically large-city problems, such as the housing question, the problem of transportation, and the increased incidence of disease in cities. All of these problems were reflected above all and with particular severity in the poor strata of the urban population. The social problems of the capitalist city were engendered by a whole set of factors, above all by the antagonistic nature of capitalist production, the predatory nature of capitalist entrepreneurship, and private ownership of city land and buildings (which results in high prices for land within the city boundaries, high apartment rents, and difficulties in solving the problems of replanning capitalist cities because of the enormous expenditures involved in buying land and buildings from their owners). The opposition between the city and the country, which has accompanied the entire history of the existence of exploiting society, reached special acuteness under capitalism.", "German social theorist who collaborated with Karl Marx on The Communist Manifesto (1848) and numerous other works." ]

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[ "Frederik Willem de Klerk (born 18 March 1936), often known as F. W. de Klerk, is the former seventh and last State President of apartheid-era South Africa, serving from September 1989 to May 1994. De Klerk was also leader of the National Party (which later became the New National Party) from February 1989 to September 1997.", "Frederik Willem de Klerk, known as FW de Klerk, (born 18 March 1936), was the seventh and last State President of the apartheid-era South Africa, serving from September 1989 to May 1994. De Klerk was also leader of the National Party from February 1989 to September 1997.", "Frederik Willem de Klerk (; born 18 March 1936) is a South African politician who served as the country's State President from September 1989 to May 1994. He was the seventh and last head of state of South Africa under the apartheid era. De Klerk was also leader of the National Party (which later became the New National Party) from February 1989 to September 1997.", "In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became South African president and set about dismantling apartheid. De Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, suspended executions, and on February 11, 1990, ordered the release of Nelson Mandela. Mandela subsequently led the ANC in its negotiations with the minority government for an end to apartheid and the establishment of a multiracial government. In 1993, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. On April 26, 1994, the country’s first free elections were won by Mandela and the ANC, and a “national unity” coalition was formed with de Klerk’s National Party and the Zulus’ Inkatha Freedom Party. On May 10, Mandela was inaugurated in a ceremony attended by numerous international dignitaries.", "As Minister of National Education, F.W. de Klerk was a supporter of segregated universities, and as a leader of the National Party in Transvaal, he was not known to advocate reform. In February 1989, de Klerk was elected leader of the National Party and in September 1989 he was elected State President.", "F.W. de Klerk was president of South Africa from 1989 to 1994, during which time he worked with Nelson Mandela to successfully end the country's apartheid system of racial segregation.", "In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became South Africa’s president and set about dismantling apartheid. De Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, suspended executions, and in February 1990 ordered the release of Nelson Mandela.", "After attaining his freedom, Nelson Mandela led the ANC in its negotiations with the governing National Party and various other South African political organizations for an end to apartheid and the establishment of a multiracial government. Though fraught with tension and conducted against a backdrop of political instability, the talks earned Mandela and de Klerk the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1993. On April 26, 1994, more than 22 million South Africans turned out to cast ballots in the country’s first multiracial parliamentary elections in history. An overwhelming majority chose the ANC to lead the country, and on May 10 Mandela was sworn in as the first black president of South Africa, with de Klerk serving as his first deputy.", "In January of 1989 Botha suffered a stroke that forced him to resign as head of the National Party. Though Botha remained state president, de Klerk replaced him as party leader. An extraordinary episode occurred in August when de Klerk, without Botha's knowledge, announced a meeting to talk about the South African situation with Zambia's president Kenneth Kaunda. Botha publicly criticized de Klerk and then suddenly resigned the presidency. De Klerk became state president, which set the stage for the extraordinary events of February 11, 1990.", "Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House Massacre – incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively – Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as President, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage. ", "Thereafter, de Klerk focused on ending apartheid and establishing a racially integrated democracy, meeting with several black leaders, including Nelson Mandela, who became president of the ANC in 1991. That same year, following arduous negotiations between black and white leaders, de Klerk passed legislation that repealed discriminatory laws in South Africa.", "Walking on the beaches over Christmas, de Klerk reflected on the journey which had taken him here, and the rocky and uncertain fate which lay ahead. His Huguenot ancestors arrived in the Cape in 1686 and the story of the de Klerks since had been, as he says, \"the story of the emerging Afrikaner nation\". They were farmers who took part in the legendary Voortek, when their leader Piet Retief led his column of ox wagons over the Drakensberg Mountains to escape British rule. Three de Klerks died with Retief in the great kraal of the Zulu chief Dingane in 1837, an event so deeply embedded in Afrikaner culture that 16 December, the day of the massacre, was named \"The Day of the Vow\" or \"Dingane's Day\", which is still celebrated. His grandfather was twice captured by the British in the Boer War, and later became a founder member of the National Party in 1914. De Klerk's own father was a minister in Verwoerd's government, and FW himself became an MP at 37 and was appointed to Vorster's cabinet five years later. Nobody's Afrikaner credentials were stronger than his.", "1990--South African President F.W. de Klerk lifted a ban on the African National Congress and promised to free Nelson Mandela.", "But radical change requires steely nerves. De Klerk had become president in September 1989, the son of a National party cabinet minister and the nephew of a prime minister. He grew up with Afrikaner fear in his DNA – the dread that after 400 years on the tip of Africa and the struggle against British colonial rule, his Huguenot descendants would be chased into the sea by the black majority. That fear contributed to policies that built his nation – forced removals to create racially segregated areas and blacks being deprived of their citizenship. It led to \"passbooks\", introduced to restrict black people's movements beyond those that were necessary to the economy, and separate beaches, buses, hospitals, schools, universities and lavatories for blacks, whites, mixed-race \"coloureds\" and Indians.", "The African National Congress (ANC) is the governing party of South Africa, supported by its historial tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu) and the South African Communist Party (SACP).", "White South African prime minister in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Working with Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress, de Klerk helped to dismantle the apartheid system and opened the way for a democratically elected government that represented all South Africans for the first time.", "De Klerk’s leadership brought apartheid to its end and led to the adoption of South Africa’s first fully democratic constitution, leading to a multiracial government in 1993. Mandela succeeded de Klerk as president in 1994, and de Klerk became one of two vice presidents in a government of national unity.", "governing political party in S Africa since 1994; ANC was dedicated to the nonviolent resolution of conflicts between ruling whites and the black minority during the apartheid; ANC was banned until 1990; Nelson Mandela was leader who became S Africa's 1st post-apartheid president in 1994", "Frederik Willem (FW) de Klerk 15 August 1989 – 9 May 1994 De Klerk graduated from Potchefstroom University in in 1958 with BA and Ll.B degrees (the latter cum laude). Simultaneously he was awarded the Abe Bailey scholarship (an all-expenses paid educational tour to the United Kingdom).   From 1961-1972 de Klerk practiced as an attorney in Vereeniging (presently in the Gauteng province). He was elected President of South Africa in 1989 and the following year he opened negotiations with previously outlawed anti-apartheid organizations. Following the 1994 elections De Klerk was appointed the Second Vice President in President Mandela’s cabinet. He Klerk and Mandela were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts in reforming South Africa.", "Jacob Zuma is an incumbent President of the Republic of South Africa and the African National Congress (ANC), the ruling party in South Africa. He is the 4th President of Sooth Africa, he was elected by parliament after the ANC’s victory at the 2009 General Elections and assumed office on May 9, 2009 and was re-elected in the 2014 General Elections.", "* 4th Democratic Parliament of the Republic of South Africa (2009–2014) – majority party : African National Congress", "The African National Congress (ANC) is the dominant party and the majority party in Parliament since it came to power after winning the first Democratic election held on 27 April 1994. The party won the elections with 62.6%, securing 252 of the 400 seats in the National Assembly (Parliament). Nelson Mandela became the first black head of state, the President. Mandela retired as the head of state when his term ended and was succeeded by Thabo Mbeki . The second democratic elections took place in 1999 and the ANC won the general elections with 65.85% of the vote, securing 266 seats in the National Assembly.", "For their work toward dismantling apartheid, de Klerk and Mandela were named co-recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. The following year, on April 27, 1994, South Africa held its first multiracial elections. On May 10, 1994, a 77-year-old Nelson Mandela was inaugurated as the first black president of South Africa, and de Klerk became his first deputy.", "African National Congress: The ANC was created in 1912, but became the leading political party after the end of apartheid in 1994. Its main platform rests on racial equality and eradicating the socioeconomic classes which are often based on race. The ANC has been considered a party for native South Africans, especially before 2009 when party leader President Zuma faced multiple accusations regarding corruption, particularly using public funds for his own purposes. The economic struggle of South Africa as well as the police brutality have both been blamed on the ANC. Currently the ANC holds 249 seats in parliament. Support for the ANC went down between the 2009 and the 2014 elections, with violent protests erupting all over the country in response to the allegations of corruption within the ANC.", "The National Party () was a political party in South Africa founded in 1915 and first became the governing party of the country in 1924. It was in opposition during the World War II years but returned to power and was again in government from 4 June 1948 until 9 May 1994. At this time, it began implementing its policy of separate development, known as 'apartheid'. Members of the National Party were sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats. The policies of the party included apartheid, the establishment of a republic, and the promotion of Afrikaner culture.", "In the Apr., 2009, National Assembly elections the ANC again won by a landslide, but it narrowly failed to secure a two-thirds majority, which would have enabled it to amend the constitution without support from another party. The DA, which again increased its share of the vote, remained the largest opposition party, and the Congress of the People (COPE), formed by ANC members who left the party after Mbeki resigned the presidency, placed a distant third. The victory assured Zuma's election as president by the legislature, which occurred the following month. In July, as South Africa suffered through its worst recession in some two decades, township protests against poor living conditions and inadequate services turned violent in a number of provinces. The murder of Eugene Terreblanche, a white supremist leader, by two black farmhands in Apr., 2010, raised fears that the incident would spark racial violence.", "Zuma is the President of the African National Congress (ANC), the governing political party, and was Deputy President of South Africa from 1999 to 2005. Zuma is also referred to by his initials JZ and his clan name Msholozi. Zuma became the President of the ANC on 18 December 2007 after defeating incumbent Thabo Mbeki at the ANC conference in Polokwane. He was re-elected as ANC leader at the ANC conference in Mangaung on 18 December 2012, defeating challenger Kgalema Motlanthe by a large majority. Zuma was also a member of the South African Communist Party (SACP), briefly serving on the party's Politburo until he left the party in 1990. ", "                Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela  born 18 July 1918) is a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary and politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the first black South African to hold the office, and the first elected in a fully representative, multiracial election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalized racism, poverty and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as the President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1991 to 1997. Internationally, Mandela was the Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999.", "Even though Biko was never a member of the African National Congress (ANC), the ANC has included him in the pantheon of struggle heroes, going as far as using his image for campaign posters in South Africa's first non-racial elections in 1994. Nelson Mandela said of Biko: \"They had to kill him to prolong the life of apartheid.\" ", "In short, in half an hour, de Klerk had announced a commitment to a full democracy, with majority rule in a unitary state which would include the homelands, an independent judiciary, a commitment to equal justice for all under a human rights manifesto, no discrimination, and a free economy. The entire edifice of apartheid, so hated around the world, had been dismantled in a single speech.", "In 1962, at the age of 20, Jacob Zuma became an active member of Umkhonto we Sizwe, an armed wing of the African National Congress, co-founded by Nelson Mandela in the wake of the Sharpeville Massacre.", "History: South Africa was led by Apartheid leaders until Nelson Mandela came free from prison and became the first democratically elected leader in South Africa in 1994." ]

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[ "The term \"Portillo moment\" has also been used to describe similar events in past general elections in which a high profile MP has lost his seat.", "If an MP dies or resigns, there will be a fresh election, called a by-election, in his or her constituency.", "    Elected Members of Parliament do not have a deputy, so in the event of the death, resignation or removal of an MP, a \"by-election\" must be called in order to elect a new MP. Each MP represents a territory, or constituency: the link between an MP and his or her constituency is symbolically and historically very important , and in the House of Commons, Members are not called by their name, but by the name of the constituency from which they have been elected ( or, if they are government ministers, by their function) .", "In such a case the seat is marked red on the map, but only one name is listed on the political data card: that of the incumbent MP. In some cases, for example in Tyne & Wear, boundary changes are so extensive that the person listed as the sitting MP may not be the person who ends up contesting that seat at the next election.", "Should a sitting prime minister today lose his or her seat in the legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat, the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by-election. A safe seat is usually chosen; while the Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not running a candidate against another party's new leader in the by-election, the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same convention. However, if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of the legislature, he or she will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in parliament.", "The sitting MP is John Bercow . He is also Speaker of the House of Commons. There is a perfectly just tradition that the Speaker is not challenged, and even though a few right-wing Tory backwoodsmen have been plotting undemocratically in Westminster to remove him, they are estranged from their leader. Indeed, David Cameron has said:", "Vacancies arising between general elections are filled by the \"next-in-line\" candidate on the same party list.", "MPs in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are elected in general elections and by-elections to represent constituencies by the first-past-the-post system of election, and may remain MPs until Parliament is dissolved, which must occur within 5 years of the last general election, as stated in the Parliament Act 1911.", "The Prime Minister appoints officials known as the \"Government Whips\", who negotiate for the support of MPs and to discipline dissenters. Party discipline is strong since electors generally vote for individuals on the basis of their party affiliation. Members of Parliament may be expelled from their party for failing to support the Government on important issues, and although this will not mean they must resign as MPs, it will usually make re-election difficult. Members of Parliament who hold ministerial office or political privileges can expect removal for failing to support the Prime Minister. Restraints imposed by the Commons grow weaker when the Government's party enjoys a large majority in that House, or among the electorate. In most circumstances, however, the Prime Minister can secure the Commons' support for almost any bill by internal party negotiations, with little regard to Opposition MPs.", "It is of course common for former (defeated) MPs to seek re-election, often in their old constituencies, especially if they are marginal or bellwether seats. What is quite unusual is for two MPs both sitting in the same parliament to seek re-election in the same seat. This usually occurs by reason of boundary changes or party splits.", "After his expulsion, he had initially fuelled speculation that he might call a snap by-election before then, by resigning his parliamentary seat, saying:", "During World War II, many seats were left vacant when MPs were involved in government services or became active members of the armed forces.  The government formed a coalition in 1940 and agreed upon an electoral truce, during which the parties agreed not to contest by-elections.  Instead, the local constituency association of the party that had won the seat in the last election nominated a candidate. [70]   However, despite this agreement, some elections were still contested when parties considered that the candidate was too radical.  ", "Should a seat fall vacant during a parliamentary term, it will be filled by one of the substitutes elected at the same time as the holder.", "Action already taken: Barred by the NEC from standing at the next election. Resigned his seat, forcing a byelection, in protest at unfair treatment by party.", "At the polls or by being out-voted in a motion If a majority of the MPs vote against a major government decision, the party in power where he is defeated. The Prime Minister resigns and a new election is usually held", "If the current Speaker decides to contest a general election, he/she does not stand under a party label, but is entitled to describe himself/herself on the ballot as \"The Speaker seeking re-election\", under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act. In the past, the Speaker could sometimes be returned unopposed; this has not happened in the last few decades, but they have sometimes faced opposition only from fringe candidates.", "The Prime Minister can be changed if the MPs in the governing party decide to do so, or if he or she wishes to resign. The Prime Minister usually resigns if his or her party loses a General Election.", "This policy has been adopted because very different circumstances often pertain to a by-election. For instance, the first by-election of the new parliament was held in Cheadle, following the death of the Lib Dem MP, Patsy Calton. The campaign proved a very bitter and personalised contest between the Lib Dems and their Conservative challengers which helped secure the biggest turnout in a by-election for five years. Third placed Labour lost its deposit, as its vote was squeezed by both the Lib Dems and the Conservatives.", "Subsection 6. If a Member of Folketing is declared unworthy to sit in Parliament, he or she loses his or her seat. This also occurs if he or she moves abroad permanently or is declared legally incompetent. Read more about eligibility in Section 33.", "(c)    the Leader ceasing to be a Member of the House of Commons (other than a temporary cessation by reason of a dissolution);", "Member of Parliament can be the term (often a translation) for representatives in parliamentary democracies that do not follow the Westminster system and who are usually referred to in a different fashion, such as Deputé in France, Deputato in Italy, Deputat in Bulgaria, Parliamentario in Spain and Spanish speaking Latin America, Diputado, Deputado in Portugal and Brazil, Mitglied des Bundestages (MdB) in Germany. However, better translations are often possible.", "1) Where there has been a by-election since the last general election and that by-election resulted in a different party gaining the seat compared to the general election result.", "Served = Served as Prime Minister and applies where the person has become Prime Minister by succeeding to the post due to predecessors resignation or due to a leadership takeover", "A bisque is permission from the Whips given to a member to miss a vote or debate in the House to attend to constituency business or other matters. [15]", "\"In 2012, there was a rumour that my minister was going to be reshuffled and I immediately became yesterday’s man, with a senior official telling one of his juniors that my strong views on a particular submission could be ignored as I was on the way out. Unfortunately for them, that wasn’t true. But it revealed to me how transient the political roles are compared to the permanency of the official machine.\" Nick Hillman", "No. You can only vote to elect your local MP in a general election. Even if you live in the constituency represented by the current Prime Minister or the leader of another political party, you are still only voting on whether he or she will be your local MP in the next Parliament", "Response: Dr Gibson has insisted he acted within the rules and \"made nothing on the house whatsoever\". But he said he could understand why members of the public might think his arrangements were \"unfair\" and offered to stand down as an MP if his constituents wanted.", "The exodus from parliament, spurred on by the expenses scandal, is set to be one of the greatest in the Commons' long history. Here's the latest list of the MPs who are standing down - and why they're choosing to do so.", "6. Who was the first candidate eliminated under the transferable vote system when the Labour Party elected a new leader in September 2010?", "A Labour official said that up to 50 of the party’s MPs could be deselected as a result of the expenses scandal.", "37. Which North West MP, or rather former MP, has been kicked out of the Labour Party, amid much furore,", "1: An occasion where a major party stood aside against the Speaker of the British House of Commons." ]

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[ "Who played the part of Piers Fletcher Dervish, personal assistant to MP Alan B'stard, in the television comedy series The New Statesman?", "The New Statesman is a British television comedy drama series made in the late 1980s and early 1990s satirising the United Kingdom's Conservative Party Government of the period. It was written by Laurence Marks and Maurice Gran at the request of, and as a starring vehicle for, its principal actor Rik Mayall.", "The main character was a selfish, greedy, dishonest, devious, lecherous, sadistic ultra- right-wing Conservative back bencher . The show was mostly set in B'Stard's antechambers in the Palace of Westminster and featured Piers Fletcher-Dervish (played by Michael Troughton, son of Patrick Troughton ) as B'Stard's twittish upper-class sidekick.", "Mayall reprised the role of Alan B'Stard in 2006 in the play The New Statesman 2006: Blair B'stard Project, written by Marks and Gran. By this time B'Stard had left the floundering Conservatives and become a Labour MP. Following a successful two-month run in London's West End at The Trafalgar Studios in 2007, a heavily re-written version toured theatres nationwide, with Marks and Gran constantly updating the script to keep it topical. However, Mayall succumbed to chronic fatigue and flu in May 2007, and withdrew from the show. Alan B'Stard was played by his understudy, Mike Sherman during his hiatus. At the start of The New Statesman's Third Run at the Milton Keynes Theatre in Mid-July 2007, Rik Mayall was reported to be \"un-well\" by Theatre Staff, and would be absent for at least the whole of the Milton Keynes run of shows. However, Sherman played the role of B'Stard in place of Mayall.", "The political stereotypes popularised in the sitcom still resonate in the current environment, as shown by a recent gybe that the Labour minister, Ed Balls , brings to mind B'stard's sidekick, Piers Fletcher-Dervish [1] .", "After his accident, Mayall’s output had been less prolific, but as well as Guesthouse Paradiso he starred in several video versions of Bottom, and as a camp DJ in Day of the Sirens (2002). He also starred in the ITV sitcom Believe Nothing (2002) as an egotistical Nobel Prize-winning Oxford professor named Adonis Cnut, a member of the Council for International Progress, an underground organisation that aspires to control the world. He reprised the role of Alan B’Stard in the stage play The New Statesman 2006: Blair B’Stard Project (Trafalgar Studios), in which B’Stard has left the Conservatives to become a Labour MP. In 2011, Mayall appeared on Let’s Dance For Comic Relief, attacking his old friend Edmondson with a frying pan as he attempted to perform The Dying Swan.", "In April 2011, she guest-edited the New Statesman and themed the issue around freedom of speech. She interviewed the deputy prime minister Nick Clegg and included contributions from Russell Brand, Tim Robbins, Simon Pegg, Oliver Stone, Tony Benn, and Julian Assange, with cover art by Anish Kapoor and Damien Hirst. According to Nick Cohen in the Observer \"Jemima Khan was by a country mile the best editor of the New Statesman that that journal has had since the mid-1970s\". The magazine issue included \"an unexpected scoop\" from Hugh Grant who went undercover to hack Paul McMullan, a former News of the World journalist, who had been involved in hacking as a reporter. In November 2011, she joined as an associate editor of the New Statesman. ", "Set in the private office in Whitehall of a British government cabinet minister (and, in the sequel, in 10 Downing Street ), the series follows the ministerial career of Jim Hacker MP , played by Paul Eddington. His various struggles to formulate and enact legislation or effect departmental changes are opposed by the will of the British Civil Service, in particular his Permanent Secretary (senior civil servant), Sir Humphrey Appleby, played by Nigel Hawthorne. His Principal Private Secretary Bernard Woolley, played by Derek Fowlds is usually caught between the two, although heavily influenced by Sir Humphrey. Almost every programme ends with the line \"Yes, Minister\" (or \"Yes, Prime Minister\"), uttered (usually) by Sir Humphrey as he quietly relishes his victory over his \"political master\" (or, occasionally, acknowledges defeat).", "He appeared as himself in the first episode of ITV comedy The New Statesman, coming second ahead of the Labour and SDP, in the 1987 election which saw Alan B'Stard elected to Parliament.", "Contemporary residents include the actor Sir Ian McKellen, Matthew Parris, and comedy actress Cleo Rocos, actor Steven Berkoff, comedian Lee Hurst , as well as politician Lord David Owen.[http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk/collections/Owen/biog.htm David Owen biography] accessed 28 March 2007", "Stephen John Fry (born 24 August 1957) is an English actor, comedian, author and television presenter. With Hugh Laurie, as the comedy double act Fry and Laurie, he co-wrote and co-starred in A Bit of Fry and Laurie, and the duo also played the title roles in Jeeves and Wooster. Fry played the lead in the film Wilde, was Melchett in the Blackadder television series and is the host of the panel comedy trivia show, QI. He has contributed columns and articles for newspapers and magazines, and has written four novels and an autobiography, Moab Is My Washpot. He has also presented his 2008 television series Stephen Fry in America, which saw him travelling across all 50 states in six episodes.", "Yes Minister won the BAFTA award for Best Comedy Series for 1980, 1981 and 1982, and the \"Party Games\" special was nominated in the Best Light Entertainment Programme category for 1984. Yes, Prime Minister was short-listed for Best Comedy Series for both 1986 and 1987. Nigel Hawthorne's portrayal of Sir Humphrey Appleby won the BAFTA Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance four times (in 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1987). Eddington was also nominated on all four occasions. Yes Minister came sixth in a 2004 BBC poll to find ' Britain's Best Sitcom'. In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000 , voted by industry professionals, Yes Minister and Yes, Prime Minister were jointly placed ninth. They were also placed 14th in Channel 4 's The Ultimate Sitcom, a poll conducted by people who work in sitcoms.", "The Thick of It is a British comedy television series that satirises the inner workings of modern British government. It was first broadcast on BBC Four in 2005, and has so far completed fourteen half-hour episodes and two special hour-long episodes to coincide with Christmas and Gordon Brown's appointment as Prime Minister. To date, the series has earned Best New Comedy and Best Comedy Performer for Chris Langham at the 2005 British Comedy Awards, Best Situation Comedy and Best Comedy Performance, also for Langham at the 2006 BAFTAs, and Best Comedy Performance Male and Female for Peter Capaldi and Rebecca Front, as well as Best Situation Comedy a second time at the 2010 BAFTAs. The series has been described as the 21st century's answer to Yes Minister, highlighting the struggles of the media and spin doctors against civil servants. Series creator Iannucci describes it as \"Yes Minister meets Larry Sanders\". The former civil servant Martin Sixsmith is an adviser to the writing team, giving some of the storylines an element of realism. In particular, the character of Malcolm Tucker bears a distinct resemblance to former Director of Communications and Strategy Alastair Campbell, a comparison Campbell himself has acknowledged. A feature film spin-off, In the Loop, was released in the UK on 17 April 2009. The third series was eight episodes long and started on 24 October 2009, on BBC Two and BBC HD. A fourth series, eight episodes long, has been commissioned. It will be filmed sometime in 2011.", "A devoted Muslim family man experiences a hilarious identity crisis after discovering that he was adopted at birth, and his real name is Solly Shimshillewitz. Mahmud Nasir (Omid Djalili) is still grieving the recent death of his mother when he finds his birth certificate, and learns he was born to a Jewish mother. In order to embrace his heritage, Mahmud seeks the advice of drunken cab-driver Lenny (Richard Schiff), whose crash course in Judaism is more quirky than kosher. The hilarious, hit British comedy of the year. Written by acclaimed comedian and author David Baddiel and featuring an all-star cast including stand-up comedian Omid Djalili (Sex and The City 2) , Richard Schiff (The West Wing, Imagine That) and Matt Lucas (Alice in Wonderland, Little Britain).", "Alan B'Stard on the final episode of UK sitcom The New Statesman, after winning the general election, proclaims himself Lord Protector of England with seemingly dictatorial powers.", "After being forced out of Have I Got News For You , he continued to work on other projects including a new episode of Radio Active which was broadcast in December 2002. In 2003, he guest-starred as Downing Street's top spin doctor in an episode of the BBC comedy Absolute Power, starring Stephen Fry and John Bird. He starred in BBC comedy Nighty Night which was shown from January 2004. A few months later, he made a return to presenting with ITV's cookery reality show Hell's Kitchen and then the light-hearted quiz Bognor or Bust. In January 2006 he hosted an ITV show based upon self-help videos called Help Your Self.", "Malcolm Tucker is the protagonist/antihero of the BBC political satire, The Thick of It, and is portrayed by Peter Capaldi. His role is Director of Communications for the Government of the United Kingdom. Tucker was originally a secondary character, with Chris Langham's Hugh Abbott as the protagonist being watched over by Tucker, but after Langham was fired from the series the show focused more on the character of Tucker and his dealings with the inept Department of Social Affairs and Citizenship (DoSaC), originally the Department of Social Affairs (DSA) in series 1 and 2. He is one of four characters from the series to appear in the film In the Loop.", "The series featured a cast of recurring characters. Frank Weisel, played by Neil Fitzwiliam, was Hacker's political advisor in the first series. It wasn't until Yes, Prime Minister that another such character appeared regularly: Dorothy Wainwright, special advisor to the Prime Minister, who was played by Deborah Norton. Hacker also had a Press Secretary, Bill Pritchard, played by Antony Carrick. Meanwhile, Sir Humphrey's civil service colleagues were regularly featured. They included Sir Arnold Robinson (played by John Nettleton), Cabinet Secretary in Yes Minister and later President of the Campaign for Freedom of Information; Sir Frederick Stewart (played by John Savident), Permanent Secretary of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, who is known as \"Jumbo\" to his friends; and Sir Frank Gordon (played by Peter Cellier), Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, who appeared in both series. Sir Humphrey also had an old acquaintance: Sir Desmond Glazebrook (played by Richard Vernon), who was Board member, then Chairman, of Bartlett's Bank. He became Governor of the Bank of England in the Yes, Prime Minister episode \" A Conflict of Interest\".", "After championing Yes Minister on the BBC's Britain's Best Sitcom, Iannucci devised, directed and was chief writer of The Thick of It, a political satire-cum-farce for BBC Four. It starred Chris Langham as an incompetent cabinet minister being manipulated by a cynical Press Officer, played by Peter Capaldi and based on Tony Blair's former Press Secretary Alastair Campbell. The series was broadcast in two-parts in 2005 before an expanded cast starred in two specials and a \"third\" series.", "Sir Humphrey Appleby, GCB, KBE, MVO, MA (Oxon), is a fictional character from the British television series Yes Minister and Yes, Prime Minister. He was originally played by Sir Nigel Hawthorne, however currently he is being played by Henry Goodman in a new series of Yes, Prime Minister. In Yes Minister, he is the Permanent Secretary for the Department of Administrative Affairs (a fictional department of the British government). In the last episode of Yes Minister, \"Party Games\", he becomes Cabinet Secretary, the position he retains during Yes, Prime Minister. Hawthorne's portrayal won the BAFTA Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance four times: 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1987.", "The character was resurrected for the 2010 general election campaign in a series of short sketches on BBC Two's late evening current affairs programme Newsnight. The sketches were written by Jay and Lynn, and Sir Humphrey was played by Henry Goodman.", "Nigel Hawthorne's most famous roles were as Sir Humphrey Appleby in the television series Yes Minister (and its sequel, Yes, Prime Minister). For that he won four BAFTA awards. His greatest film achievement was King George III in the film adaptation of the play The Madness of George III, for whic...", "Hugh shot to fame recently for playing the much loved character of Dr. House, the arrogant yet brilliant diagnostician. Hugh has appeared in numerous roles, being a prominent figure in the Blackadder series with Rowan Atkinson, and appearing with Stephen Fry in the hugely popular ‘A Bit of Fry and Laurie’ as well as ‘Jeeves and Wooster’. In his acting career, Hugh has received multiple awards, including two Golden Globes for his role in House, and five time winner of the Peoples Choice Award for favourite TV and Male actor. Since the end of the series ‘House’, Hugh has become an internationally critically acclaimed musician, producing two bestselling albums.", "From 13 April to 17 April 2015, Piers guest hosted five episodes of Good Morning Britain on ITV and from November 2015 is a permanent co-host on Mondays, Tuesdays and Wednesdays. He appears alongside Susanna Reid and Charlotte Hawkins.", "In 2005, BBC Four launched The Thick of It, described by director Armando Iannucci as \"Yes Minister meets Larry Sanders\", and The Daily Telegraph called it \"a Yes, Minister for the Labour years.\" The style shows many identifiable hallmarks of Yes Minister, namely the blundering politician virtually entirely dependent on those whose presentational and political nous greatly eclipse his own limited abilities. In a 2006 poll, British MPs voted Yes Minister as the greatest political comedy of all time. ", "In 1966 he turned to acting, first in films and television, and then on stage. His films include 'Privilege' and 'The Committee'. His television credits include 'Z Cars', 'Space 1999' and 'The Sweeney'. In the 80s he hosted 'Weekend for Granada' and 'A Plus 4' on Channel Four. More recently he starred in four series of the children's favourite, Uncle Jack. At the Royal National Theatre he starred in 'The Beggar's Opera' and 'Guys And Dolls', and for the RSC, 'Kiss Me Kate'. Other West End shows include 'Conduct Unbecoming' (also on Broadway), 'Cats', and 'Pump Boys' and 'Dinettes'. He has worked with directors such as Sir Richard Eyre, Peter Gill and Toby Robertson. His numerous gold albums include one for the original recording of Evita.", "His starring role as the brilliant but unorthodox American consultant Dr Gregory House in the hit U.S. medical drama House nets him $700,000 per episode, making him the highest paid actor in a television drama. He once described Eton as ‘the most private of private schools’. The actor and comedian, who shot to fame this side of the pond in Blackadder and Jeeves And Wooster, is also an accomplished musician.", "His television credits included Spyder’s Web; Moving; The Bill; The Old Guys; and The Vicar of Dibley. Film credits included The Naked Civil Servant; 1984; Wilt; Interview with the Vampire; Vanity Fair; Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire; and Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy.", "The Little Britain star will play the Prime Minister in BBC One's Mr Stink later this year.", "81. Which actor has played the rather diverse characters of Tony Blair, Brian Clough and Richard Nixon?", "His role: The star plays Ian Fletcher, the head of the fictional BBC's Head of Values", "He was elected to the House of Commons to represent Wirral in the 1945 general election . Originally a Liberal , he became a member of the \"Young Turks\" faction of the Conservative Party." ]

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[ "Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative) and W.E. Gladstone (Liberal) alternated Prime Ministerial duties from 1868 to 1885, and presided over a series of progressive laws that greatly improved life for most people in the UK; a majority of men became eligible to vote, women could own property, and trade unions were legalised. They are also the only nineteenth-century politicians that most twenty-first century people can name, if you don't count royals.", "In 1868 William Gladstone , leader of the Liberals in the House of Commons , became Prime Minister. Gladstone's government had plans for a series of reforms including the extension of the franchise, elections by secret ballot and a reduction in the power of the House of Lords. Victoria totally disagreed with these policies but did not have the power to stop Gladstone's government from passing the 1872 Secret Ballot Act .", "British politics were dominated by the rivalry (though not enmity) between Disraeli and Gladstone until Disraeli's exit in 1880. Gladstone went on into the 1890s. William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal Prime Minister from 1868-74, 1880-85, 1886 and 1892-94, provoked strong reactions. Queen Victoria described him as a \"half-mad firebrand\". In 1867, Gladstone became leader of the Liberal party following Palmerston's resignation, and became prime minister for the first time the following year. The results of the doubling of the electorate were manifest in the substantial majority which the new Liberals acquired at the elections of 1868, and the Disraeli ministry (Derby had retired early in the year) gave place to a government presided over by the indubitable leader of the new Liberal forces, Gladstone. His policies were intended to improve individual liberty while loosening political and economic restraints.", "As a result, the Conservative Party divided and the Whigs formed a government with Russell as PM. Those Conservatives who were loyal to Peel were known as the Peelites and included the Earl of Aberdeen and William Ewart Gladstone. In 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs and the Radicals to form the Liberal Party. Disraeli became overall Conservative leader in 1868, although, when Prime Minister, he did not attempt to reintroduce protectionism.", "As a result the Conservative Party split and the Whigs under Russell formed a government. Those Conservatives who were loyal to Peel were known as the Peelites and included the Earl of Aberdeen and William Gladstone . In 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs and the Radicals to form the Liberal Party . Disraeli became overall Conservative leader in 1868, although when Prime Minister he did not attempt to reintroduce protectionism.", "Entering Parliament (1833) as a Tory, he became a protégé of Sir Robert Peel , who made him undersecretary for war and the colonies (1835). In Peel's second ministry, he became vice president (1841) and president (1843) of the Board of Trade, introducing the first government regulation of the railroads, and then (1845) colonial secretary. A supporter of free trade, he resigned (1846) with Peel in the party split that followed repeal of the corn laws and gradually aligned himself more and more with the Liberals. As chancellor of the exchequer (1852–55, 1859–66), he eloquently proposed and secured measures for economic retrenchment and free trade. He also espoused the cause of parliamentary reform (see Reform Acts ).", "      Convinced of the need for a further reform of Parliament, he introduced a bill for the moderate extension of the franchise in March 1866, but it foundered in June, and the whole government resigned. Next year Disraeli introduced a stronger Reform Bill that gave a vote to most householders in boroughs. Disraeli became prime minister early in 1868. Russell had resigned from active politics, and Gladstone was the Liberal mentor during the general election at the end of the year. Though Gladstone lost his Lancashire seat, he was returned for Greenwich; and the Liberal Party won handsomely in the country as a whole. His abilities had made him its indispensable leader, and when Disraeli resigned Queen Victoria called on him to form a government.", "Born in Liverpool, Gladstone was a graduate of Christ's Church Oxford. Initially intending to become a lawyer, he was elected an MP in 1832 and chose a career in politics instead. Originally a Tory, he became a member of the Liberal Party in 1859. He held many of the highest government offices, including those of Chancellor of the Exchequer and President of the Board of Trade. Gladstone became one of the most famous Prime Ministers in British history, serving from 1868 until 1874; 1880 to 1885; in 1886, and from 1892 to 1894.", "Benjamin Disraeli was born December 21, 1804, in London. Educated at Higham Hall School in Walthamstow. He served as Prime Minister in 1868 and again in 1874-1880. Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when Queen Victoria (who liked Disraeli both personally and politically) made him Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden. Benjamin Disraeli died April 19, 1881, in London. He was regarded as the founder of the Conservative party in Britain. Disraeli's most lasting achievement was the creation of the modern Conservative Party after the Corn Laws schism of 1846. Before and during his political career, Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as a part of the Victorian literary canon. He mainly wrote romances, of which Sybil and Vivian Grey are perhaps the best-known today.", "The Earl of Liverpool was succeeded by fellow Tory Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, whose term included the Catholic Emancipation, which occurred mostly due to the election of Daniel O'Connell as a Catholic MP from Ireland. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, many of which were controlled by Tories. In the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, which began to transform the Tories into the Conservative Party. However, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party, whose members are commonly still referred to as Tories.", "The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites. Lord Aberdeen became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. Having been returned again for the university of Oxford, he entered on the active duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently g P Y House of government in power, but on the 18th of October the commons. old prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer, became for the first time leader of the House of Commons. Lord Russell, backed by Gladstone, persuaded his colleagues to consent to a moderate Reform Bill, and the task of piloting this measure through the House of Commons fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate on the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very finest, which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail. The government were defeated on an amendment in committee, and thereupon resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister, with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. On the 18th of March 1867 the Tory Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household Suffrage in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in committee at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill became law in August.", "The Whig-Radical amalgam could not become a true modern political party, however, while it was dominated by aristocrats, and it was not until the departure of the \"Two Terrible Old Men\", Russell and Palmerston, that Gladstone could become the first leader of the modern Liberal Party. This was brought about by Palmerston's death in 1865 and Russell's retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government (during which the Second Reform Act was passed by agreement between the parties) Gladstone won a huge victory at the 1868 election and formed the first Liberal government. The establishment of the party as a national membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877.", "Following the success of his double first, William travelled with his brother John on a Grand Tour of Europe, visiting Belgium, France, Germany and Italy. On his return to England, William was elected to Parliament in 1832 as Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Newark, partly through the influence of the local patron, the Duke of Newcastle. Although Gladstone entered Lincoln's Inn in 1833, with a view to becoming a barrister, by 1839 he had requested that his name should be removed from the list because he no longer intended to be called to the Bar.[1]", "Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, (7 September 1836 - 22 April 1908) was a British Liberal Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1905 to 1908 and Leader of the Liberal Party from 1899 to 1908. He also served as Secretary of State for War twice, in the Cabinets of Gladstone and Rosebery. He was the first First Lord of the Treasury to be officially called \"Prime Minister\", the term only coming into official usage five days after he took office. He also remains the only person to date to hold the positions of both Prime Minister and Father of the House at the same time.", "Although a major figure in the protectionist wing of the Conservative Party after 1844, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly Lord Derby, the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the 1860s would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards, Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with William Ewart Gladstone , who eventually rose to become leader of the Liberal Party. In this duel, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with Queen Victoria , who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the peerage as the Earl of Beaconsfield, capping nearly four decades in the House of Commons .", "His Peelite followers, led by Lord Aberdeen and William Gladstone, went on to fuse with the Whigs as the Liberal Party. Peel was the first sitting British Prime Minister to have his photograph taken. ", "In November 1834 King William IV dismissed the Whig government and appointed Robert Peel as his new prime minister. Peel immediately called a general election and during the campaign issued what became known as the Tamworth Manifesto . In his election address to his constituents in Tamworth, Peel pledged his acceptance of the 1832 Reform Act and argued for a policy of moderate reforms while preserving Britain's important traditional institutions. The Tamworth Manifesto marked the shift from the old, repressive Toryism to a new, more enlightened Conservatism. After Peel became Prime Minister in 1834, his followers tended to describe themselves as Conservatives rather than Tories .", "In December 1832 Gladstone was elected as Tory (Conservative) Member of Parliament for Newark-on-Trent. He gave his maiden speech on June 3, 1833, during the Committee debate on the Bill for Abolition of Slavery in the British Empire, which he opposed. After the bill passed in 1834, he secured government reimbursement to his father for the 2,508 slaves his sugar plantations \"employed.\"", "Palmerstone died on October 18, 1865, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Lord John Russell. Gladstone remained Chancellor of the Exchequer, and also became leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons. Russell's government fell after Parliament refused to pass a Reform Bill extending the franchise in national elections, on June 28, 1866.", "The Reform Act 1867 passed that August, extending the franchise by 938,427—an increase of 88%—by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least £10 for rooms. It eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granted constituencies to 15 unrepresented towns, with extra representation to large municipalities such as Liverpool and Manchester. This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (as Robert Cecil was by then known), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of \"a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals\". Cranborne, however, was unable to lead an effective rebellion against Derby and Disraeli. Disraeli gained wide acclaim and became a hero to his party for the \"marvellous parliamentary skill\" with which he secured the passage of Reform in the Commons. ", "Robert Peel, often called the \"model Prime Minister\", was the first to recognise this new role. After the successful Conservative campaign of 1841, J. W. Croker said in a letter to Peel, \"The elections are wonderful, and the curiosity is that all turns on the name of Sir Robert Peel. It's the first time that I remember in our history that the people have chosen the first Minister for the Sovereign. Mr. Pitt's case in '84 is the nearest analogy; but then the people only confirmed the Sovereign's choice; here every Conservative candidate professed himself in plain words to be Sir Robert Peel's man, and on that ground was elected.\" ", "Benjamin Disraeli is perhaps the best known and certainly the most colorful of Britain's Prime Ministers during the long reign of Queen Victoria. He was also a prolific writer. His novelistic trilogy: Sybil, Coningsby, and Tancred and later works: Lothair and Endymion would alone earn him a special place in English life and literature, but it is his career as the leading Conservative of the century and writings and speeches on events of the age that earn him a special place in the pantheon of parliamentary politics. --This text refers to an alternate Paperback edition.", "He originally intended to take orders in the Church of England , but his father dissuaded him. He mistrusted parliamentary reform; his speech against it in May 1831 at the Oxford Union, of which he had been president, made a strong impression. One of his Christ Church friends, the son of the Duke of Newcastle, persuaded the Duke to support Gladstone as candidate for Parliament for Newark in the general election of December 1832; and the “Grand Old Man” of Liberalism thus began his parliamentary career as a Tory member.", "This was primarily a political strategy designed to give the Conservative party control of the reform process and the subsequent long-term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after their 1832 Reform Act. It was thought that if the Conservatives were able to secure this piece of legislation, then the newly enfranchised electorate may return their gratitude to the Tories in the form of a Conservative vote at the next general election. As a result, this would give the Conservatives a greater chance of forming a majority government. After so many years in the 'stagnant backwaters' of British politics, this seemed most appealing. The Reform Act 1867 extended the franchise by 938,427 – an increase of 88% – by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns, and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been under-represented in Parliament . [43] This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (later the Marquess of Salisbury), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of \"a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals.\" [44] Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier.", "The widening of the electoral franchise in the 19th century forced the Conservative Party to popularise its approach under Lord Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, who carried through their own expansion of the franchise with the Reform Act of 1867. In 1886 the party formed an alliance with Lord Hartington (later the 8th Duke of Devonshire) and Joseph Chamberlain's new Liberal Unionist Party and, under the statesmen Lord Salisbury and Arthur Balfour, held power for all but three of the following twenty years before suffering a heavy defeat in 1906 when it split over the issue of free trade. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative party. In Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922.", "He entered the House of Commons as a Conservative on 22 August 1853, as MP for Stamford in Lincolnshire. He retained this seat until entering the peerage and it was not contested during his time as its representative. In his election address he opposed secular education and \"ultramontane\" interference with the Church of England which was \"at variance with the fundamental principles of our constitution\". He would oppose \"any such tampering with our representative system as shall disturb the reciprocal powers on which the stability of our constitution rests\". In 1867, after his brother Eustace complained of being addressed by constituents in a hotel, Cecil responded: \"A hotel infested by influential constituents is worse than one infested by bugs. It's a pity you can't carry around a powder insecticide to get rid of vermin of that kind\". ", "Won 1859 General election as leader of the new Liberal Party taking over from Conservatives. Returned for second term following the 1865 general election. Died while serving as Prime Minister", ", 1830–1903, British statesman. He entered Parliament in 1853 as a Conservative and devoted himself for 50 years to a program of cautious imperialism", "He was the leader of the liberal party in England. Extended the right to vote and reform Act in 1884. Formed whigs into the liberal party.", "..... Click the link for more information. ), which created some 500,000 middle-class voters, marked the advent of the new party. The 19th-century Conservatives, like their Tory predecessors, were defenders of the established Church of England. They supported aristocratic government and a narrow franchise. They attempted, by passing factory acts and moderating the poor law of 1834, to ease hardships stemming from the Industrial Revolution, but they had no comprehensive plan to cope with its widespread dislocations. They were stronger in rural than in urban areas and were defenders of agricultural interests.", "Leading conservative political figure in Britain in the second half of the 19th century; took initiative of granting vote to working- class males in 1867; typical of conservative politician making use of popular politics", "Political identities in mid-19th-century Britain are somewhat blurred, largely owing to the split in the Conservative party in 1846 over the repeal of the Corn Laws . The Peelite minority, which separates at the time from the mainstream Conservative party, contains many of the outstanding politicians of the period - who subsequently feature in several different contexts." ]

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[ "* In the wake of her election victory, Britain's Prime Minister Thatcher revamps her cabinet; among the changes is the removal of Francis Pym as foreign secretary and the naming of Sir Geoffrey Howe as his replacement.", "Following a challenge to her leadership from former Cabinet minister Michael Heseltine, Thatcher resigned as prime minister on November 22, 1990. Major quickly emerged as a strong candidate to succeed her: he had the backing of Thatcher and the \"Thatcherite\" wing of the party, his background in economic affairs provided him with important experience, and he was widely liked. After a brief campaign, in which he was opposed by Heseltine and Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd, he won the leadership election on November 27, 1990, and became prime minister the next day.", "Sir John Major, KG, CH, ACIB (born 29 March 1943) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990–1997. He held the posts of Foreign Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the cabinet of Margaret Thatcher and was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdon 1979–2001.", "Sir John Major, KG, CH (born 29 March 1943) is a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He served as Foreign Secretary and then Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Thatcher Government from 1989 to 1990, and was the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon from 1979 to 2001. He is the oldest living former Prime Minister.", "  Thatcher agreed with Sir Keith Joseph and the Centre for Policy Studies that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy—and had lost direction—following its 1972 U-turn. After her party lost the second election of 1974, Joseph decided to challenge Heath's leadership but later withdrew after an unwise speech seen as supporting eugenics. Thatcher then decided that she would enter the race on behalf of the Josephite/CPS faction. Unexpectedly she out-polled Heath on the first ballot, forcing him to resign the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor William Whitelaw, by 146 votes to 79, and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975. [22] She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life for what he (and many of his supporters) perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.", "Sir John Major KG , CH (born 29 March 1943 ) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1990 to 1997. He was also a member of the Cabinets of Margaret Thatcher as Chief Secretary to the Treasury , Foreign Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer . He retired from the House of Commons at the 2001 general election .", "Howe was Margaret Thatcher's longest-serving Cabinet minister, successively holding the posts of Chancellor of the Exchequer, Foreign Secretary, and finally Leader of the House of Commons, Deputy Prime Minister and Lord President of the Council. His resignation on 1 November 1990 is widely considered by the British press to have precipitated Thatcher's own resignation three weeks later.", "On 22 June 1995, tired of continual threats of leadership challenges that never arose, Major resigned as Leader of the Conservative Party and announced he would contest the resulting leadership election . John Redwood resigned as Secretary of State for Wales to stand against him. Major won by 218 votes to Redwood's 89 (with 12 spoiled ballots, eight 'active' abstentions and two MPs abstaining), enough to win in the first round, but only three more than the target he had privately set himself. [12]", "Robin Cook (28 February 1946 – 6 August 2005), a British Labour Party politician, was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Livingston from 1983 until his death in 2005, and served in Tony Blair 's first cabinet as Foreign Secretary from May 1997. Following Labour's second landslide General Election victory in June 2001, Cook was demoted by Tony Blair (reportedly under pressure from the Bush administration ) and appointed Leader of the House of Commons . [2]", "Following in the footsteps of his great-grandfather the 1st Viscount, Younger became Member of Parliament for Ayr in 1964 and served as Margaret Thatcher's Secretary of State for Scotland for seven years. He subsequently succeeded Michael Heseltine as Secretary of State for Defence in 1986 when Heseltine resigned from the cabinet over a dispute about helicopters known as the Westland crisis.", "However he is best known for resigning from Mrs Thatcher’s cabinet in November 1990 and triggering the leadership challenge that brought about her demise.", "The seat was held from 2001 to 2013 by David Miliband, who served as Foreign Secretary from 2007 until Labour's general election defeat of 2010. On 26 March 2013 Miliband announced his resignation from Parliament in order to take up a post as the head of the International Rescue Committee in New York City.", "1. 1st November 1990: The deputy Prime Minister resigned over Margaret Thatcher’s opposition to a single European currency. He was the last remaining member of her original 1979 cabinet. Who was he?", "In 1974 he was elected for East Surrey and served as Social Services spokesman and Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. When Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979, Howe was named Chancellor of the Exchequer and occupied the post until 1983. His tenure was marked by policies to liberalise the economy and to reduce inflation. From 1983 he served as Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs until 1989 when he became Deputy Prime Minister, Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the Council. He was Thatcher’s longest-serving Cabinet minister but resigned in 1990 over the government’s policy towards Europe. Howe stood down from the House of Commons in 1992 and was made a life peer as Baron Howe of Aberavon.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925) is a retired British politician. She was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.[1]", "Six candidates stood in the first ballot to replace him, in order of votes they were: Michael Foot, James Callaghan, Roy Jenkins, Tony Benn, Denis Healey and Anthony Crosland. In the third ballot on 5 April, Callaghan defeated Foot in a parliamentary vote of 176 to 137, thus becoming Wilson's successor as Prime Minister and leader of the Labour Party, and he continued to serve as Prime Minister until May 1979, when Labour lost the general election to the Conservatives and Margaret Thatcher became Britain's first female prime minister.", "The former Labour cabinet minister Jack Straw is to stand down as an MP at the next election. Straw, who was foreign secretary in the run-up to the Iraq war and a member of the cabinet throughout the 1997-2010 Labour government, announced his decision at a meeting of his Blackburn constituency Labour party on Friday evening.", "In August 2006, 37 Labour Party members in her Derby South constituency left the party and joined the Liberal Democrats, criticising her approach to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Two weeks earlier, Beckett's successor, David Miliband, openly criticised Blair and Beckett during a full cabinet meeting for failing to call for an immediate ceasefire. Jack Straw and Hilary Benn, then International Development Secretary, later came out against Blair and Beckett as well.", "Dame Margaret Mary Beckett, (née Jackson; born 15 January 1943) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Derby South since 1983. She was the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party under John Smith 1992 to 1994, and briefly served as Leader of the Labour Party after Smith died suddenly. She later served in the Cabinet under Prime Minister Tony Blair in a number of roles, becoming Britain's first female Foreign Secretary in 2006.", "Following Aneurin Bevan’s death in 1960, George Brown (1960-1970) became Deputy. Born into a working class family in South London, Brown left school at 15, became an organiser in the trade union movement, and went on to be Foreign Secretary. He was replaced by the Welsh son of a coal miner Roy Jenkins (1970-1972), who served as Home Secretary, and later left the Labour Party to form the Socialist Democratic Party.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG , OM , PC , FRS (born 13 October 1925) served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.", "In early September 1989, a collection of Powell's speeches on Europe was published titled Enoch Powell on 1992 (1992 being the year set for the creation of the Single Market by the Single European Act of 1986). In a speech at Chatham House for the launch of the book on 6 September, he advised Thatcher to fight the next general election on a nationalist theme as many Eastern European nations previously under Russian rule were gaining their freedom. At the Conservative Party conference in October, he told a fringe meeting, \"I find myself today less on the fringe of that party than I have done for 20 years\". After Thatcher resisted further European integration at a meeting at Strasbourg in November Powell asked her parliamentary private secretary Mark Lennox-Boyd to pass to her \"my respectful congratulations on her stand... she both spoke for Britain and gave a lead to Europe—in the line of succession of Winston Churchill and William Pitt. Those who lead are always out in front, alone\". Thatcher replied, \"I am deeply touched by your words. They give me the greatest possible encouragement\".", "Nov 22: Margaret Thatcher resigns as Conservative party leader (and Prime Minister) John Major elected", "In the Conservative leadership election in the aftermath of the Conservatives' landslide defeat at the hands of New Labour, Thatcher voiced her support for William Hague after Kenneth Clarke entered into an alliance with John Redwood. Thatcher reportedly then toured the tea room of the House of Commons, urging Conservative MPs to vote for Hague.", "Conservative party leadership contender William Hague as he leaves the Houses of Parliament with his latest recruit, former prime minister Baroness Thatcher. The third and final ballot in the bid to find John Major's successor, takes place between Mr Hague and former chancellor Kenneth Clarke.", "John Enoch Powell MBE ( June 16 , 1912 – February 8 , 1998 ) was a British politician, linguist, writer, academic, soldier and poet. He was a Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) between 1950 and February 1974, and an Ulster Unionist MP between October 1974 and 1987. Controversial throughout his career, his tenure in senior office was brief. He held strong and distinctive views on issues such as race, national identity, immigration, monetary policy, and the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community , which later became the European Union .", "The United Kingdom general election of 1979 was held on 3 May 1979 to elect 635 members to the British House of Commons. The Conservative Party, led by Margaret Thatcher, ousted the incumbent Labour government of James Callaghan with a parliamentary majority of 44 seats. The election was the first of four consecutive election victories for the Conservative Party, and Thatcher became the United Kingdom and Europe's first female elected head of government.", "Sir John Major KG CH PC ACIB (born March 29, 1943), is a British politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the British Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He was Prime Minister at a time of great change including the transition following the end of the Cold War, the Gulf War and the further integration of the European Union. His willingness to compromise and engage in talks with the IRA advanced the peace process in Northern Ireland which, after he left office, resulted in the Good Friday Agreement .", "MP from 1997 and  Parliamentary Private Secretary to Andrew Smith at the Department of Education and Employment, and moved with him when he became Chief Secretary to the Treasury. She is Vice-Chairperson of Labour for Campaigns, and appointed Privy Councillor and Special Representative of the Prime Minister to Cyprus in 2007. (b. 1955-).", "After Labour unexpectedly lost power in 1970 Jenkins was appointed Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer by Harold Wilson. Jenkins was also subsequently elected to the deputy leadership of the Labour Party in July 1970, defeating future Labour Leader Michael Foot and former Leader of the Commons Fred Peart at the first ballot. At this time he appeared the natural successor to Harold Wilson, and it appeared to many only a matter of time before he inherited the leadership of the party, and the opportunity to become Prime Minister.", "Following his resignation as Prime Minister, Major briefly became Leader of the Opposition and remained in this post until the election of William Hague as leader of the Conservative Party in June 1997. His Resignation Honours were announced in August 1997.", "Formerly Labour Whip in the House of Commons and Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of State of Foreign and Commonwealth Office 1998-99 and 1999-2003 to the Lord Chancellor. (b. 1952-)." ]

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[ "Nowadays Hansard, the British Parliament's venerable record of proceedings, is searchable online. There follow all references to the stout man of national affairs since 1999:", "Hansard (also known as the Official Report) is the report of the proceedings of the British Parliament. It is a full report, in the first person, of virtually every word said in the debates in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, with only repetitions and redundancies omitted and obvious mistakes corrected. It is named after Thomas Curson Hansard, a 19th century printer and publisher of the debates.", "Parliamentary publications are those papers needed by Parliament to conduct its business and those papers resulting directly from the proceedings of Parliament. These publications often reflect the flow of legislation, from a consultative document (Green Paper) to an initial statement of government policy (White Paper), a Bill, Debates on the Bill, an Act of Parliament, and the subsequent Delegated Legislation (usually in the form of Statutory Instruments).", ", name given to the official record of the proceedings of the British Parliament, named after the Hansard family of printers. Luke Hansard (1752–1828) was printer to the House of Commons and published Journals of the House of Commons", "A February 2008 Freedom of Information Act request for the release of details of MPs' expenses claims was allowed by an Information Tribunal but challenged by The House of Commons Authorities on the grounds that it was \"unlawfully intrusive\". In May 2008 the High Court (England and Wales) ruled in favour of releasing the information.Corporate Officer of the House of Commons v Information Commissioner [2008] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2008/1084.html EWHC 1084 (Admin)] In April 2009 the House of Commons authorities announced that publication of expenses, with certain information deemed \"sensitive\" removed, would be made in July 2009. But before this could take place the expenses records and documentation were leaked to The Daily Telegraph newspaper, which began publishing details in daily instalments from 8 May 2009. These disclosures dominated the British media for weeks. On 18 June 2009 the details of all MPs' expenses and allowance claims approved from 2004 to 2008 were published on the official Parliament website with detail such as addresses, claims that were not approved for payment and correspondence between MPs and the parliamentary fees office removed, bringing further accusations of unnecessary secrecy and allegations that this might have prevented serious abuses from being disclosed.", "United Kingdom Parliament. 2007. The Governance of Britain. London: HMSO. Available from www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm71/7170/7170.pdf . Accessed 12 November 2012.", "Debates. The printed record of the proceedings in the House published after each sitting and based on the edited and corrected text of the \"blues\". The Debates are often identified as \"Hansard\" which is the name of the British family once responsible for the transcription of the proceedings of the House of Commons in the United Kingdom.", "The Eighteenth Century British Official Parliamentary Publications portal includes House of Commons Sessional Papers 1801-1834, Reports from Committees of the House of Commons 1715-1801, House of Commons Sessional Papers of the Eighteenth Century 1715-1800, and House of Lords Sessional Papers 1714-1805.", "In the afternoon we assembled in Black Rods Garden adjacent to the Victoria Tower and were taken up into the Parliamentary Archives at the top of the tower.  Here we were given a wide ranging talk by Magi Takayanagi, a Senior Archivist, on the work of the Archives which were established in 1946 for both Houses. Despite the fire of1834 the saved Commons records go back to 1547 and the Lords records back to 1497. The Archives hold all the Acts of Parliament, Journals of both Houses, Hansard Reports, and some politicians personal papers ie David Lloyd George.  We were taken higher up the tower into the air/humidity controlled and fire protected rooms where the older Acts are in parchment rolls and are stored in accordance with the Regnal Years.  The Acts today are printed on parchment and are tied with red ribbon.  A splendid display of artefacts and original documents were set out in the study room for our perusal including part of a tombstone used in evidence in a dispute over heredity.  For research scholars the Archives are open during the week by appointment.  Mari, our Guide, was given our warm thanks at the end of a remarkable and interesting visit.", "Parliamentary debates... (Hansard) are the substantially verbatim official records of things said in Parliament. They are issued in daily and weekly parts, and then cumulated into bound volumes, which are the final official version. As well as reporting all speeches delivered in the course of debate, they include answers to both written and oral questions, and records of divisions. Weekly indexes are published and each bound volume has its own index. For each session there is an further index volume which indexes the names of speakers, their official position, if any, and subjects. The indexes refer to column numbers not page numbers and for written questions and answers the column numbers are in italics. These will be found in a separate sequence at the end of each bound volume and interspersed in the weekly parts.", "Published in The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1754-1790, ed. L. Namier, J. Brooke., 1964", "See K. R. Mackenzie, The English Parliament (1950, repr. 1963); A. F. Pollard, The Evolution of Parliament (2d ed. 1926, repr. 1964); G. D. Sayles, The King's Parliament of England (1974); D.C. Bank, How Things Get Done (1979); E. Cruikshanks, Parliamentary History (4 vol., 1985); M. S. Ryan, Parliamentary Procedure (1985); G. Jones, Parliamentary Procedure at a Glance (1989).", "^ House of Commons Information Office;The Palace of Westminster; Factsheet G11; General Series; Revised May 2009: http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/G11.pdf", "The period before 1803 is reported by Cobbett's parliamentary history which covers the years 1066 to 1803. Since 1803 there have been six series of Hansard, some privately published. The fifth series, begun in 1909, was initiated by Parliament itself. Debates in the House of Lords have been reported separately since 1909; before then a summary had been published in the same volume as the Commons debates.", "The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the UK Parliament, the British Parliament or Parliament, is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories. It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom (currently Queen Elizabeth II) and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, London.", "All MPs' expenses claims for their second homes, communication and office costs for the past four years have been published on Parliament's website - after weeks of Daily Telegraph revelations based on its uncensored leaked version.", "The House of Commons Library produces briefing papers to inform MPs and their staff of key issues. The Library has published papers on the timetables for the UK Parliamentary general elections and by-elections.", "Parliament.uk website provides to the Daily editions for last 5 days. Bound volumes are available from 1994/95 onwards. Searchable from 1995.", "Roskell, R. C., L. Clark, C. Rawcliffe, ed. The History of Parliament, the House of Commons 1388-1421, ed. , 1993", "Some Acts , Proclamations and Instruments passed by the Parliaments of England and Great Britain are online.  The selected documents in the following list feature a brief explanation followed by an URL for online viewing (except for the Sophia Naturalization Act)", "See what is happening today in both Houses, read previous debates in Hansard and get the latest select committee reports. Explore research from the parliamentary libraries and find out how to access the archives.", "The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords (the upper house). Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster . The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as \" Members of Parliament\" or MPs. Members are elected, through the first-past-the-post system, by electoral districts known as constituencies, and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years).", "The House of Commons is a democratically elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster (commonly known as the Houses of Parliament) in London. By constitutional convention, all government ministers, including the Prime Minister, are members of the House of Commons - or, less commonly, the House of Lords - and are thereby accountable to the respective branches of the legislature.", "* Parliament of the United Kingdom (consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords)", "12.00noon The Parliament Programme GLYN MATHIAS ALASTAIR STEWART Television's only programme providing up-to-the-minute coverage of the work of both Houses of Parliament on a daily basis - with live", "The Plenum exercises parliamentary control at least twice a week, which includes petitions, written and oral questions, applications to submit documents and interpellations. Documents by means of which Parliamentary control is exercised are submitted to Parliament and ought to mention which Minister they are addressed to. Should Ministers to whom the document is addressed deem it is not within their competence to reply, they should transmit the aforementioned document, within the deadlines set in the Standing Orders, to the competent minister. Parliamentary control means must be processed within the regular session they were presented, but in the event that this is not possible, they may be submitted anew. ", "II. What is the name of the type of document used to present proposals for new legislation to Parliament ?", "Recent parliamentary material on the Speaker of the House of Commons. This includes briefing papers produced by the parliamentary research services, and the latest Early Day Motions put down by MPs.", "Parliament has a temporal index, so that it can efficiently answer queries like \"find all events that occurred between times X and Y\".", "See also: List of current United Kingdom MPs , List of United Kingdom MPs , List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom , List of MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election, 2015 , Number of Westminster MPs , Salaries of Members of the UK Parliament and Records of members of parliament of the United Kingdom", "The full list of what MPs claimed for on their expenses, as revealed to date by the Daily Telegraph .", "* used as analytical and reference materials during the parliamentary hearings in the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine;" ]

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[ "The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay. ", "The 1945 General Election proved to be a landslide victory for the Labour Party, giving it a large enough majority to allow the implementation of the party's manifesto commitments and to introduce a programme of far-reaching social reforms that were collectively dubbed the 'Welfare State' (see 1945 Labour Election Manifesto ). These reforms were achieved in the face of great financial difficulty following the war. The new Prime Minister, Clement Attlee , appointed Aneurin Bevan as Minister of Health, with a remit that also covered Housing. Thus, the responsibility for instituting a new and comprehensive National Health Service, as well as tackling the country's severe post-war housing shortage, fell to the youngest member of Attlee's Cabinet in his first ministerial position. The free health service was paid for directly through public money. Government income was increased for the Welfare state expenditure by a severe increase in marginal tax rates for wealthy business owners in particular, as part of what the Labour government largely saw as the redistribution of the wealth created by the working class from the owners of large-scale industry to the workers. [1]", "In 1945 the British people elected a Labour government. The new Prime Minister was Clement Attlee, who promised to introduce the welfare state outlined in the Beveridge Report. In 1948, Aneurin (Nye) Bevan, the Minister for Health, led the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS), which guaranteed a minimum standard of health care for all, free at the point of use. A national system of benefits was also introduced to provide ‘social security’, so that the population would be protected from the ‘cradle to the 60 grave’. The government took into public ownership (nationalised) the railways, coal mines and gas, water and electricity supplies.", "Although Clement Attlee was no great radical himself, Attlee's government proved one of the most radical British governments of the 20th century, enacting Keynesian economic policies, presiding over a policy of nationalising major industries and utilities including the Bank of England, coal mining, the steel industry, electricity, gas, and inland transport (including railways, road haulage and canals). It developed and implemented the \"cradle to grave\" welfare state conceived by the economist William Beveridge. To this day, most people in the United Kingdom see the 1948 creation of Britain's publicly funded National Health Service (NHS) under health minister Aneurin Bevan as Labour's proudest achievement. Attlee's government also began the process of dismantling the British Empire when it granted independence to India and Pakistan in 1947, followed by Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) the following year. At a secret meeting in January 1947, Attlee and six cabinet ministers, including Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, decided to proceed with the development of Britain's nuclear weapons programme, in opposition to the pacifist and anti-nuclear stances of a large element inside the Labour Party.", "Developing the idea into firm policy proved difficult. Although the BMA had been part of the Medical Planning Commission, at their conference in September 1943 the association changed policy to oppose local authority control of hospitals and to favour extension of health insurance instead of GPs working for state health centres. When Health Minister Henry Willink prepared a white paper endorsing a National Health Service, it was attacked by Brendan Bracken and Lord Beaverbrook and resignations were threatened on both sides. However the Cabinet endorsed the [http://www.sochealth.co.uk/history/1944whitepaper.htm White Paper] which was published in 1944. This White Paper includes the founding principles of the NHS: it was to be funded out of general taxation and not through national insurance, and services would be provided by the same doctors and the same hospitals, but:", "Clement Attlee, Labour Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951, is best remembered for leading the government which established the National Health Service and much of the welfare state.", "The White Paper, A National Health Service, is published, which was prepared by Minister for Health, Henry Willink.", "Members of the Socialist Party of England and Wales during a pro-NHS demonstration in London in 2011. The NHS - National Health Service - was created by the Labour government of Clement Attlee in 1948, in response to the recommendations of the Beveridge Report of 1942. The concept of an NHS that is \"free at the point of delivery\" is being challenged by the current coalition government.", "The Labour government that founded it wanted to establish a locally administered entity but was confronted by a profession that was hostile to a salaried service within local government. The minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, was well aware that the NHS simply couldn’t survive without the support of the doctors, and so secured their backing by nationalising the hospitals.", "Willink then set about trying to assuage the doctors, a job taken over by Aneurin Bevan in Clement Attlee's Labour Party government after the war ended. Bevan quickly came to the decision that the 1944 white paper's proposal for local authority control of voluntary hospitals was not workable, as the local authorities were too poor and too small to manage hospitals. He decided that \"the only thing to do was to create an entirely new hospital service, to take over the voluntary hospitals, and to take over the local government hospitals and to organise them as a single hospital service\". This structure of the NHS in England and Wales was established by the National Health Service Act 1946 which received Royal Assent on 6 November 1946. Bevan encountered considerable debate and resistance from the BMA who voted in May 1948 not to join the new service, but brought them on board by the time the new arrangements launched on 5 July 1948.", "21/3/1946. Aneurin Bevan announced Labour Government plans for a National Health Service.to become operational in 1948. The cost per year was expected to be around �152 million (�5,000 million in 2015 prices; actual 2015 NHS spending is more like �115,000 million).", "Did the National Health Service help or hinder women? The large numbers of civilian casualties during the Second World War led to the government becoming more involved in medical care. Gradually the idea developed that this involvement should continue after the war. In 1942 a leading civil servant, William Beveridge, put forward the idea that there should be a National Health Service that would provide medical care for every man, woman and child in the country. The important thing about this new service was that it would be free. In 1945 a new Labour government was elected, and the following year a bill to introduce the NHS was passed by parliament. On 5 July 1948 the new National Health Service swung into operation. It was intended to make life easier for everyone by taking some of the worry and strain away from being ill or having a family member in need of medical help. But did it? Did the NHS, in reality, make life easier or more difficult for women? ● SOURCE A", "On September 4, 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron appointed Jeremy Hunt, former Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport, as the Secretary of State for Health for England. The post was formerly held by Andrew Lansley who now takes on the role of Leader of the House of Commons. This is the Prime Minister's first major reshuffle since the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government came to power in 2010.", "* 1912 – Enoch Powell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health (d. 1998)", "As Minister of Health, the planning of the Social Security Act, set out to establish a mostly free healthcare service had heavy obstacles, particularly the local branch of the British Medical Association who were bitterly opposed. Eventually, Fraser negotiated effectively enough to force the Association to yield. Luckily for him, Janet Fraser had long volunteered in the health and welfare fields and was an invaluable adviser and collaborator.", "The NHS officially came into being in July 1948, in the wake of World War II, to replace an inadequate system of volunteer hospitals that had, during the war, come to rely on government funding. Doctors and conservative politicians vehemently opposed the NHS in the run-up to its formation, using many of the arguments that opponents of greater government involvement in the U.S. cite today. According to Geoffrey Rivett, author of From Cradle to Grave The First 60 Years of the NHS, the then head of doctor's body the British Medical Association (BMA), Charles Hill, gave a radio address in 1948 in which he asked, \"Do you really want the state to be your doctor?\" Today, the BMA is a champion of the NHS and resists any privatization initiatives. In a statement on Aug. 14, BMA chairman Dr. Hamish Meldrum said, \"The NHS is not perfect. But the market-style philosophy of the U.S. is a lesson we could do well without.\"", "20. Almont Lindsay, Socialized Medicine in England and Wales: The National Health Service, 1948-1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 17-21; Harry Eckstein, The English Health Service: Its Origins, Structure, and Achievements (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), 29-33, quotation on 31.", ", 1897–1960, British political leader. A coal miner and trade unionist, he served (1929–60) in Parliament as a member of the Labour party. As minister of health (1945–51) he administered and developed the National Health Service instituted by the", "The Attlee-led Labour government took similar measures towards socialization in health care. After being in the works for nearly thirty-five years, the National Health Services Act was implemented in 1948. This act, in combination with the National Insurance Act, gave everyone access to free health care. The acts were somewhat controversial, especially among medical professionals such as doctors and dentists. A compromise was worked out, and when the service became effective, demand outstripped supply. Many people had not received decent medical attention since before the war.", "Reid also introduced plans to increase the number of smoke-free workplaces, improve diet and sexual health as part of a major drive to improve public health in England [38] and began a major public consultation as a precursor to parliamentary proposals aimed at improving the nation's health. [39] He also encouraged volunteer engagement in the health service. [40]", "The National Health Service, which came into existence on the ‘appointed day’, (5  July  1948), was the first health system to offer free medical care to the entire population at the point of need. The service was paid for out of taxation, and was not based on the insurance principle, with entitlement following contributions.", "The United Kingdom's National Health Service (NHS) was launched during July of 1948. Created by the National Health Service Act of 1946 , the NHS was envisioned as an ambitious social program that would bring free healthcare to the citizens of the United Kingdom. Funded entirely by taxation, the NHS provided fair and decent healthcare to all that would be free at the point of service. The original law only created the NHS in England and Wales, with Scotland and Northern Ireland having to create their own separate services. Sylvia Beckingham, a thirteen year old with a liver condition, became the first patient to be treated under the new NHS in 1948.", "The birth of the National Health Service in July 1948 remains Labour's greatest monument. It was achieved only after two years of bitter resistance by the medical establishment, with consultants threatening strike action and the British Medical Association pouring out gloomy warnings about bureaucracy and expense.", "The British National Health Service Act was launched providing government-financed medical and dental care as an integral part of British society, largely “free at the point of delivery”, paid for by taxes.", "The National Health Service, which was set up by an act of Parliament in 1947, gave every resident access to free medical care. A system was created that operated local public hospitals throughout the country and directly employed doctors, nurses, and other health workers. Family doctors, specialists, and dentists also received payment from the government for treating patients, although any doctor or patient can practice privately or pay for private medical care. There have been continuing debates on the level of care the service should provide and how it should be funded. The system was intended to provide unlimited medical care to any patient, and the government undertook to pay the full cost. In some ways, the service has been a victim of its own success. Free medical care and successful efforts to promote better health, diet, and working conditions have meant that people live much longer. The care of the frail elderly has consumed an increasing amount of resources; as have advances in treating diseases. Governments' attempts to control the costs of health care inevitably result in the covert rationing of resources, which conflicts with the principle of the citizen's right to high-quality free care when it is needed.", "I will continue next time with the National Health Service and the other reforms and achievements of the Labour Government.", "1948: The Labour-led government of Great Britain begins to establish a socialized welfare state, including nationally-run industry and national health insurance.", "Do we need a National Health Action Party? (I'm iffy but like the people) Official launch 15th Nov, London.", "In sum then, where research projects seek to explore the extent, causes, and impacts of variations in local government health interventions, there are good grounds for defining these broadly. This better reflects the inter-war roles of public health doctors and local officials whose remit included both personal and environmental services, and it brings to bear the full range of inputs that might have affected population health. Indeed, as one local case study has revealed, a party health platform might explicitly advocate housing reform as an alternative to spending on services such as vaccination and TB; in this sense breadth is a sine qua non for studies of local health choices. 60 That said, the more limited focus on the personal health services clearly holds some interest, given their later salience in the NHS debates. The next sections therefore turn to the methodological [End Page 395] difficulties involved in using financial records as a source for these latter activities.", "The model of the NHS, centrally funded out of taxation and thus politically directed, was quite different from that of other health systems reorganised after the war. Universal access was a tremendous step forward – in particular for women. The removal of fear of illness cannot be underestimated and, as a result, the NHS was popular at its inception and its ideal has remained so. Indeed, politicians have not interfered with these founding ideals, despite a flirtation with insurance in the 1980s.", "The Prime Minister give a fiery speech on the NHS, he talks about his personal experience of having a very sick son and of rushing him to hospital.", "This article provides a critical discussion of recent work on local government health care and health services in interwar England. A literature review examines case study approaches and comparative quantitative surveys, highlighting conventional and revisionist interpretations. Noting the differing selection criteria evident in some works, it argues that studies based upon a limited number of personal health services provide an insufficient basis for assessing local health activity and policy. There follows a regional study demonstrating various discrepancies between health financing data in local sources and those in nationally collated returns. These in turn give rise to various problems of assessment and interpretation in works relying on the latter, particularly with respect to services for schoolchildren and long-stay patients. The case study points to the importance of integrating poor law medical services in evaluations, and of learning more about the role of government subsidy in supporting expanding services." ]

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[ "What is the name for the group of opposition spokesmen who comment on the policies of government ministers?", "Finally, in organizing their questioning of the government, opposition parties often form shadow cabinets, where opposition spokespersons are responsible for criticizing specific cabinet ministries or portfolios. There will be, for example, a recognized opposition critic for national defence, foreign policy, finance, and so forth. Each opposition party usually forms its own shadow cabinet.", "    A significant aspect of the House of Commons is the importance given to the Parliamentary Opposition . It is structured with an official Leader (The Leader of the Opposition ) and a \"shadow cabinet \", consisting of spokesmen for the Opposition each with an official portfolio corresponding to that of a government minister.", "There have been repeated complaints from the Opposition benches that Government policy is trailed in the media prior to being announced in the House of Commons. Tory MPs are insistent that ministers tell the House first about new policies or projects.", "Opposition members may also regularly criticize the government in informal “media scrums” that occur outside of the chamber after a sitting of the House. During these scrums, members of the opposition make statements directly to reporters about House business and the conduct of the government, and also address questions posed to them by the media.", "One of most important of these is Question Period, which is officially referred to as “Oral Questions.” During each sitting day of the House of Commons – that is, days in which members of the House convene to discuss business and vote on legislation – 45 minutes is allotted for Question Period. The opposition can use this time to pose questions to the government and to state any criticisms they might have regarding the government’s actions and policies. The government, in turn, is given a chance to respond to these opposition questions and criticisms. These exchanges are typically very adversarial and often lack substantive political debate. The opposition will often attempt to trip up the government into making statements that will make it look bad in public, while the government will often respond in a manner that sidesteps the opposition’s questions. Moreover, Question Period can also involve personal attacks between opposition and government members, as well as heckling on both sides.", "MALCOLM TURNBULL: Kerry, if you said, if someone wrote an article in the Europe newspaper and said Terry Moran is the Head of Prime Minister and Cabinet. Or Ken Henry, who is the Head of Treasury, was passing information to the Opposition, we wouldn't comment on it. Any more than Labor would have done when they were in Opposition. So, you don't comment on those things. The fact is that people talk in Canberra. Oppositions receive information, governments receive information. Journalists receive a lot of information and discretion is the better part of valour.", "As discussed above, the opposition criticizes government actions and policies, and offers alternatives to the general public. In this context, the opposition is given several opportunities to question and debate the government.", "National publications could be denied access to government officials because of their reporting. During the year a journalist from the daily newspaper Evrensel, Sultan Ozer, and at least five other journalists did not receive accreditation to the Prime Ministry after being denied in 2009 as well. The TGS did not admit to its media briefings representatives of publications which it perceived as espousing views contrary to the TGS.", "The SONA is often used by opposition parties and activists as a venue for protests on current issues or usually against the government.", "16 Joan Walley (Stoke-on-Trent North) - After five years as opposition spokeswoman on transport, she was dropped shortly before Labour came to power. Remains an active backbencher.", "Erdoğan has been criticised for his politicisation of the media, especially after the 2013 protests. The opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) alleged that over 1,863 journalists lost their jobs due to their anti-government views in 12 years of AKP rule. Opposition politicians have also alleged that intimidation in the media is due to the government's attempt to restructure the ownership of private media corporations. Journalists from the Cihan News Agency and the Gülenist Zaman newspaper were repeatedly barred from attending government press conferences or asking questions. Several opposition journalists such as Soner Yalçın were controversially arrested as part of the Ergenekon trials and Sledgehammer coup investigation. Veli Ağbaba, a CHP politician, has called the AKP the 'biggest media boss in Turkey.'", "The BBC's Editorial Guidelines on Politics and Public Policy state that whilst \"the voices and opinions of opposition parties must be routinely aired and challenged\", \"the government of the day will often be the primary source of news\".[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbctrust/assets/files/pdf/review_report_research/impartiality_21century/f_editorial_guidelines_extracts.txt \"Editorial Guidelines Extracts\"], BBC.", "Prime Minister Portia Simpson-Miller and the Leader of the Opposition Andrew Holness lead in their teams for the start of the 2012 Parliament session with their senior Members of Parliament following.", "Any citizen may answer the herald's question 'Who wishes to speak?', but addressing such a large crowd in the open air is difficult. Most of the debate is carried on by regular speakers - in effect the leading politicians, who are known as rhetores (orators).", "In June 2011 Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury created a furore as guest editor by claiming that the Coalition government had introduced \"radical, long term policies for which no one had voted\" and in doing so had created \"anxiety and anger\" among many in the country. He was accused of being highly partisan, notwithstanding his having invited Iain Duncan Smith, the Work and Pensions Secretary to write an article and having interviewed the Foreign Secretary William Hague in the same edition. He also noted that the Labour Party had failed to offer an alternative to what he called \"associational socialism\". The Statesman promoted the edition on the basis of Williams' alleged attack on the government, whereas Williams himself had ended his article by asking for \"a democracy capable of real argument about shared needs and hopes and real generosity\".", "During the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government from 2010–2015, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, as a member of the government, did not ask questions during PMQs. Instead the leader of the second largest parliamentary opposition party at the time, Nigel Dodds of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), usually asked a single question later in the session followed by at least one MP from another smaller party such as the Scottish National Party or Plaid Cymru.", "Some opponents of fascism call for no coverage to be given to groups or individuals enunciating what they describe as \"hate speech\". The \"No Platform\" stance is to deny perceived fascist hate speech any sort of publicity. The policy is most commonly associated with university student unions and debating societies, but has also resulted in BNP candidates being banned from speaking at various hustings meetings around the country. In 2005, an invitation to Nick Griffin by the University of St Andrews Union Debating Society to participate in a debate on multiculturalism was withdrawn after protests. ", "When Anueurin Bevan heard that the government was considering closing down the Daily Mirror he forced a debate on the issue in the House of Commons . Some MPs were appalled when Herbert Morrison suggested that the newspaper might be part of a fascist plot to undermine the British Government. Several pointed out that the Daily Mirror had been campaigning against fascism in Europe since the early 1930s. Bevan argued in the debate that: \"The Government are seeking to suppress their critics. The only way for the Government to meet their critics is to redress the wrongs from which the people are suffering and to put their policy right.\"", "Critics have accused the government of restricting free speech. A law passed in 2002 created a commission with the power to issue licenses and imprison journalists; in 2004, additional legislation allowed prison sentences for libel and slander and cancelled all print and broadcasting licenses, forcing media groups to re-register at five times the original cost. [52] [53]", "The constituency associations are involved at grassroots level in the elections of party leaders, and the members of the Conservative Campaign Headquarters lead in financing, the organizing of elections, and notably, the drafting of policy. In the Conservative Party Conference Handbook for October 1991 there are 14 Notices of Motions from constituencies on immigration issues. Party officials would not permit any to be debated. The Chislehurst Constituency Association tabled the following motion at the same Conference: \"We deplore the lack of direct consultation and communication by the Party with Constituency Associations. We believe that future issues concerning matters of major policy revision should be referred to the Associations for their prior consideration and advice.\" Of course it was deliberately not debated. Instead Central Office and the leader of the Parliamentary party provide the core of daily political activity and form policy.", "In third place is left-wing MP, John McDonnell. The MP for Hayes and Harlington, like Skinner, isn’t afraid to speak out for what he believes in, even when it goes against the party line. He recently said that he, along with other 30 or 40 other MPs, would force Labour to change course on austerity if the party win in May. McDonnell is also Chair of the Socialist Campaign Group, the Labour Representation Committee, and the “Public Services Not Private Profit Group.”", "13.24 Lisa Nandy also wrote a column this morning. She disagrees with Abbot and urges those in the party to change their direction.", "I was offended when the Leader of the Opposition went outside the front of the parliament and stood next to a sign that said 'Ditch the witch'. I was offended when the Leader of the Opposition stood next to a sign that described me as a man's bitch. I was offended by those things. Misogyny, sexism, every day from this Leader of the Opposition. Every day, in every way, across the time the Leader of the Opposition has sat in that chair and I have sat in this chair, that is all we have heard from him.", "Q43 Chair: Jonathan, you keep saying this, but I would have thought that as the Department with responsibility for the media, you, more than any other perm sec, ought sometimes to recognise that how these things are reported in the media is not always in the control of either the Committee or its Chair. The issue of whether you were-whatever the words in the Report were. The first sentence; I do not have it now.", "It is interesting to notice that persons who work for the other team can often see things more clearly than many of us do. Jon Cruddas, a Labour Party MP, wrote in an essay in the left-wing, pro-Islamic newspaper The Guardian that “What makes the EDL much more dangerous is how it reflects a wider political and cultural war. Across western Europe rightwing populist parties are achieving huge electoral success on the same anti-Islam platform.”", "They went to Parliament looking for the support of legislators. They went to Speakers' Corner, that great democratic bazaar in Hyde Park in London, and pleaded their case before the gathered crowds. They went to documentary film makers, reporters and crusading book authors. And year after year they went to the British Government, asking for help, and were turned away.", "Earlier today the UK LGBT news site, PinkNews , ran a political debate in the run up to the 2015 UK general election . Representatives from 5 political parties were present and were posed questions from both the audience and a Google Hangout. Late in the debate, the focus shifted to the question of recognising the genders of people who are not female or male.", "In short, this is NOT an issue that will decide the next election. Politicians who claim to form their views by ‘listening to voters’ should be wary of employing ‘my postbag’ as a reason to resist gay marriage. This is one of those controversies – fox-hunting a decade ago was another – where the number and intensity of letter-writers bears no relation to the views of the wider public ...", "The Chakrabarti Report responds to the specific particularities of anti-Semitism within the broader context of anti-racism. Anti-Semitism and other forms of racism are real problems in British society and the Labour Party is not immune. Momentum recognises that being conscious of racism is the responsibility of all of us, we must all challenge racist ideas wherever they occur so that we can enable the Labour Party to be a political space where everyone can participate in discussion.", "'My priority will be to find as many progressives across the different parties as I possibly can to work together to oppose those - working with people outside of Parliament as well.' ", "Phil Woolas, the Immigration Minister, receives a custard pie in the face from a pro-migration campaigner during a debate at Manchester University" ]

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[ "James Ramsay MacDonald, FRS[1] (12 October 1866 – 9 November 1937) was a British statesman who was the first Labour Party Prime Minister, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935.", "Ramsay MacDonald (12 October 1866 – 9 November 1937) was a British statesman who was the first ever Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935.", "James Ramsay MacDonald (12 October 1866 – 9 November 1937) was a British statesman who was the first ever Labour Party Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935. [67]", "[9][10]Ramsay MacDonald: First Labour Prime Minister, 1924 and 1929–31The 1923 general election was fought on the Conservatives' protectionist proposals but, although they got the most votes and remained the largest party, they lost their majority in parliament, necessitating the formation of a government supporting free trade. Thus, with the acquiescence of Asquith's Liberals, Ramsay MacDonald became the first ever Labour Prime Minister in January 1924, forming the first Labour government, despite Labour only having 191 MPs (less than a third of the House of Commons).", "The 1923 general election was fought on the Conservatives' protectionist proposals but, although they got the most votes and remained the largest party, they lost their majority in parliament, necessitating the formation of a government supporting free trade. Thus, with the acquiescence of Asquith's Liberals, Ramsay MacDonald became the first ever Labour Prime Minister in January 1924, forming the first Labour government, despite Labour only having 191 MPs (less than a third of the House of Commons).", "From an unpromising start as the bastard son of a Scots farm girl, James Ramsay MacDonald became Britain’s first Labour Party prime minister for a few months in 1924. A committed socialist and pacifist, he returned to 10 Downing Street in June 1929, but the country was overwhelmed by the Great Depression and in August 1931, after protracted discussions with the other party leaders and at the urging of King George V, MacDonald formed a national government of leading Labour, Conservative and Liberal politicians.", "Ramsay MacDonald, in full James Ramsay MacDonald (born Oct. 12, 1866, Lossiemouth , Moray, Scot.—died Nov. 9, 1937, at sea en route to South America ), first Labour Party prime minister of Great Britain, in the Labour governments of 1924 and 1929–31 and in the national coalition government of 1931–35.", "1866 James Ramsay McDonald, Scottish statesman, was born. He became the first Labour Prime Minister in 1924.", "James Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937). He was the first Labour Prime minister and was 10 months in office in 1924 and later from 5 June 1929 to 7 June 1935. Ramsay MacDonald was heavily criticized and accused of being a turncoat and a traitor for having entered a coalition with the Conservatives and for refusing to implement the proto-Keynesian economic policies that other Labour leaders requested. He was expelled from the Labour Party.", "The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom , and one of the two main British political parties along with the Conservative Party. The Labour Party was founded in 1900 and overtook the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s, forming minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929�1931. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after which it formed a majority government under Clement Attlee. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan.", "In January 1924, George V asked him to form a government which resulted in the first-ever Labour government in Great Britain and MacDonald became the Prime Minister of United Kingdom. But, his administration lasted less than a year and faced heavy defeat in the elections of November 1924.", "In the 1923 General Election , the Labour Party won 191 seats. Although the Conservatives had 258, Ramsay MacDonald agreed to head a minority government, and therefore became the first member of the party to become Prime Minister. As MacDonald had to rely on the support of the Liberal Party , he was unable to get any socialist legislation passed by the House of Commons . The only significant measure was the Wheatley Housing Act which began a building programme of 500,000 homes for rent to working-class families.", "The experiences of Ramsay MacDonald’s disastrous Labour government of 1924 encouraged workers to rely on trade union industrial struggle to defend their interests. The first Labour government condemned the strikes which continued through 1924, and frequently played the role of strike-breaker. JR Clynes, one of its ministers, openly boasted that in its handling of strikes the government had “played the part of a national government and not a class government.”", "The Communist Party of Great Britain was refused affiliation to the Labour Party between 1921 and 1923. Meanwhile, the Liberal Party declined rapidly, and the party also suffered a catastrophic split which allowed the Labour Party to gain much of the Liberals' support. With the Liberals thus in disarray, Labour won 142 seats in 1922, making it the second largest political group in the House of Commons and the official opposition to the Conservative government. After the election the now-rehabilitated Ramsay MacDonald was voted the first official leader of the Labour Party.", "In 1924, MacDonald briefly became the first Labour prime minister, ending two centuries of Conservative - Liberal domination of British politics. It was the first party to gain power with the express purpose of representing the voice of the 'working class'. An MP since 1906, MacDonald was respected as a thinker, but criticised by many within his own party as insufficiently radical (despite appointing the first female cabinet minister, Margaret Bondfield, in 1929). His opposition to World War One had made him deeply unpopular and he continually suffered a torrid time at the hands of the press. The publication by two newspapers of the 'Zinoviev letter' did much to damage his chances in the run up to the 1924 election. The letter (which he had seen but decided to keep secret) purported to be from Soviet intelligence and urged British communists to commit acts of sedition. He lost by a wide margin. The letter is now widely accepted to be a fraud.", "Born to a well-off London family, he became a socialist after he personally saw the horrific conditions of the British working class during the early 1900's while working in a charity club. During World War I , he served in the army (reaching the rank of Major) and served in the Gallipoli Campaign, the notorious military disaster organised by his future political rival Winston Churchill . He became very involved in Labour Party politics following the war, winning in 1922 a seat in Parliament representing the very poverty-stricken Limehouse constituency in London. Attlee became the party leader in 1935, leading it continuously for 20 years (from October 1935 to December 1955)—the longest-serving Labour leader by a country mile (the next longest two, Harold Wilson and Tony Blair , served 13 years apiece). Whilst he was Leader of the Opposition, he opposed Neville Chamberlain 's policy of appeasement, at times viciously, and called the Munich agreement \"a victory for brute force.\" He formed a Coalition government with Churchill and served in the war cabinet as Deputy Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945. Then in 1945, when the national unity government broke up and an election was held in July 1945, Labour unexpectedly won a landslide victory. While voters respected Churchill's war record, they were sceptical about his ability to govern in peacetime and were won over by Labour's plans to rebuild the economy and create a welfare state.", "Unlike the situation in the summer of 1914, the Labour Party was united and determined in its support for the declaration of war against Germany on 3 September 1939. Owing to their distrust of the Prime Minister, however, the Labour leaders refused to join Neville Chamberlain's government. The latter's poor war leadership (following the failure of the government's Norwegian Campaign) culminated in the historic debate in the House of Commons on 7-8 May 1940. The temper of the House of Commons at this moment was summed up by the Cromwellian outburst of Leo Amery, the Tory anti-appeaser, directed against the Prime Minister: 'In the name of God, go!' In the vote that followed the ending of the debate it became clear that Chamberlain had lost the support of an important section of the Conservative Party. A coalition government was now inevitable. But when Attlee made it clear that the Labour Party would not join any government led by Chamberlain, the latter resigned as Prime Minister on 10 May. Winston Churchill then became Prime Minister with Labour support.", "Leonard James Callaghan, Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, KG , PC (27 March 1912 – 26 March 2005), was a British Labour politician , who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1976 to 1980 . Commonly known as Jim Callaghan (and nicknamed Sunny Jim, Gentleman Jim, Lucky Jim or Big Jim), Callaghan is the only person to have served in all four of the Great Offices of State : Prime Minister , Chancellor of the Exchequer , Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary .", "Leonard James Callaghan, Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, KG , PC (27 March 1912 – 26 March 2005), was a British Labour politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1976 to 1980. Commonly known as Jim Callaghan (and nicknamed \"Sunny Jim\", \"Gentleman Jim\", \"Lucky Jim\" or \"Big Jim\"), Callaghan is the only person to have served in all four of the Great Offices of State : Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer , Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary .", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG , OBE , FRS, FSS , PC (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976. He won four general elections , and is the most recent British Prime Minister to have served non-consecutive terms.", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG , OBE , PC , FRS , FSS (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976.", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG , OBE , FRS , FSS , PC (11 March 1916 Template:Spaced ndash 24 May 1995) was a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976. He won four general elections , and is the most recent British Prime Minister to have served non-consecutive terms.", "The first Labour PM remains a divisive figure on the left, but his failures were not mainly his fault. A few months in 1924 were sufficient to prove that a socialist government would not embroil the country in bloody revolution, and his nationalisation of the BBC brought about the rise of the one of the most widely respected broadcasting organisations in the world. However, he was later overshadowed by Baldwin over the Depression, and the party split over his joining forces with the conservatives.", "Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986) was a British Conservative politician and statesman who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 January 1957 to 19 October 1963. Nicknamed \"Supermac,\" he was known for his pragmatism, wit and unflappability.", "Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, KG , OM , PC , DL ( / ˈ b æ l f ʊər / ; 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative politician and statesman. He served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from July 1902 to December 1905, and was later Foreign Secretary in 1916–1919.", "Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, (; 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from July 1902 to December 1905, and later Foreign Secretary.", "Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986) was a British Conservative politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 January 1957 to 18 October 1963.", "A member of Britain's Conservative political party and Prime Minister of Great Britain from the 23rd October 1922 until the 22nd May 1923.", "(30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was an English politician . He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, once during World War II , and again in the early 1950s.", "By 1924 he was growing increasingly attracted to the Labour Party, which had just formed a government, and in March he joined it. He immediately joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) as well and allied himself with the left.", "1923: The Only British Prime Minister who was Born Outside the British Isles | History.info | Page 22574", "Liberal British politician, became Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1916 and headed the government during World War I and its aftermath.  Introduced the modern welfare state in Britain, helped guide it through Great Depression" ]

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[ "Despite Thatcher's \"notorious\" assertion that \"she expected to continue in control as a backseat driver,\" Major's mild and consensual style was seen as complete contrast to Thatcher's forceful and confrontational manner. Early in his term, he presided over British participation in the First Gulf War (March 1991) and negotiated \"Game, Set and Match for Britain\"[2] at the Maastricht Treaty (December 1991). Despite the British economy then being in recession he led the Conservatives to a fourth consecutive election victory, winning the most votes in British electoral history in the 1992 general election, albeit with a much reduced majority in the House of Commons.", "Since its signature, the treaty's name has been retrospectively amended on several occasions. The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 removed the word \"economic\" from the Treaty of Rome's official title and, in 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon renamed it the \"Treaty on the functioning of the European Union\".", "Within weeks of becoming Prime Minister, Major presided over British participation in the Gulf War in March 1991 and negotiated the Maastricht Treaty in December 1991. He went on to lead the Conservatives to a fourth consecutive election victory, winning the most votes in British electoral history with over 14 million in the 1992 general election, with a reduced majority in the House of Commons. Shortly after this, even though a staunch supporter of the ERM, the Major Government became responsible for British exit from the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) after Black Wednesday on 16 September 1992. This event led to a loss of confidence in Conservative economic policies and Major was never able to achieve a lead in opinion polls again.", "As soon as he replaced her, John Major proclaimed his wish for Britain to be ‘at the heart of Europe’ and signed the Maastricht Treaty (admittedly with a must-have opt-out for Britain on the single forex and the social chapter). But seven years later he ended up more at odds with his partners than ever, as they imposed their global ban on the export of all British red meat items over ‘mad cow disorder’, tried to sneak us into the social chapter beneath ‘fitness and safeguard’ suggestions and laid their plans for but an additional integrationist treaty in Amsterdam.", "The 1990s were also the years of European convergence. The Maastricht Treaty was signed in December 1991 foreseeing monetary union within five to seven years, although that was nearly knocked off course in September 1992 by a crisis with the EU's exchange-rate mechanism. Macro speculator George Soros allegedly made $2 billion when sterling expelled itself from the ERM.", "      Corbyn voted against the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and spoke out against the treaty in Parliament. He said: “It takes away", "The Major ministry negotiated a United Kingdom opt-out from the Social Chapter of the Maastricht Treaty when it was signed in 1992. The Blair ministry abolished this opt-out immediately after coming to power in the 1997 general election. ", "Yet Sked may have influenced the campaign for Britain to leave the European Union more than nearly any other person in Britain. That's because in 1991, he founded something called the Anti-Federalist League. Today, that political party is better known by as the United Kingdom Independence Party, or UKIP.", "\"The talk of the town is Norman Tebbit's vulgar grand-standing barn-storming performance on Europe. He savaged Maastricht, poured scorn on monetary union, patronised the PM...and brought the conference (or a good part of it) to its feet roaring for more. He stood there, arms aloft, acknowledging the ovation, Norman the conqueror\". ", "At the same time developing London attitudes were being shaped by both a cooling in personal relations at the top and by fears of the 'special relationship' being buried amid new US-German accords. Thatcher saw Bush as consciously distancing himself from her, as a way of drawing a line under the Reagan era. In September 1989, President Bush gave a televised interview to David Frost. Bush was asked which country he regarded as America's closest ally in Europe. He referred to the 'special relationship', but added 'I don't think we should have to choose...between friends' [ 65 ] . Secretary of State James Baker was accused of briefing against the British leader, portraying her as a Cold War dinosaur and Germanophobe. Margaret Thatcher saw herself as confronting 'an Administration which saw Germany as its main European partner' [ 66 ] . In more measured tones, Geoffrey Howe recalled 'a real conviction on the part of US policymakers that relations with Europe could not sensibly be dependent on the compatibilities of Anglo-Saxon instinct'. The UK 'was only one of five medium-sized European nations, and by no means the most successful - or influential in continental politics'. On 31 May 1989, President Bush referred publicly in Mainz the 'partnership in leadership' between the US and Germany [ 67 ] . Gregory Treverton wrote in 1990 that increasingly 'America will see Europe through the prism of Germany' [ 68 ] .", "For decades the stand-out term in this debate was Eurosceptic, which originally refered to people who opposed Britain joining the EEC in the first place (its earliest citation dates from 1971). After 1973, Eurosceptics became the lobby to leave the EEC/EU, but without coining a new word.", "At the end of October 1990, Margaret Thatcher returned from an acrimonious E.U. summit in Rome, where she had been in the position diplomats dread most of all: “isolated.” Reporting on the summit to the House of Commons, she attacked what she said was Jacques Delors’s idea that the European Parliament should be the European Community’s House of Representatives, the commission its executive branch, and the council ministers its Senate. With her love of repeating the same thing three times, she shouted, “No, no, no.”", "Image caption The 1991 Maastricht Treaty sets the bloc en route to the single currency and renames it the European Union", "Hoping to end their party�s squabbling over the Maastricht Treaty, who in 1992 said �I�m drawing a line under the sand� ?", "His attitude to Margaret Thatcher was one of mingled fascination and confrontation. Although he supported her in the Falklands War and it was under his presidency that the British rebate was finally agreed, they opposed each other over the EU at every turn. He was an integrationist; she believed in a Europe of sovereign nations. He was protectionist; she was a free trader. He (with Kohl ) created the Franco-German Eurocorps ; she was convinced that security rested solely on NATO and the Atlantic Alliance. He was a complex intriguer, capable of considerable deviousness, whereas she was not averse to taking her opponents head on.", "When the European Economic Community began to develop far beyond a free-trade agreement, Thatcher's strident opposition to anything beyond a single market became a hallmark of her premiership. She inspired a generation of Eurosceptics and changed the chemistry of the Tory party. In much of the nation, fed on a diet of \"Up yours, Delors!\" style headlines and exposés of life aboard the \"Brussels gravy-train\", the mood gradually shifted from one of relative indifference to antipathy towards the EU.", "The British insisted to the end, against Soviet opposition, that NATO be allowed to hold maneuvers in the former East Germany. After the Americans intervened, both the UK and France ratified the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany in September 1990, thus finalizing the reunification for purposes of international law. Thatcher later wrote that her opposition to reunification had been an \"unambiguous failure\".", "7 February 1992 (Maastricht Treaty signed establishing the European Union); 1 November 1993 (Maastricht Treaty entered into force)", "It was clear from the start that relations with other EU nations were not going to be harmonious. Thatcher went to Dublin, in November 1979, with the single-minded intention of reducing the UK contribution to the communal budget by £1bn, an objective she pursued at the risk of wrecking the summit. She was the only EU leader who would willingly see a conference end in deadlock rather than surrender what she considered to be British interests. In June 1984, she at last succeeded in negotiating a reduction in the British rebate, helped by the patient diplomacy of France's socialist President, Francois Mitterrand. Like many foreign statesman, Mitterrand viewed Thatcher with a kind of appalled fascination. \"Cette femme Thatcher!\" he famously remarked. \"Elle a les yeux de Caligula, mais elle a la bouche de Marilyn Monroe.\"", "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany : Under the terms of this peace treaty , the Four Powers renounced all rights they formerly held in Germany, including Berlin. As a result, Germany became fully sovereign on 15 March 1991. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Allies were allowed to keep troops in Berlin until the end of 1994 (articles 4 and 5). In accordance with the Treaty, occupying troops were withdrawn by that deadline. Germany remains however without the normal protection of the UN charter due to articles 53 and 107 in the charter which has not been amended since the end of the war.", "In September 1988, Margaret Thatcher , then British Prime Minister, delivered a speech in the Belgian town of Bruges. It opened a great debate on the future of Europe. For the first time in post-war European history a British politician proposed widening the ideal of European political union, to throw European countries on the side of international free trade, willing co-operation between nations and individual liberty. The Bruges Group , formed in February 1989, is concerned to argue for these broader objectives within the debate on the future of Europe. All the papers in this volume are written from that viewpoint. [5]", "At Bruges, Belgium, in 1988, Thatcher made a speech in which she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community, a forerunner to the European Union, for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision-making. Though she had supported British membership in the EC, Thatcher believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that the EC approach to governing was at odds with her views of smaller government and deregulatory trends; in 1988, she remarked, \"We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels\". A split was emerging over European policy inside the British Government and her Conservative Party.", "It was accepted that this was something that needed to be done, and the conditions between Europe and the U.S. were different. We were ahead of the game on the substitutes in 1987. We had more problems with some of the uses for the substitutes in 1990 and 1992, but basically we spoke the same language and had the same objectives, and we were able to work around our differences. There was no bad blood. The chemistry was still pretty good among those of us who had worked together already from early 1987, and it was a well-designed treaty.", "Events were moving quickly in Europe, particularly after Delors took over as president of the European commission in 1985. Leigh-Pemberton argued that sterling should join the European exchange rate mechanism, as did Lawson, but failed to convince Thatcher. In the end, Britain joined the ERM in 1990 only to be forced out two years later despite the Bank's selling of huge amounts of reserves to try to maintain the rate.", "A former writer and professor of sociology at the Erasmus University of Rotterdam, Pim Fortuyn took the Dutch political scene by storm at the beginning of the new millennium. With his controversial ideas, strong debating skills, and his flamboyant style, Fortuyn divided the Dutch political sphere like few people did before him. He called for an ‘ideological fight’ against Islam, meaning that he wanted a debate about the ways in which Islamic culture is incompatible with our modern and liberal views. In his own words, there were parts of Islam which had no place in our society. Fortuyn would be heavily criticized for using the word achterlijk to describe these bad parts of Islam, the word meaning as much as ‘backwards’ or ‘retarded’.", "In the beginning of the 1980s, then-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher once called the European Parliament a \"Mickey Mouse parliament\", meaning a discussion club without influence. [38]", "In the beginning of the 1980s, then-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher once called the European Parliament a \"Mickey Mouse parliament\", meaning a discussion club without influence. [71]", "These talks resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous; some Icelanders commenced a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949.", "On 16 October 2009, Wilders arrived in the United Kingdom and was quickly forced to move his press conference due to protests by about forty members of the organization Islam4UK, an organization that was later shut down under the UK's Terrorism Act 2000 on 14 January 2010. Though the Home Office had asserted that his entry into the country would not be blocked, a spokesman said his \"statements and behaviour during a visit will inevitably impact on any future decisions to admit him.\" His visit to the UK met with protest, but Wilders called it \"a victory\" in a press conference. On his outspoken views on Islam, he said: \"I have a problem with the Islamic ideology, the Islamic culture, because I feel that the more Islam that we get in our societies the less freedom we get.\" He opened the press conference with a quote from George Orwell's preface to Animal Farm: \"If liberty means anything at all, it means the right to tell people what they don't want to hear\". Lord Pearson, who had invited him, said his arrival was \"a celebration of the victory of freedom of speech over those who would prevent it in this country, particularly the Islamists, the violent Jihadists who are on the march across the world and in the UK.\"", "In 2010 Farage compared the former Belgian prime minister and new President of the European Council Herman Van Rompuy to a \"low-grade bank clerk\" and accused him of being a \"quiet assassin of European democracy and of European nation states\". Also referred to Belgium as a \"non-country\".", "Later, as foreign secretary, he became a nemesis to the “Iron Lady” by advocating increased integration with Europe on economic and monetary affairs. His stance cost him his job in 1989 and he was given the largely symbolic post of deputy prime minister.", "Fortuyn provoked controversy with his outspoken views about multiculturalism, immigration and Islam in the Netherlands. He called Islam \"a backward culture\", and was quoted as saying that if it were legally possible, he would close the borders for Muslim immigrants. He was labelled a far-right populist by his opponents and in the media, but he fiercely rejected this label. " ]

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[ "Two-time Best Actress Academy Award winner Glenda Jackson set aside her acting career after becoming a Labour Party MP in 1992. Four years ago, Jackson, who represented the Greater London constituency of Hampstead and Highgate, announced that she would stand down the 2015 general election – which, somewhat controversially, was won by right-wing prime minister David Cameron's Conservative party. [1] The silver lining: following a two-decade-plus break, Glenda Jackson is returning to acting.", "Hampstead is part of the Hampstead and Highgate constituency and since 1992 the member of parliament has been the former actress Glenda Jackson of the Labour Party .", "Graduate of RADA and former actress Glenda Jackson (Lab) was first elected MP for the now defunct seat of Hampstead and Highgate in 1992. Her first position in government was as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Transport. Most recently, she has served on the   Work and Pensions Select Committee. She is not standing for election in 2015. Full biography on Jackson’s website .", "Politics: Hampstead and Kilburn was created for the 2010 election, a cross borough seat based on the old Hampstead and Highgate seat of Glenda Jackson and the Brent East seat of Sarah Teather, who opted to fight the Brent Central seat instead. In 2010 the result was an extremely tight three-way finish between Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat with Labour only winning by 42 votes. In 2015 the Liberal Democrat vote collapsed, but the battle between Labour and Conservative remained tight, with Tulip Siddiq winning by only two percent.", "Double Oscar-winner Jackson’s last acting role was in 1992, before she won a seat in Parliament as the Labour MP for Hampstead and Highgate.", "Some areas here were amongst the wealthiest in the UK, but the seat always had an intellectual, artistic middle-class vote associated with the intelligentsia (see main page on Hampstead). It also contained Kilburn, with its large Irish community (also intelligentsia). The Labour incumbent in Hampstead and Highgate at the time of abolition, Glenda Jackson, retained the new constituency of Hampstead and Kilburn in 2010 with a majority of just 42. ", "The Iron Lady is a 2011 British biographical film based on the life of Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), a British stateswoman and politician who was the longest-serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the 20th century. The film was directed by Phyllida Lloyd. Thatcher is portrayed primarily by Meryl Streep, and, in her formative and early political years, by Alexandra Roach. Thatcher's husband, Denis Thatcher, is portrayed by Jim Broadbent, and by Harry Lloyd as the younger Denis. Thatcher's longest-serving cabinet member and eventual deputy, Geoffrey Howe, is portrayed by Anthony Head. ", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, ( Roberts; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "In a May 1998 referendum sponsored by the British labor government elected in 1997, London's citizens voted for a restoration of government at the metropolitan level with the establishment of a mayor-council government to consist of a strong mayor directly elected by the voters and a 25-member assembly. With the new government slated to take office in the autumn of 2000, mayoral elections scheduled for 1999 drew a colorful roster of contenders, including actress Glenda Jackson and novelist and political conservative Jeffrey Archer.", "It is Jackson’s first foray into acting since she became MP for Hampstead and Highgate in 1992, following a film career that including two best actress Oscars in the 1970s. She stood down from parliament at the last election.", "Dame Margaret Natalie \"Maggie\" Smith, (born 28 December 1934) is an English actress. She has had an extensive, varied career in stage, film and television spanning over sixty years. Smith has appeared in over 50 films and is one of Britain's most recognisable actresses. She was appointed as Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1970. She was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 1990 New Year Honours for services to the performing arts, and Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to drama. ", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, n�e Roberts (13 October 1925 (birth time source: Charles Harvey, Astrodatabank) � 8 April 2013), was a British politician, the longest-serving (1979�1990) Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist called her the \"Iron Lady\", a nickname which became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented Conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatch...", "British actress and model, nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as Kate Croy in The Wings of the Dove (1997) and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Queen Elizabeth in The King's Speech (2010). Her other film roles include A Room with a View (1986), Howards End (1992), Fight Club (1999), and playing Bellatrix Lestrange in the Harry Potter series (2007–2011).", "Route into politics:after more than a decade serving as a councillor for the London Borough of Merton, Mrs May finally made it to Westminster in 1997, the year of the Blair landslide, winning the seat of Maidenhead. She won at the third time of asking, having stood unsuccessfully for Tory seats in the 1992 General Election and in a 1994 by-election in Barking.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime ministerof the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the “Iron Lady”, which later became associated with her uncompromising policies. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.", "Leading The Second Wave: British Cabinet Secretary Barbara Castle (Miranda Richardson) meets with strike leader Rita O'Grady (Sally Hawkins) in Nigel Cole's Made In Dagenham. According to Hawkins, O'Grady was a crusader for women's rights not enough people have heard of. Susie Allnut/Sony Pictures Classics hide caption", "Jackson retired from acting in order to stand for election to the House of Commons in the 1992 general election, subsequently becoming the Labour MP for Hampstead and Highgate. Following a period as shadow minister for transport, following the 1997 general election, she was appointed as parliamentary under secretary of state (a junior minister) in the government of Prime Minister Tony Blair, with responsibility for London Transport, a post from which she resigned in 1999 before an unsuccessful attempt to be nominated as the Labour Party candidate for the election of the first Mayor of London in 2000. In the 2005 general election, she received 14,615 votes, representing 38.29% of the votes cast in the constituency.", "In the elections of May, 1997, Labour won 418 seats in the House of Commons by following a centrist political strategy. Tony Blair, head of what he called the New Labour party, became prime minister. In August, Britain mourned Princess Diana, the former wife of Prince Charles, who was killed in a car accident in Paris. Blair's pledge to decentralize government was endorsed in September, when Scotland and Wales both voted to establish legislative bodies, giving them a stronger voice in their domestic affairs. A bill passed by both houses of Parliament in 1999 stripped most hereditary peers of their right to sit and vote in the House of Lords; the shape of the reconstituted upper chamber is to be studied by a commission. Blair and Labour again trounced the Conservatives in June, 2001, though the victory was not so much a vote of confidence in Labour as a rejection of the opposition.", "Pauline Perpetua Quirke (born 8 July 1959) is an English actress, known for her role as Sharon Theodopolopodous in the long-running comedy series Birds of a Feather from 1989 to 1998, and again since 2014. For this role, she won the 1990 British Comedy Award for Best Newcomer. She was nominated for the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress for her role in the 1996 BBC miniseries The Sculptress. Her other television credits include Maisie Raine (1998–99), Down to Earth (2000–03), Emmerdale (2010–12) and Broadchurch (2013–).", "She remained on the backbenches as MP for Finchley until the 1992 General Election, which was surprisingly won by the Conservatives with new leader John Major at the helm.", "Jackson was again nominated for an Oscar for her performance in HEDDA (1976). She continued working in films in the '80s and into the early 90's. Glenda stopped her acting career when she was elected to the British Parliament in 1992, and served until the end of the 2015 term. She unsuccessfully ran for mayor of London in 2000 and 2005. Glenda has the distinction of being the only Member of Parliament that has won an oscar.", "Margaret Thatcher first won election to Parliament in 1959, representing Finchley in north London. She climbed the Conservative Party ladder quickly, joining the Cabinet as education secretary in 1970.", "For a young woman with a new family, to become an MP was unprecedented. But in 1958, she was selected for the rock-solid north London constituency of Finchley, the seat she represented from October 1959 until she retired at the general election in 1992.", "Lady Thatcher, born Margaret Roberts in Grantham, served as MP for Finchley, north London, from 1959 to 1992.", "Lady Porter (she has the title by virtue of her marriage to Sir Leslie Porter), heiress to the Tesco fortune, was appointed a Dame of the British Empire by John Major, after she had delivered a spectacular victory for the Tories in the 1990 elections in Westminster, where she was council leader.", "Before she began her political career she was a world-famous theater and actress. She resigned from the Government in order to stand for the candidacy for Mayor of London. From 2000 Member of the Mayor of London's Advisory Cabinet in charge of Homelessness (b. 1936- ).", "Through her marriage to Laurence Olivier, she became closely associated with his work at the National Theatre from 1963 onwards. From the 1980s she began to appear more regularly in films, including Enchanted April (1992), for which she won a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award nomination, Dennis the Menace (1993), a cameo in Last Action Hero (also 1993), and Tea With Mussolini (1999). She was also Nanny in 101 Dalmatians (1996). Among her television roles, she won another Golden Globe Award and earned an Emmy Award nomination for the HBO film Stalin in 1992 as the Soviet dictator's mother-in-law. In 1994, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award.", "Labour MP 1987-2110 and created Baroness Armstrong of Hill Top, of Crook in the County of Durham in 2010. (b. 1946-).", "In her mid-twenties she ran as the Conservative candidate for the strong Labour seat of Dartford at the General Elections of 1950 and 1951, winning national publicity as the youngest woman candidate in the country. She lost both times, but cut the Labour majority sharply and hugely enjoyed the experience of campaigning. Aspects of her mature political style were formed in Dartford, a largely working class constituency which suffered as much as any from post-war rationing and shortages, as well as the rising level of taxation and state regulation. Unlike many Conservatives at that time, she had little difficulty getting a hearing from any audience and she spoke easily, with force and confidence, on issues that mattered to the voters.", "The actress remembers watching her grandfather speak at the Albert Hall. \"The whole place was just transfixed. It was really something. It had a stunning effect on me.\" She has always voted Democrat in America, but she regards herself as apolitical. \"I am not bright enough at all to have very clear views. Although I know what I believe in, of course: equality and all those good things.\"", "On May 6th 2010 she was elected as MP with 48% of the popular vote. She was the first black MP to ever be elected in the constituency of Maidstone and The Weald, and broke conservative party history by being the first elected female black conservative. She has been the Parliamentary Under-Secretary in the Department for Culture, Media, and Sport since 2012. " ]

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[ "Published in a single volume for the first time, Margaret Thatcher is the story of her remarkable life told in her own words--the definitive account of an extraordinary woman and consummate politician, bringing together her bestselling memoirs The Downing Street Years and The Path to Power. Writing candidly about her upbringing and early years and the formation of her character and values, she details the experiences that propelled her to the very top in a man's world. She offers a riveting firsthand history of the major events, the crises and triumphs, during her eleven years as prime minister, including the Falklands War, the Brighton hotel bombing, the Westland affair, the final years of the Cold War, and her unprecedented three election victories. Thatcher's judgments of the men and women she encountered during her time in power-from statesmen, premiers, and presidents to Cabinet colleagues-are astonishingly frank, and she recalls her dramatic final days in office with a gripping, hour-by-hour description from inside 10 Downing Street. Powerful, candid, and compelling, Margaret Thatcher stands as a testament to a great leader's significant legacy.", "This first volume of Margaret Thatcher's memoirs, which encompasses the whole of her time as Prime Minister. Margaret Thatcher is the towering figure of late-twentieth-century British politics. No other prime minister of modern times has sought to change Britain and its place in the world as radically as she did. This is the story of her remarkable life in her own words. This first volume of her memoirs is a riveting first-hand portrait of the events and personalities of her eleven years in power. She recalls the triumphs and the critical moments of her premiership - the Falklands War, the miners' strike, the Brighton bomb, the Westland Affair and her unprecedented three election victories. Her judgements of the men and women she encountered, whether world statesmen or Cabinet colleagues, are astonishingly frank. She is lavish with praise where it is due; devastating with criticism when it is not. The book reaches a gripping climax with an hour-by-hour description from inside 10 Downing Street of her dramatic final days in office. Margaret Thatcher's compelling account stands as a powerful testament to her extraordinary legacy.", "She has written two books about her time in Downing Street: Inside Number 10 on the period 1964–1970 and Downing Street in Perspective on Wilson's third term as Prime Minister 1974–1976. After retiring from working in Downing Street, she worked as a columnist for the Mail on Sunday from 1983 to 1988. She continued to work for Wilson, handling his private business from the time of his resignation in 1976 until his death in 1995.", "Harold Wilson, the son of a chemist and teacher, was born in Yorkshire during the First World War. In 1924, aged 8, he visited 10 Downing Street, which would eventually become his home.", "James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG , OBE , FRS , FSS , PC (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British Labour politician and Leader of the Labour Party . He was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s, winning four general elections , including a minority government after the February 1974 general election resulted in a hung parliament. He is the most recent British Prime Minister to have served non-consecutive terms.", "Margaret Thatcher worked on her memoirs in retirement. In 1993 she published The Downing Street Years 1979-1990 to tell her own story about her years as prime minister. In 1995, she published The Path to Power, to detail her own early life and early political career, before becoming prime minister. Both books were best-sellers.", "THATCHER, Margaret. The Downing Street Years. WITH: The Path to Power. WITH: The Collected Speeches. WITH: Statecraft. (London): HarperCollins, (1993-2002). Together, four volumes. Thick octavo, original cloth, original dust jackets.", "Harold Wilson arriving at 10 Downing Street on 17 October 1964 after Labour won power. Previously the party had lost three general elections in a row. Photograph: Roger Jackson/Getty Images", "However, there have been numerous times when prime ministers have unofficially lived elsewhere out of necessity or preference. Winston Churchill for example had a great affection for Number 10, but he grudgingly slept in the bunkered Annex of Number 10 for his safety during World War II. He rarely slept in his underground bedroom in the Cabinet War Rooms. To reassure the people that his government was functioning normally, he insisted on being seen entering and leaving Number 10 occasionally. Harold Wilson, during his second ministry from 1974 to 1976, lived in his home in Lord North Street because Mrs. Wilson wanted \"a proper home\". However, recognising the symbolic importance of Number 10, he worked and held meetings there and entertained guests in the State Dining Room.", "4. Peter Paterson, Tired and Emotional: The Life of Lord George Brown (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993), pp. 105–20; Stewart Jones, British Policy in the Middle East 1966–74 (Raleigh, NC: Lulu.com , 2009), PDF e-book, pp. 13, 16–17, 21–22; Harold Wilson, A Personal Record: The Labour Government, 1964–1970 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971), pp. 271–72.", "He entered Downing Street in 1976 after the resignation of Harold Wilson. Prime Minister Tony Blair called him a \"giant\" of the Labour movement.", "Donoughue, Bernard. Prime Minister: Conduct of Policy Under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan, 1974-79. Jonathan Cape, 1987.", "Wilson was born in Huddersfield, England on 11 March 1916, an almost exact contemporary of his rival, Edward Heath (born 9 July 1916). He came from a political family: his father James Herbert Wilson (18821971) was a works chemist who had been active in the Liberal Party and then joined the Labour Party. His mother Ethel (ne Seddon; 18821957) was a schoolteacher prior to her marriage. When Wilson was eight, he visited London and a later-to-be-famous photograph was taken of him standing on the doorstep of 10 Downing Street.", "Harold Wilson , Memoirs 1916-1964: The Making of a Prime Minister (Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Michael Joseph, London, 1986), p. 121.", "A look behind the scenes of Number 10 Downing Street, the official residence and office of British Prime Minister Tony Blair. In 2000 the BBC followed Prime Minister's Press Secretary Alastair Campbell during his daily routines and dealings with the British press.", "Entering parliament following the 1945 general election , Harold Wilson was appointed the Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Works and rose quickly through the ranks, becoming the Secretary for Overseas Trade two years later and finally being appointed to the cabinet as the President of the Board of Trade in 1947. In the Labour Shadow Cabinet he served first as the Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1955–1961 and then as the Shadow Foreign Secretary , until becoming party leader in 1963.", "The name, Downing Street, is synonymous with one house in that street, which sits at number 10. No other country in the world can boast of such a world-renowned name, and certainly no other country can boast of such a world-renowned leader, as Sir Winston Churchill, who took office there on May 10th, 1940 and remained there, all through WW II as British Prime Minister, until 1945, when he surprisingly lost the General Election. He did however return as Prime Minister again in 1951 until 1955, and remained a Member of Parliament until 1964. But it was as Britain’s wartime leader, that most people remember Winston Churchill.", "Harold Wilson’s experiences in and out of the corridors of power in Whitehall had led him to see politics as an intensely volatile environment in which even the most elaborate government plans could be undone — almost at a moment’s notice — by some dramatic event occurring either at home or abroad. Long before the Lebanese market quant Naseem...", "Wilson was born at 4 Warneford Road, Huddersfield , in the West Riding of Yorkshire , England on 11 March 1916. He came from a political family: his father James Herbert Wilson (December 1882 – 1971) was a works chemist who had been active in the Liberal Party and then joined the Labour Party . His mother Ethel (née Seddon; 1882–1957) was a schoolteacher before her marriage. When Wilson was eight, he visited London and a later-to-be-famous photograph was taken of him standing on the doorstep of 10 Downing Street .", "Wilson regarded himself as a \"man of the people\" and did much to promote this image, contrasting himself with the stereotypical aristocratic conservatives who had preceded him. Features of this portrayal included his working man's Gannex raincoat, his pipe (the British Pipesmokers' Council voted him Pipe Smoker of the Year in 1965 and Pipeman of the Decade in 1976, though in private he smoked cigars), his love of simple cooking and fondness for popular British relish HP Sauce , and his support for his home town's football team, Huddersfield Town . [54] His speech showed a Yorkshire accent at times. Eschewing continental holidays, he returned every summer with his family to the Isles of Scilly . His first general election victory relied heavily on associating these down-to-earth attributes with a sense that the UK urgently needed to modernise, after \"thirteen years of Tory mis-rule ...\". These characteristics were exaggerated in Private Eye's satirical column \" Mrs Wilson's Diary \".", "First entering Parliament in 1945 , Wilson was immediately appointed the Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Works and rose quickly through the ministerial ranks, becoming the Secretary for Overseas Trade in 1947 and being appointed to the Cabinet just months later as the President of the Board of Trade . Later, in the Labour Shadow Cabinet , he served first as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1955 to 1961 and then as the Shadow Foreign Secretary from 1961 to 1963, when he was elected Leader of the Labour Party after the sudden death of Hugh Gaitskell . Wilson narrowly won the 1964 election , going on to win a much increased majority in a snap 1966 election .", "Edward Heath’s tenure was sandwiched by two Labor Ministries of Harold Wilson. He did preside over a period of low unemployment and economic prosperity in his first term, but his second ministry was a direct opposite and eventual reversal of everything he achieved in his first term. Wilson preoccupied himself with attempts to prevent the devaluation of the pound, and neglected to deal with the inherited problem of large external deficit. (The problem would be neglected again and again until Mrs. Thatcher came to office.) On the international scene, he fared better: he refused American President Johnson’s requests of an British intervening in Vietnam, and also refused to help minority white government of Rhodesia. However, there were even allegations that he was a Soviet spy: he withdrew the military forces from bases east of Suez, cancelled numerous defense projects (including a supersonic Harrier, a new transport aircraft American Hercules C130) and bankrupted Rolls-Royce in the process. (Rolls-Royce’s temporary nationalization began in 1971 and lasted 17 years.) He retired on his sixtieth year in 1976. He tried to enter television broadcasting, but his attempts floundered, not at least because Alzheimer was setting in.", "Six candidates stood in the first ballot to replace him, in order of votes they were: Michael Foot, James Callaghan, Roy Jenkins, Tony Benn, Denis Healey and Anthony Crosland. In the third ballot on 5 April, Callaghan defeated Foot in a parliamentary vote of 176 to 137, thus becoming Wilson's successor as Prime Minister and leader of the Labour Party, and he continued to serve as Prime Minister until May 1979, when Labour lost the general election to the Conservatives and Margaret Thatcher became Britain's first female prime minister.", "As Wilson’s private and political secretary throughout his tenures as Prime Minister in the Sixties and Seventies, Falkender was reputed to be the ‘most powerful woman in British politics’.", "Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC, FRS (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986) was a British Conservative politician and statesman who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 January 1957 to 19 October 1963. Nicknamed \"Supermac,\" he was known for his pragmatism, wit and unflappability.", "One is tempted to say that he was the typical grammar school boy up at Oxford in the pre-war 1930s. Almost working class certainly lower middle class no particular privileges in his background - unless you regard the nonconformist social and moral discipline as a privilege. Yet he wasn't typical. Unlike Denis Healey, from a roughly similar background in Yorkshire, Wilson did not dive headlong into Oxford politics or literary life. He was a swot. He spent his time almost exclusively on his studies - and did brilliantly. He won the Webb Medley economics prize as well as the Gladstone history prize. He gained an outstanding first-class honours degree in PPE and was elected to a junior research fellowship at University College, where he helped the master, Sir William Beveridge, in a study of unemployment and the trade cycle which had a clear influence on the great Beveridge Report.", "Alastair Campbell is a writer, communicator and strategist best known for his role as former British Prime Minister Tony Blair’s spokesman, press secretary and director of communications and strategy. He continues to advise left-of-centre parties, and now splits his time between writing, speaking, charities and consultancy. He has written eleven books in the past eight years, most recently 'Winners and How They Succeed', a Number 1 bestseller.", "Born in Marlborough, the conservative politician was secretary to Edward Heath. He has held the positions of Secretary of State, Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer. He also writes political thrillers.", "It never stopped him enjoying life to the full. He called his memoirs, The Time of My Life and used them to parade a range of interests – hinterland, he called it – that few at the top of high-pressure 20th-century politics could match. Despite a gruelling workload, even as chancellor Healey clung to his youthful enthusiasms for music, literature (from poetry to thrillers), painting and theatre. In pre-digital times he always carried a camera, usually managing to slip away from a dull conference abroad to visit a gallery, or sleep beneath the desert stars on a palace roof in Yemen.", "* The Third Man: Life at the Heart of New Labour Harper Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0007395286", "He was responsible for reorientating British foreign policy and he repaired the damage done to the Anglo-American relationship through his close relationships with Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy. With his ‘winds of change’ speech in 1960, he distanced himself and the country from apartheid and he speeded up the process of decolonisation, following a series of studies into the costs and benefits of the British Empire.", "Do you know which prime minister brought 'fallen women' to 10 Downing Street? Or which one fought a duel? Or who was known as 'the Goat'?" ]

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[ "(äm`bədzmən) [Swed.,=agent or representative], public official appointed to deal with individual complaints against government acts. The office originated in Sweden in 1809 when the Swedish legislature created a riksdagens justitieombudsman, or parliamentary agent of justice, and in the 20th cent. it has been adopted by a number of countries. As a government agent serving as an intermediary between citizens and the government bureaucracy, the ombudsman is usually independent, impartial, universally accessible, and empowered only to recommend. In the United States the term ombudsman has been used more widely to describe any machinery adopted by private organizations (e.g., large business corporations and universities) as well as by government to investigate complaints of administrative abuses. In 1969, Hawaii became the first of many American states to appoint an ombudsman.", "The word “Ombudsman” is derived from the Swedish word meaning “agent” or “representative [i] .”  Ombudsman offices have been established in a variety of state, municipal, county, local, and federal governments, as well in academic organizations and businesses as an independent and impartial organization which assists in obtaining resolution of conflicts or complaints.  Ombudsman may be  alternatively known as \"advocate,\" \"citizen's representative,\" and \"mediator. [ii] \"  The United States Ombudsman Association (USOA), defines the public sector ombudsmen as \"an independent, impartial public official with authority and responsibility to receive, investigate or informally address complaints about government actions, and, when appropriate, make findings and recommendations, and publish reports [iii] \"", "The appointment of this parliamentary ombudsman in Sweden in 1809 is generally regarded as the birthdate of the modern ombudsman. Most of the public or parliamentary ombudsmen around the world are modeled on what happened in Sweden in 1809. A common definition that is accepted today says that a public or parliamentary ombudsman is “a public official appointed by the legislature to receive and investigate citizen complaints against administrative acts of government”.", "Swedish law draws upon Germanic and Roman traditions. It is neither as codified as French law nor as dependent on judicial precedent as U.S. law. Legislative and judicial institutions include, in addition to the Riksdag, the Supreme Court, the Supreme Administrative Court, the Labor Court, the Law Council, District Courts and Courts of Appeal, and the Public Prosecutor's Office. The parliamentary ombudsmen and the Chancellor of Justice oversee the application of laws with particular attention to abuses of authority.", "(in Britain) an official, without power of sanction or mechanism of appeal, who investigates complaints of maladministration by members of the public against national or local government or its servants Formal names Commissioner for Local Administration, Health Service Commissioner, Parliamentary Commissioner See also Financial Ombudsman", "2. A government official, especially in Scandinavian countries, who investigates citizens' complaints against the government or its functionaries.", "Also termed as organization ombudsman, he is an official whose job is to investigate the complaints of the citizenry concerning public services.", "The judicial system of Finland is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities. Finnish law is codified and based on Swedish law and in a wider sense, civil law or Roman law . Its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the Supreme Court . The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court . In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members of the Council of State, the Chancellor of Justice and the Ombudsman of Parliament.", "If it is determined that the Magistrate’s Court has the proper jurisdiction over the matter, the prosecution may be conducted by the complainant (plaintiff), or by an officer of the Government, including the Attorney-General, the Solicitor-General, a state counsel, or any officer of any national or local government office.", "In 1697, when he was only 15 years old, Charles XII became King of Sweden. For the next 17 years, however, Charles was out of the country fighting wars, mostly against Russia. During this time, because he was away from the country, Charles signed a law creating an office called the King’s Highest Ombudsman. The job of the King’s Highest Ombudsman was to make sure that while the king was away the government workers, judges, and the military were acting properly and following the rules the King had left for them. When the wars were over and the King returned to Sweden, the office of the ombudsman disappeared for several decades, but it was not forgotten.", "O F F I C E O F T H E P U B L I C P RO T E C T O R Fa s t Fac t s •The Public Protector is also known as Ombudsman, Mediator, or Commissioner, etc.", "2. (in Britain) an official, without power of sanction or mechanism of appeal, who investigates complaints of maladministration by members of the public against national or local government or its servants", "Public prosecutors are the only public officers who can decide to appeal cases to appellate courts (hovrätter). Otherwise, appeals are initiated by defense counsel, the plaintiff, their representatives, and other parties to the case (målsäganden). When a case has been decided by an appellate court, the right to appeal to the Supreme Court passes from the case's prosecutor to the Director of Public Prosecutions (Riksåklagaren).", "Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \"On Behalf of the Government\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state. ", "He is the foremost representative of Sweden and pays State Visits abroad and receives those to Sweden, he opens the annual session of the Riksdag , chairs the Special Council held during a change of Government, holds regular Information Councils with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, chairs the meetings of the Foreign Affairs Council, and receives Letters of Credence of foreign ambassadors to Sweden and signs those of Sweden to foreign nations. As this type of figurehead, he also voluntarily abstains from voting in Swedish elections. [3]", "1. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a commissioner who acts as independent referee between individual citizens and their government or its administration", "Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into twenty-one counties (län). Each county has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse, which is appointed by the government (the first Swedish County Administrative Board was made up by the Swedish Prime Minister Axel Oxenstierna in 1634). In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is elected directly by the people.", "Prosecutor's Fallacy : Prosecuter Ekström is guilty of this to an appalling degree, both from his disbelief that anyone in the government could have done what Lisbeth and Blomkvist accuse them of, and from being fed incorrect information by The Section because they're trying to use him to cover the whole thing up.", "a person whose job is to adjudicate in court cases. The Crown and the Prime Minister appoint judges. Most are barristers but some are solicitors.", "Please register your personal complaints by sending letters and copies of this article to the Acting Inspector General of the Justice Department, Cynthia A. Schnedar.", "Defensor Del Pueblo in Madrid. Their mandate involves matters where citizens believe that they have been treated unjustly by public bodies including Ayuntamiento s. The service is free, the complaints can be submitted in English, and they can be made online at registro@defensordelpueb lo.es, their website which is in several languages is: www.defensordelpueblo.e s . Their website outlines the scope of their powers and mandate. Their investigations will be rigorous, including", "Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Hogsta Domstolen (judges are appointed by the prime minister and the cabinet)", "47. Complainants may initiate a complaint against an officer either in person or by telephone, mail, or facsimile transmission.  Complainants shall not be required to file a complaint \"form\" to initiate an investigation.  Complainants may be required to provide information available to them to enable OMI to identify the police officer(s) involved and the incident giving rise to the complaint.", "[ F412 (9A)This subsection applies to any complaint by a person (“the complainant”) that another person—", "Handle and investigate complaints from citizens and families related to government services for children and families - this may include child protective services, foster care, adoption and juvenile justice services.", "Offences committed in public life, either in the capacity of a public officer or against magistrates,", "All public power proceeds from the people. This is the foundation of parliamentary democracy in Sweden. Everyone has the same rights and is free to scrutinise how politicians and public agencies exercise their power.", "The Norwegian attorney general (which is to say, the highest prosecuting authority in Norway) was responsible for the prosecution, in this case Sven Arntzen . Considerable public and internal debate accompanied the trials from beginning to end, with Arntzen himself playing a highly public profile in establishing the principles that should drive the trials.", "To file a formal complaint about a person or company in a court of law for the purpose of exacting compensation from them", "Sweden (Honorary Consulate), 10940 Wilshire Boulevard Suite 700, ☎ +1 310-445-4008 ( ConsularinfoLA@foreign.ministry.se , fax: +1 310-473-2229).   edit", "Investigations of official involvement must be both thorough and impartial. A hotline might be established to receive allegations of official involvement, with safeguards established for the protection of witnesses. Information could then be turned over to a commission of inquiry for investigation, with the record of the proceedings public to the extent that witness security permits. Prosecutions of officials, including members of the police, should take place in civilian courts in proceedings that are open to the public.", "Where is the the easy method for members of the public to identify and complain about the activities of such alleged \"authorised persons\" ?" ]

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[ "The New Deal was a programme of economic and social reforms brought in by US president Franklin D. Roosevelt between 1933 and 1939 to help the United States recover from the depression of the 1930s. Roosevelt's measures aroused a lot of opposition, in particular from conservative politicians.", "The New Deal was a series of economic programs passed by the U.S. (FDR) Congress during the first term of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States, from 1933 to 1938. The programs were responses to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the \"3 rs\": relief, recovery and reform. That is, relief for the unemployed and poor; recovery of the economy to normal levels; and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.", "The New Deal is a series of economic programs implemented in the United States between 1933 and 1936. They were passed by the U.S. Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were responses to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the \"3 Rs\": relief, recovery, and reform. That is, Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party which held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to 1969), with its base in liberal ideas, big city machines, and newly empowered labor unions, ethnic minorities, and the white South. The Republicans were split, either opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth, or accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal Coalition that dominated most American elections into the 1960s, while the opposition Conservative Coalition largely controlled Congress from 1938 to 1964.", "In 1933 the new president, Franklin Roosevelt, brought an air of confidence and optimism that quickly rallied the people to the banner of his program, known as the New Deal. \"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself,\" the president declared in his inaugural address to the nation.", "5. What name was given to President F. D. Roosevelt’s programme to counter the depression, introduced in 1933? Ans. The New Deal", "Shortly after President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was inaugurated in 1933, drought and erosion combined to cause the Dust Bowl, shifting hundreds of thousands of displaced persons off their farms in the Midwest. From his inauguration onward, Roosevelt argued that restructuring of the economy would be needed to prevent another depression or avoid prolonging the current one. New Deal programs sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending and the institution of financial reforms.", "A confused and hungry nation turned to the government for assistance. With the inauguration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt on March 4, 1933, the federal government’s response to the economic emergency was swift and massive. The explosion of legislation — which came to be collectively called the New Deal — was designed, at least in theory, to bring a halt to the human suffering and put the country on the road to recovery. The president promised relief, recovery and reform.", "In 1932, in the depths of the Great Depression, Roosevelt successfully defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover to win the presidency of the United States. Having been energized by his personal victory over his polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. In his first hundred days in office, which began March 4, 1933, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented major legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal—a variety of programs designed to produce relief (government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (economic growth), and reform (through regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation). He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance. The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936. The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to 1937, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, and blocked almost all proposals for major liberal legislation (except the minimum wage, which did pass). When the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business. Along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security.", "When the Wall Street Crash of 1929 struck less than eight months after he took office, Hoover tried to combat the ensuing Great Depression with moderate government public works projects such as the Hoover Dam. The record tariffs imbedded in the Smoot-Hawley Tariff and aggressive increases in the top tax bracket from 25% to 63%, coupled with increases in corporate taxes, yielded a \"balanced budget\" in 1933, but the economy plummeted simultaneously and unemployment rates rose to afflict one in four American workers. This downward spiral set the stage for Hoover's defeat in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised a New Deal.", "* Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected President of the United States in November 1932. Roosevelt initiates a widespread social welfare strategy called the \"New Deal\" to combat the economic and social devastation of the Great Depression. The economic agenda of the \"New Deal\" was a radical departure from previous laissez-faire economics.", "President Franklin Roosevelt's \"New Deal\" fought the Great Depression on a number of fronts. In the famous \"First Hundred Days\" of his presidency, FDR pushed through legislation that reformed the banking and financial sectors, tried to cure the ills afflicting American agriculture, and attempted to resuscitate American industry. To meet the immediate crisis of starvation and the dire needs of the nation's unemployed, FDR provided direct cash relief for the poor and jobs programs. Roosevelt's reassuring \"fireside chats,\" in which he spoke to the nation via radio about the country's predicament, calmed a worried public.", "    President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was elected president in 1932 and created a \"New Deal\" in his first 100 days of office. The \"New Deal\" was organized to help America recover from the depression.  The \"New Deal\" consisted of the 3 R's which are Relief, Recovery, and Reform.", "Roosevelt's New Deal programs aimed at the three R's- relief, recovery, and reform. Roosevelt's plan was announced on March 4, 1933 to lift the burden of the Great Depression.", "July 2, 1932, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt coined the term “New Deal” in his acceptance speech for the Democratic presidential nomination.", "In 1929 there began the Great Depression , which reached worldwide proportions. In 1931, President Herbert Hoover proposed a moratorium on foreign debts, but this and other measures failed to prevent economic collapse. In the 1932 election Hoover was overwhelmingly defeated by the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt . The new President immediately instituted his New Deal with vigorous measures. To meet the critical financial emergency he instituted a \"bank holiday.\" Congress, called into special session, enacted a succession of laws, some of them to meet the economic crisis with relief measures, others to put into operation long-range social and economic reforms. Some of the most important agencies created were the National Recovery Administration , the Agricultural Adjustment Administration , the Public Works Administration , the Civilian Conservation Corps , and the Tennessee Valley Authority . This program was further broadened in later sessions with other agencies, notably the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects Administration ).", "The Depression worsened in the months preceding Roosevelt's inauguration, March 4, 1933. Factory closings, farm foreclosures, and bank failures increased, while unemployment soared. Roosevelt faced the greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War. He undertook immediate actions to initiate his New Deal. To halt depositor panics, he closed the banks temporarily. Then he worked with a special session of Congress during the first \"100 days\" to pass recovery legislation which set up alphabet agencies such as the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) to support farm prices and the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps) to employ young men. Other agencies assisted business and labor, insured bank deposits, regulated the stock market, subsidized home and farm mortgage payments, and aided the unemployed. These measures revived confidence in the economy. Banks reopened and direct relief saved millions from starvation. But the New Deal measures also involved government directly in areas of social and economic life as never before and resulted in greatly increased spending and unbalanced budgets which led to criticisms of Roosevelt's programs. However, the nation-at-large supported Roosevelt, elected additional Democrats to state legislatures and governorships in the mid-term elections.", "The Depression worsened in the months preceding Roosevelt's inauguration, March 4, 1933. Factory closings, farm foreclosures, and bank failures increased, while unemployment soared. Roosevelt faced the greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War. He undertook immediate actions to initiate his New Deal programs. To halt depositor panics, he closed the banks temporarily. Then he worked with a special session of Congress during the first \"100 days\" to pass recovery legislation which set up alphabet agencies such as the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) to support farm prices and the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps) to employ young men. Other agencies assisted business and labor, insured bank deposits, regulated the stock market, subsidized home and farm mortgage payments, and aided the unemployed. These measures revived confidence in the economy. Banks reopened and direct relief saved millions from starvation. But the New Deal measures also involved government directly in areas of social and economic life as never before and resulted in greatly increased spending and unbalanced budgets which led to criticisms of Roosevelt's programs. However, the nation-at-large supported Roosevelt, and elected additional Democrats to state legislatures and governorships in the mid-term elections.", "Herbert Clark Hoover was the 31st president of the United States of America. It was during his term (March 4, 1929 – March 3, 1933) that the stock market crashed and led the country into the infamous Great Depression.", "Roosevelt assured the American people that the only thing they had to fear was fear itself. He promised the American people 'A New Deal'. However between 1933 and 1939 he had only limited success. Unemployment fell to between 14% and 15% by 1937. However in that year the economy dipped again. (It was called the recession) and unemployment rose to 17%. However industrial production rose to its 1929 level again by 1939.", "Relief and reform measures enacted by the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) helped lessen the worst effects of the Great Depression; however, the U.S. economy would not fully turn around until after 1939, when World War II (1939-45) revitalized American industry.", "Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 - October 20, 1964) was the 31st President of the United States (1929–1933). Hoover, born to a Quaker family, was a professional mining engineer. He achieved American and international prominence in humanitarian relief efforts in war-torn Belgium and served as head of the U.S. Food Administration before and during World War I. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted partnerships between government and business under the rubric \"economic modernization\". In the presidential election of 1928, Hoover easily won the Republican nomination, despite having no elected-office experience. Hoover is the most recent cabinet secretary to be elected President of the United States, as well as one of only two Presidents (along with William Howard Taft) elected without electoral experience or high military rank. America was at the height of an economic bubble at the time, facilitating a landslide victory for Hoover over Democrat Al Smith.", "In 1935, FDR took the New Deal in a more liberal direction, overseeing the enactment of some of the most far-reaching social and economic legislation in American history. The Wagner Act allowed labor unions to organize and bargain collectively, conferring on them a new legitimacy. The Social Security Act set up programs designed to provide for the needs of the aged, the poor, and the unemployed, establishing a social welfare net that, at least theoretically, covered all Americans. By the end of his second term, FDR and his advisers insisted that the federal government should stimulate the national economy through its spending policies, a strategy that held sway for the next thirty years.", "Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was the 31st President of the United States (1929–33). He was a professional mining engineer and was raised as a Quaker. A Republican, Hoover served as head of the U.S. Food Administration during World War I, and became internationally known for humanitarian relief efforts in war-time Belgium. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted partnerships between government and business under the rubric \"economic modernization.\"", "32nd President of the United States; elected four times; instituted New Deal to counter the great depression and led country during World War II (1882-1945)", "1. Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected President of the United States in 1932 at the height of the Great Depression.", "On March 3, 1933, Roosevelt addressed the nation in his first inaugural speech. Once again, the Great Depression was the center of everyone's attention. Roosevelt did not avoid difficult topics. He talked about dramatic unemployment, poverty, high taxes, fallen industries, and farmers who could not find markets for their products. \"Only a foolish optimist,\" he noted, \"can deny the dark realities of the moment.\" Yet Roosevelt offered a dose of realistic optimism when he promised government relief and recovery programs in cities and in the countryside as well as regulation of big businesses. He repeatedly compared the Great Depression to war and assured Americans that the massive economic crisis would be treated with the state of emergency typical of war emergencies. He also signaled a more internationalist attitude than most of his isolationist predecessors. Appealing to the sense of national unity and recognition that eventual success would come only with the hard work of all, Roosevelt told his compatriots what would become one of the most inspirational lines in Americans history, \"[T]he only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance. In every dark hour of our national life a leadership of frankness and vigor has met with that understanding and support of the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am convinced that you will again give that support to leadership in these critical days.\"", "was elected president of the US by an overwhelming majority in 1932, introduced the new deal, and led the US through most of WWII", "president who implemented a series of reform packages aimed at restoring the economy during the great depression; most important packages were WPA, FDIC, Social Security, etc.", "Historians distinguish a \"First New Deal\" (1933) and a \"Second New Deal\" (1934-36). Some programs were declared unconstitutional, and others were repealed during World War II; beginning in early 1937 almost no new programs were initiated because of the opposition of the new Conservative Coalition.", "Historians distinguish a \"First New Deal\" (1933) and a \"Second New Deal\" (1934-36). Some programs were declared unconstitutional, and others were repealed during World War II ; in early 1937 almost no new programs were initiated because of the opposition of the new Conservative Coalition.", "In whose presidency did the 1929 Stock Market Crash took place which ushered in the Great Depression?", "He was elected President in November 1932, to the first of four terms. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first \"hundred days,\" he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority." ]

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[ "Mário Soares, in full Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes Soares (born December 7, 1924, Lisbon , Portugal—died January 7, 2017, Lisbon), Socialist politician and lawyer, who became president of Portugal in 1986 as the country’s first elected civilian head of state in 60 years, holding the post until 1996.", "Mário Soares was the first socialist president of Portugal and a long-time opponent of the right-wing Salazar regime.", "Mário Soares (born 1924) was the first socialist president of Portugal and a long-time opponent of the right-wing Salazar regime.", "Nevertheless, Soares decided to run in the 1986 presidential elections, and four months later defeated the conservative candidate Diogo Freitas do Amaral by 151,000 votes. Soares thus became Portugal's first civilian president in 60 years. His tenacity and superior debating skills contributed to this victory. At the end of Soares' five-year term in 1991, his popularity was such that he was faced with only token opposition, and was easily re-elected, taking 70% of the popular vote. In 1996, socialist candidate Jorge Sampaio was elected to succeed Soares, who had to give up the presidency after two consecutive terms.", "Portugal was admitted to the European Economic Community (now European Union) on Jan. 1, 1986, and on Feb. 16, Mario Soares became the country's first civilian president in 60 years. Aníbal Cavaço Silva, an advocate of free-market economics and the Social Democratic candidate, had been elected as prime minister in 1985, signaling a more politically stable era. General elections in Oct. 1995 went to the Socialist Party, which fell just short of an absolute majority in the assembly. Lisbon mayor Jorge Sampaio, a Socialist, won the race for president in Jan. 1996. Portugal's Socialist government continued to take advantage of rosy economic conditions in 1997, and in 1999, Portugal became a founding member of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).", "The year 1975 proved to be a crucial year for the \"Portuguese Revolution\" and the political career of Mário Soares. Following the radicalization of the Armed Forces Movement, influenced by the Moscow line of the Communist Party of Portugal, Soares was compelled to resign as foreign minister, and in July he quit the government altogether and called for rallies and demonstrations against the Communists. Increased Communist influence in the government as well as an unsuccessful coup attempt by Spinola eventually motivated a moderate military faction in the Armed Forces Movement backed by Soares to call for elections in 1976. Soares' PSP won these elections with approximately 35 percent of the vote, winning 107 of the 263 seats in a new assembly. Soares then became Portugal's first constitutionally elected prime minister since the revolution of 1974 and served in this office from 1976 to 1978. In 1976, too, Soares was elected vice-president of the Socialist International.", "Over one million Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese provinces as white settlers were usually not considered part of the new identities of the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia. Mário Soares and António de Almeida Santos were charged with organising the independence of Portugal's overseas territories. By 1975, all the Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50 years.", "Sá Carneiro served as premier until he was killed in a plane crash the following December. The next premier was another conservative, Francisco Pinto Balsemão. On his initiative, a constitutional amendment abolished the military Council of the Revolution (1982). Parliamentary elections in April 1983 brought Soares back into power as prime minister. This time Soares' government introduced an austerity program and conducted negotiations to bring Portugal into the Common Market. New elections in October 1985 led to the formation of a minority government under a Social Democrat, Aníbal Cavaco Silva. Soares returned as president following elections in 1986, but he now ran a minority government; the Social Democrats controlled both the prime minister's office and parliament until the general elections of October 1995. In January 1996, Aníbal Cavaco Silva ran for president and was soundly defeated by the Socialist candidate Jorge Sampaio, marking the first time since the 1974 coup that both premier and president came from the same party.", "Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes Soares was born in Lisbon on December 7, 1924. As a young boy he was greatly influenced by his father, a militant republican who spent considerable time in prison, in exile, or in hiding for his political activism. In the mid-1930s Soares' father started a private school, the Colégio Moderno, that reflected his deep-seted republican and liberal views. The young Soares subsequently lived and attended classes at this well-known private high school in Portugal. Later, Mário Soares attended the Classical University of Lisbon, where he became a student leader opposed to the right-wing authoritarian government of the day. In time he earned degrees in history, philosophy, and law, which, along with the influence of his father, prepared him well for his future role as one of Portugal's leading political activists.", "The wave of left-wing sentiment which followed the 1974 revolution had now dissipated, and a succession of conservative governments held office until 1983, with Soares' Socialist Party unsuccessful in the 1979 special elections and 1980 elections. Soares again became Prime Minister following the 1983 elections, holding office until late 1985. His main achievement in office was negotiating Portugal's entry into the European Economic Community. Soares almost single-handedly turned public opinion around, for Portugal at the time was very wary of integration into the EEC.", "Portugal continued to be governed by a Junta de Salvação Nacional until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mário Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23 July. Mário Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985. In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade of the previous regime. He initiated the process of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) by starting accession negotiations as early as 1977.", "Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal .[12] Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824.[12] Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic.[13] The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.[13][14]", "Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, and the 5,570 municipalities.", ", 1917–92, president of Brazil (Jan.–Aug., 1961). A schoolteacher and lawyer, he served as mayor of the city of (1953–54) and as governor of the state of São Paulo (1955–59).", "Fernando Collor de Mello was the first elected president by popular vote after the military regime in December 1989 defeating Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in a two round presidential race and 35 million votes. Collor won in the state of São Paulo against many prominent political figures. The first democratically elected President of Brazil in 29 years, Collor spent much of the early years of his government battling hyper-inflation, which at times reached rates of 25% per month. ", "The country continued to be governed by a Junta de Salvação Nacional until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976 . It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mário Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23 July. Mário Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985. In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade of the previous regime. He initiated the process of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) by starting accession negotiations as early as 1977.", "Mr. Soares is a center-leftist who has been one of the United States' closest allies in Europe and the man who led his country into the Common Market last month. #60 Years of Soldier Presidents Mr. Soares will be the first civilian President since a military coup in 1926. A revolution in 1974 overthrew the last dictator, Marcelo Caetano, but a popular army general, Antonio Ramalho Eanes, was elected President for two five-year terms after that, in part to maintain military support for the young democracy.", "Since independence from Portugal in 1974, Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military upheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritarian dictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting a path to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime was characterized by the suppression of political opposition and the purging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980s and early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was elected president in the country's first free elections. A military mutiny and resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in May 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned over power to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was elected president in transparent polling. In September 2003, after only three years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in a bloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as interim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-elected president pledging to pursue economic development and national reconciliation. He was assassinated in March 2009; new elections are to take place in June 2009.", "Perhaps the most distinguished characteristic of Mário Soares as a politician was his ability to rebound after a loss. \"There are victories and defeats in politics,\" he was quoted as saying after his 1986 presidential victory, \"and what is necessary is to maintain your convictions, to keep battling.\"", "(Mário Alberto Nobre Lópes Soares) , 1924–, Portuguese politician. Soares rose to prominence as a vocal critic of the regime of António Salazar and as an advocate of democracy and economic development; he was imprisoned on numerous", "Although the Socialist Party did not have a majority in the Assembly of the Republic, Eanes allowed it to form the first constitutional government with Mario Soares as prime minister. It governed from July 23, 1976, to January 30, 1978. A second government, formed from a coalition with the Democratic and Social Centre/People's Party, lasted from January to August of 1978 and was also led by Soares. The Socialist Party governments faced enormous economic and social problems such as runaway inflation , high unemployment , falling wages, and an enormous influx of Portuguese settlers from Africa. Failure to fix the economy, even after adopting a painful austerity program imposed by the International Monetary Fund , ultimately forced the PS to relinquish power.", "A military coup d'etat of the civilian government in 1964 gave Brazil a military government for more than two decades. Since 1989 there has been a democratically elected civil leader.", "On May Day 100,000 Communists passed by the embassy chanting [“The people united can’t be defeated!”] Where did they come from? A couple of days later [then Secretary General of the Socialist Party] Mario Soares came in with 100,000 in his rally. He’d come in from Brussels, and was the Socialist leader. And then several conservative parties popped up. All these parties had been banned under Caetano….", "While a student at University, Soares joined the Portuguese Communist Party, being responsible for the youth section. In this capacity, he organised demonstrations in Lisbon to celebrate the end of WWII. He was first arrested by PIDE, the Portuguese political police, in 1946, when he was a member of the Central Committee of the Movement of Democratic Unity (), at the time chaired by Mário Azevedo Gomes. Soares was arrested twice in 1949. On those latter occasions, he was the secretary of General Norton de Matos, a candidate for the Presidency. However, he became estranged from Norton de Matos, when the latter discovered Soares's Communist sympathies. ", "By 1983 the popularity of the PSP was on the rise once again. Soares' effective opposition politics may be partially credited for this renewal. In the April 1983 elections the PSP won 36 percent of the vote and 101 seats in parliament; it subsequently formed a coalition government with the Social Democratic Party. Following the 1983 elections Soares was appointed to his former position as prime minister. However, in the October 1985 elections he and his party suffered a humiliating defeat, winning only 20 percent of the vote.", "Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) leader Fernando Henrique Cardoso—a market-oriented, centrist finance minister—was elected president in 1994, and he subsequently oversaw a highly successful currency-stabilization program that included fiscal reform, privatization of state enterprises, and a new currency pegged to the U.S. dollar. He also ushered in a new era of dialogue with international human rights and good-governance groups. In 1998, Cardoso handily won a second term in a rematch against his 1994 opponent, former labor leader and political prisoner Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the left-leaning Workers’ Party (PT).", "..... Click the link for more information. ). Constitutional revision was furthered in 1989. Political stability and economic reforms created a favorable business climate, especially for renewed foreign investment, and there was strong economic growth. The Socialists returned to power as a minority government after the 1995 parliamentary elections; António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres became premier.", "The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency but, by the end of his term, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation. Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992. Collor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance.", "Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency, becoming unpopular during his tenure due to his failure in controlling the economic crisis and hyperinflation inherited from the military regime. Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992. ", "Tancredo Neves was elected president in an indirect election in 1985 as the nation returned to civilian rule. He died before being sworn in, and the elected vice president, José Sarney, was sworn in as president in his place.", "Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho rose to mainstream popularity in the mid-1970s due to his leading role in the Carnation Revolution. However, he performed poorly in elections for the Presidency of the country.", "  Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho rose to mainstream popularity in the mid-1970s due to his leading role in the Carnation Revolution. However, he performed poorly in elections for the Presidency of the country." ]

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[ "A Member of Parliament is a representative of the voters to a parliament . In many countries the term applies specifically to members of the lower house, as upper houses often have a unique title, such as senate , and thus also have unique titles for its members, such as senators. Members of parliament tend to form parliamentary parties with members of the same political party . The term Member of Parliament is often shortened in the media and in every day use to the initialism \"MP\".", "A member of parliament is a member of the House of Representatives , the lower house of the Commonwealth (federal) parliament . Members may use \"MP\" after their names; \"MHR\" is not used, although it was used as a post-nominal in the past. A member of the upper house of the Commonwealth parliament, the Senate , is known as a \"Senator\".", "A member of parliament is a member of the House of Representatives, the lower house of the Commonwealth (federal) parliament. Members may use \"MP\" after their names; \"MHR\" is not used, although it was used as a post-nominal in the past. A member of the upper house of the Commonwealth parliament, the Senate, is known as a \"Senator\".", "As of 2010 [update] , the Speaker receives a salary of £68,827, in addition to his or her salary as a Member of Parliament. [14] The Speaker's salary is equal to that of a Cabinet Minister. [14] The Speaker is also provided with official apartments in the Palace of Westminster, the home of both Houses of Parliament. Each day, prior to the sitting of the House of Commons, the Speaker and other officials travel in procession from the apartments to the Chamber. The procession includes the Doorkeeper , the Serjeant-at-Arms , the Speaker, a trainbearer, the Chaplain, and the Speaker's Private Secretary. The Serjeant-at-Arms attends the Speaker on other occasions, and in the House; he or she bears a ceremonial mace that symbolises the royal authority under which the House meets, as well as the authority of the House of Commons itself.", "As of 2008, the Speaker receives a salary of £78,575, in addition to his or her salary as a Member of Parliament. [11] The Speaker's salary is equal to that of a Cabinet Minister. [11] The Speaker is also provided with official apartments in the Palace of Westminster, the home of both Houses of Parliament. Each day, prior to the sitting of the House of Commons, the Speaker and other officials travel in procession from the apartments to the Chamber. The procession includes the Doorkeeper , the Serjeant-at-Arms , the Speaker, a trainbearer, the Chaplain, and the Speaker's Private Secretary. The Serjeant-at-Arms attends the Speaker on other occasions, and in the House; he or she bears a ceremonial mace that symbolises the royal authority under which the House meets, as well as the authority of the House of Commons itself.", "The Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the Australian House of Representatives, the lower house of the Parliament of Australia. The President of the Australian Senate is the presiding officer of the Australian Senate, the upper house of the Parliament of Australia.", "At its first sitting after a general election, the Parliament elects the Speaker, the principal office bearer of the Assembly. The Speaker’s responsibilities include constitutional, statutory, procedural and administrative powers and functions. The Speaker is equivalent in rank to a Cabinet Minister. Though the Speaker is a member of a political party, he or she is required to act fairly and protect the rights of all parties. The duties of the Speaker fall broadly into three categories, namely: presiding over sittings of the House, maintaining order and applying its rules; acting as representative and spokesperson for the Assembly and (with the Chairperson of the Council) for Parliament; and acting as chief executive officer for Parliament, in conjunction with the Chairperson of the Council.", "Whilst presiding, the Speaker sits in a chair at the front of the House. Traditionally, members supporting the Government sit on his or her right, and those supporting the Opposition on his or her left. The Speaker's powers are extensive, and are much more extensive than those of his or her Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker . Most importantly, the Speaker calls on members to speak; [5] no member may make a speech without the Speaker's prior permission. By custom, the Speaker alternates between members supporting the Government and supporting the Opposition. Members direct their speeches not to the whole House, but to the Speaker, using the words \"Mister Speaker\" or \"Madam Speaker.\" Members must refer to each other in the third person by their parliamentary titles (not their names); they may not directly address anyone other than the Speaker (who does call them by name). In order to maintain his or her impartiality, the Speaker generally refrains from making speeches, although there is nothing to prevent him or her from doing so. For example, on Wednesday 3 December 2008, Speaker Martin addressed the House on the subject of the arrest of Damien Green MP and the subsequent searching of his office within the precincts of the House of Commons. [7]", "The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker-elect cannot take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of which holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the Chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always Members of the House of Commons.", "In the United Kingdom, the Speaker of the House of Commons is the individual elected to preside over the elected House of Commons. The speaker is a Member of Parliament (MP) and is elected at the beginning of each new parliament by fellow MPs. ", "The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, commonly referred to as the Speaker of the House (or simply, the Speaker), serves as the presiding officer of the U.S. House of Representatives. The Speaker fulfills several roles, including representing constituents as a Member of Congress, acting as administrative head of the House, and serving as leader of the majority political party in the House.", "Speaker. The Member elected by the House to serve as its spokesman and to preside over its proceedings. In particular, he or she is responsible for maintaining order and decorum. As Chairman of the Board of Internal Economy, the Speaker oversees the administration of the House. Please see the Speaker of the House of Commons page for more information.", "The Speaker presides over the House's debates, determining which members may speak. The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, and may punish members who break the rules of the House. Unlike presiding officers of legislatures in many other countries, the Speaker remains strictly non-partisan, and renounces all affiliation with his or her former political party when taking office as well as when leaving the office. The Speaker does not take part in debate or vote (except to break ties; and even then, the convention is that the speaker casts the tie-breaking vote according to Speaker Denison's rule). Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions, and remains a constituency Member of Parliament (MP). The Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker's House at the Palace of Westminster. ", "The Speaker presides over the House's debates, determining which members may speak. The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, and may punish members who break the rules of the House. Unlike presiding officers of legislatures in many other countries, the Speaker remains strictly non-partisan, and renounces all affiliation with his or her former political party when taking office. The Speaker does not take part in debate nor vote (except to break ties, and even then, subject to conventions that maintain his or her non-partisan status). Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions, and remains a constituency Member of Parliament (MP). The Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker's House at the Palace of Westminster.", "Both houses of the British Parliament are presided over by a speaker, the Speaker of the House for the Commons and the Lord Speaker in the House of Lords.", " Speaker of the House - The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the leader of its majority party. By managing the majority party�s members and regulating the legislative process in the House, the Speaker can wield considerable power. The Speaker ranks just behind the Vice President in the order of presidential succession.", "The Speaker also has extensive administrative and financial duties, being responsible for the overall direction and management of the House of Commons. Matters of administrative and financial policy affecting the House are overseen by the Board of Internal Economy, which is chaired by the Speaker. The management of the staff of the House of Commons falls under the Speaker, although the Clerk of the House and its senior officials generally manage them on a day-to-day basis. The Speaker oversees the premises of Parliament, as well as matters of security and policing within the parliamentary precincts. In addition, along with the Speaker of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of Commons oversees the direction and control of the Library of Parliament.", "The House of Lords (also known as House of Peers for ceremonial purposes) is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as \"the Lords\". Parliament comprises the Sovereign, the House of Commons (which is the lower house of Parliament and referred to as \"the Commons\"), and the Lords. Membership of the House of Lords was once a right of birth to hereditary peers, but following a series of reforms these now only form a portion of the membership. As of October 2009 the House of Lords has 724 members, 78 more than the 646-seat House of Commons. The House of Lords, like the House of Commons, assembles in the Palace of Westminster.", "The Speaker of the House of Commons chairs debates in the Commons chamber. The holder of this office is an MP who has been elected to be Speaker by other Members of Parliament. During debates they keep order and call MPs to speak.", "The Speaker of the House of Commons chairs debates in the Commons Chamber and the holder of this office is an MP who has been elected by other MPs.", "In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is usually considered the upper house, while the other is considered the lower house. The two types are not rigidly different, but members of upper houses tend to be indirectly elected or appointed rather than directly elected, tend to be allocated by administrative divisions rather than by population, and tend to have longer terms than members of the lower house. In some systems, particularly parliamentary systems, the upper house has less power and tends to have a more advisory role, but in others, particularly presidential systems, the upper house has equal or even greater power. ", "Clerk of the House of Representatives – the principal, permanent officer of the House and the head of the Office of the Clerk (previously the Legislative Department). The clerk provides constitutional support for Parliament, advises on parliamentary law and procedure, assists the Speaker and MPs, and keeps the records of Parliament.", "(b) a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives, who shall be elected by the members of that House from among themselves.", "1. The Speaker of the Parliament and the Speaker of the Senate are elected by the respective Chambers.", "The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the nature of the Speakership. Speakers were generally associated with the ministry, and often held other government offices. For example, Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705. The Speaker between 1728 and 1761, Arthur Onslow, reduced ties with the government, though the office did remain to a large degree political. The Speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century.", "The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the nature of the Speakership. Speakers were generally associated with the ministry, and often held other government offices. For example, Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705. The Speaker between 1728 and 1761, Arthur Onslow , reduced ties with the government, though the office did remain to a large degree political. The Speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century.", "Despite its official position \"below\" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide, the lower house has come to wield more power.", "Finally, the Speaker continues to represent his or her constituency in Parliament. Like any other Member of Parliament, he or she responds to letters from constituents and attempts to address their concerns.", "This pattern is not universal, however. Some upper houses, including those of Canada, have a speaker.", "Speaker of the Parliament is currently for the 17th Parliamentary Term, Mr Nikolaos Voutsis elected with SYRIZA (Coalition of the Radical Left). The Speaker presides over parliamentary sittings, is in charge of parliamentary functions and represents Parliament in international parliamentary organizations and bilateral inter-parliamentary sittings. Ηe is in charge of all Hellenic Parliament directorates, departments and divisions and coordinates their work and activities.", "In a diplomatic capacity, the Speaker receives foreign visitors on Parliament Hill, including ambassadors, heads of state, and parliamentary delegations from other nations. He or she regularly leads delegations to Parliaments in other countries.", "“Whilst its assertion by the Speaker of the House of Commons at the commencement of every parliamentary session is nowadays more of a formality that in by gone centuries; in my view privilege remains of paramount importance to ensure that Parliament in carrying out its functions is independent, and that any person contributing to its work, is able to speak out without fear or favour." ]

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[ "Fifth Republic, system of government in France from 1958. Under the constitution crafted by Charles de Gaulle with the help of Michel Debré , executive power was increased at the expense of the National Assembly . In 1959 de Gaulle was inaugurated as the first president of the Fifth Republic, with Debré as his prime minister. In 1962 de Gaulle pushed through a constitutional amendment that provided for direct popular election of the president, and in 1965 he became the first French president elected by popular vote since 1848. He was succeeded by Georges Pompidou (1969–74), Valéry Giscard d’Estaing (1974–81), François Mitterrand (1981–95), Jacques Chirac (1995–2007), Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–12), and François Hollande (2012– ).", "January 8, 1959 - Charles de Gaulle took office as the first president of France's Fifth Republic. De Gaulle had led the Free French government in exile during Nazi occupation. Following the war, he advocated a strong presidency to balance the powerful National Assembly. He was chosen to head the new government following years of political instability in which no French government was able to stay in power for more than a few months. On this day in 1966, he took office for a second term.", "Charles-André-Joseph-Marie de Gaulle ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970 ), in France commonly referred to as le général de Gaulle, was a French military leader and statesman. During World War II, he reached the rank of Brigade General and then became the leader of the Forces Françaises Libres (\"FFL\" — the \"Free French Forces\") . Between 1944 and 1946, following the liberation of France from German occupation, he was head of the French provisional government. Called to form a government in 1958, he inspired a new constitution and was the Fifth Republic 's first president, serving from 1958 to 1969.", "Charles de Gaulle- 1890-1970, French general and statesmen who led Free French Forces during World War II. Later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959-1956. Faced controversy and political opposition from Communists and Socialists. Considered by many to be the most influential leader in modern French history.", "De Gaulle submitted his constitution to a plebiscite in September 1958, and the voters gave it a 79 percent approval rating, an overwhelming vote of confidence for the author. Thus, de Gaulle became the first president of the Fifth Republic. He promised that, \"There will be no Dienbienphu in Algeria,\" but that meant he would negotiate a peaceful settlement, whereas his supporters expected him to push for an ultimate victory. In 1960 he began peace talks with the Algerian rebels, and--undeterred by revolts of army officers in Algeria, assassination attempts against himself, and by terrorist violence--he pursued these negotiations until they reached an agreement granting independence. In an April 1962 referendum, 90 percent of the voters approved. At any rate, Algeria's one and a quarter million French residents had given de Gaulle more headaches than nine million Algerians.", "The president’s hands were tied, and de Gaulle was named head of government. In June 1958 the Parliament dissolved itself and the constitution. De Gaulle now led the forging a new constitution, and by the end of the summer the result was presented to the French people for a referendum. On September 28th a vast majority approved of the constitution, thus commencing the Fifth Republic. In December that year de Gaulle became it’s first elected president.", "In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. France was a major participant in the First World War, from which it emerged victorious, and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War, but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and the colonies in Indochina became independent in the 1950s after long, bloody wars. Nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic and military connections with France. ", "In 1958, after the military and civilian revolt in Algeria had created a political crisis in France, he was considered the only leader of sufficient strength and stature to deal with the situation. He became premier with power to rule by decree for six months. During this time a new constitution, which strengthened the presidency, was drawn up (1958). The constitution also provided for the French Community , the first step toward resolving imperial problems. De Gaulle was inaugurated as president of the new Fifth Republic in Jan., 1959. He decided to allow Algeria self-determination. This decision led to several revolts in Algeria by French colonists who opposed independence. Finally in 1962 an agreement was reached that provided for Algerian independence.", "In 1958, a revolt in French-held Algeria, combined with serious instability within France, destroyed the Fourth Republic. De Gaulle returned to lead France once more. The French people approved a new constitution and voted de Gaulle president of the Fifth Republic. Strongly nationalistic, de Gaulle sought to strengthen his country financially and militarily. He sanctioned the development of nuclear weapons, withdrew France from NATO and vetoed the entry of Britain into the Common Market. He also granted independence to Algeria in the face of strong opposition at home and from French settlers in Algeria.", "FLN mounted a desperate campaign of terror in Algeria to intimidate Muslims into boycotting the referendum. Despite threats of reprisal, however, 80 percent of the Muslim electorate turned out to vote in September, and of these 96 percent approved the constitution. In February 1959, de Gaulle was elected president of the new Fifth Republic. He visited Constantine in October to announce a program to end the war and create an Algeria closely linked to France in which Europeans and Muslims would join as partners. De Gaulle's call on the rebel leaders to end hostilities and to participate in elections was met with adamant refusal.", "      However, five years later, a military and civilian revolt in Algeria created a political crisis in France, and he was called out of retirement to lead the nation. A new constitution was passed, and in late December, he was elected president of the Fifth Republic. Over the next decade, President de Gaulle granted independence to Algeria and attempted to restore France to its former international stature by withdrawing from the US-dominated NATO alliance and promoting the development of French atomic weapons.", ", 1890–1970, French general and statesman, first president (1959–69) of the Fifth Republic. The World Wars", "But de Gaulle’s resignation was not the end of the Fifth Republic. It became evident that the support for the republic among the populace was stronger than many had thought. The system survived de Gaulle’s fall, and steadily established itself through the coming decades. The final evidence for this came in 1981, when no other than François Mitterrand became president.", "The Fourth Republic was established after World War II and saw spectacular economic growth (les Trente Glorieuses). Suffrage was extended to women in 1944. France was one of the founding members of the NATO (1949), which was the Western counterpart of the Warsaw Pact system of collective defence. France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Only months later, France faced a new conflict in Algeria . The debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria , then home to over one million European settlers,[54] wracked the country and nearly led to civil war. In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which contained a strengthened Presidency.[55] In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War was concluded with peace negotiations in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. France granted independence progressively to its colonies, the last one being Vanuatu in 1980. A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories.", "In the 1981 presidential election, President Giscard won the largest number of votes in the first round of voting, with a slight plurality over Mitterrand, the candidate of the Socialist Party; the RPR's Jacques Chirac arrived in third place and Georges Marchais of the Communist Party came in fourth, scoring an unexpectedly poor showing when compared to previous PCF results. However, in the second round Mitterrand secured solid support from the Communists and prevailed over incumbent President Giscard, who received only lukewarm support from Chirac. After taking office, President Mitterrand called a snap parliamentary election, in which the Socialists won an absolute majority in the National Assembly and subsequently formed a coalition with the Communists (even though their support wasn't needed at the time to keep the government in power). In this manner, the left assumed control of government for the first time in the history of the Fifth Republic, after twenty-three years of center-right political hegemony.", "a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during WWII; later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959-69; tried to, unlike the germans, to strike out with a provocative foreign policy", "(1890 – 1970) Leader of the free French during WWII. De Gaulle helped maintain French pride after the surrender of France and the creation of Vichy France. Helped create Fifth Republic and was President 1959-69.", "Jacques Chirac was elected President of the French Republic. Édouard Balladur resigned as prime minister and foreign minister Alain Juppé succeeded him.", "Georges Pompidou (July 5, 1911 - April 2, 1974) was President of France from 1969 to his death in 1974.", "*1848: French Second Republic. Louis Napoleon is elected its first president but Dumas does not vote for him.", "Five years after volunteering as a student to work for François Mitterrand's ultimately unsuccessful campaign in the 1974 presidential election, Hollande joined the Socialist Party. He was quickly spotted by Jacques Attali, a senior adviser to Mitterrand, who arranged for Hollande to stand for election to the French National Assembly in 1981 in Corrèze against future President Jacques Chirac, who was then the Leader of the Rally for the Republic, a Neo-Gaullist party. Hollande lost to Chirac in the first round.", "Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (; born 2 February 1926), also known as Giscard or VGE, is a French centrist politician who served as President of the French Republic from 1974 until 1981 and who is now a member of the Constitutional Council of France.", "On 10 September 1944 the Provisional Government of the French Republic, or Government of National Unanimity formed. It included many of de Gaulle's Free French associates such as Gaston Palewski, Claude Guy, Claude Mauriac and Jacques Soustelle, together with members of the main parties, which included the Socialists and a new Christian Democratic Party, the MRP under the leadership of Georges Bidault, who served as Foreign Minister. The president of the prewar Senate Jules Jeanneney was brought back as second-ranking member, but because of their links with Russia, de Gaulle allowed the Communists only two minor positions in his government. While they were now a major political force with over a million members, of the full cabinet of 22 men, only Augustin Laurent and Charles Tillon—who as head of Francs-Tireurs et Partisans had been one of the most active members of the resistance—were given ministries. However, de Gaulle did pardon the Communists' leader Maurice Thorez, who had been sentenced to death in absentia by the French government for desertion. On his return home from Russia, Thorez delivered a speech supporting de Gaulle in which he said that for the present, the war against Germany was the only task that mattered.", "Although the Algerian issue was settled, Prime Minister Michel Debré resigned over the final settlement and was replaced with Georges Pompidou on 14 April 1962. France recognised Algerian independence on 3 July 1962, while a blanket amnesty law was belatedly voted in 1968, covering all crimes committed by the French army during the war. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 Pied-Noirs left the country. After 5 July, the exodus accelerated in the wake of the French deaths during the Oran massacre of 1962.", "1926: Birth of Valéry Giscard dEstaing, former French President, in Koblenz, Germany, although he was educated in France. He was elected President in 1974 and was defeated by Miterrand in 1981.", "[valeʁi maʁi ʁəne ʒɔʁʒ ʒiskaʁ dɛstɛ̃] ; born 2 February 1926) is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French Republic from 1974 until 1981. As of 2010 [update] , he is a member of the Constitutional Council of France .", "Five years later, with Valérie at his side, Hollande defeated Sarkozy to become the 24th president of France.", "A provisional government is established in France following the liberation of Paris on 25 August 1944. Marshal Henri Philippe P�tain, hero of Verdun in the First World War, is condemned to death for his part in appeasing the Nazis, but his sentences is commuted to life imprisonment. During the existence of the provisional government, in 1943 Lebanon gains full independence from France, in 1945 France re-establishes its protectorate in Vietnam (which lasts until 1954), and Syria gains independence in 1946.", "; born 2 February 1926) is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French Republic from 1974 until 1981. As of 2010 [update] , he is a member of the Constitutional Council of France .", "[valeʁi ʒiskaʁ dɛstɛ̃] ; born 2 February 1926) is a French centrist politician and a member of the Constitutional Council of France . He served as President of the French Republic from 1974 until 1981.", "The French Third Republic (, sometimes written as ') is the system of government adopted in France from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed, until 1940, when France's defeat by Nazi Germany in World War II led to the formation of the Vichy government in France. It came to an end on 10 July 1940, when the National Assembly of the Third Republic under its last President Paul Reynaud delegated all constitutional powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain of the rump French State in the Zone libre (\"Free Zone\") in the south of France.", "In 2014, France was a republic with a President elected for a 5-year term (officially the French Republic and some would describe it as a \"Unitary semi-presidential and constitutional republic\"). Some current main issues are the further integration of the country into the EU and the adoption of common standards for the economy, defence, immigrant rights, and so on." ]

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[ "1975: Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was dismissed by the Governor-General Sir John Kerr because, unable to get his budget plans through Parliament he refused to call a general election.", "The 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, also known simply as \"the Dismissal\", has been described as the greatest political and constitutional crisis in Australian history. It culminated on 11 November 1975 with the dismissal from office of the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, who then appointed the Leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Fraser of the Liberal Party, as caretaker Prime Minister.", "The 1975 Australian constitutional crisis (often known simply as \"the Dismissal\") has been described as the greatest political and constitutional crisis in Australian history . It culminated on 11 November 1975 with the dismissal from office of the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), by Governor-General Sir John Kerr , who then appointed the Leader of the Opposition , Malcolm Fraser , as caretaker Prime Minister.", "On top of that, there are instances in recent Commonwealth history of other royal prerogatives being directly exercised by the Crown against a government's wishes. Depending on the country, the crown may have extensive official powers, including the appointment of ministers, granting of pardons for eliminating criminal records, or calling an early election, and some of these have been exercised in person, especially during unclear political situations. A classic example is Governor General Byng's 1926 refusal to call a very early election at the request of Canadian Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, who wished to remain in power despite the stronger footing of the Conservative party in Parliament. Byng refused to do so; King was incensed by this supposed infringement on democracy, but Byng stood his ground. Another famous example was the dismissal of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam by Australian Governor General John Kerr during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis. Whitlam's controversial government did not have control of both houses of Parliament and he petitioned Kerr to call a half-senate election. Instead, Kerr dismissed him and appointed Malcolm Fraser, the leader of the Opposition, in his place.", "A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.Bond, p. 96; Marr, p. 257; Pimlott, p. 427; Shawcross, p. 110 As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, stating that she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.", "The crisis climaxed on 11 November 1975, when the Governor-General, John Kerr, withdrew Whitlam's commission as Prime Minister, commissioned the Liberal leader Malcolm Fraser to form an interim government until a general election could be held, and dissolved the parliament. Whitlam thus became the only Prime Minister in Australian history to have been removed from office while commanding the confidence of the lower house.", "During the 1975 constitutional crisis , on 11 November 1975, the governor-general, Sir John Kerr , dismissed the Labor Party's Gough Whitlam as prime minister. Despite Labor holding a majority in the House of Representatives, Kerr appointed the Leader of the Opposition, Liberal leader Malcolm Fraser as caretaker prime minister, conditional on the passage of the Whitlam government's Supply bills through the Senate and the calling of an election for both houses of parliament. Fraser accepted these terms and immediately advised a double dissolution . An election was called for 13 December , which the Liberal Party won in its own right (although the Liberals governed in a coalition with the Country Party).", "In 1974, Whitlam selected John Kerr, a former member of the Labor Party and presiding Chief Justice of New South Wales to serve as Governor-General. The Whitlam Government was re-elected with a decreased majority in the lower house in the 1974 Election. In 1974–75 the government thought about borrowing US$4 billion in foreign loans. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament over the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused, Malcolm Fraser, leader of the Opposition insisted. The deadlock ended when the Whitlam government was dismissed by the Governor-General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975 and Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election. The \"reserve powers\" granted to the Governor-General by the Australian Constitution, had allowed an elected government to be dismissed without warning by a representative of the Monarch. ", "In 1974, Whitlam selected  John Kerr , a former member of the Labor Party and presiding  Chief Justice of New South Wales to serve as  Governor General . The Whitlam Government was re-elected with a decreased majority in the lower house in the  1974 Election . In 1974–75 the government thought about borrowing US$4 billion in foreign loans. Minister  Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer,  Jim Cairns , misled parliament over the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the  Loans Affair , the opposition  Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government’s money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused,  Malcolm Fraser , leader of the Opposition insisted. The deadlock came to an end when the Whitlam government was dismissed by the Governor General ,  John Kerr on 11 November 1975 and Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election. The “reserve powers” granted to the  Governor General by the  Australian Constitution , had allowed an elected government to be dismissed without warning by a representative of the Monarch.", "On 11th November the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, is dismissed form office by the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr.", "Fraser refused to pass the Whitlam government’s budget bills through the upper house in late 1975. That parliamentary deadlock led to the governor general, John Kerr, sacking Whitlam as prime minister in November 1975.", "The news that Whitlam had been dismissed spread across Australia during the afternoon, triggering immediate protest demonstrations. On 12 November, Scholes wrote to the Queen, asking her to restore Whitlam as Prime Minister. The reply from the Queen's Private Secretary, Sir Martin Charteris, dated 17 November 1975, stated:", "A crisis occurred over loan negotiations made in a failed attempt to put the Australian government back into a position of financial independence. Aware of the government’s problems, the Coalition opposition led by Malcolm Fraser used its majority in the Senate to block the budget and so force the government to an election. Whitlam decided not to go to the polls but to ride the crisis out. The confrontation was ended when the governor-general , Sir John Kerr, used his reserve powers to dismiss the government and call an election.", "Some of the events of that November day also provided an interesting commentary on more recent events in Australian politics. In what passes these days for debate on the monarchy/ republic issue, it is often claimed that Australia must free itself from the monarchy. But it was Whitlam who telephoned Buckingham Palace on 11 November 1975 after his removal from office by the Australian Governor-", "Occurred in Australia after the disappearance and presumed death of Prime Minister Harold Holt in December 1967. The job of Prime Minister was expected to go to Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party Billy McMahon, however Leader of the Country Party note Now known as the National Party and Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen became Caretaker Prime Minister note In Australia the Liberal and Country/Nationals parties act in a coalition, imaginatively called \"The Coalition.\" The leader of the Liberals is the Prime Minister when they're in government, and the leader of the Country/Nationals is Deputy Prime Minister. He despised McMahon and refused to let him become Prime Minister, saying the Country Party wouldn't serve under him. Instead the job went to John Gorton. However by 1971, McEwen had retired, and Gorton had lost the support of the party note including Minister for Defence and future Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser insulting him on the floor of Parliament while quitting his ministerial position. Gorton then held a motion of confidence in his leadership, which was tied - he then resigned as Leader and Prime Minister. McMahon finally became Prime Minister... only to lose the election to Labor under Gough Whitlam the next year.", "The monarch chose not to intervene during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, in which Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Labor government of Gough Whitlam, on the basis that such a decision is a matter \"clearly placed within the jurisdiction of the Governor-General\". Through her Private Secretary, she wrote that she \"has no part in the decisions which the Governor-General must take in accordance with the Constitution\".", "Prior to the 1975 crisis, the Governor-General's power to dismiss a Prime Minister against the incumbent's will under Section 64 of the Constitution had never been exercised. Twice since Federation, conflicts between state premiers and state governors, who perform analogous functions to the Prime Minister and Governor-General at the state level, had resulted in the departure of one or the other. In 1916, New South Wales Premier William Holman was expelled from the Australian Labor Party for supporting conscription. He managed to hold on to power with the aid of opposition parties and consulted the Governor, Sir Gerald Strickland, proposing to pass legislation to extend the term of the lower house of the state legislature by a year. When Strickland objected, stating that such a course was unfair to Labor, Holman had him replaced. In 1932 the New South Wales Labor Premier, Jack Lang, refused to pay moneys owing to the Federal government, which froze the state's bank accounts, causing Lang to order that payments to the state government be only in cash. The governor, Sir Philip Game, wrote to Lang, warning him that ministers were breaking the law, and that if they continued, he would have to obtain ministers who could carry on government within legal bounds. Lang replied that he would not resign, and Game dismissed his government and commissioned the Leader of the Opposition, Bertram Stevens, to form a caretaker government pending a new election, in which Labor was defeated.", "Governor-General of Australia , Australian Labor Party , Malcolm Fraser , Constitution of Australia , 1975 Australian constitutional crisis", "The years 1972-1975 were a whirlwind of activity, controversy and change, culminating in the dramatic events of October 1975 when the coalition parties in the Senate used their numbers to delay passage of the government’s Supply Bills. A three-week constitutional impasse followed, culminating in Whitlam’s dismissal by the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, on November 11.", "Kerr concluded on 6 November that neither Government nor Opposition would yield, and that supply would run out. The Governor-General decided that as Whitlam could not secure supply, and would not resign or advise an election for the House of Representatives, he would have to sack him. As Kerr feared that Whitlam might advise the Queen to dismiss him, he considered it important that Whitlam be given no hint of the impending action. Kerr later stated that were Whitlam to seek his dismissal, it would involve the Queen in politics. [57] Seeking confirmation of his decision, he contacted the Chief Justice, Sir Garfield Barwick , met with him and asked for his views of a dismissal of Whitlam. Barwick furnished him with written advice containing his view that a Governor-General could and should dismiss a Prime Minister who was unable to obtain supply. [58]", "Whitlam repeatedly castigated Kerr for his role in the dismissal. When Kerr announced his resignation as Governor-General on 14 July 1977, Whitlam commented, \"How fitting that the last of the Bourbons should bow out on Bastille Day\". In 1991, Whitlam stated that no future Governor-General was likely to act as Kerr did lest he also become the subject of \"contempt and isolation\". In 2005, Whitlam called Kerr \"a contemptible person\". Country Party leader and deputy prime minister Doug Anthony said, \"I can't forgive Gough for crucifying him\". Sir Garfield Barwick was not spared Whitlam's invective; the former Prime Minister described him as \"evil\".", "The Dismissal  (1983)  --  first Labor Prime Minister in 23 years who made many liberal changes (dismissed by the Governor-General in 1975)", "In practice, the Governor-General follows the conventions of the Westminster system of parliament and acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia. There have been only four exceptions when the Governor-General has exercised the reserve powers of the office, including the sacking of the Prime Minister in 1975.", "In the wake of the dismissal, the ALP turned its anger on Kerr. Demonstrations marked his appearances, while the remaining ALP parliamentarians boycotted his opening of the new Parliament. Whitlam, now Leader of the Opposition, refused all invitations to events at Yarralumla, which the Kerrs continued to extend until his refusal of an invitation during the Queen's 1977 visit caused them to feel that no further efforts need be made. [97] Whitlam never spoke with Kerr again. [98] Even ALP parliamentarians who had been friends of Kerr broke off their relationships, feeling Kerr had betrayed the party and had ambushed Whitlam. Lady Anne Kerr stated that she and her husband confronted a \"new irrational scene swarming with instant enemies\". [99]", "A governor-general may be recalled or dismissed by the monarch before their term is complete. By convention, this may only be upon advice from the prime minister, who retains responsibility for selecting an immediate replacement or letting the vacancy provisions take effect. No Australian governor-general has ever been dismissed, and it is unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice. The constitutional crisis of 1975 raised the possibility of the prime minister and the governor-general attempting to dismiss each other at the same time.", "Following a series of controversies involving ALP ministers and revelations of government attempts to obtain foreign loans through unconventional channels, the Liberal-National Country Party opposition refused to allow the government's budgetary legislation to pass the Senate in 1975 in the hope of forcing the government to an election. From October to November 1975, with the government's monetary supply effectively cut off, a grave constitutional crisis resulted.", "In 1932 the New South Wales Labor Premier, Jack Lang , refused to pay moneys owing to the Federal government, which froze the state's bank accounts, causing Lang to order that payments to the state government be only in cash. The governor, Sir Philip Game , wrote to Lang, warning him that ministers were breaking the law, and that if they continued, he would have to obtain ministers who could carry on government within legal bounds. Lang replied that he would not resign, and Game dismissed his government and commissioned the Leader of the Opposition, Bertram Stevens , to form a caretaker government pending a new election, in which Labor was defeated.[8]", "The dismissal has been considered the greatest political and constitutional crisis in Australia's history. In 1977, the Fraser Government proposed four constitutional amendments via referendum, three of which passed—the last time that the Australian Constitution has been amended. One of the amendments requires that a senator appointed to fill a casual vacancy be from the same party as the former senator. The Senate retains the power to block supply; the Governor-General retains the power to dismiss ministers (including the Prime Minister). However, these powers have not since been used to force a government from office.", "Kim Beazley -�(born 14 December 1948) Kim Beazley is an Australian politician and academic being the leader of the opposition from 1996 to 2001, and from 2005 to 2006. He is the only ex-leader in the party's history to return to the position after leaving it. Kim Beazley became a victim of polio at the age of 5 years old and it had caused a royal scare. Kim's mother had shaken the hand of the queen shortly before Kim was diagnosed with polio. Since polio was known to be contagious some feared that the queen may have contracted it during that time.", "Kim Beazley - (born 14 December 1948) Kim Beazley is an Australian politician and academic being the leader of the opposition from 1996 to 2001, and from 2005 to 2006. He is the only ex-leader in the party's history to return to the position after leaving it. Kim Beazley became a victim of polio at the age of 5 years old and it had caused a royal scare. Kim's mother had shaken the hand of the queen shortly before Kim was diagnosed with polio. Since polio was known to be contagious some feared that the queen may have contracted it during that time.", "On 4 August 2013, Rudd announced that he had visited Governor-General Quentin Bryce at Parliament House, asking her to dissolve Parliament and for a federal election to be held on 7 September. After Labor subsequently lost the election, Rudd resigned as prime minister for the second time on 18 September 2013.", " Kim Beazley – (born 14 December 1948) Kim Beazley is an Australian politician and academic being the leader of the opposition from 1996 to 2001, and from 2005 to 2006. He is the only ex-leader in the party’s history to return to the position after leaving it. Kim Beazley became a victim of polio at the age of 5 years old and it had caused a royal scare. Kim’s mother had shaken the hand of the queen shortly before Kim was diagnosed with polio. Since polio was known to be contagious some feared that the queen may have contracted it during that time." ]

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[ "A veto – Latin for \"I forbid\" – is the power (used by an officer of the state, for example) to unilaterally stop an official action, especially the enactment of legislation. A veto can be absolute, as for instance in the United Nations Security Council, whose permanent members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States of America) can block any resolution. Or it can be limited, as in the legislative process of the United States, where a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate may override a Presidential veto of legislation. A veto gives power only to stop changes, not to adopt them (except for the rare \"amendatory veto\"). Thus a veto allows its holder to protect the status quo.", "Veto – Latin for ‘I Forbid’. To vote against. The right to block a law, etc.", "Veto - Latin for 'I Forbid'. To vote against. The right to block a law, etc.", "foreclose , forestall , preclude , prevent , forbid - keep from happening or arising; make impossible; \"My sense of tact forbids an honest answer\"; \"Your role in the projects precludes your involvement in the competitive project\"", "cease and desist order ; enjoining ; enjoinment ; injunction ((law) a judicial remedy issued in order to prohibit a party from doing or continuing to do a certain activity)", "Ban 1) A King's power to command and prohibit under pain of punishment or death, mainly used because of a break in the King's Peace. Also a royal proclamation, either of a call to arms, or a decree of outlawry. In clerical terms, an excommunication on condemnation by the church. 2) Power originally wielded by the king, but later assumed by counts and castellans to exploit men and levy dues and services in return for protection. Hence ban inférieur, seigneurie banale, etc. 3) A ruler or governor of a large province, usually a subordinate of the King of Hungary (or historically so). The title was used in the western Balkans in Bosnia, Croatia, Slavonia, and Macva. On occassion a banship became hereditary. Sometimes bans were able to achieve considerable, if not complete, independence.", "A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict, [78] and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr. [79]", "A word used in procedural documents where compliance with legislative or regulatory requirements is obligatory.  Compare with shall, should, will, may.RT", "Latin term meaning \"without which not.\" That without which thething cannot be; an absolutely essential and necessary thing. The followingexample shows how the term is used in law cases: Tom purchases a newrefrigerator. He puts the old one on the street to be carted away but does notremove the door or lock it shut. A child is severely injured when he is trappedinside the refrigerator. The sine qua non is Tom's failure to do somethingabout the door, which made the refrigerator an attractive nuisance.", "Incapacity in the eye of the law, or created by the law; a restriction framed to prevent any person or class of persons from sharing in duties or privileges which would otherwise be open to them; legal disqualification.", "Sanction: Generally, the word sanction means to approve or ratify, but in law, sanction can denote the penalty or punishment awarded to a person for breach of law.", "an event which cannot be controlled and which stops duties under an agreement from being carried out. (This phrase is French.)", "There is an additional imperative form that is used for general prohibitions, consisting of the word \"no\" followed by the gerund form. The best known examples are \"No Smoking\" and \"No Parking\". This form does not have a positive form; that is, \"Parking\" by itself has no meaning unless used as a noun when it tells that parking is permitted.", "The motto of the Jungle Patrol in The Phantom . The phrase actually violates Latin grammar because of a mistranslation from English, as the preposition contra takes the accusative case . The correct Latin rendering of \"we stand against evil\" would be \"stamus contra malum\".", "2. To oppose in argument; to contradict. Anorexics, for example, clearly contravene our evolutionary dictate to eat. Contravene comes from Late Latin contravenire, \"to oppose,\" from Latin contra-, \"against\" + venire, \"to come.\"", "Let  As a verb usually means \"allow\"; in an older (but not obsolete) sense it means \"prevent\".", "Malum prohibitum - A prohibited wrong. A crime that society decides wrong for some reason, not inherently evil", "' is a Latin phrase that means \"first, do no harm.\" The phrase is sometimes recorded as '. ", "Variance : Government permission for a delay or exception in the application of a given law, ordinance, or regulation.", "This is a short form of de minimus non curat lex. Latin for \"the law does not bother with trifles.\"", "Explanation:  This obviously makes no sense.  The original context was a legal one, from Roman law of ca. 50 BC: exceptio probat regulam in casibus non exceptis; or exceptio probat regulam de rebus non exceptis:  \"the [existence of an] exception proves the [existence of a] rule in the cases [or things] that are not excepted.\" ", "Immemorial custom is observed as lex, and not without reason; and this is the law which is said to be established by usage. For since leges themselves are binding on us for no other reason than that they have been received by the judgment of the people, it is proper that those things of which the people have approved without any writing shall also be binding on everyone. After all, what is the difference whether the people makes known its will by a vote, or by the things themselves and by acts?30", "From the Latin: \"Of its own will.\" Commonly used when a judge does something without being so requested by either party in a case.", "Have you ever heard about Ignorantia juris non excusat or Ignorantia legis neminem excusat? These are Latin phrases which encode the legal principle that ignorance of law is no excuse. In short, no one can escape the liability for violating a law by claiming that he was unaware or ignorant of the law. Even though this legal principle has many exceptions, normally, it is deemed that the people of a certain territory are aware of the laws applicable to that jurisdiction (at least the ones which may affect their day-to-day activities). However, many are still ignorant of the relevant laws and land in trouble.", "hinder , impede - be a hindrance or obstacle to; \"She is impeding the progress of our project\"", "A legal principle (e.g. in Germany ) that says that lawyers are not to argue the law, as that is the office of the court. Sometimes miswritten as iura novat curia (\"the court renews the laws\").", "Exceptio probat regulam de rebus non except - An exception establhes the rule as to things not excepted", "The symbol also appears in the phrase and/or, a prose representation of the logical concept of inclusive or . The State Legislature of Georgia , however, has banned its use in this word as cumbersome.", "Cura nihil aliud ni ut valeas - Pay attention to nothing except that you do well. (Cicero)", "absens haeres non erit \"an absent person will not be an heir\" In law, refers to the principle that someone who is not present is unlikely to inherit.", "Aedificare in tuo proprio solo non licet quod alteri noceat - It is not lawful to build on one's own land what may be injurious to another.", "Allegatio contra factum non est admittenda - An allegation contrary to a deed is not to be heard." ]

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[ "The Bill of Rights is collective name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution.", "The first ten amendments to the US Constitution are known collectively as the Bill of Rights.", "The first ten amendments to the US Constitution are known collectively as \"The Bill of Rights.\"", "The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are collectively known as the Bill of Rights. They are guarantees of some of the most basic freedoms in American society , such as freedom of speech , religion, freedom from unreasonable search and seizure and the right to bear arms . Largely authored by James Madison, the Bill of Rights went into effect in 1791.", "1791 – The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, collectively known as the United States Bill of Rights, were ratified.", "Following ratification by the state of Virginia, the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, become the law of the land.", "The first ten Amendments to the U.S. Constitution are more commonly referred to as the Bill of Rights. These ten Amendments were introduced to the American Congress in 1789. The purpose of these 10 Amendments is to protect the individuals of the United States–protect their rights to property, their natural rights as individuals, and limit the Government’s power over the citizens. ", "This is the last of the first Ten Amendments to the Constitution, collectively known as the \"Bill of Rights\", proposed by the First Congress of the United States, submitted to the States September 25, 1789, ratified and adopted June 15, 1790 as declaratory and restrictive constraints of National power against We The People and the States, in addition to like curbs in the body of the Constitution.", "On this day in 1791, The US adopted the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution.   The government's search for loopholes began on December 16, 1791.", "The Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the United States’ Constitution, each of which was intended to safeguard the individual or the group from self-serving aggressions of the government, at least in the sense that each one forbade one form or another of intrusion into public or private lives, a philosophy inconsistent with the idea of prohibiting forms of marriage or reproductive freedom. ", "The Bill of Rights , which consists of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, enumerates certain basic personal liberties. Laws passed by elected officials that infringe on these liberties are invalidated by the judiciary as unconstitutional. The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1791, represents five distinct liberties the that Framers attempted to safeguard from majoritarian impulses: (1) the right to be indicted by an impartial Grand Jury before being tried for a federal criminal offense,(2) the right to be free from multiple prosecutions or punishments for a single criminal offense, (3) the right to remain silent when prosecuted for a criminal offense, (4) the right to have personal liberties protected by Due Process of Law , and (5) the right to receive just compensation when the government takes private property for public use.", "The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, which set forth and guarantee certain fundamental rights and privileges of individuals, including freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly; guarantee of a speedy jury trial in criminal cases; and protection against excessive bail and Cruel and Unusual Punishment . As a fundamental guarantee of individual liberty, the U.S. Bill of Rights (see appendix volume for primary document) forms a vital aspect of American law and government. It establishes many legal principles that have had a decisive effect upon law and society, including the functioning of the criminal justice system, the separation of church and state, and the exercise of Freedom of Speech .", "September 25, 1789 - Congress submits 12 proposed constitutional amendments to the states for ratification. The first ten will be ratified and added to the Constitution in 1791 as the Bill of Rights .", "The first 10 amendments to the US Constitution. served to protect the natural rights of liberty and property. Introduced by James Madison to the 1st US congress. Were adopted by the HOR in 1789.", "Added to the Constitution in 1791, the first 10 amendments protected freedom of speech, freedom of press, the right to bear arms, and other basic rights of American citizens.", "The commonly used term for the first ten amendments to the U.S Constitution. This document guarantees individual liberties and defines limitations to federal power.", "1789 � The United States Congress passes twelve amendments to the United States Constitution: the Congressional Apportionment Amendment (which was never ratified), the Congressional Compensation Amendment, and the ten that are known as the Bill of Rights. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_...Bill_of_Rights", "The Constitution of the United States goes into effect; the first ten amendments to the Constitution are introduced by the Congress.", "Finally, there is the Bill of Rights. On October 2, 1789, Congress sent 12 proposed amendments to the Constitution to the states for ratification—including the 10 that would come to be known as the Bill of Rights. There were 14 original manuscript copies, including the one displayed at the National Constitution Center—one for the federal government and one for each of the 13 states.", "When: By 1791, the first Ten Amendments were in ratified Where: Written in PA, ratified in states Who/What/Did what: James Madison, a member of the House of Representatives at this point, submitted 19 amendments to the Constitution, and 10 were ratified by 1791. This was instrumental in getting support from the Anti-federalists, who opposed ratification of the Constitution at first. The Bill of Rights secured fundamental American freedoms, such as freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and trial by jury. So what: It secured the support of the Anti-federalists. It also provided citizens with their most basic freedoms. The Bill of Rights also addressed the proper balance of authority of the national and state governments. Basically, it made America into the most free nation in the world, a tradition we carry on today (or however you would like to frame it)", "Drafted by a group led by James Madison, consisted of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which guaranteed the civil rights of American citizens.", "The statement of people’s freedoms and rights embodied in the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution. Anti-Federalists led the movement.", "The First Amendment protected the freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and religion from federal legislation. The Second and Third amendments guaranteed the right to bear arms and made it difficult for the government to house soldiers in private homes�provisions favoring a citizen militia over a professional army. The Fourth through Eighth amendments defined a citizen�s rights in court and when under arrest. The Ninth Amendment stated that the enumeration of these rights did not endanger other rights, and the Tenth Amendment said that powers not granted the national government by the Constitution remained with the states and citizens.", "The first Congress of the United States approves 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and sends them to the states for ratification. The amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were designed to protect the basic rights of U.S. citizens, guaranteeing the freedom of speech, press, assembly, and exercise of religion; the right to fair legal procedure and to bear arms; and that powers not delegated to the federal government were reserved for the states and the people.", "The United States Bill of Rights consists of 10 amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the Constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788. The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require jury trials, contain a right to keep and bear arms, prohibit excessive bail and forbid \"cruel and unusual punishments\". Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the Virginia Declaration of Rights were incorporated into the Bill of Rights.", "The sharp Anti-Federalist critique of the Constitution did not abate after it became operational, and by the time the First Congress convened in March 1789, there existed widespread sentiment in both the House and Senate in favor of making alterations. That September, Congress adopted twelve amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of these were ratified by the required number of states in December 1791 and became part of the Constitution. These amendments enumerate freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, and freedom from warrants issued without probable cause; indictment by a grand jury for a capital or \"infamous crime\"; guarantee of a speedy, public trial with an impartial jury; and prohibition of double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution and reserves all powers not specifically granted to the federal government to the people or the States.", "[5] Of the twelve proposed amendments, all but the first two dealt with the protection of the rights of individuals; all but the first two were ratified. Since, of the ten remaining, Amendments 1 and 3 through 10 have repeatedly been held to secure fundamental individual rights, it is logical that the Second Amendment also secures a fundamental individual right.", "    Seventeen Amendments were approved by the House.  This number was later reduced to twelve by a conference committee of the House and Senate.  Ten were eventually ratified on December 15, 1791.  The first eight were taken from the Virginia Declaration of Rights written by George Mason in 1776.  Amendment nine and ten were addressed specifically to meet the demands of Sam Adams and others who wished to see the rights of the people and the states preserved.  The tenth, which states that \"powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\"  This language was taken almost verbatim from the Articles of Confederation.", "In December 1787 and January 1788, five states—Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut—ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment. ", "Let it be borne in mind that ALL of the first ten Amendments are of National effect", "This language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendment's intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, and adopted on December 15, 1791. ", "Apparently when the proposed amendments were passed by the Senate on September 9, 1789, what is now the first amendment read as follows:" ]

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[ "Treaty of Rome, originally (1957–93) Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community, succeeded by (1993–2009) Treaty Establishing the European Community and (2009– ) Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union; also called, together with the Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community, Treaties of Rome, international agreement, signed in Rome on March 25, 1957, by Belgium , France , the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), Italy , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands, that established the European Economic Community (EEC), creating a common market and customs union among its members. The Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community , for the purpose of developing peaceful applications of atomic energy, was signed by the same countries on the same day, and therefore the two treaties together are often called the Treaties of Rome. Following the advent of the European Union (EU) in 1993, the treaty that had established the EEC remained one of the EU’s core documents, though the EEC itself was renamed the European Community (EC), and the EC was embedded into the EU. With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, the EC was eliminated, and the Treaty of Rome that had established it was formally renamed the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.", "The Treaty of Rome, officially the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (TEEC), is an international agreement that led to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC). It was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany and came into force on 1 January 1958. It remains one of the two most important treaties in the modern-day European Union (EU).", "The European union (EU), name given since the ratification (Nov., 1993) of the Treaty of European Union, or Maastricht Treaty, to the European Community (EC), an economic and political confederation of European nations, and other organizations (with the same member nations) that are responsible for a common foreign and security policy and for cooperation on justice and home affairs. Twenty-five countries Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany (originally West Germany), Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden are full members of the organizations of the EU.", "10. The Treaty of Rome, officially the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (TEEC), was an international agreement that led to the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) on January 1, 1958. The TEEC proposed the progressive reduction of customs duties and the establishment of a customs union. It was signed on March 25, 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. Read a book set in one of these countries, a book where something happens that has world-wide consequences OR a book originally published in 1957.", "It was the 1950 Schuman Declaration that unveiled Jean Monnet’s idea of the ECSC. Six member-states (Italy, France, Belgium , Luxembourg, The Netherlands , and West Germany) signed it into being with the 1951 Treaty of Paris . The ECSC was so successful in the early 1950s that it led to the 1957 Treaties of Rome , establishing the European Economic Community (EEC), which was a customs union, and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The 1967 Merger Treaty merged the executive bodies of the three treaties, thereby creating the institutions that continue to exist in the twenty-first century. In addition, ECSC, EEC (later EC), and Euratom became known together as the European Communities. The 1987 Single European Act replaced the Treaty of Paris and the Treaties of Rome as the EC’s policy domain grew into new areas not encompassed by the original treaties. It remained the European Communities until member-states signed and ratified the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, officially creating the European Union, which established the economic, monetary, and political union.", "The 1951 Treaty of Paris established the first European Community bound by common political and economic interests. It included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, who also made up the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and allowed all of these countries to pool their respective economic resources. Foreign ministers of these countries met in Messina, Italy in 1995, and signed the Treaties of Rome. There they established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).", "(EEC), organization established (1958) by a treaty signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany (now Germany); it was known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in 1967 to form the European Community (EC; known since the ratification [1993] of the Maastricht treaty as the European Union). The EEC had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It worked for the free movement of labor and capital, the abolition of trusts and cartels, and the development of joint and reciprocal policies on labor, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade.", "On 25th March 1957, two treaties were signed in Rome that gave birth to the European Economic Community (EEC) and to European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) : the Treaties of Rome. The signatories of the historic agreement were Christian Pineau on behalf of France, Joseph Luns from the Netherlands, Paul Henri Spaak from Belgium, Joseph Bech   from Luxemburg, Antonio Segni from Italy and Konrad Adenauer from the Federal Republic of Germany. The Treaties were ratified by National Parliaments over the following months and came into force on 1st January 1958.", "European Economic Community (EEC), organization established (1958) by a treaty signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany (now Germany); it was known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in 1967 to form the European Community (EC; known since the ratification [1993] of the Maastricht treaty as the European Union). The EEC had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It worked for the free movement of labor and capital, the abolition of trusts and cartels, and the development of joint and reciprocal policies on labor, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade.", "The European Union (EU) comprises 28 member states. Each member state is party to the founding treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges and obligations of membership. Unlike members of most international organisations, the member states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative and judicial institutions. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence and foreign affairs. Subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU.", "These agreements are laid down in the form of Treaties which are then subject to ratification by the national parliaments. The same procedure applies for any subsequent amendments to the Treaties. The Treaties establishing the European Communities have been revised several times each Treaty contains �Protocols� and are they are amended by succeeding Treaties:", "Treaty on European Union, known as the \"Maastricht Treaty\" (1992)The Maastricht Treaty brought the three Communities (Euratom, ECSC, EEC) and institutionalised cooperation in the fields of foreign policy, defence, police and justice together under one umbrella, the European Union. The EEC was renamed, becoming the EC. Furthermore, this Treaty created economic and monetary union, put in place new Community policies (education, culture) and increased the powers of the European Parliament (codecision procedure).Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)", "The European Economic Commmunity Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Rome, was signed on March 25, 1957. The EU states that it \"brings together France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries in a community whose aim is to achieve integration via trade with a view to economic expansion. After the Treaty of Maastricht, the EEC became the European Community, reflecting the determination of the Member States to expand the Community's powers to non-economic domains.\"", "The Treaty on European Union (TEU), signed in Maastricht on 7 February 1992, entered into force on 1 November 1993. This Treaty is the result of external and internal events. At external level, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the outlook of German reunification led to a commitment to reinforce the Community's international position. At internal level, the Member States wished to supplement the progress achieved by the Single European Act with other reforms.", "It was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The word Economic was deleted from the treaty's name by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, and the treaty was repackaged as the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union on the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009.", "The six members of the ECSC sign the Treaty of Rome setting up the European Economic Community EEC and the European Atomic Energy Community Euratom. The EEC aims to create a common market a customs union plus free movement of capital and labour. To please France it also promises subsidies to farmers. Euratom's goal is the joint development of nuclear energy.", "The Treaty has a complicated structure. Its preamble is followed by seven titles. Title I contains provisions shared by the Communities, common foreign policy, and judicial cooperation. Title II contains provisions amending the EEC Treaty, while Titles III and IV amend the ECSC and EAEC Treaties respectively. Title V introduces provisions concerning common foreign and security policy (CFSP). Title VI contains provisions on cooperation in the fields of justice and home affairs (JHA). The final provisions are set out in Title VII.", "established 8 April 1965 to integrate the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market), and to establish a completely integrated common market and an eventual federation of Europe; merged into the European Union (EU) on 7 February 1992; member states at the time of merger were Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, UK", "The Founding Treaties [the European Coal and Steel Community (Paris, 1951), European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community (Rome, 1957), Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 1992]", "The Treaty of Brussels - The Treaty of Brussels was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, as an expansion to the preceding year's defence pledge, the Dunkirk Treaty signed between Britain and France. As the Treaty of Brussels contained a mutual defence clause, it provided a basis upon which the 1954 Paris Conference established the Western European Union (WEU). It was terminated on 31 March 2010.", "Treaty of Rome a treaty setting up and defining the aims of the European Economic Community. It was signed at Rome on 25 March 1957 by France , West Germany, Italy, Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg.", "The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of , and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.", "Its aim was to bring about economic integration, including a common market, among its six founding members: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The EEC was also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world and sometimes referred to as the European Community even before it was officially renamed as such in 1993.", "The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 countries. Each of the countries within the Union are independent but they agree to trade under the agreements made between the nations.", "1. Warsaw Pact: The Warsaw pact is another name for the Treaty of Friendship, which was a treaty that was a mutual defense treaty among eight communists states in Europe. These states included the Soviet Union, Poland, and Hungary. The treaty established the agreement that if any of those areas were under attack that the others would help.", "The Union shall be founded on the European Communities, supplemented by the policies and forms of cooperation established by this Treaty. Its task shall be to organize, in a manner demonstrating consistency and solidarity, relations between the Member States and between their peoples.\"", "As part of the treaty’s second pillar, members undertook to define and implement common foreign and security policies. Members agreed that, where possible, they would adopt common defense policies, which would be implemented through the Western European Union , a security organization that includes many EU members. Joint actions—which were not subject to monitoring or enforcement by the Commission or the ECJ—required unanimity.", "Wessels, Wolfgang, Andreas Maurer, and Jürgan Mittag (eds.). Fifteen into One?: the European Union and Its Member States. New York: Palgrave, 2003.", "Member States pledge to settle all disputes among themedves by peaceful means and, to this end decide to establish a Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration, the composition of which and conditiow o] service shall be defined by a separate Protocol to be approved by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. Said Protocol shall be regarded as forming an integral part of the present Charter.", "The current association of 27 European countries that are joined together in an agenda of economic, political, and cultural integration", "(a) The Union shall have an Assembly consisting of those countries of the Union which are bound by Articles 22 to 26 .", "(a) The Union shall have an Assembly consisting of those countries of the Union which are bound by Articles 22 to 26 ." ]

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[ "December 25, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned the presidency of the Soviet Union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year.", "Mikhail Gorbachev led the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991, first as general secretary of the Communist Party and then as president of the Soviet Union. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, survived an attempted coup by communist conservatives in 1991 and resigned the presidency at the end of that year when the Soviet Union voted itself out of existence.", "Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov ( Russian : Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв, commonly anglicized as Gorbachev; born March 2, 1931) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 until its demise in 1991. The first Soviet leader to be born after the revolution , he tried to reform the Soviet Union with his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), attempting to infuse the communist society and economy with a market dynamism.", "By the time Gorbachev was elected president in the USSR's first multi-candidate elections in March 1989, his popularity was in sharp decline. Rather than boosting the Soviet economy, his democratic reforms had an unintended outcome: the collapse of Communism throughout Eastern Europe. Receiving the Nobel Prize did nothing to raise Gorbachev in his people's esteem, and in 1991 Gorbachev was kidnapped by hard-line Communists in an armed coup. He was restored to power with the help of his enemy Boris Yeltsin, but Gorbachev's leadership was irreparably damaged. On December 25, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union, but only after dissolving it.", "December 1991: Mikhail Gorbachev announces the breakup of the Soviet Union and resigns as its president.", "During the next year and a half, Gorbachev's power gradually waned, while Yeltsin's star rose. In December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union officially dissolved. Yeltsin, however, retained his position of power as president of Russia. In their own particular ways, both men had overseen the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.", "On 19 August 1991, a coup was attempted by elements of the Communist party and the armed forces. The coup was defeated under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin, the Russian President. As a result, the Soviet Union began to break up as the constituent Republics declared their independence. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on 25 December 1991 and on 26 December the USSR formally ceased to exist.", "Mikhail Gorbachev, in full Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (born March 2, 1931, Privolye, Stavropol kray, Russia , U.S.S.R.), Soviet official, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1985 to 1991 and president of the Soviet Union in 1990–91. His efforts to democratize his country’s political system and decentralize its economy led to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In part because he ended the Soviet Union’s postwar domination of eastern Europe, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990.", "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.", "*December 25, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns as Soviet President and the post is abolished; the red Soviet flag is lowered from the Moscow Kremlin, and in its place the flag of the Russian Federation is raised.", "On Christmas Day 1991, the Soviet flag flew over the Kremlin in Moscow for the last time. A few days earlier, representatives from 11 Soviet republics (Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) met in the Kazakh city of Alma-Ata and announced that they would no longer be part of the Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they would establish a Commonwealth of Independent States. Because the three Baltic republics (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) had already declared their independence from the USSR, only one of its 15 republics, Georgia, remained. The once-mighty Soviet Union had fallen, largely due to the great number of radical reforms that Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev had implemented during his six years as the leader of the USSR. However, Gorbachev was disappointed in the dissolution of his nation and resigned from his job on December 25. It was a peaceful end to a long, terrifying and sometimes bloody epoch in world history.", "Gorbachev was released and flown to Moscow, but his regime had been dealt a deadly blow. Over the next few months, he dissolved the Communist Party, granted independence to the Baltic states, and proposed a looser, more economics-based federation among the remaining republics. In December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. Yeltsin capitalized on his defeat of the coup, emerging from the rubble of the former Soviet Union as the most powerful figure in Moscow and the leader of the newly formed Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).", "�       In December 1991 Soviet union itself was disbanded. Gorbachev no longer led the country and he resigned.", " Served as General Secretary from 11 March 1985, [54] and resigned on 24 August 1991, [57] Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1 October [53] 1988 until the office was renamed to the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet on 25 May 1989 to 15 March 1990 [54] and President of the Soviet Union from 15 March 1990 [58] to 25 December 1991. [59] The day following Gorbachev's resignation as President, the Soviet Union was formally dissolved. [56]", "Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 25 December 1991 and ceded all the powers still vested in it to Russian leader Boris Yeltsin. Russian authorities had long been keen on expelling Honecker – against the wishes of Gorbachev – and the new government now demanded that he leave the country or else face deportation. ", "*August 24, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, campaigns for glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reconstruction) in the Soviet Union. In 1988, Gorbachev becomes president of the USSR.", "On December 21, 11 of the 12 remaining republics (all except Georgia) founded the Commonwealth of Independent States, effectively ending the USSR. On December 25, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as president, and on December 26 the Supreme Soviet officially dissolved the USSR.", "After Mikhail Gorbachev succeeded Konstantin Chernenko as General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, he introduced many changes in Soviet foreign policy and in the economy of the USSR. Gorbachev pursued conciliatory policies towards the West instead of maintaining the Cold War status quo. The Soviet Union ended its occupation of Afghanistan , signed strategic arms reduction treaties with the United States, and allowed its allies in Eastern Europe to determine their own affairs. The dismantling of the Berlin Wall beginning in November 1989 dramatically signaled the end of the Soviet Union's external empire in Central and Eastern Europe. Two years later, the internal empire also came to an end.", "Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union for almost seven years and executive president for nearly two, has stepped down from office.", "Gorbachev was elected to the General Secretariat by the Politburo on 11 March 1985. [30] By the mid-to-late 1980s Gorbachev had launched the policies of perestroika (literally meaning \"reconstruction\", but varies) and glasnost (\"openness\" and \"transparency\"). [31] The dismantling of the principal defining features of communism in 1988 and 1989 in the Soviet Union led to the unintended consequence of breaking-up the Soviet state into 15 successor states after the failed August Coup of 1991 led by Gennady Yanayev . [32]", "Some of his accomplishments include four summits with President Ronald Reagan, including a 1987 meeting at which an agreement was reached to dismantle the U.S. and USSR intermediate-range missiles in Europe. He also began to remove Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988 and exerted diplomatic pressure on Cuba and Vietnam to remove their forces from Angola and Kampuchea (Cambodia), respectively. In a 1989 meeting with President George Bush, Gorbachev declared that the Cold War was over.", "By the mid-1980s the Soviet contingent was increased to 108,800 and fighting increased throughout the country, but the military and diplomatic cost of the war to the USSR was high. By mid-1987 the Soviet Union, now under reformist leader Mikhail Gorbachev, announced it would start withdrawing its forces. The final troop withdrawal started on May 15, 1988, and ended on February 15, 1989. The war was considered part of the Cold War. Due to its length it has sometimes been referred to as the \"Soviet Union's Vietnam War\" or the \"Bear Trap\" by the Western media, and thought to be a contributing factor to the fall of the Soviet Union.", "Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its nine-year war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s,, which paved the way for Revolutions of 1989 . With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East Germany and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain came down.", "On the night of 25 December, in a nationally televised speech, Gorbachev announced his resignation as president—as he put it, \"I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.\" He declared the office extinct and handed over its functions—including control of the Soviet nuclear codes—to Yeltsin. The Soviet Union was formally dissolved the following day. Two days after Gorbachev left office, on 27 December, Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev's old office.", "Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as president of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union officially ceases to exist", "On 17 December, in a meeting with Yeltsin, Gorbachev accepted the fait accompli and agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union. On 24 December, the Russian Federation, by mutual agreement of the other CIS states (which by this time included all of the remaining republics except Georgia) took the Soviet Union's seat in the United Nations. The next day, Gorbachev resigned and the Soviet Union ceased to exist—thereby ending the world's oldest, largest and most powerful Communist state. Economic relations between the former Soviet republics were severely compromised. Millions of ethnic Russians found themselves in the newly formed foreign countries. ", "Gorbachev resigns as general secretary of the Communist Party. Within a month, all of the Soviet republics except Russia declare their independence.", "In his farewell speech to the nation, Gorbachev indicated that the recent establishment of the CIS was the primary motive for his resignation, claiming he was “concerned about the fact that the people in this country are ceasing to become citizens of a great power and the consequences may be very difficult for all of us to deal with.” In words that were sometimes prideful, sometimes resentful, Gorbachev stated that he stood on his record of achievement. He had, he claimed, overseen the Soviet Union’s trip down the “road of democracy.” His reforms “steered” the communist economy “toward the market economy.” He declared that the Russian people were “living in a new world” in which an “end has been put to the Cold War and to the arms race.” Admitting “there were mistakes made,” Gorbachev remained adamant that he “never had any regrets” about the policies he pursued.", "After just over a year in office, Konstantin Chernenko dies. Mikhail Gorbachev, a youthful 54, becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party.", "A coup in the Soviet Union leads to the house arrest of Mikhail Gorbachev. The action draws worldwide condemnation—and countries such as Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine and Belarus begin to declare their independence from the USSR.", "** Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party and de facto leader of the Soviet Union." ]

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[ "Weekend World is a British television political series, made by London Weekend Television (LWT) and broadcast from 1972 to 1988.", "8.15 A Week in Politics PETER JAY A look at British politics, from grassroots to Downing Street, with reporters Auriol Stevens and Vivian White. Presenter is Peter Jay.", "A multi-millionaire, Bilderberger, multiculturalist, Marxist Jew, and Leader of the Labour Party since 25 Sept 2010. He worked on the Channel 4 show A Week in Politics from 1992 until he left to work for Labour Deputy Leader, Harriet Harman in 1993. In 1994 he started working for Gordon Brown. Jack Straw is considered a “father figure” to Ed Miliband.", "12.00noon Weekend World MATTHEW PARRIS W eekend W orld puts the spotlight on a controversial issue. Matthew Parris interviews a key decision-maker. DIRECTORS KATHRYN WOLFE, DAVID ROLFE PRODUCERS DAVID JORDAN, KARAN THAPAR, MICHAEL MACLAY, DAVID NISSAN, SARAH POWELL, JILL ROBINSON RESEARCH GERARD BAKER, CHARLES COLV/LLE, MARK DOWD, RICHARD KLEIN, FRANK MILLAR, LAIN PICTON DEPUTY EDITOR GLENWYN BENSON EDITOR JEREMY BUGLER LW T Production", "A political review of the week presented by Andrew Neil, with Michael Portillo and Alan Johnson.", "Of the many roles available in the show, one of the longest running, and most coveted, is being the host of \"Weekend Update\", a segment which has alternated between having one or two hosts, and which allows the cast members involved to perform as themselves and be on camera for an extended period of time. [51] Many of the \"Weekend Update\" hosts have gone on to find greater success outside of the show, including: Chase, Murray, [51] Miller, MacDonald, [52] Fey, [51] Fallon, [53] and Poehler. Since 2008, Seth Meyers has been the solo host of \"Weekend Update\", having previously co-hosted with Poehler since 2006. [51]", "Andrew William Stevenson Marr (born 31 July 1959) is a British journalist and political commentator. He edited The Independent for two years until May 1998, and was political editor of BBC News from 2000 until 2005. He began hosting a political programme Sunday AM, now called The Andrew Marr Show , on Sunday mornings on BBC One from September 2005. Marr also hosts the BBC Radio 4 programme Start the Week .", "The World Service in English mainly broadcasts news and analysis programmes. The mainstays of the current BBC World Service schedule are Newsday, World Update, Newshour and The Newsroom. There are daily science programmes: Health Check, the technology programme Click and Science in Action. At the weekends, some of the schedule is taken up by Sportsworld, which often includes live commentary of Premier League football matches. Other weekend sport shows include The Sports Hour and Stumped, a cricket partnership with All India Radio and The Australian Broadcasting Corporation. On Sundays the international, interdisciplinary discussion programme The Forum is broadcast. On weekdays, an hour of the schedule is given over to World: Have Your Say which encourages listeners to participate in discussing current events via text message, phone calls, emails and blog postings. Outlook, a human interest programme presented by Matthew Bannister and Jo Fidgen. It was first broadcast in July 1966 and presented for more than thirty years by John Tidmarsh. Regular music programmes were reintroduced with the autumn schedule in 2015.", "The programme has a regular slot for sports news and items, 'Sports Desk', between 26 and 30 minutes past each hour, regularly presented by Garry Richardson, Jonathan Legard or Rob Bonnet and occasionally by Alison Mitchell, Karthi Gnanasegaram or Chris Dennis. If Parliament is in session the previous day there will be a summary at about 06:50 (Yesterday in Parliament ) presented by two from Robert Orchard, David Wilby, Rachel Hooper and Susan Hulme. ", "American author and conservative commentator. He founded the political magazine National Review in 1955, hosted 1429 episodes[3] of the television show Firing Line from 1966 until 1999, and was a nationally syndicated newspaper columnist", "TV's weekly forum of news and discussion from around the world, with the issues behind the global headlines. Presented by Chantal Cuer, with a weekly summary of world news from ITN, presented by Trevor McDonald and Christabel King.", "Of the many roles available in the show, one of the longest-running and most coveted is being the host of \"Weekend Update\", a segment which has alternated between having one or two hosts, and which allows the cast members involved to perform as themselves and be on camera for an extended period of time. Many of the \"Weekend Update\" hosts have gone on to find greater success outside of the show, including: Chase, Curtin, Murray, Miller, Macdonald, Fey, Fallon, and Poehler. From 2008, Seth Meyers was the solo host of \"Weekend Update\", before being partnered with Cecily Strong in 2013. After Meyers left for Late Night with Seth Meyers in February 2014, Strong was paired with head writer Colin Jost . The cast is divided into two tiers: the more established group of repertory players; and newer, unproven cast members known as featured players, who may eventually be promoted to the repertory stable.", "Following several days of speculation, it is reported that the BBC economics editor Robert Peston is to move to ITV to become their political editor. He will additionally present a Sunday morning political programme to rival The Andrew Marr Show . [6] Peston's move to ITV is confirmed by Peston himself three days later; his Sunday morning show will be titled Peston on Sunday . [6]", "Nicholas William Peter \"Nick\" Clegg (born 7 January 1967) is a British politician who has been Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Lord President of the Council (with special responsibility for political and constitutional reform) since 2010, as part of the coalition government headed by Prime Minister David Cameron. Clegg has been the Leader of the Liberal Democrats since 2007, and a Member of Parliament (MP) representing Sheffield Hallam since 2005. Having attended the University of Cambridge, the University of Minnesota, and the College of Europe, he was previously a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) and an award winning journalist for the Financial Times.", "Andrew Ferguson Neil (born 21 May 1949) is a British journalist and broadcaster and the editor of The Sunday Times for 11 years. He currently presents live political programmes, Sunday Politics and This Week on BBC One and Daily Politics on BBC Two. He is also the former editor-in-chief and current chairman of the Press Holdings group, which owns The Spectator. ", "He is a frequent contributor to the broadcast media and the press. His appearances on British television include BBC 1 (Sunday Politics with Andrew Neill) and Channel 4 News. His appearances on British Radio include BBC Radio 4 (Start the Week, In Our Time, Today and World at One), Radio 3 (Nightwaves) and Radio 2 (John Dunn Show). He has also appeared widely television and radio outside the UK, most notably on North German Radio/Television, West German Radio/Television and Radio Multikulti Berlin.", "Chase was the original anchor for the Weekend Update segment of SNL, and his catchphrase introduction, \"I'm Chevy Chase... and you're not\" became well known. His trademark conclusion, \"Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow\" was later resurrected by Jane Curtin and Tina Fey. Chase also wrote comedy material for Weekend Update. For example, he wrote and performed \"The News for the Hard of Hearing\". In this skit, Chase would read the top story of the day, aided by Garrett Morris, who would repeat the story by loudly shouting it. Chase claimed that his version of Weekend Update would later be the inspiration for other mock-news shows such as The Daily Show and The Colbert Report. ", "Alastair John Campbell (born 25 May 1957) is a British journalist, broadcaster, political aide and author, best known for his work as Director of Communications and Strategy for prime minister Tony Blair between 1997 and 2003. Campbell describes himself as a \"communicator, writer and strategist\" on his website.", "Janet Street-Porter, CBE (born 27 December 1946; née Ardern; previously Bull) is an English celebrity, media personality, journalist and broadcaster. She was editor for two years of The Independent on Sunday, but relinquished the job to become editor-at-large in 2002. She has made numerous television appearances on discussion programmes including Question Time, reality shows including I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! and Celebrity MasterChef and on panel games including Have I Got News for You. Since 2011, she has been a regular panellist on the ITV lifestyle and chat show Loose Women.", "Simon David Hoggart (26 May 1946 – 5 January 2014) was an English journalist and broadcaster. He wrote on politics for The Guardian, and on wine for The Spectator. Until 2006 he presented The News Quiz on Radio 4. His journalism sketches have been published in a series of books.", "Political geeks will be in heaven this week with the US election. Auntie’s new ABC News Breakfast (ABC2, Mon Nov 3, 6am) premieres just in time, World News Australia: America Decides (SBS, Wed Nov 5, 3.30pm) follows the action live with the help of CNN, and Dateline (SBS, Wed Nov 5, 8.30pm) airs live from Washington. On the lighter side is Mr Firth Goes to Washington (SBS, Tue Nov 4, 8.30pm) part docudrama, part mockumentary, the show follows The Chaser’s Charles Firth as he goes to Washington and attempts to get an interview with George Bush. The following week British political satire The Thick of It (ABC1, Fri Nov 21, 9.40pm) hits our screens.", "A 2004 Power Players Week game featuring Al Franken had a category entitled \" SNL Presidential Players\". Needless to say, Al swept the category. Then he apologized to his opponents (Keith Olbermann and Gretchen Carlson), saying he wrote four of the five sketches featured in the category.", "He has appeared as a guest on Midweek, Woman's Hour, Broadcasting House and as a political pundit on PM. ", "Dan also presents his own football show on BBC World each week which goes into 295 million homes around the world. You’ll also find his online show (Friday Focus) weekly interviews and his blog on the BBC website.", "If you’ve been wondering what Lateline (ABC1, weeknights, 10.30pm) host Tony Jones has been up to since he cut his hours back, don’t fret – you’re about to see a lot more of him. He’s already on air with Q&A (ABC1, Thu, 9.35pm) and his new vehicle ABC Fora (ABC2, Thu May 29, 5.35pm and Fri May 30, 8am). The show promises talks, lectures, public addresses and debates from Australia and around the world. So if opinion and debate is your bag, Tony will help you out.", "Sketches include \"State of the Union Address: Preparation I,\"\"Palin's Socks Monologue,\"\"Mr. Brighton Returns to the Nerds,\"\"Miles Cowperthwaite, Part One,\"\"What If Superman Grew Up in Germany?\" and \"Name the Bats.\" Weekend Update features \"Chico Escuela's Super Bowl Recap\" and \"Father Guido Sarducci's Bill for The Last Brunch.\"", "As one of the longest running cast members on NBC’s “Saturday Night Live” (from 1986-1995), Nealon anchored the “Weekend Update” segment and created some of the show’s most memorable characters, including The Subliminal Man and “Pumping Up” host Franz. In 1987, he earned an Emmy Award nomination as part of the show’s writing team.", "After cutting back on his playing schedule, Faldo became a broadcaster for ABC Sports' PGA Tour coverage, where he worked from 2004 to 2006 alongside former playing rival Paul Azinger and host Mike Tirico. While never considered to be a particularly charismatic player, Faldo surprised many fans with his dry, British wit and insightful commentary as part of the ABC team. The trio garnered many positive reviews, with Faldo and Azinger often exchanging verbal barbs and engaging in humorous banter.", "Frank Reynolds (b. 1923) – TV journalist – Anchored ABC Evening News, co-anchored World News Tonight, and pioneered the 30 min late night news program “America Held Hostage” which was renamed to “Nightline”", "World News Today is included in the weekend schedule of the BBC News Channel , airing at 9.00pm.", "          Edition All Things Considered Weekend Edition Saturday Weekend Edition Sunday Talk of the Nation Talk of", "COOPER: Ran out of time for \"The Ridiculist.\" We'll see you again one hour from now another edition of 360. \"PIERS MORGAN TONIGHT\" starts right now." ]

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[ "The Commonwealth of Nations, or the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth), is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states that were mostly territories of the former British Empire. The Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental consensus of the member states, organised through the Commonwealth Secretariat, and non-governmental organisations, organised through the Commonwealth Foundation. ", "The Commonwealth mainly consists of countries which used to be part of the British Empire, and 53 nations are members. However as the home nations of the UK and British Overseas Territories have their own teams there are 71 teams.", "The Commonwealth comprises 53 countries, across all six inhabited continents. The members have a combined population of 2.1 billion people, almost a third of the world population, of which 1.26 billion live in India and 94% live in Asia and Africa combined. After India, the next-largest Commonwealth countries by population are Pakistan (180 million), Nigeria (170 million), Bangladesh (156 million), the United Kingdom (63 million) and South Africa (52 million). Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 10,000 people. ", "The Commonwealth of Nations, often called just the Commonwealth, is an association of 53 independent nations, all but one of which are former British colonies or related dependencies. Although the British empire is mostly no more, these nations grouped together to use their history to promote peace, democracy and development. There are substantial economic ties and a shared history.", "The Commonwealth of Nations , usually known as the Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which are former British colonies, or dependencies of these colonies (the exceptions being the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique).", "The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which are former British colonies , or dependencies of these colonies (the exceptions being the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique).", "The Commonwealth of Nations celebrate Commonwealth Day every year, on second Monday in March. The Commonwealth is an inter-governmental organization consisting of 52 former British colonies along with Rwanda and Mozambique, founded in 1959 and united by the Singapore Declaration of 1971. The Declaration outlines common goals for Commonwealth countries, including the promotion of democracy, human rights, egalitarianism and world peace. The Commonwealth is also connected through a shard culture, expressed through sports, literary heritage and political and legal structures.", "Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations , a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. [233] Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state. These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities – the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea , Antigua and Barbuda , The Bahamas , Barbados , Belize , Grenada , Jamaica , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Solomon Islands and Tuvalu . [234]", "The Commonwealth of Nations is an association of independent countries and other political units that have lived under British law and government. It includes the United Kingdom, about 50 independent nations that were once British colonies, and about 25 other political units, such as territories and dependencies.", "The Commonwealth of Nations is made up of 53 countries, including Canada, that were for the most part once part of the British Empire. They work together on international policy and hold a major sports event every four years. It is one of the world’s oldest political associations of states.", "LONDON — What do nations like Belize, India, Fiji, Singapore and Australia have in common? They are just a few of the 54 members of the British Commonwealth, a powerful yet overlooked player in the field of international trade and relations.", "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, born 21 April 1926) is the reigning queen and head of state of 16 independent sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. In addition, as Head of the Commonwealth, she is the figurehead of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations and, as the British monarch, she is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.", "The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 53 independent and sovereign states. Most are former British colonies or dependencies of these colonies.", "Thus, in 1931, the British Commonwealth of Nations was founded under the Statute of Westminster with five initial members - the United Kingdom, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, and the Union of South Africa. (Ireland permanently left the Commonwealth in 1949, Newfoundland became part of Canada in 1949, and South Africa left in 1961 due to apartheid but rejoined in 1994 as the Republic of South Africa).", "Historically, there are about 20 more countries which were Commonwealth realms during parts of the last Century, but have since abandoned the monarchy to become republics. Still, the current list is longer than it used to be - at the time of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation in 1952, there were only seven realms: the U.K., Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).", "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, born 21 April 1926 is the reigning queen and head of state of 16 independent sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. In addition, as Head of the Commonwealth, she is the figurehead of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations and, as the British monarch, she is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. She and her consort Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh have four children, Princess Anne, Prince Charles, Prince Andrew, and, Prince Edward. Queen Elizabeth has eight grandchildren and is expecting her first great-grandchild in late 2010.", "Currently sixteen of the member states are Commonwealth realms with the Head of the Commonwealth also as their head of state, five others are monarchies with their own separate monarchs (Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, Tonga) and the rest are republics.", "The answer is 53. While there are 61 \"spears\" on the flag, the Commonwealth has never had this many members. There were 54 before Zimbabwe was suspended and then withdrew.", "A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state within the Commonwealth of Nations that has Elizabeth II as its monarch and head of state. all but about two million live in the six most populous states, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and Jamaica. Fourteen of the current and all former realms were once British colonies that evolved into independent states, the exceptions being the United Kingdom (UK) itself and Papua New Guinea, which was formed in 1975 as a union of the former German New Guinea legally the territory of Papua, administered for the UK by Australia since 1905. The first realms to emerge were colonies that had already previously attained the status of a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire. For a time, the older term of ''Dominion'' was retained to refer to these non-British realms, even though their actual status had changed with the granting of full legislative independence. The word is still sometimes used today, though increasingly rarely, as the word ''realm'' was formally introduced with the proclamation of Elizabeth II in 1953, and acquired legal status with the adoption of the modern royal styles and titles by the individual countries. The qualified term ''Commonwealth realm'' is not official, and has not been used in law; rather, it is a term of convenience for distinguishing this group of realms from other countries in the Commonwealth that do not share the same monarch. ", "The Commonwealth is an association of nations that links fifty-three sovereign states, six continents, and one third of the world’s population. Despite the vast dichotomies in geography, economy and culture, one characteristic of the Commonwealth that never fails to amaze me is that whenever its citizens convene they always find that they have more in common than separating them. Read more...", "Asia There are eight Commonwealth member states in Asia – India, Pakistan, Banglaldesh, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam and the Maldives – with more than 70 per cent of the Commonwealth’s two billion citizens living in southern Asia. India and Pakistan joined the association on independence in 1947, when the modern Commonwealth was established, followed by Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1948. India was the first country with a republican form of government to join, opening the way for other countries that had adopted republican constitutions or had a national monarch to become Commonwealth members.", "The Commonwealth was first officially formed in 1931 when the Statute of Westminster gave legal recognition to the sovereignty of dominions. Known as the \"British Commonwealth\", the original members were the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, and Newfoundland, although Australia and New Zealand did not adopt the statute until 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1949, the London Declaration was signed and marked the birth of the modern Commonwealth and the adoption of its present name. The newest member is Rwanda, which joined on 29 November 2009. The most recent departure was The Gambia, which severed its connection with the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013.", "Through a process of decolonisation following the second world war, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean gained independence. Some colonies became Commonwealth realms, retaining the British monarch as their own head of state. Most former colonies and protectorates became member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. ", "o understand the modern Commonwealth, one must appreciate its past. The concept took root in the 19th century when the British Empire was at its height and its flag flew on every continent. By the time it covered 13 million square miles and embraced 458 million people, nations were demanding greater independence and the British Empire had begun to dismantle. The British Commonwealth of Nations The British Government knew it was essential to create something new to embrace these countries and territories under one unifying banner. In 1867, Canada became the first colony to be transformed into a self-governing ‘dominion’ – a newly constituted status that suggested equality with Britain. The empire was changing, with politician Lord Rosebery describing it in 1884 as ‘a commonwealth of nations’. Other parts of the empire were transformed into dominions too – Australia in 1901, New Zealand in 1907, South Africa in 1910 and the Irish Free State in 1922. After the First World War, the dominions sought a new constitutional definition and in 1926 the Balfour", "For the Commonwealth, like the United Nations, spans every region of the world. It constitutes nearly a third of the global population – some 2.2 billion people, and a quarter of our planet’s land area. But it has not relied on its size and geographical reach alone in making its mark in a world of many multi-country organisations. The Commonwealth’s unique value has been its commitment to development, democracy, and diversity.\"  Continue >>", "Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games. On 3 October 2013, after 48 years of membership, The Gambia became the most recent nation to withdraw from the Commonwealth. ", "Previously devoid of a constitution, the Commonwealth adopted its charter in December 2012. This commits members to 16 core values of democracy, gender equality, sustainable development and international peace and security. Each member nation is considered equal regardless of size or wealth.", "Towards the end of the nineteenth century changes began occurring in the old British Empire , as the colonies grew in independence. In 1867 Canada became a ‘dominion’, a self-governing nation considered equal with Britain rather than simply ruled by her. The phrase ‘Commonwealth of Nations’ was used to describe the new relationships between Britain and colonies by Lord Rosebury during a speech in Australia in 1884. More dominions followed: Australia in 1900, New Zealand in 1907, South Africa in 1910 and the Irish Free State in 1921.", "Not every former British colony joined the Commonwealth, nor did every nation who joined stay in it. For instance Ireland withdrew in 1949, as did South Africa (under Commonwealth pressure to curb apartheid) and Pakistan (in 1961 and 1972 respectively) although they later rejoined. Zimbabwe left in 2003, again under political pressure to reform.", "Antigua and Barbuda  · Australia  · Bahamas  · Bangladesh  · Barbados  · Belize  · Botswana  · Brunei  · Cameroon  · Canada  · Cyprus  · Dominica  · Fiji", "During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to \"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries\". ", "The transformed international scene is now filling up with new networks and alliances, some involving the old West and some excluding it all together.  The Commonwealth is only one of these new, or renewed, systems. But it is a mighty one and for a heavily interdependent Britain it is a huge potential asset in every respect, both from the trade and business point of view and also from the point of view of our contribution to peace, stability and development." ]

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[ "Government. The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. The National Parliament (Oireachtas ) consists of the president (directly elected by the people), and two houses: Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives) and Seanad Éireann (Senate). Their powers and functions derive from the constitution (enacted 1 July 1937). Representatives to Dáil Éireann, who are called Teachta Dála, or TDs, are elected through proportional representation with a single transferable vote. While legislative power is vested in the Oireachtas, all laws are subject to the obligations of European Community membership, which Ireland joined in 1973. The executive power of the state is vested in the government, composed of the Taoiseach (prime minister) and the cabinet. While a number of political parties are represented in the Oireachtas, governments since the 1930s have been led by either the Fianna Fáil or the Fine Gael party, both of which are center-right parties. County Councils are the principal form of local government, but they have few powers in what is one of the most centralized states in Europe.", "A dáil means an assembly or parliament, so a literal translation of Dáil Éireann is \"Assembly of Ireland\". Article 15 of Ireland's constitution describes the body as \"a House of Representatives to be called Dáil Éireann\" (Teach Ionadóirí ar a dtugtar Dáil Éireann). ", "The Republic of Ireland has two Houses of Parliament: The lower house is called the Dail while the upper house is called the Seanad.", "Constitutionally, Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. Under the constitution of 1937, as amended, legislative power is vested in the Oireachtas (national parliament), which consists of the president and two houses—Dáil Éireann (house of representatives) and Seanad Éireann (senate)—and sits in Dublin, the capital city. The president is elected by popular vote for seven years. Members of the Dáil, who are also elected by popular suffrage, using the single transferable vote, represent constituencies determined by law and serve five-year terms. These constituencies, none of which may return fewer than three members, must be revised at least once every 12 years, and the ratio between the number of members to be elected for each constituency and its population as ascertained at the last census must be the same, as far as practicable, throughout the country. Since 1981, there have been 166 seats in the Dáil.", "Dáil Éireann (, doyl -ahn; lit. Assembly of Ireland) is the lower house, and principal chamber, of the Oireachtas (Irish legislature), which also includes the President of Ireland and Seanad Éireann (the upper house).Article 15.1.2° of the Constitution of Ireland reads: \"The Oireachtas shall consist of the President and two Houses, viz.: a House of Representatives to be called Dáil Éireann and a Senate to be called Seanad Éireann.\" It is directly elected at least once every five years under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote (STV). Its powers are similar to those of lower houses under many other bicameral parliamentary systems and it is by far the dominant branch of the Oireachtas. Subject to the limits imposed by the Constitution of Ireland, it has power to pass any law it wishes, and to nominate and remove the Taoiseach (head of government). Since 1922, it has met in Leinster House in Dublin.", "The Republic of Ireland is governed by a parliamentary democracy. Parliament consists of a Lower House, the Dáil (pronounced \"doyl\") and an upper house, the Seanad (pronounced \"shinad\"), or Senate. Together, the 2 houses and the president form the Oireachtas (pronounced \"irrocktos\"), or government. The Irish president, although directly elected, has relatively few formal powers and the government, elected by the Dáil from its membership, is led by the Taoiseach (pronounced \"Teeshock\"), or prime minister, who presides over a 15-member cabinet of ministers.", "Following the formation of the independent Irish Free State in 1922, members of the lower house of the Oireachtas (parliament), Dáil Éireann (or \"the Dáil\") are termed Teachtaí Dála ( Teachta Dála singular) or TDs and are called a Deputy. The upper house is called Seanad Éireann and its members are called Senators.", "description: bicameral Parliament or Oireachtas consists of the Senate or Seanad Eireann (60 seats; 43 members indirectly elected by panels of various vocational interests, 11 appointed by the prime minister, and 6 elected by graduates of the University of Dublin and the National University of Ireland; members serve 5-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Dail Eireann (158 seats; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by proportional representation vote; members serve 5-year terms)", "Following the formation of the independent Irish Free State in 1922, members of the lower house of the Oireachtas (parliament), Dáil Éireann (or \"the Dáil\") are termed Teachtaí Dála ( Teachta Dála singular) or TDs and are called a Deputy . The upper house is called Seanad Éireann and its members are called Senators.", "* Oireachtas (Ireland) (consisting of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann (Lower House) and Seanad Éireann (Senate))", "Sinn Féin won a huge majority in the 1918 general election, largely thanks to the British executions of the 1916 leaders, the threat of conscription with the Conscription Crisis of 1918 and the first past the post ballot.  They won 73 out of 105 Irish seats, with about 47% of votes cast.  On January 21 in 1919, 27 Sinn Féin MPs (the rest were imprisoned or impaired), calling themselves Teachtaí Dála (TDs), assembled in the Mansion House in Dublin and formed an Irish parliament, known as Dáil Éireann (translatable into English as the Assembly of Ireland).  A ministry or Aireacht [Ar əxt] was formed, under the leadership of the Príomh Aire [plri:v arlə] Cathal Brugha [kahəl bYrYu:] (President of  Dáil Éireann Charles William St. John Burgess).  De Valera had been re-arrested in May 1918 and imprisoned and so could not attend the January session of the Dáil.  He escaped from Lincoln Gaol, England in February 1919.  As a result he replaced Brugha as Príomh Aire in the April session of Dáil Éireann.", "As British rule crumbled, an alternative government took shape. In the UK general election of December 1918 Sinn Fein won 73 of Ireland’s 105 seats in the House of Commons but, honouring the party manifesto pledge, the MPs did not take up their seats in Westminster, convening instead at the Mansion House in Dublin as the Dail Eireann (Assembly of Ireland). Even after being declared illegal by the British in September 1919, the Dail continued to develop as what Walsh terms “a virtual republic”, gradually taking over the functions of government.", "The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops (after the Reformation, Church of Ireland bishops), while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise.", "Ireland’s parliament is made up of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, with the President of the Republic holding a largely ceremonial role and the Prime Minister wielding executive power.", "Dáil Éireann determines its own standing orders and its members are protected by certain rights arising from parliamentary privilege. In line with other modern parliamentary systems, TDs do not generally vote in accordance with their consciences or the wishes of their constituents, but must follow the instructions of party whips, a practice that originated in the Irish Parliamentary Party. Except in exceptional circumstances, the Dáil meets in public. The Dáil currently has three standing committees and thirteen select committees.", "The first Dáil met in the Round Room of the Mansion House on 21 January 1919. The Dáil asserted the exclusive right of the elected representatives of the Irish people to legislate for the country. The Members present adopted a Provisional Constitution and approved a Declaration of Independence. The Dáil also approved a Democratic Programme, based on the 1916 Proclamation of the Irish Republic, and read and adopted a Message to the Free Nations of the World.", "A Member of Parliament was a member of the pre-1801 Irish House of Commons of the Parliament of Ireland . Irish members elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland were also called Members of Parliament from 1801 to 1922. Northern Ireland continues to elect MPs to the Parliament of the United Kingdom .", "As a result of this non-recognition, Sinn Féin had abstained from taking any of the seats they won in the British or Irish parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin delegates passed a resolution to amend the rules and constitution that would allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann). At this, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh led a small walkout, just as he and Sean Mac Stiofain had done sixteen years earlier with the creation of Provisional Sinn Féin. This minority, which rejected dropping the policy of abstentionism, now nominally distinguishes itself from Provisional Sinn Féin by using the name Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach), and maintains that they are the true Sinn Féin republicans.", "As a result of this non-recognition, Sinn Féin had abstained from taking any of the seats they won in the British or Irish parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin delegates passed a resolution to amend the rules and constitution that would allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann). At this, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh led a small walkout, just as he and Sean Mac Stiofain had done sixteen years earlier with the creation of Provisional Sinn Féin. [57] [58] [59] [60] This minority, which rejected dropping the policy of abstentionism , now nominally distinguishes itself from Provisional Sinn Féin by using the name Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach), and maintains that they are the true Sinn Féin republicans.", "Two of the key figures who were involved in the rising who avoided execution were Éamon de Valera and Michael Collins. In the December 1918 elections the Sinn Féin party led by Éamon de Valera won a majority of the Ireland based seats of the House of Commons. On the 21st of January 1919 the Sinn Féin members of the House of Commons gathered in Dublin to form an Irish Republic parliament called Dáil Éireann, unilaterally declaring power over the entire island.", "The central institution of the republic was Dáil Éireann, a unicameral assembly formed by the majority of Irish Members of Parliament elected in the 1918 general election. Two further general elections called by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the head of the British Dublin Castle administration, were treated by nationalists as elections to the Dáil. The Second Dáil comprised members returned in the 1921 elections for the Parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland; the Third Dáil was elected in 1922 general election as the \"provisional parliament\" of \"Southern Ireland\", as provided for by the Anglo-Irish Treaty.", "** The House of Commons was to include the pre-union representation from Great Britain and 100 members from Ireland: two members from each of the 32 counties and from the two largest boroughs, and one from each of the next 31 boroughs and from Dublin University. The other 84 Irish parliamentary boroughs were disfranchised; all were pocket boroughs, whose patrons received £15,000 compensation for the loss of what was considered their property.", "The Bank of Ireland is a fine building and it’s Ireland’s loss that it no longer houses the nation’s parliament. The misguided would say that it’s Ireland’s loss that it is no longer part of the United Kingdom, but, numerous other considerations aside, both countries have reached such low ebbs in the history of parliamentary government that it’s hard to justify that. Perhaps with a tinge of irony, the Oireachtas na hÉireann (Ireland’s current parliament) sits in Leinster House, itself built as a home for the Duke of Leinster – a member of Ireland’s House of Lords.", "As a result of this non-recognition, Sinn Féin had abstained from taking any of the seats they won in the British or Irish parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin delegates passed a resolution to amend the rules and constitution that would allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann). At this, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh led a small walkout, just as he and Sean Mac Stiofain had done sixteen years earlier with the creation of Provisional Sinn Féin. [23] [24] [25] [26] This minority, which rejected dropping the policy of abstentionism , now nominally distinguishes itself from Provisional Sinn Féin by using the name Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach), and maintains that they are the true Sinn Féin republicans.", "The 15 Irish Members of Parliament are elected in four constituencies: Dublin (4 seats), Munster (4 seats), Leinster (4 seats), Connacht/Ulster (3 seats).", "Ireland's dominant political personality for many decades, de Valera received numerous honours. He was elected Chancellor of the National University of Ireland in 1921, holding the post until his death. Pope John XXIII bestowed on him the Order of Christ. He received honorary degrees from universities in Ireland and abroad. In 1968 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), a recognition of his lifelong interest in mathematics. He also served as a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland (for Down from 1921 to 1929 and for South Down from 1933 to 1937), although he held to the Republican policy of abstentionism and did not take his seat in Stormont. He retired from the Presidency in June 1973, having served for fourteen years.", "Articles 2 and 3 of the Republic's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann , which claimed sovereignty over all of Ireland, were reworded, and a power-sharing Executive Committee was provided for. As part of their deal Sinn Féin agreed to abandon its abstentionist policy regarding a \"six-county parliament\", as a result taking seats in the new Stormont -based Assembly and running the education and health and social services ministries in the power-sharing government.", "In December 1918 a general election was held and Sinn Fein won 73 seats. However the Sinn Fein MPs refused to sit in the Britsh parliament. Instead they formed their own parliament called the Daill Eirann, which met in Dublin.", "Quick Description: Leinster House is the former ducal residence in Dublin of the Duke of Leinster, that has served since 1922 as the parliament building of the Irish Free State and the Republic of Ireland.", "O’Connell, after whom Dublin’s main street is named, was nicknamed The Liberator or The Emancipator. An Irish political leader in the first half of the 19th century, O’Connell campaigned for Catholic emancipation, including the right for Catholics to sit in the Westminster Parliament in London, denied for over 100 years, and the repeal of the Act of the Union, which tied Great Britain and Ireland together.", "Fine Gael is the present name for the traditionally center-right party (of the Christian democratic type) and is second-largest party in Ireland. It grew out of the policies of Arthur Griffith, first president of the Irish Free State, and Michael Collins, first minister for finance and commander-in-chief of the army. W. T. Cosgrave, their successor, accepted the conditions of the 1921 treaty as the best then obtainable and worked out the details of the partition boundary and dominion status. This party held power from the first general election of 1922 until 1932. Since 1948, as the principal opponent of Fianna Fáil, it has provided leadership for several coalition governments. The policies of Fine Gael traditionally have been far more moderate than those of Fianna Fáil, although it was an interparty coalition government dominated by Fine Gael and Labour that voted Ireland out of the Commonwealth in 1948.", "The second principle was in effect, the quid pro quo. The Irish government was to accept that there could be no change in the North’s constitutional position – such as a move to a 32-county republic – unless a majority of people living there agreed to it." ]

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[ "Pope John Paul I (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. I, Italian: Giovanni Paolo I), born Albino Luciani (Italian pronunciation: [alˈbino luˈtʃani]; 17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church and as Sovereign of Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent Year of Three Popes. John Paul I was the first Pope to be born in the 20th century and the last Pope to die in it. He remains the most recent Italian-born pope.", "London (ap/dpa) Pope John Paul I, who was head of the Catholic Church for only 33 days in 1978, was murdered, claims the British author David Yallop in his book \"In God's Name\", which was published in 1984. After 3 years of investigation he has come to this conclusion, having found out that members of the forbidden Italian secret lodge \"P2\" allowed the pope to be poisoned.", "Pope John Paul I (; ), born Albino Luciani (; 17 October 1912 - 28 September 1978), served as Pope from 26 August 1978 to his sudden death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent Year of Three Popes, the first to occur since 1605. John Paul I remains the most recent Italian-born pope, ending a succession of such popes that started with Clement VII in 1523. He was declared a Servant of God by his successor, Pope John Paul II, on 23 November 2003, the first step on the road to sainthood.", "* 1978 would become known as the \"Year of Three Popes\". In August, Paul VI, who had ruled since 1963, died. His successor was Cardinal Albino Luciano, who took the name John Paul. But only 33 days later, he was found dead, and the Catholic Church had to elect another pope. On October 16, Karol Wojtyła, a Polish cardinal, was elected, becoming Pope John Paul II. He was the first non-Italian pope since 1523.", "Pope Saint John Paul II (; ; ), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was pope from 1978 to 2005. He is widely known to Catholics as Saint John Paul the Great, especially in the names of institutions. ", "Karol Wojtyla became Bishop of Krakow, Poland in 1958. He attended the Second Vatican Council and helped to draft the documents on Religious Liberty and the Church in the Modern World. He then became Archbishop of Krakow in 1964 and Cardinal in 1967. Following the 33-day papacy of John Paul I, the Conclave of Cardinals elected the bright, personable, and vigorous Wojtyla the 264th Pope on October 16, 1978.", "Pope John Paul II (Latin: Ioannes Paulus II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (8 May 1920 ‒ 2 April 2005) was pope of the Catholic Church from 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005. In Catholicism, since his canonisation, he is referred to as Pope Saint John Paul II or Saint John Paul the Great, for example as a name for institutions. He was the second longest-serving pope in modern history after Pope Pius IX, who served for nearly 32 years from 1846 to 1878. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, who served from 1522 to 1523.", "Pope John Paul II sometimes called Blessed John Paul or John Paul the Great, born Karol Józef Wojtyła, reigned as Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1978 until his death in 2005. He was the second-longest serving Pope in history and the first non-Italian since 1523.", "he Venerable Pope John Paul II (Polish: Jan Paweł II, Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II, Italian: Giovanni Paolo II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) served as Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 16 October 1978 until his death almost 27 years later. His was the second-longest pontificate; only Pope Pius IX served longer. St Peter the Apostle is reputed to have served for more than thirty years as the first pontiff, however documentation is too sparse to definitively support this. He has been the only Polish Pope to date, and was the first non-Italian Pope since Dutch Pope Adrian VI in the 1520s.", "Pope Saint John Paul II was pope of the Catholic Church from 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005. He was the second longest-serving pope in modern history after Pope Pius IX who served for nearly 32 years from 1846 to 1878. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI who served from 1522 to 1523.", "Pope Paul VI (; ), born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini (; 26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978), reigned as Pope from 21 June 1963 to his death in 1978. Succeeding Pope John XXIII, he continued the Second Vatican Council which he closed in 1965, implementing its numerous reforms, and fostered improved ecumenical relations with Eastern Orthodox and Protestants, which resulted in many historic meetings and agreements. Montini served in the Vatican's Secretariat of State from 1922 to 1954. While in the Secretariat of State, Montini and Domenico Tardini were considered as the closest and most influential colleagues of Pope Pius XII, who in 1954 named him Archbishop of Milan, the largest Italian diocese. Montini later became the Secretary of the Italian Bishops Conference. John XXIII elevated him to the College of Cardinals in 1958, and after the death of John XXIII, Montini was considered one of his most likely successors.", "On this day in 1978, Karol Wojtyla became Pope John Paul II.   He was the first non-Italian Pope for more than 400 years, and the only Polish pope.   His nearly 27 years term of office was among the longest in the history of the Church.", "Elected pope in October 1978, he took the name of his short-lived, immediate predecessor. Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. In time, he made pastoral visits to 124 countries, including several with small Christian populations.", "On 16 October 1978 the Archbishop of Kraków , Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, was elected Pope, taking the name John Paul II. The election of a Polish Pope had an electrifying effect on what had been, even under Communist rule, one of the most devoutly Catholic nations in Europe. Gierek is alleged to have said to his cabinet, 'O God, what are we going to do now?' or, as occasionally reported, \"Jesus and Mary, this is the end.\" When John Paul toured Poland in June 1979, half a million people heard him speak in Warsaw. John Paul did not call for rebellion, instead he encouraged the creation of an \"alternative Poland\" of social institutions independent of the government, so that when the next crisis came, the nation would present a united front.", "The world welcomes a new Pope – His name was Karol Jozef Wojtyla, but the world knew him as Pope John Paul II. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian Pope in more than in 400 years when he became Pope in 1978. He made his first public appearance on October 16, 1978, at St. Peter's Square in the Vatican, and before his death in 2005 he was beloved for his commitment to human rights around the world.", "[ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛf vɔjˈtɨwa] ; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was the head of the Catholic Church from 16 October 1978 to his death in 2005. He was the second longest-serving pope in history and, as a Pole , the first non-Italian since Pope Adrian VI , who died in 1523.", "1978: Polish bishop is new Pope. Cardinals at the Vatican choose the first non-Italian Pope for more than 400 years, John Paul II.", "Pope Paul VI left the Vatican to go to the Papal summer residence, Castel Gandolfo on 14 July 1978, visiting on the way the tomb of Cardinal Giuseppe Pizzardo [106] who had introduced him to the Vatican half a century earlier. Although sick, he agreed to see the new Italian President Sandro Pertini for over two hours. In the evening he watched a Western on TV, happy only when he saw \"horses, the most beautiful animals that God had created.\" [106] He had breathing problems and needed oxygen. Next day, Sunday the Feast of Transfiguration he was tired, but wanted to say the Angelus . He was not able or permitted to and stayed in bed, his temperature rising.", "The \"Smiling Pope,\" as he was affectionately called was born Albino Luciani on October 17, 1912 near Belluno, Italy. He was ordained in 1935, made Bishop in 1958 and became patriarch of Venice in 1969. He received his cardinal's hat in 1973. He was a staunch believer in ecumenism and the reduction of Church wealth. He was warm, humble and had no aspirations for the papacy. After Pope Paul VI died, Luciani was elected on the second day of the Conclave in 1978. He refused to wear the papal tiara or to be carried in the gestatorial chair. He was praised as a liberal reformer who read Mark Twain. He was on a mission to reverse the Church's position on contraception, cleaning up the Vatican bank and dismissing many Masonic cardinals.", "Paul VI, 1963-1978. He continued the work of Vatican II and became the first pope to travel around the world by airplane.", "John Paul II was elected on October 16th, 1978. He was the first non-Italian pope to be elected in four centuries.", "The Election of Pope John Paul II - 1978 Year in Review - Audio - UPI.com", "Pope Francis (born Jorge Mario Bergoglio on 17 December 1936) is the current Pope of the Catholic Church. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, as the son of Italian parents, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technician and nightclub bouncer before entering the seminary. He was ordained a priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentina's Provincial Superior of the Society of Jesus. On being elected Pope on 13 March 2013, he chose the papal name Francis in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi.", "On March 13, 2013, white smoke from the chimney of the Sistine Chapel indicated that a conclave of Catholic cardinals had elected a new pope, the 76-year-old Bergoglio. Six days later, in St. Peter’s Square in Rome, he was inaugurated as the Catholic Church’s 266th pontiff. The first South American to helm the church and the first non-European to do so in more than 1,200 years, he also was the first pope to take the name Francis and the first member of the Jesuit order to become pontiff. Francis soon distinguished himself for his humble style (among other things, he opted to live in a Vatican guesthouse rather than the regal papal apartment in the Apostolic Palace, where, for more than a century, his predecessors resided) and for his vision for a church focused less on divisive social issues and more on serving the poor and oppressed.", "On 24 March 1977, Ratzinger was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising . He took as his episcopal motto Cooperatores Veritatis (Co-workers of the Truth) from 3 John 8, a choice he comments upon in his autobiographical work, Milestones. In the consistory of the following 27 June, he was named Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Consolatrice al Tiburtino by Pope Paul VI. By the time of the 2005 Conclave, he was one of only 14 remaining cardinals appointed by Paul VI, and one of only three of those under the age of 80. Of these, only he and William Wakefield Baum took part in the conclave. [27]", "October 28, 1958 - Cardinal Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, Patriarch of Venice, was elected Pope, taking the title John XXIII. Best known for undertaking the 21st Ecumenical Council (Vatican II).", "In 1963, Pope John XXIII died at age 81; he was succeeded by Pope Paul VI.", "On 13 March 2013, Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected as Pope of the Catholic Church and took the name \"Francis\", becoming the first pope from the Americas and from the Southern Hemisphere, the first non-European pope in 1272 years, and the first Jesuit one. ", "Pope John Paul II, who has died at the age of 84, was seen in the flesh by more people than any other pope in history. He made more than 100 international journeys, each of them a marathon which left his suite limp and made his adrenaline flow.", "was the first non-Italian pope in the last 400 years who served from 1978 to 2005. His", "Ratzinger served John Paul II since 1981 as head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In that position, he has disciplined church dissidents and upheld church policy against attempts by liberals for reforms. He turned 78 on Saturday.", "The most recent instance of a Year of Three Popes occurred in 1978. The three popes involved were: " ]

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[ "Freddie Mercury (born Farrokh Bulsara (Gujarati: ફારોખ બલ્સારા), 5 September 1946 – 24 November 1991)[2][3] was a British musician, singer and songwriter, best known as the lead vocalist of the rock band Queen. As a performer, he was known for his flamboyant stage persona and powerful vocals over a four-octave range.[4][5][6] As a songwriter, Mercury composed many hits for Queen, including \"Bohemian Rhapsody\", \"Killer Queen\", \"Crazy Little Thing Called Love\" and \"We Are the Champions\". In addition to his work with Queen, he led a solo career, penning hits such as \"Barcelona\", \"I Was Born to Love You\" and \"Living on My Own\". Mercury also occasionally served as a producer and guest musician (piano or vocals) for other artists. He died of bronchopneumoniabrought on by AIDS on 24 November 1991, only one day after publicly acknowledging he had the disease.", "Queen was a British rock band formed in London in 1971, consisting of Freddie Mercury (lead singer), Brian May (guitar), John Deacon (bass guitar), and Roger Taylor(drums). Before joining Queen, Brian May and Roger Taylor had been playing in a band called Smile. According to Wikipedia, Freddie Mercury (known then by his birth name of Farrokh Bulsara) was a fan of Smile, and encouraged them to experiment with a more elaborate stage presentation and musical style. Queen is generally known for their camp, audacious style; their rich and diversely textured vocal harmonies; and their descriptive, poetic and sometimes haunting lyrics. Mercury then joined the band and changed the name to Queen, while also taking the stage name Mercury. In 1973, Queen signed their first recording contract with EMI, and this was also the year of their first major tour. In 1974, Queen released Queen II, cited as one of the greatest Glam Rock albums of all time.", "Freddie Mercury (5 September 1946 – 24 November 1991), born Farrokh Bulsara, was a British musician, most famous as the lead singer of the rock band Queen. He died of bronchopneumonia induced by HIV (AIDS), only a day after going public with an announcement of his illness.", "Who: Freddie Mercury , lead singer of the British rock group Queen . Spoken as Mercury was dying of AIDS, asking to be helped to the restroom.", "Queen were an English rock band originally consisting of four members: vocalist Freddie Mercury, guitarist Brian May, bass guitarist John Deacon, and drummer Roger Taylor. The band formed in London in 1970 after May and Taylor's former band Smile split after having released an album and single. Freddie replaced lead vocalist Tim Staffell, after the latter's departure from the original trio. There was much deliberation as to what the band's name would be. May and Taylor had settled upon the Grand Dance, derived from a C.S. Lewis Trilogy of books Out Of The Silent Planet.", "Queen were formed in London in 1970, consisting of Freddie Mercury (lead vocals, piano), Brian May (guitar, vocals), John Deacon (bass guitar) and Roger Taylor (drums, vocals).", "Queen are a British rock band formed in London in 1970, originally consisting of Freddie Mercury (lead vocals, piano), Brian May (guitar, vocals), John Deacon (bass guitar), and Roger Taylor (drums, vocals). Queen's earliest works were influenced by progressive rock, hard rock and heavy metal, but the band gradually ventured into more conventional and radio-friendly works, incorporating further diverse styles into their music.", "The epitome of pomp-rock in the Seventies and Eighties, Queen rocked radio and sports stadiums alike with booming, highly produced anthems like \"We Are the Champions\" and \"We Will Rock You.\" Onstage, the English quartet used elaborate sets smoke bombs, and flashpots — none of which were quite as captivating as the band's lead singer, Freddie Mercury, whose preening and over-the-top vocals helped make Queen wildly popular.", "“Queen” is a British Rock Band formed in London in the year 1971 with Freddie Mercury on lead Vocals/Piano; Brian May on Guitar /Vocals;  John Deacon on Bass guitar and Roger Taylor on Drums / Vocals.", "Queen began life as a glam rock unit in 1972. Brian May (b. 19 July 1947, Twickenham, Middlesex, England; guitar) and Roger Taylor (b. Roger Meddows-Taylor, 26 July 1949, Kings Lynn, Norfolk, England; drums) had been playing in a college group called Smile with bassist Tim Staffell. When the latter left to join Humpty Bong (featuring former Bee Gees drummer Colin Petersen), May and Taylor elected to form a new band with vocalist Freddie Mercury (b. Frederick Bulsara, 5 September 1946, Zanzibar, Africa, d. 24 November 1991). The name Bulsara was taken from the small Gujarati town in which Bomi Bulsara, Freddie's father, was brought up. Freddie's father was an accountant for the British Colonial Office in Zanzibar. Early in 1971 bassist John Deacon (b. 19 August 1951, Leicester, England) completed the line-up.", "Brian May was born July 19, 1947, in Hampton, England. In 1971, he hit the road with his band, Queen, playing lead guitar on his homemade axe, the \"Red Special.\" In 1973, Queen released their self-titled debut album and rose to rock super-stardom with such hits as \"We Will Rock You\" and \"Bohemian Rhapsody.\" In 1991, leader singer Freddie Mercury died from AIDS, but the popularity of their music lived on. Since Mercury's death, May has reunited with Paul Taylor and has toured to sold-out shows in a new iteration of Queen with Paul Rodgers and Adam Lambert on vocals. In 2002, We Will Rock You, a musical based on Queen songs and a book by Ben Elton, premiered in London and ran for more than a decade. Outside his musical career, May has earned advanced degrees in astrophysics, published numerous books and has devoted much his life to animal welfare causes. ", "Freddie Mercury (Farrokh Bulsara) was born in the British protectorate of Zanzibar, East Africa (now part of Tanzania). In April 1970, Mercury joined guitarist Brian May and drummer Roger Taylor to form the band Queen. Despite reservations from the other members, Mercury is the one who chose the band’s name. He later said about the decision, “I was certainly aware of the gay connotations, but that was just one facet of it.” As a performer, Freddie Mercury was known for his flamboyant stage persona and powerful vocals over a four-octave range. His speaking voice fell in the baritone range, but Mercury delivered most songs in the tenor range.", "As the lead singer and lyricist for Queen, Mr. Mercury helped to forge a hugely popular hybrid of hard-rock, pop, heavy-metal, cabaret and a hint of opera. In its mid-1970's heyday, the group created an image of playful decadence while fabricating elaborate studio productions on its albums, overdubbing multiple guitar and vocal lines. Mr. Mercury strutted and preened, by turns campy and almost militaristic, at the center of Queen's stage shows. A Group's Glory Days", "Queen frontman Freddie Mercury never wore his sexuality on his sleeve, though the flamboyant performer openly had relationships with both men and women during the band's popularity. In November 1991, Mercury revealed to the world that he had contracted HIV, and -- upon his passing one day later -- became the first major rock star to die of AIDS. In April 1992, the remaining members of Queen staged The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert for AIDS Awareness to celebrate the life and legacy of Mercury and raise money for AIDS research. The concert, which featured performances by Robert Plant , Roger Daltrey, Elton John, Metallica , David Bowie , Guns N' Roses and U2 among others, was broadcast live to 76 countries, had an estimated viewing audience of 1 billion people, and was instrumental in bringing awareness about the disease to a generation of music fans. --M. Tye Comer", "Born of Persian parents, went on to become the lead singer of mega UK pop group \"Queen\". Their hits included \"Bohemian Rhapsody\", \"Crazy Little Thing Called Love\" and \"We Are The Champions\".", "With a great love for live performance, having played over 700 concerts with Queen, in 2004 Brian and Roger celebrated Queen’s induction into the UK Music Hall of Fame by performing with former Free/Bad Company vocalist, Paul Rodgers. A triumphant 55-date world tour with Paul as guest vocalist followed, the first Queen tour in 20 years, along with the studio album The Cosmos Rocks, supported by a second world tour and the release of two live DVDs and a live album. 2012 saw a return of Queen onstage, this time with guest vocalist, Adam Lambert, a partnership, which delighted fans and critics unanimously.", "While attending Ealing Art College, Tim Staffell became friends with Farrokh Bulsara, a fellow student who had assumed the English name of Freddie. Bulsara felt that he and the band had the same tastes and soon became a keen fan of Smile. In 1970, after Staffell left to join the band Humpy Bong, the remaining Smile members, encouraged by Bulsara, changed their name to \"Queen\" and performed their first gig on 18 July. The band had a number of bass players during this period who did not fit with the band's chemistry. It was not until February 1971 that they settled on John Deacon and began to rehearse for their first album. They recorded four of their own songs, \"Liar\", \"Keep Yourself Alive\", \"The Night Comes Down\" and \"Jesus\", for a demo tape; no record companies were interested. It was also around this time Freddie changed his surname to \"Mercury\", inspired by the line \"Mother Mercury, look what they've done to me\" in the song \"My Fairy King\". On 2 July 1971, Queen played their first show in the classic line-up of Mercury, May, Taylor and Deacon at a Surrey college outside London. ", "In November 2014 Queen released a new album Queen Forever. The album is largely a compilation of previously-released material but features three new Queen tracks featuring vocals from Mercury with backing added by the surviving members of Queen. One new track, \"There Must Be More To Life Than This\", is a duet between Mercury and the late Michael Jackson. ", "One song from Queen 's debut album, \"Great King Rat,\" features an apparent Author Avatar who quotes several other songs on the album and \"died syphilis, forty-four on his birthday.\" Two decades later, the writer and lead singer would be dead, at forty-five, of a venereal disease.", "\"Barcelona\" is a single released by Queen vocalist Freddie Mercury and operatic soprano Montserrat Caballé. A part of their collaborative album Barcelona, it also appeared on Queen's Greatest Hits III.", "“Barcelona” is a single released by Queen vocalist Freddie Mercury and operatic soprano Montserrat Caballé. A part of their collaborative album Barcelona, it also appeared on Queen’s Greatest Hits III.", "Freddie Mercury released his solo album Mr Bad Guy and Queen perform at two massive concerts. In January they appear in font of 250,000 people at the Rock in Rio Festival in Rio de Janeiro and in July play at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium. The single One Vision is released along with The Complete Works boxed set.", "Queen are a British rock band formed in London in 1970. The band has released 18 #1 albums, 18 #1 singles, and 10 #1 DVDs worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling music artists. Queen has sold over 150 million records, with some estimates in excess of 300 million records worldwide. The band has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriters Hall of Fame. The band is also the only group in which every member has composed more than one chart-topping single. In 2009, \"We Will Rock You\" and \"We Are the Champions\" were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "The Queen is the subject of \" Her Majesty\", written by Paul McCartney and featured on the Beatles' final album Abbey Road ( 1969); McCartney played the song at the Party at the Palace concert during the Golden Jubilee in 2002. In 1977, The Sex Pistols issued \" God Save the Queen\", which became a controversial hit single, inspiring the punk rock movement with its lyrics suggesting there was \"no future\" and comparing England to a \" fascist regime\". The Smiths released the song and album The Queen Is Dead in 1986. The Pet Shop Boys have a track called Dreaming of the Queen. The Queen also plays detective in the Her Majesty Investigates series of mystery novels by C.C. Benison, which includes Death at Buckingham Palace and Death at Windsor Castle.", "Deacon grew up in Oadby, Leicestershire, playing bass in a local band, The Opposition, before moving to study electronics in Chelsea College, London. He became Queen's fourth bass player in 1971 aged 19 on the strength of his quiet demeanour and electronic skills, particularly the home-made Deacy Amp which guitarist Brian May used to create guitar orchestras throughout Queen's career. From the third album, Sheer Heart Attack, onwards, he wrote at least one song per album, several of which became hits. His song \"Another One Bites the Dust\" became the group's best selling single in the US. As well as bass, Deacon played some guitar and keyboards on Queen's studio work, but was the only member never to sing on their records.", "Deacon's first writing credit came on Queen's third album, Sheer Heart Attack. It was on the song \"Stone Cold Crazy\", but it was also credited to the other band members. The first song Deacon wrote on his own was \"Misfire\" from the same album, a Caribbean-themed song where he played almost all guitar parts. He also played some guide guitar parts on the album as May was hospitalised due to Hepatitis when recording started. His second song, \"You're My Best Friend\" was featured on the group's fourth album, A Night at the Opera, and went on to be an international hit (it was written for his wife-to-be Veronica). Subsequently, Deacon tended to write one or two songs for every Queen album, until The Miracle (1989) and Innuendo (1991), which credited the band as a whole. He later wrote the hit \"Another One Bites The Dust\" as a song for dancing based on his early love of soul, which saw radio play on black and white US radio stations. He began to collaborate more with Mercury during the 1980s, as they both wanted to change the band's musical direction away from classic rock.", "In Queen's three-part vocal harmonies, May was generally the lower-range backing vocals. On some of his songs, he sings the lead vocals, most notably the first verse of \"Who Wants to Live Forever\", the final verse of \"Mother Love\", the middle eight on \"I Want It All\" and \"Flash's Theme\", and full lead vocals on \"Some Day One Day\", \"She Makes Me (Stormtrooper in Stilettoes)\", \"'39\", \"Good Company\", \"Long Away\", \"All Dead, All Dead\", \"Sleeping on the Sidewalk\", \"Leaving Home Ain't Easy\" and \"Sail Away Sweet Sister\".", "Gordon Matthew Sumner, CBE (born October 2, 1951), best known by his stage name Sting, is an English musician and formerly bassist and lead singer of The Police.", "He is a fan of the rock band Queen . He worked with the band in 2001, when they re-recorded \"We Are The Champions\" for A Knight's Tale (2001). Furthermore, \"Let Me Entertain You\" was also the title of a Queen song (from their 1978 \"Jazz\" album), he does gigs in lots of places where Queen also performed (for instance Knebworth, Slane Castle and the Royal Albert Hall) and he performs Queen songs in his own shows.", "Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner CBE better known by his stage name Sting, is an English musician, singer-songwriter known as the lead singer of The Police.", "In 1993, Young was freed from his contract with the CBS/Sony Records label, and afterward, released fewer solo albums. He reformed the Q-Tips for a short series of concerts that year. He contributed to the Vangelis album Voices in 1995. Young sang the British national anthem, \"God Save the Queen\", at Wembley Stadium before England's Euro '96 semi-final match against Germany.", "Which Queen hit ends with a rendition of \"I Do Like To Be Beside The Seaside\"?" ]

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[ "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson ; 27 January 1832 -- 14 January 1898), better known by the pseudonym Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/, KA-rəl), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, as well as the poems \"The Hunting of the Snark\" and \"Jabberwocky\", all examples of the genre of literary nonsense. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, and fantasy, and there are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life in many parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, and New Zealand.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (; 27 January 1832 – 14 January 1898), better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, which includes the poem \"Jabberwocky\", and the poem The Hunting of the Snark, all examples of the genre of literary nonsense. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, and fantasy. There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (pronounced /ˈdɒdsən/) (27 January 1832 – 14 January 1898), better known by the pen name Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer.", "Author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson -- better known as \"Alice in Wonderland\" creator Lewis Carroll -- died in Guildford, England, less than two weeks before his 66th birthday.", "The Reverend Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by the pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican clergyman and photographer.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson better known by the pseudonym Lewis Carroll, was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, as well as the poems \"The Hunting of the Snark\" and \"Jabberwocky\", all examples of the genre of literary nonsense. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, and fantasy, and there are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life in many parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, and New ... more »", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, known by his pen name, Lewis Carroll, was a man of diverse interests — in mathematics, logic, photography, art, theater, religion, science, and of course literature. He was happiest in the company of children for whom he created puzzles, clever games, and charming letters. And of course, he also told them stories.", "It was Alice's Adventures in Wonderland that made Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name, Lewis Carroll , a household name. However, during his own time Charles Dodgson was known for several other vocations besides that of authoring children's books. In addition to being an author, Dodgson was a professor of mathematics at Oxford University, an ordained deacon in the Anglican church, and a very accomplished photographer.", "Dodgson - English author; Charles Dodgson was an Oxford don of mathematics who is remembered for the children's stories he wrote under the pen name Lewis Carroll (1832-1898)", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was a mathematical lecturer at Oxford University. The scholar was also interested in photography, religion, science...and storytelling. Dodgson took particular pleasure in weaving tales and making up puzzles for children. Before he published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), he decided that he wanted to protect his privacy--a common practice among Victorian authors. He took the first two parts of his name and translated them into Latin, yielding Carolus Ludovicus. He reversed their order and translated them loosely back to English, yielding Lewis Carroll . The nom de guerre was one of several that Dodgson submitted to his publisher as possibilities; it was the publisher who actually selected Lewis Carroll. Dodgson guarded his privacy fiercely, even refusing letters addressed to his home that bore his pseudonym. But occasionally, to smooth introductions to children or members of high society, Dodgson would use his pen name. ", "The Dodo is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). The Dodo is a caricature of the author. A popular but unsubstantiated belief is that Dodgson chose the particular animal to represent himself because of his stammer, and thus would accidentally introduce himself as \"Do-do-dodgson.\" ", "Lewis Carroll, the pseudonym of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, is born in 1832 and died in 1898. The original title of the children´s book“Alice´sAdventures in Wonderland” was “Adventures Underground”and was published 1856 with the illustrations by John Tenniel. Carroll was professor of mathematics at Oxford University, England. He became a clergyman and a deacon of the Church of England and never married. His religious beliefs were othodox anglican, he was a typical Victorian.", "The story, written by Oxford University scholar and teacher Charles Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll, was first published in June 1865.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson took a (vague) Latin version of his name (Carolus Ludovicus) as a pen name, reversed it, and there we have it - Lewis Carroll .", "The author of \"Alice in Wonderland,\" under the nom de plume of \"Lewis Carroll,\" was also a student of Christ Church. As Charles Lutridge Dodgson he wrote many important works on mathematics.", "Charles Dodgson is known to have been a shy man, but the author of Alice in Wonderland so hated the fame his fiction brought him that he sometimes wished he \"had never written any books at all\", a letter being auctioned next month shows.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson is better known by the pseudonym \"Lewis Carroll\". Although he was a mathematician, he is best known as the author of Alice's adventures in wonderland (1865) and Through the looking glass (1872), children's books that are among the most popular of all time. They are distinguished as satire and as examples of verbal wit. Dodgson wrote mathematical works under his own name but for his children's books he invented the pen name \"Lewis Carroll\" by translating his first two names \"Charles Lutwidge\" into Latin as \"Carolus Lodovicus\", then anglicising and reversing their order.", "Dodgson strived to maintain a divide between his professional academic reputation and his literary persona as the author of nonsensical children’s books. When he occasionally received letters addressing him as Lewis Carroll, he even went to the effort of replying that he “neither claims nor acknowledges any connection with any pseudonym, or with the book that is not published under his own name.”", "noun pseudonym , alias , pen name , assumed name Dodgson wrote under the nom de plume of Lewis Carroll.", "A new biography by Edward Wakeling, Lewis Carroll: The Man and His Circle , sets out to clear Carroll’s name. Wakeling approaches his subject through the lens of Dodgson’s acquaintances—his family, friends, Oxford associates, mathematics colleagues, fellow artists, and members of the royal family. The idea is to show Carroll in the light of these relationships, as a member of respectable society. Wakeling wants to insist, “You can tell a great deal about a person by the company he keeps.” ", "Dodgson’s identity as Alice’s author was an open secret, and the author gathered about him a large circle of affectionate children and their parents. His slight air of mystery added to his fame, which spread by word of mouth. Eventually he was invited to entertain two grandchildren of Queen Victoria herself.", "Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( , ; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist.", "At the age twelve, Dodgson attended Grammar school in Richmond, and later on, the private Rugby School. He was a very good and diligent pupil and followed his father’s footsteps, later studying at the Christ Church College in Oxford and at Oxford University, where he excelled in mathematics but still kept his interest for classics and literature. After his graduation from university, he became a lecturer at Christ Church for mathematics in 1856, and additionally, preached at the church of the college from time to time. In various sources, it is claimed that he used to be a rather dry and boring don during his lectures and did not show great personal effort.[1] Nevertheless, he published around thirty essays in the field of mathematics. As a private man Dodgson seemed to have rather preferred the company of young children to that of women, and as a result, he never married and stayed a bachelor for the rest of his life.", "Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was an English poet, short-story writer, and novelist chiefly remembered for his celebration of British imperialism, tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales for children. Kipling received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Literature. He was born in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, and was taken by his family to England when he was five years old. Kipling is best known for his works of fiction, including The Jungle Book (a collection of stories which includes \"Rikki-Tikki-Tavi\"), Just So Stories (1902) (1894), Kim (1901) (a tale of adventure), many short stories, including \"The Man Who Would Be King\" (1888); and his poems, including Mandalay (1890), Gunga Din (1890), The White Man's Burden (1899) and If— (1910). He is regarded as a major \"innovator in the art of the short story\"; his children's books are enduring classics of children's literature; and his best works are said to exhibit \"a versatile and luminous narrative gift\".", "British novelist Charles Dickens was born on February 7, 1812, in Portsmouth, England. Over the course of his writing career, he wrote the beloved classic novels Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, Nicholas Nickleby, David Copperfield, A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations. On June 9, 1870, Dickens died of a stroke in Kent, England, leaving his final novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, unfinished.", "This biography does offer a real contribution to the Carroll scholarship, though: It presents new letters, excerpts from rare manuscripts, and Dodgson’s surviving diary. “Having spent more than fifteen years editing his diaries,” Wakeling writes, “I have a sense of what this man would do and what he would not do, of what he believed in and what he did not.” But how much of a person falls between the gaps of what a biography can capture? And when is it ever possible to say with certainty what someone would do, especially in the most private aspects of his life?", "Charles John Huffam Dickens (1812 – 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world’s most memorable fictional characters and is generally regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian period. During his life, his works enjoyed unprecedented fame, and by the twentieth century his literary genius was broadly acknowledged by critics and scholars. His novels and short stories continue to be widely popular.", "Charles John Huffam Dickens (February 7, 1812 - June 9, 1870) was an English writer . Many of his stories deal with the injustices he saw in his society. Most of his novels were originally written as serials , that is published chapter by chapter, usually in a magazine. This manner of publishing meant that his novels often had cliff hangers at the end of each chapter, to keep people waiting eagerly for the next installation.", "He is best known for his Flashman series of historical novels, purportedly written by Harry Flashman, a fictional coward and bully originally created by Thomas Hughes in Tom Brown's School Days. The novels are presented as \"packets\" of memoirs written by the nonagenarian Flashman, who looks back on his days as a hero of the British Army during the 19th century. The series begins with Flashman, and is notable for the accuracy of the historical settings and praise from critics. P.G. Wodehouse said of Flashman, “If ever there was a time when I felt that ‘watcher-of-the-skies-when-a-new-planet’ stuff, it was when I read the first Flashman.”", "JOSEPH RUDYARD KIPLING (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was an English short-story writer, poet, and novelist chiefly remembered for his tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales for children. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1907. He was born in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, and was taken by his family to England when he was five years old.", "William Somerset Maugham (25 January 1874 – 16 December 1965) was an English playwright, novelist, and short story writer; often published as simply W. Somerset Maugham.", "C. S. Forester or Cecil Scott Forester was the pen name of Cecil Louis Troughton Smith (27 August 1899 – 2 April 1966), an English novelist." ]

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[ "Sir Thomas More, also called Saint Thomas More (born February 7, 1478, London , England —died July 6, 1535, London; canonized May 19, 1935; feast day June 22), English humanist and statesman, chancellor of England (1529–32), who was beheaded for refusing to accept King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England . He is recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church .", "* 1535 – Thomas More, beheaded for refusing to acknowledge Henry VIII as Supreme Head of the Church of England", "St. Thomas More was Lord Chancellor of England, second only to King Henry the VIII, who was his friend.  When he was asked to swear that the King was the head of the Church in England above the Pope, St. Thomas refused. He resigned, was imprisoned in the Tower of London, and eventually beheaded for refusing to bend his religious beliefs.", "1535 - Sir Thomas Moore is executed for refusing to accept Henry VIII as head of the English church.", "    One of the most prominent victims was English Catholic theologian Thomas More, beheaded on 06 July 1535 for refusing to recognize Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England, which had broken with the Roman Catholic Church so that Henry VIII could get wife number 2 (which he ordered beheaded less than a year after Thomas More, so as to make room for wife number 3).", "1478: Birth of Sir Thomas More, English statesman, Lord Chancellor and author of Utopia, who was executed by Henry VIII for refusing to deny Papal authority. He was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1935.", "1535: Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for refusing to submit to Henry VIII", "Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed. The most prominent resisters included  John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester , and Sir  Thomas More , Henry's former  Lord Chancellor , both of whom refused to take the oath to the King and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tower Hill, just outside the  Tower of London .", "German Gardiner, Blessed - Layman, the last martyr under Henry VIII. Executed at Tyburn on 7 March, 1544, for refusing to grant that the King was the head of the English and Irish Church", "As Marius points out, “the government’s case came down to Riche’s testimony”3 and although we don’t know the ins and outs of what happened at the trial on 1st July 1535, we know that the jury found More guilty and that he was sentenced to a traitor’s death – to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Henry VIII commuted this sentence to beheading and on the 6th July 1535 the former Lord Chancellor was executed. His body was buried at St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower and his head, having been saved by his daughter, Margaret Roper, was buried at St Dunstan’s Church, Canterbury, in the Roper vault, although some believe that it may have been buried at Chelsea Old Church in the tomb that Sir Thomas More had erected for himself.", "Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs, were executed and many more pilloried. The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, both of whom refused to take the oath to the King. Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves. Fisher openly rejected Henry as supreme head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treason Act, which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich, the Solicitor General. Both were duly executed in the summer of 1535. ", "was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, and statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important councilor to Henry VIII and Lord Chancellor from October 1529 to 16 May 1532. [3] opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther and William Tyndale, whose books he burned and whose followers he persecuted. also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an ideal and imaginary island nation. lately opposed the King's separation from the Catholic Church and refused to accept him as Supreme Head of the Church of England because it disparaged papal authority and Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Tried for treason, he was convicted on perjured testimony and beheaded; Utopia was his most important work;", "In 1529, following the downfall of Cardinal Wolsey, More became Lord Chancellor, equivalent of Prime Minister; but his tenure in that office was brief and stormy. In the early 1530s Henry started negotiations to divorce Catherine of Aragon — or have his marriage annulled — and he expected to find a loyal supporter in his Lord Chancellor. More's refusal to second the king's arguments eventually brought about a breach, and More resigned. Then when Henry broke off allegiance to the pope, declaring himself head of the Church of England, he tried to force all Englishmen to acknowledge the \"Act of Succession and Supremacy\" under penalty of law. More was one of a distinguished group of faithful Roman Catholics who refused to recognize Henry's proclaimed supremacy over the Church of England. He was accused of treason, imprisoned in the Tower, and beheaded, July, 1535.", "In the event you didn’t already know, Sir Thomas More was indeed a politician. Born in London in 1478 and studied law at Oxford and became Lord Chancellor of England. He’s also the patron saint of lawyers. Tried and convicted of treason (politicians take note of this) he was beheaded on July 6, 1535.", "In April 1535 the priors of the Carthusian houses, in Charterhouse Priory in London , Axholme Priory in North Lincolnshire and Beauvale Priory in Nottinghamshire , refused to acknowledge the King to be the Head of the Church of England. They were hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn on 4th May. (113)", "Sir Thomas More, who had left office in 1532, accepted that Parliament could make Anne queen, but refused to acknowledge its religious authority. Instead, he held that the Pope remained the head of the Church. As a result, he was charged with high treason, and beheaded in 1535. Judging him to be a martyr, the Catholic Church later made him a saint.", "Following Henry's decision to break with Rome in 1530 and establish himself as head of the Church of England, the title was revoked by Pope Paul III (since Henry's act was regarded as an attack on \"the Faith\") and Henry was excommunicated. However, in 1544, the Parliament of England conferred the title \"Defender of the Faith\" on King Henry VIII and his successors, now the defenders of the Anglican faith, of which they (except the Catholic Mary I and Elizabeth I who was Supreme Head) remain the Supreme Governors (formally above the Archbishop of Canterbury as Primate).", "In addition, Anglo-papal relations were being viewed through new historical lenses. On December 17, 1538, Henry VIII, the \"Defender of the Faith,\" was finally excommunicated by Pope Paul III. Among the reasons given in the papal bull were the unjustified executions and desecrations that had been ordered by the king, with special reference made to the destruction of the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury and the callous treatment of his remains. 115", "During his tenure as Lord Chancellor, More prosecuted those accused of heresy and worked tirelessly to defend the Catholic faith in England. This was an arduous, but achievable task as long as he enjoyed Henry's favor. However, in 1530, as Henry worked to obtain an annulment from his wife, Catherine, Moore refused to sign a letter to the Pope, requesting an annulment. This was More's first time crossing Henry.", "Sir Thomas More, English Catholic statesman who was beheaded in 1535 on the orders of Henry VIII: \"See me safe up (on to the scaffold), for my coming down, let me shift for myself.\"", "Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power. He executed at will, beheading, often in public, more English notables than any monarch before or since. The roll of heads included two wives, twenty peers, four leading public servants, and six of the king's close attendants and friends, not to mention one cardinal and various heads of monasteries. In addition, Cardinal Wolsey died en route to his treason trial. [154]", "Sir Thomas Arundell of Lanherne – Gentleman of the Privy Chamber (1552) – Beheaded at Tower Hill during the reign of Edward VI of England for treason [2][9]", "In May 1535, Pope Paul III created Bishop John Fisher a Cardinal. This infuriated Henry VIII and he ordered him to be executed on 22nd June at the age of seventy-six. A shocked public blamed Queen Anne for his death, and it was partly for this reason that news of the stillbirth of her child was suppressed as people might have seen this as a sign of God's will. Anne herself suffered pangs of conscience on the day of Fisher's execution and attended a mass for the \"repose of his soul\". (114)", "7th March When King Henry VIII's divorce request was denied by the Pope, Henry declared himself (not the Pope) as the supreme head of the English church.", "Cromwell was condemned to death without trial and beheaded on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540, the day of the King's marriage to Katherine Howard . [9] After the execution, his head was set on a spike on London Bridge . Edward Halle , a contemporary chronicler, records that Cromwell made a speech on the scaffold, professing to die, \"in the traditional faith\" and then \"so paciently suffered the stroke of the axe, by a ragged Boocherly miser whiche very ungoodly perfourmed the Office\". Halle said of Cromwell's downfall:", "Thomas Becket (; also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London, and later Thomas à Becket; 21 December c. 1119 (or 1120) – 29 December 1170) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion. He engaged in conflict with Henry II, King of England over the rights and privileges of the Church and was murdered by followers of the king in Canterbury Cathedral. Soon after his death, he was canonised by Pope Alexander III.", "Laud, who had introduced new canons proclaiming divine right kingship in 1640, was to be a victim of the reaction against Charles I. He was impeached by the Long Parliament in December 1640 and committed to the Tower of London the following March. His trial for treason did not begin until March 1644; members of the House of Lords were hesitant about the charge, which they felt had been forced on them by the Commons. As a result, proceedings were brought against Laud alleging that he had tried to subvert the fundamental laws, to alter religion as by law established, and to subvert the rights of Parliament. After his request that the harsh character of the execution for treason be commuted was finally accepted, Laud was beheaded on Tower Hill on 10 January 1645.", "** 1 July: Oliver Plunkett, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland, falsely convicted of treason, is hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn, the last Catholic martyr to die in England. Catholic intriguer Edward Fitzharris is executed on the same day.", "      Pope John Paul II proclaims Sir Thomas More, an English humanist and statesman who was canonized in 1935, the Roman Catholic patron saint of politicians; More was decapitated in 1535.", "During this period no Protestants were executed for being heretics. However, a Roman Catholic, Friar John Forest , who had been a religious adviser to Catherine of Aragon , was charged with heresy. In the whole history of the religious persecutions in Tudor England, Forest was the only Roman Catholic who was accused of this crime. He was sentenced to be both hanged for treason and burnt for heresy. Bishop Latimer agreed to preach the sermon at Forest's execution on 22nd May 1538. His sermon lasted for three hours while he waited for death. Latimer told Cromwell that he made it a long sermon to increase Forest's suffering. \"Forest was chained to a gallows which was placed above the fire which burned below him... When the flames reached his feet, he drew them up, then bravely lowered them into the fire, and remained there till he burned to death.\" (62)", "He spent almost a year in confinement before being beheaded on May 31 , 1076 at St. Giles's Hill , near Winchester . He was said to have spent the months of his captivity in prayer and fasting. Many people believed in his innocence and were surprised when the execution was carried out. His body was initially thrown in a ditch, but was later retrieved and was buried in the chapter house of Croyland Abbey .", "In 1570, Pope Pius V declared Elizabeth a heretic who was not the legitimate Queen and her subjects no longer owed her obedience. The pope sent Jesuits and seminarians to secretly evangelize and support Catholics. After several plots to overthrow her, Catholic clergy were mostly considered to be traitors, and were pursued aggressively in England. Often priests were tortured or executed after capture unless they cooperated with the English authorities. People who publicly supported Catholicism were excluded from the professions; sometimes fined or imprisoned. " ]

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[ "The French general and statesman Charles André Joseph Marie De Gaulle (1890-1970) led the Free French forces during World War II. A talented writer and eloquent orator, he served as president of France from 1958 to 1969.", "Free France and its Free French Forces (French: France Libre and Forces françaises libres) were the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle during the Second World War and its military forces that continued to fight against the Axis powers as one of the Allies after the fall of France. It was set up in London in June 1940 and also organised and supported the Resistance in occupied France.", "Free France and its Free French Forces (French: France Libre and Forces françaises libres) were the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle during the Second World War and its military forces that continued to fight against the Axis powers as an Ally after the fall of France.", "The military history of France during World War II covers the period from 1939 until 1940, which witnessed French military participation under the Third Republic (established in Paris then Bordeaux ), and the period from 1940 until 1945, which was marked by mainland and overseas military administration and influence struggles for the French colonies (under the command of Admiral François Darlan ) between the French State under Marshal Philippe Pétain ( Vichy then Sigmaringen ), the Free French Forces under General Charles de Gaulle ( London ) and the Army of Africa under General Henri Giraud ( Algiers ). In August 1943, De Gaulle and Giraud forces merged in a single chain of command subordinated to US-British leadership, meanwhile opposing French forces on the Eastern front were subordinated to Soviet or German leaderships. This in-exile French force together with the French Forces of the Interior played a variable-scale role in the eventual Liberation of France by the Western Allies and the termination of Fascist Italy , Fascist France , Nazi Germany and Fascist Japan .", "The Free French Forces (FFF) of the French Committee of National Liberation (CFLN), a London-based exile group led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in 1940 to maintain the French commitment to the Allies and liberate French territory occupied by Germany. Together with the French Resistance, they played a part in the Mediterranean Theatre and the liberation of western Europe, including France in 1944. By 1943, free France had a vast land (but no war industry, it remained dependent on US aid) and then changed its name into fighting France (which regrouped the Free French, the Vichy authority that joined it and the interior resistance) with a sort of government, the CFLN, which officially became French government in June 1944 and took control of France in August and September 1944. ", "However Roosevelt would only give private assurances and any prospect of France staying in the fight was removed. On 17 June, the aged Marshal Phillippe Petain succeeded Reynaud and France sought an armistice with Hitler. De Gaulle escaped to London and Churchill recognised him as the \"leader of all Free Frenchmen, wherever they may be, who rally to him in support of the allied cause\". Free France was born.", "De Gaulle ignored les Anglo-Saxons, and proclaimed the authority of Free France over the metropolitan territory the next day. Under the leadership of General de Lattre de Tassigny, France fielded an entire army – a joint force of Free French together with French colonial troops from North Africa – on the Western Front. Initially landing as part of Operation Dragoon, in the south of France, the French First Army helped to liberate almost one third of the country and participated in the invasion and occupation of Germany. As the invasion slowly progressed and the Germans were pushed back, de Gaulle made preparations to return to France.", "As Model drew the retreating Germans back across northern France at breakneck speed into Belgium , Resistance forces in Paris rose against what remained of the German garrison there on August 19. Fighting broke out, and, as news of the struggle reached the public in America and Britain, Eisenhower reversed his earlier decision to bypass the capital. The recently arrived Free French 2nd Armoured Division was ordered to liberate the city. Its vanguards arrived on August 24. Next morning the German city commander, Dietrich von Choltitz , surrendered to the Resistance and to Jacques-Philippe Leclerc , the 2nd Armoured commander. On August 26, General Charles de Gaulle , head of the Free French, made a triumphal parade down the Champs-Élysées to Notre-Dame Cathedral , where a mass of victory was celebrated.", "During the 1930s he wrote books and articles on military subjects, criticising France's reliance on the Maginot Line for defence against Germany and advocating the formation of mechanised armoured columns. His advice went unheeded and, in June 1940, German forces easily overran France. As under-secretary of national defence and war, de Gaulle refused to accept the French government's truce with the Germans and escaped to London, where he announced the formation of a French government in exile. He became leader of the Free French.", "Philippe Pétain was an Army Marshal and Chief of State of Vichy France from its establishment in 1940 until the invasion of Normandy in 1944. The Pétain government collaborated with the Nazis , and organized raids to capture French Jews. The Pétain government was opposed by General de Gaulle 's Free French Forces , and eventually fell to them. After the war, Pétain was tried for treason and sentenced to life in prison.", "By the time of the Normandy Invasion , the Free French forces numbered 500,000 regulars and more than 100,000 FFI. The Free French 2nd Armoured Division , under General Philippe Leclerc , landed at Utah Beach in Normandy on August 2 and eventually led the drive towards Paris later that month. The FFI (French Resistance) began to seriously harass the German forces, cutting roads, railways, making ambushes as well as fighting battles alongside their allies.", "The armistice declared that Germany would control Northern France while Petain would lead a nominally independent French government in the south. The new capital of France was located in the small resort town of Vichy in southern France. Hitler promised that this “independent” French state would be free to make its own decisions and maintain its global empire. However, Petain increasingly found himself choosing between doing the Fuhrer’s bidding or risking further bloodshed. French general Charles de Gaulle escaped to England and established a rival French government in exile that opposed the Nazi-accommodating regime in Vichy. Tens of thousands of French citizens vowed to continue the war by joining underground resistance movements throughout the nation. The French soldiers who had escaped to England continued training in anticipation of the opportunity to liberate their homeland. They would not get that chance until 1944.", "*\"Le Connétable\" (French, The Constable) — Charles De Gaulle, French World War II general and later President of France.", "After the Nazis invaded France in 1940, the countries signed the Franco-German Armistice, an agreement that split the country into two zones: the German-occupied northern and western France, and the \"unoccupied\" southern and eastern France. In the unoccupied zone, the Germans installed a puppet government in Vichy, led by World War I hero Philippe Pétain. He acted on behalf of the Nazi invaders, arresting members of the French Resistance fighters and deporting almost 80,000 Jews. When the Allied forces liberated France following the D-Day landings in Normandy, French Resistance members and Allied troops overthrew the Vichy occupation, establishing a provisional government that would usher in France's Fourth Republic. Trials against members of the Vichy regime continued in France up until  the 1990s . ", "*18 June - General Charles de Gaulle broadcasts from London, calling on all French people to continue the fight against Nazi Germany: \"France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war.\"", "French general who formed an underground movement known as the Free French whose resistance fighters made heroic efforts to sabotage the Nazis", "18 June - General Charles de Gaulle broadcasts from London, calling on all French people to continue the fight against Nazi Germany : \"France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war.\"", "Within France proper, the organized underground grew as the Vichy regime resorted to more strident policies in order to fulfill the enormous demands of the Nazis and the eventual decline of Nazi Germany became more obvious. They formed the Resistance. The most famous figure of the French resistance was Jean Moulin, sent in France by de Gaulle in order to link all resistance movements; he was captured and tortured by Klaus Barbie (the \"butcher of Lyon\"). Increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane, at the height of the Battle of Normandy (June 1944).", "General Charles de Gaulle as a minister in the French cabinet during the Battle of France, only recently promoted to brigadier general. However, he favoured continued resistance against the Germans and had been a pre-war proponent of the revolutionary modern armoured warfare ideas, so successfully put in practice by the Wehrmacht to defeat Poland and France with their Blitzkrieg concept, and commanding the 4th Armoured Division at the Battle of Montcornet. As France was overwhelmed by the stunning German victory, he found himself part of a small group of politicians who argued against a negotiated surrender to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Prime Minister Paul Reynaud sent de Gaulle as an emissary to London to negotiate a union between France and Britain, but lack of support for the plan and defeatism in his cabinet forced Reynaud to resign on 16 June. That same day, the new French President of the Council, former First World War marshal Philippe Pétain, began negotiations for an armistice with Axis officials. De Gaulle briefly travelled to Bordeaux to continue the fight but, realising that Pétain would surrender, he returned to London on 17 June.", "Discouraged by his cabinet's hostile reaction to a British proposal to unite France and Britain to avoid defeat, and believing that his ministers no longer supported him, Reynaud resigned on 16 June. He was succeeded by Marshal of France Philippe Pétain, who delivered a radio address to the French people announcing his intention to ask for an armistice with Germany. When Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, he selected the Forest of Compiègne as the site for the negotiations. ", "In May 1945, by the end of the war in Europe, the Free French forces comprised 1,300,000 personnel, and included around forty divisions making it the fourth largest Allied army in Europe behind the Soviet Union, the US and Britain. The GPRF sent an expeditionary force to the Pacific to retake French Indochina from the Japanese, but Japan surrendered before they could arrive in theatre.", "Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951), generally known as Philippe Pétain, Marshal Pétain (Maréchal Pétain) or The Lion of Verdun, was a French general who reached the distinction of Marshal of France, and was later Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français), from 1940 to 1944. Pétain, who was 84 years old in 1940, ranks as France's oldest head of state.", "General Charles de Gaulle was a member of the French cabinet during the Battle of France , in 1940. As French defence forces were increasingly overwhelmed, De Gaulle found himself part of a group of politicians who argued against a negotiated surrender to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . These views being shared by the President of the Council, Paul Reynaud , De Gaulle was sent as an emissary to the United Kingdom, where he was when the French government collapsed.", ", 1916–96, French political leader, president of France, 1981–95. Initially a supporter of Pétain's Vichy government during World War II, he joined the Resistance in 1943.", "With the British out of the way, the Germans began their final push against France. By June 12, German tanks had broken through the main fronts along the Somme River and the fortified Maginot Line, moving ever closer to their goal, Paris. During this time, the British vigorously encouraged France to resist at all costs. The new British prime minister, Winston Churchill, even flew to Paris himself to offer his personal encouragement. At the same time, though, the British government denied French requests for military assistance, wanting to conserve strength for Britain’s own defense in the near future.", "In 1945, Marshal Henri Philippe Petain, the head of France's Vichy government during World War II, was arrested.", "After the D-day landings took place the Maquis and other resistance groups emerged to help in the liberation of their country. Henri-Philippe Petain and his ministers fled to Germany where they established an exiled government at Sigmaringen.", "Marshal Henri Philippe Petain, the head of France's Vichy government during World War II, was arrested.", "Chief of staff of an army corps in World War I, he was active after the war in Germany's secret rearmament. In World War II he was promoted to field marshal (1940) and commanded armies in the invasions of Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. As commander in chief on the Western Front (1942�45), he fortified France against the expected Allied invasion. Removed briefly from command (1944), he returned to direct the Battle of the Bulge. He was captured in 1945 but released because of ill health.", "Marshal Phillipe Petain. (1856 – 1951) French general who helped defend Verdun and maintained the morale of French army during the difficult mutinous years of 1917. In 1940, Petain negotiated surrender to the Germans and was head of state of ‘Vichy’ France which collaborated with Nazi Germany.", "was the leader of Vichy France, fled to Germany after the end of World War II", "He rejected his country’s defeat to Nazi Germany and created the French résistance with his ‘Appeal of 18 June’ radio speech. The Normandy landings in 1944 ensured Allied victory. American soldiers discovered the French capital, and Parisians cheered their liberators on the Champs-Elysées." ]

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[ "The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to Lakota as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, and commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes, against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which occurred June 25–26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The U.S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by George Armstrong Custer, suffered a severe defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry's twelve companies were annihilated; Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother-in-law. The total U.S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (6 died from their injuries later), including 4 Crow Indian scouts and 2 Pawnee Indian scouts. Public response to the Great Sioux War varied at the time. The battle, and Custer's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.", "La bataille de Little Big Horn, surnommée aux États-Unis \"Custer's Last Stand\", et en sioux \"Battle of the Greasy Grass\", est une bataille qui opposa les 647 hommes du 7e régiment de cavalerie de l'armée américaine du lieutenant-colonel George A. Custer à une coalition de Cheyennes et de Sioux rassemblés sous l'influence de Sitting Bull. Elle s'est déroulée les 25-26 juin 1876 et résulta par une victoire écrasante des Indiens. Custer et 267 de ses hommes périrent. Wikipédia", "On June 25, 1876, George Armstrong Custer and the 265 men under his command lost their lives in the Battle of Little Big Horn, often referred to as Custer's Last Stand.", "This was one of the two flags that Colonel George A. Custer and the Seventh Cavalry carried at the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. The Battle, also known as Custer's Last Stand, and the Battle of Greasy Grass Creek by the Native Americans, was fought between Lakota and Northern Cheyenne forces and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. It occurred on June 25-26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in the eastern Montana Territory. The battle was the most famous action of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77.", "The Battle of the Little Bighorn — which is also called Custer's last stand and Custer Massacre and, in the parlance of the relevant Native Americans, the Battle of the Greasy Grass — was an armed engagement between a Lakota- Northern Cheyenne combined force and the 7th Cavalry of the United States Army. It occurred June 25– June 26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in the eastern Montana Territory.", "The central figure in the battle was George A. Custer, an army officer who won notoriety as an Indian fighter in the West. On June 25, 1876, Custer and about 225 soldiers under his immediate command were defeated by Indians in \"Custer's Last Stand,\" the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Not one of Custer's men survived.", "The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, pitted federal troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer (1839-76) against a band of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. Tensions between the two groups had been rising since the discovery of gold on Native American lands. When a number of tribes missed a federal deadline to move to reservations, the U.S. Army, including Custer and his 7th Calvary, was dispatched to confront them. Custer was unaware of the number of Indians fighting under the command of Sitting Bull (c.1831-90) at Little Bighorn, and his forces were outnumbered and quickly overwhelmed in what became known as Custer’s Last Stand.", "commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes, against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which occurred June 25–26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876.", "1. Six years later, in 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota (on the Sioux reserva±on) when Col. William Armstrong Custer led a \"geological\" expedi±on into the Black Hills. 3. The Ba²le o³ Li²le Bighorn (1876) (AKA \"Custer's Last Stand\") followed. 1. Led by Crazy Horse and Si´ng Bull , some Sioux stubbornly refused to go to the reserva±on. 2. Custer led about 400 cavalry against Crazy Horse who was labeled as a \"hos±le\" Indian. Custer faced some 10,000 Indians, about 2,500 warriors. All 200+ or so of Custer's detachment were killed, including Custer himself, \"Chief Yellow Hair.\" 3. The Li´le Bighorn ba´le brought the U.S. military out for revenge and sealed the Indian-white rela±onship as li´le be´er than warfare. 4. The Nez Perce tribe, led by Chie³ Joseph , revolted when the government tried to force them onto a reserva±on. They bugged out over some 1,700 miles, across the Rocky Mountains, and ¶ed for Canada. 1. They were caught and defeated at the Ba²le o³ Bear Paw Mountain only 40 miles from the Canada border. Chief Joseph \"buried his hatchet\" and gave his famous speech saying, “·rom where the sun now stands I will µght no more forever.” 2. The Nez Perce were sent to a Kansas reserva±on where 40% died from disease.", "Note: What follows is my interpretation of Custer’s Last Stand. Many can stake a claim on how Custer’s troops fell but none can be completely accurate, especially after Custer enters Medicine Tail Coulee. My account is based on works by Douglas Scott, Richard Fox, Jerome Greene, Neil Mangum, Michael Donahue, the Reno Court of Inquiry 1879, and Indian accounts. The Battle of the Little Bighorn, June 25-26, 1876 was just one battle during the Sioux/Cheyenne War of 1876. I can think of many great researchers who could contribute to the causes of this battle or the many other battles that occurred during the Sioux/Cheyenne War of 1876.  Learn much more about this battle and the battlefield today by visiting the Friends of the Little Bighorn Battlefield website.", "By 1876, still in the Black Hills, tensions had risen between the United States and the Plains Indian Tribes, leading to a battle on June 25-26 by the Little Bighorn River between Custer’s 7th Cavalry and the Lakota and Cheyenne Tribes led by Crazy Horse and White Bull. Around 500 U.S. soldiers met an estimated 3,500 Indian warriors. All the U.S. troops were killed in what is often referred to as, “Custer’s Last Stand.”", "George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. Today he is most remembered for a disastrous military engagement known as the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Raised in Michigan and Ohio, Custer was admitted to West Point in 1858, where he graduated last in his class. However, with the outbreak of the Civil War, all potential officers were needed, and Custer was called to serve with the Union Army.", "1876 Lt. Col. George Custer makes his last stand against the Sioux Indians led by Sitting Bull.", "* 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho", "Known world-wide as Custer’s Last Stand, this is an overview of Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer’s defeat by the Lakota and Cheyenne nations on June 25-26, 1876 in what is today the state of Montana.", "The main entrance to Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument is 15 miles southeast of Hardin via exit 510 off I-90, then a half-mile east via US 212. In the Valley of the Little Bighorn River in June 1876, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and the 210 men of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under his command made their last stand against several thousand Lakota, Arapaho and Northern Cheyenne, many of whom were fleeing the restrictions of the reservation.", "General Custer and his U. S. Army troops are defeated in battle with Native American Lakota Sioux, Crow, Northern, and Cheyenne, on the Little Bighorn Battlefield, June 25, 1876 at Little Bighorn River, Montana.", "On the 25th June 1876, the Battle of Little Bighorn began when American Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led federal troops against the combined forces of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Plains Indians..... . .", "The 7th Cavalry, Custer commanding, departed from Fort Abraham Lincoln on May 17, 1876, part of a larger army force planning to round up remaining free Indians. Meanwhile, in the spring and summer of 1876, the Hunkpapa Lakota holy man Sitting Bull had called together the largest ever gathering of Plains Indians at Ash Creek, Montana (later moved to the Little Bighorn River) to discuss what to do about the whites. It was this united encampment of Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians that the 7th met at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.", "On the morning of June 25, 1876, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer and the 7th Cavalry charged into battle against Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne Indians. Custer's orders were to wait for reinforcements at the mouth of the Little Big Horn River before attacking the Indians, but Chief Sitting Bull had been spotted nearby, and Custer was impatient to attack.", "On June 25, 1876, the Custer myth got its start as Sioux and Cheyenne warriors clashed with the U.S. Army’s Seventh Cavalry in Medicine Tail Coulee and the surrounding area on the Greasy Grass River (Little Big Horn) in Montana Territory. When the shooting was over, five companies of Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer’s command had been wiped out, with 262 men dead and 55 wounded, half the battalion. So startling was the Indian victory that when Crow scouts who had been riding with Custer met up with Gen. Alfred Terry the day after the fight and told him what they had seen, he refused to believe them.", "First. On the morning of the 25th of June 1876, the 7th Cavalry, Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Custer commanding, operating against the hostile Indians in Montana Territory, near the Little Big Horn River, was divided into four battalions, two of which were commanded by Colonel Custer in person, with the exception of one company in charge of the pack-train; one by Major Reno and one by Captain Benteen. This division took place from about twelve (12) to fifteen (15) miles from the scene of the battle or battles afterwards fought. The column under Captain Benteen received orders to move to the left for an indefinite distance (to the first and second valleys) hunting Indians, with orders to charge any it might meet with. The battalion under Major Reno received orders to draw out of the column, and doing so marched parallel with and only a short distance from, the column commanded by Colonel Custer.", "What happened next to Custer and his battalion has been a matter of conjecture and controversy for more than a century. It appears likely that he attempted to cross the Little Bighorn at Medicine Tail Coulee and attack the middle of the village but was forced to withdraw in the face of Indian resistance. This attack on the middle of the village instead of the far end probably was precipitated by the fact that Custer could visually observe Reno’s abortive attack and felt he had to get into action against the village to distract the Indians and give Reno some relief. If this were his objective, he was more than successful: large numbers of Indians began to move away from Reno’s beleaguered force toward Custer’s. Custer and his men were attacked by overwhelming numbers and surrounded. They ended up dismounted and entrenched on a high point, later called Custer Hill, and the battle was probably over for them by 4:45 p.m.", "  Photo taken in 1894 by H.R. Locke on Battle Ridge looking toward Last Stand Hill top center. To the right of Custer Hill is Wooden Leg Hill, so named because Wooden Leg was at this position at one point during the Custer fight and describes the death of a war bonnet Sioux sharpshooter who was killed through exposing himself to the enemy too often. [105] [106]", "Scene of Custer's last stand, looking in the direction the Indian village and the deep ravine. Photo by Stanley J. Morrow, spring 1877.", "  Scene of Custer's last stand, looking in the direction the Indian village and the deep ravine. Photo by Stanley J. Morrow, spring 1877.", "Scene of Custer's last stand, looking in the direction the Indian village and the deep ravine. Photo by Stanley J. Morrow, spring 1879.", "There is a trail that leads downhill from the Visitor's Center to a large coulee called the Deep Ravine.  Headstones along the trail  mark  where cavalry men were run down and killed, along with their names, if known.  Some accounts say they fought their way down, forming a skirmish line along the way.  Others say it was a headlong rush. A small group made it to the ravine, thinking it was a covered route to the river.  It wasn't.  It went to the river alright, but was the main avenue of approach for the Indians from their encampment to the battle area. They lined the top of the ravine and poured fire into it, leaving no survivors.  This was the final action of Custer's  Last Stand. All 210 men - troopers, civilians, scouts - were killed, 39 of them on Last Stand Hill itself.", "Custer was eventually allowed to command his 7th Cavalry for the upcoming campaign. In the spring of 1876, the U.S. Army dispatched 3 massive columns comprising multiple regiments of Cavalry, Infantry, and Artillery. Their objective was to clear the area of the Lakota and Cheyenne and force them onto the Great Sioux Reservation. Custer's regiment was part of the largest column, coming from Fort Abraham Lincoln. General Alfred Terry commanded the campaign, and Custer was Terry's subordinate. On June 22nd, under orders from Terry, Custer's 7th was sent ahead of the rest of the column in hopes that they could be the striking force for what was most assuredly a large collection of Lakotas not far ahead of them.", "Custer was eventually allowed to command his 7th Cavalry for the upcoming campaign. In the spring of 1876, the U.S. Army dispatched three massive columns comprising multiple regiments of Cavalry, Infantry, and Artillery. Their objective was to clear the area of Lakota and Cheyenne Indians and force them onto the Great Sioux Reservation. Custer's regiment was part of the largest column coming from Fort Abraham Lincoln, North Dakota . General Alfred Terry commanded the campaign, and Custer was Terry's subordinate. On June 22, 1876, under orders from Terry, Custer's 7th Cavalry  was sent ahead of the rest of the column in hopes that they could be the striking force for what was most assuredly a large collection of Lakota warriors not far ahead of them.", "Recent archaeological work at the battlefield site indicates that organized resistance in the form of skirmish lines probably took place. The remainder of the battle possibly took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers' horses. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers' skirmish lines were most likely overwhelmed. Studies show that it would have taken an hour to cover the long stretch over which the troopers died and by most accounts, the battle was over within this time. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder on the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. As the Custer field is unique, in that markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen a couple of years after the battle, the placements of troops have been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh and strung out towards the Little Big Horn River. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have become untenable.", "A military expedition against the allied tribes followed in the spring of 1876, with the 7th Cavalry Regiment comprising a large component of one of several U.S. Army contingents sent to subdue them. Custer’s 7th Cavalry was detached from a larger Army force under the command of General Alfred Terry. The tribes numbered approximately 8,000 people with up to 1,800 warriors, while Custer’s command numbered fewer than 500." ]

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[ "David Daniel Kaminsky (January 18, 1911 – March 3, 1987), better known by his screen name Danny Kaye, was an American actor, singer, dancer, comedian, and musician. His performances featured physical comedy, idiosyncratic pantomimes, and rapid-fire novelty songs.", "David Daniel Kaminsky, better known by his screen name Danny Kaye, was an American actor, singer, dancer, comedian, and musician. His performances featured physical comedy, idiosyncratic pantomimes...", "in 1987 - David Daniel Kaminsky \"Danny Kaye\" American singer, actor and comedian, dies at 74.", "Actor, Comic, Humanitarian. His multi-talents led him to success in every facet of show business. Danny Kaye excelled at comedy, impersonation, acting and singing both popular and classical music. His career lasted for over fifty years, from acting on stage in the Catskills to Broadway, early radio and then television. His parents were Russian immigrants and he was born David Daniel Kaminski in Brooklyn the third son and the only one born in the United States. He attended P.S.149, then Thomas... [Read More] (Bio by: Donald Greyfield )", "Kevin Spacey Fowler (born July 26, 1959), better known by his stage name Kevin Spacey, is an American actor, film director, producer, singer and comedian who has resided in the United Kingdom since 2003. He began his career as a stage actor during the 1980s before obtaining supporting roles in film and television. He gained critical acclaim in the early 1990s that culminated in his first Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the neo-noir crime thriller The Usual Suspects (1995), and an Academy Award for Best Actor for midlife crisis-themed drama American Beauty (1999).", "Neil Patrick Harris (born June 15, 1973) is an American actor, producer, singer, comedian, magician, and television host. He is known for playing Barney Stinson in the television comedy series How I Met Your Mother (2005–2014), for which he was nominated for four Emmy Awards, and for his role as the title character in Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989–1993).", "Tracey Ullman (born December 30, 1959) is a British comedian, actress, and singer who is most famous for being the host of a variety television show bearing her name. Ullman has an extraordinary ability to mimic accents, with her numerous characters rarely sounding anything like her normal accent.", "Paul Allen Wood Shaffer, CM (; born November 28, 1949) is a Canadian-American singer, actor, voice actor, author, comedian, and multi-instrumentalist who served as David Letterman's musical director, band leader and sidekick on the entire run of both Late Night with David Letterman (1982–1993) and Late Show with David Letterman (1993–2015).", "Freddie Starr (born Frederick Leslie Fowell, 9 January 1943) is an English comedian, impressionist, singer and actor. Starr was the lead singer of Merseybeat pop group The Midniters during the early 1960s, and came to prominence in the early 1970s after appearing on Opportunity Knocks and the Royal Variety Performance.", "Eric Idle (born 29 March 1943) is an English comedian, actor, author, singer-songwriter, musician, writer and comedic composer. Idle is a member of the English surreal comedy group Monty Python, a member of The Rutles on Saturday Night Live, and the author of the Broadway musical Spamalot.", "Justin Timberlake's monologue from March 9, 2013 featured the reappearance of the Club. The sketch features Paul Simon, Steve Martin, Chevy Chase, Alec Baldwin, Tom Hanks, and Candice Bergen. Former cast members Dan Aykroyd (1975–79) and Martin Short (1984–85) also appear as a bartender and a waiter, respectively. Future cast member Mike O'Brien makes an appearance as the doorman who greets Justin. There is also portraits of John Goodman and Drew Barrymore in the Five-Timers Club's Hall of Portraits and the members share one bathroom as commented by Candice Bergen. The entertainment at the Five-Timers Club involves making the SNL performers fight each other to the death as seen when Bobby Moynihan was fighting Taran Killam.", "\"Dick\" Van Dyke  December 13, 1925 an American actor, comedian, writer, and producer with a career spanning six decades. He is the older brother of Jerry Van Dyke, and father of Barry Van Dyke. He is best known for his starring roles in the films Bye Bye Birdie, Mary Poppins, and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and the television series The Dick Van Dyke Show, and Diagnosis: Murder.", "Robin McLaurin Williams (July 21, 1951 – August 11, 2014) was an American stand-up comedian, actor, director, producer, writer, singer and voice artist. Starting as a stand-up comedian in San Francisco and Los Angeles in the mid-1970s, he is credited with leading San Francisco's comedy renaissance. After rising to fame as Mork in Mork & Mindy (1978–82), Williams went on to establish a career in both stand-up comedy and feature film acting. He was known for his improvisational skills. ", "Graham William Walker (born 4 April 1963), better known by his stage name Graham Norton, is an Irish television and radio presenter, comedian, and actor based in the United Kingdom. He is a five-time BAFTA TV Award winner for his comedy chat show The Graham Norton Show. Previously shown on BBC Two, it took the prestigious Friday night slot on BBC One from Jonathan Ross in 2010. He also presents on BBC Radio 2 and is the BBC television commentator of the Eurovision Song Contest, which led Hot Press to describe him as \"the 21st century's answer to Terry Wogan\". Norton is known for his innuendo-laden dialogue and flamboyant presentation style. In 2012, he sold his production company, So Television, to ITV for around £17 million.", "Billy Bob Thornton (born August 4, 1955) is an American actor, screenwriter, director and musician. Thornton gained early recognition as a cast member on the CBS sitcom Hearts Afire and in several early 1990s films including On Deadly Ground and Tombstone. In the mid-1990s, after writing, directing, and starring in the independent film Sling Blade, he won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. He appeared in several major film roles following Sling Blade 's success, including 1998's Armageddon and A Simple Plan. During the late 1990s, Thornton began a career as a singer-songwriter. He has released three albums and was the singer of a blues rock band.", "Edward Regan Murphy (born November 4, 1961, in Brooklyn, New York) is a Golden Globe-winning actor (2007) and comedian, for performance at Beverly Hills Cop, Trading Places, The Nutty Professor, and most recently Tower Heist. He has also enjoyed a minor singing career.", "Alexander Rae \"Alec\" Baldwin III (born April 3, 1958) is an American actor, producer and comedian. A member of the Baldwin family, he is the oldest of the four Baldwin brothers, all actors.", "Billy Bob Thornton (born August 4, 1955) is an American actor, filmmaker, singer, songwriter, and musician.", "Musical biopic of singer Bobby Darin, exploring his formative years, during which he develops his love of music, his subsequent success as a rock 'n' roller and a lounge singer, and his struggle to maintain popularity during the 1960s. Kevin Spacey directs and stars, alongside Bob Hoskins, John Goodman and Kate Bosworth.", "Paul Reubens (born Paul Rubenfeld; August 27, 1952) is an American actor, writer, film producer, game show host, and comedian, best known for his character Pee-wee Herman. Reubens joined the Los Angeles troupe The Groundlings in the 1970s and started his career as an improvisational comedian and stage actor. In 1982, Reubens put up a show about a character he had been developing for years. The show was called The Pee-wee Herman Show and it ran for five sold-out months with HBO producing a successful special about it. Pee-wee became an instant cult figure and for the next decade Reubens would be completely committed to his character, doing all of his public appearances and interviews as Pee-wee. In 1985 Pee-wee's Big Adventure, directed by the then-unknown Tim Burton, was a financial and critical success, and soon developed into a cult film. Big Top Pee-wee, 1988's sequel, was less successful than its predecessor. Between 1986 and 1990, Reubens starred as Pee-wee in the CBS Saturday-morning children's program Pee-wee's Playhouse.", "Michael Steven Bublé is an Italian-Canadian singer and actor who is known throughout the world for his smooth crooner voice. Throughout his career, he has won several awards, including three Grammy Awards and multiple Juno Awards.", "Billy Crystal (comic) -- Alive. Born March 14, 1947. SNL alum, Jodie on Soap and an excellent Oscar host.   IMDb", "Rodney Scott Carrington is an American stand-up comedian, actor, and country music artist. He has released six major-label studio albums and a greatest-hits package, on Mercury Records and Capitol Records. His comedy act typically combines stand-up comedy and original songs. Carrington has also star", "David Spade (July 22, 1964 Birmingham-) otherwise known as David Wayne Spade or Dave Spade is an American comedian, actor, television producer, voice actor, screenwriter, film producer and television presenter. He has one child, Harper Spade.", "Peter Gene Hernandez (Bruno Mars) - Puerto Rican and half Ashkenazi Jewish: American singer, songwriter, record producer, voice actor, and choreographer", "*Paul Reubens – comedian and actor best known for playing the character Pee-wee Herman (493, 614)", "* \"Advice\", recorded in 1999 in Seattle and at HBO's U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen. Performers include Sarah Vowell, Dan Savage, and Cheryl Trykv with music from the Black Cat Orchestra.", "Dan Aykroyd (born Tuesday, July 1, 1952) is a Canadian comedian and a member of The Not Ready For Prime Time Players . He was also an SNL writer, winning an Emmy Award in 1977, and being nominated again, and an acting Emmy.", "As a young adult, he becomes a success, singing various pop songs such as \"Splish Splash.\" Yet, he's unhappy and wants to be a serious performer, like Frank Sinatra. With the aid of his manager, Steve Blauner (JOHN GOODMAN), and musical arranger, Dick Behrke (PETER CINCOTTI), he bucks the odds and becomes just that.", "Harry Lillis Crosby III (born August 8, 1958) is an American actor, singer, and investment banker.", "The entertainer, real name Daniel Patrick Carroll, died at his home in Kent on May 31 following a battle with cancer. He was 81.", "Bobby Darin (born Walden Robert Cassotto, May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973) was an American singer, actor and musician." ]

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[ "Mata Hari (1876-1917), born as Margaretha Geertruida Zelle, was a Dutch spy and the most iconic example of a Femme Fatale Spy ever.", "Margaretha Geertruida \"Margreet\" Zelle MacLeod (7 August 1876 – 15 October 1917), better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a member of the Frisian minority from the Netherlands, and was an exotic dancer and courtesan who was convicted of being a spy[1] and executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War I", "Margaretha Geertruida \"Margreet\" MacLeod (née Zelle; 7 August 1876 – 15 October 1917), better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a Dutch Frisian exotic dancer and courtesan who was convicted of being a spy and executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War I.", "Margaretha Geertruida \"M'greet\" Zelle McLeod (7 Aug 1876 – 15 Oct 1917), better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a Dutch exotic dancer, courtesan, and accused spy who was executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War I.", "Margaretha Geertruida \"M'greet\" Zelle MacLeod (7 August 1876 – 15 October 1917), better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a Dutch exotic dancer, courtesan, and convicted spy[1] who was executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War ... © Wikipedia", "Margaretha Zelle (1876-1917), also known as Mata Hari, was a Dutch exotic dancer accused of being a double agent. Though she always denied being a spy, the French executed her in 1917.[8]", "Mata Hari was the stage name of Margaretha Geertruida \"Grietje\" Zelle (7 August 1876, Leeuwarden – 15 October 1917, Vincennes), a Dutch exotic dancer, courtesan, and accused spy, although possibly innocent, who was executed by firing squad in France for espionage for Germany during World War I.", "Margaretha Geertruida \"M'greet\" Zelle McLeod, better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a Dutch exotic dancer, courtesan, and accused spy who was executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War I.", "Mata Hari – A classic Femme Fatale. Spy Mata Hari was an exotic Dutch dancer who began her career in Paris in the 1900s. A Belly dancer or slinky vamp-dress would be ideal.", "Margaretha Geertruida \"Margreet\" Zelle MacLeod (7 August 1876 – 15 October 1917), better known by the stage name Mata Hari, was a Frisian exotic dancer and courtesan who was convicted of being a spy and executed by firing squad in France under charges of espionage for Germany during World War I.", "Mata Hari was the stage name of Margaretha Geertruida Zelle (7 August 1876– 15 October 1917), a Dutch exotic dancer and courtesan who was executed by firing squad for espionage during World War I.Many books have been written about Mata Hari, some of them serious historical and biographical accounts, but many of them highly speculative.", "Mata Hari, byname of Margaretha Geertruida MacLeod, née Zelle (born Aug. 7, 1876, Leeuwarden , Neth.—died Oct. 15, 1917, Vincennes , near Paris , France ), dancer and courtesan whose name has become a synonym for the seductive female spy. She was shot by the French on charges of spying for Germany during World War I . The nature and extent of her espionage activities remain uncertain, and her guilt is widely contested.", "Mata Hari is probably the best remembered name in espionage, today however, most scholars would think of Hari as the most misunderstood and tragic figure in espionage; essentially as 'the spy that never was'. Her real name was Margaretha Geertruida Zelle McLeod, born in the Netherlands in 1876. She posed as an exotic dancer from Malaysia and became a European celebrity. She was captured and accused by the French as spying for the Germans, to which she was executed for. There has been much investigation into her role as a spy, with little evidence to show for it. It seems likely that Hari pretended to spy for monetary gains, even herself admitting she was a much better harlot than traitor.", "She was born as Margaretha Geertruida Zelle,1876-1917. After the poisoning of her 2 year old son she became an exotic dancer and courtesan. In 1917 she was accused of being a German spy and was sentenced to death on 15th October 1917. Recent information shows that more than likely she was falsely accused. Mata Hari refused the blindfold while shot to death . . . An interesting lady . . .", "October 15, 1917 - World War I spy Mata Hari was executed by a French firing squad at Vincennes Barracks, outside Paris.", "Ninety years after her execution by the French government on a rather dubious charge of spying for Germany, Mata Hari still intrigues the popular imagination, to the point where the legend has almost completely obscured the facts—a thing which would probably have pleased her. This new biography stresses how her entire life was an exercise in audacious self-fashioning unencumbered by any regard for the truth. Fleeing a failed marriage to an abusive husband, this bourgeois Dutch woman moved to Par Ninety years after her execution by the French government on a rather dubious charge of spying for Germany, Mata Hari still intrigues the popular imagination, to the point where the legend has almost completely obscured the facts—a thing which would probably have pleased her. This new biography stresses how her entire life was an exercise in audacious self-fashioning unencumbered by any regard for the truth. Fleeing a failed marriage to an abusive husband, this bourgeois Dutch woman moved to Paris, passed herself off as Malaysian, became a celebrity by performing pseudo-Javanese-cum-striptease dances, and embarked on a series of torrid affairs with prominent men.", "In January 1917, the French intercepted a coded message from the Germans saying they had gained much useful information from a German spy code named H-21. From this information, suspicion fell on Mata Hari and she was arrested.", "In January 1917, the German military attaché in Madrid transmitted radio messages to Berlin describing the helpful activities of a German spy, code-named H-21. French intelligence agents intercepted the messages and, from the information they contained, identified H-21 as Mata Hari. Unusually, the messages were in a code that German intelligence knew had already been broken by the French, leaving some historians to suspect that the messages were contrived.", "When World War I erupted in 1914 European citizens on both sides of the war adjusted their mindset. However Mata Hari at age 37 remained rather oblivious to the turbulent surroundings as she continued with her normal pattern zigzagging from Germany to France and other European countries. Her money transactions caught the eye of the French government and she was placed under surveillance. Mata Hari provided services to many clients, but was spying a new part of her venue? Was she French agent H21, German agent AF44 or a double agent? It’s possible, but the threads connecting her as an intelligence agent were as scant as her costumes.", "Mata Hari, The exotic dancer Mata Hari is sentenced to execution by firing squad by a French court for spying on Germany's behalf during World War I.", "On February 13, 1917 Mata Hari was arrested by the French government and officially charged with being a spy and war criminal. Following a brief trial she was sentenced to death and killed by a firing squad.", "During lengthy interrogations by Captain Pierre Bouchardon, a military prosecutor, Mata Hari—who had long lived a fabricated life, embellishing both rearing and resume—bungled and facts about her whereabouts and activities. Eventually, she dropped a bombshell confession: A German diplomat had once paid her 20,000 francs to gather intelligence on her frequent trips to Paris. But she swore to investigators that she never actually fulfilled the bargain and always remained faithful to France. She told them she simply viewed the money as compensation for furs and luggage that had once disappeared on a departing train while German border guards hassled her. \"A courtesan, I admit it. A spy, never!\" she defiantly told her interrogators. \"I have always lived for love and pleasure.\"", "British counter-intelligence was quickly suspicious of the Mata Hari and passed their information along to French Intelligence.  The French had her followed and steamed open her letters, but rather than uncovering evidence on a high-level spy, they revealed a string of lovers and romantic liaisons, embarrassingly, one of whom was a rather high ranking French secret policeman.", "The question of Mata Hari’s guilt continues to fascinate historians to this day. The documents from her trial were sealed for several decades, but many of the researchers who’ve since studied them have concluded that the case against her was flimsy. Most of the prosecution’s evidence was circumstantial, and her defense attorney was prevented from introducing witnesses that might have backed up her claims. While many scholars remain convinced that Mata Hari was indeed a spy, others contend that she was scapegoated or even framed in order to raise French morale during one of the darkest periods of the war. Nevertheless, the true extent of her espionage may never be known for certain.", "A semi-fictionalized account of the life of Mata Hari, an exotic dancer who was accused of spying for Germany during World War I.", "By 1914, however, Mata Hari’s dalliances with rich men had become a matter of financial survival. She was now nearly 40, and she had watched her dancing career slowly stagnate. Her problems only mounted with the outbreak of World War I. She was in Berlin at the time, and when she tried to travel to France, the Germans confiscated her luggage and bank accounts. She was forced to return to her neutral homeland of Holland, where she resumed an old affair with a wealthy Dutch baron.", "As for Mata Hari herself, she does not come across as a particularly sympathetic person. She was superficial, egotistical, self-serving, opportunistic and mercenary. She lived for excitement, pleasure and attention. Nevertheless, the author proves quite conclusively that Mata Hari was not a spy for the Germans, the allegation that led to her conviction and execution. Indeed, Mata Hari was constitutionally unfit for such an undertaking, having no interest whatsoever in politics, no patriotic feelings, and no inclination to engage in any sort of work that required sustained effort.", "You don’t recognize the name? I’m not surprised. That is the real name of the exotic dancer and courtesan who used the stage name of Mata Hari – the woman most of us think of as the most famous female spy in history.", "Mata Hari's trial came at a time when the Allies were failing to beat back German advances. Real or imagined spies were convenient scapegoats for explaining military losses, and Mata Hari's arrest was one of many. Her chief foil, Captain Georges Ladoux, made sure the evidence against her was constructed in the most damning way—by some accounts even tampering with it to implicate her more deeply.", "But as paranoia consumed a country at war, Mata Hari’s lifestyle brought her under suspicion. In 1917, she was arrested in her hotel room on the Champs Elysees, and accused of espionage.", "Mata Hari repeatedly denied all involvement in any spying for either side. Her captors didn't believe her story, and perhaps wanting to make an example of her, sentenced her to death by firing squad. She was shot to death on October 15, 1917.", "Mata Hari’s espionage trial commenced on July 24, 1917. Despite a lack of evidence about the secrets she might have passed to the Germans, the prosecution blamed her for the deaths of thousands of Allied soldiers and pointed to her numerous affairs as proof that she had been gathering intelligence. “The evil that this woman has done is unbelievable,” prosecutor Andre Mornet concluded in his final statement. “This is perhaps the greatest woman spy of the century.” In the end, it took a military tribunal less than an hour to find her guilty and sentence her to death." ]

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[ "The phrase \"The customer is always right\" was originally coined in 1909 by Harry Gordon Selfridge, the founder of Selfridge's department store in London, and is typically used by businesses to convince customers that they will get good service at this company and convince employees to give customers good service.", "The phrase “The customer is always right” was originally coined by Harry Gordon Selfridge, the founder of Selfridge’s department store in London in 1909, and is typically used by businesses to:", "I’ve worked in the service industry for seven years. I’ve seen all sorts of customers and all sorts of customer service policies. I believe that Harry Selfridge’s slogan “the customer is always right” has dealt damage to the industry that may never be repaired. I also believe that finding and sharing these positive points about supporting your employees is only the first step to finding a solution. We also need to identify the obstacle that prevent us from dumping this tired maxim in favor of something better. Were I to present this article to upper management tomorrow, I believe this is what I would be told:", "Gordon Bethune is a brash Texan (as is Herb Kelleher, coincidentally) who is best known for turning Continental Airlines around “From Worst to First,” a story told in his book of the same title from 1998. He wanted to make sure that both customers and employees liked the way Continental treated them, so he made it very clear that the maxim “the customer is always right” didn’t hold sway at Continental.", "Gordon Bethune is a brash Texan (as is Herb Kelleher, coincidentally) who is best known for turning Continental Airlines around \"From Worst to First,\" a story told in his book of the same title from 1998. He wanted to make sure that both customers and employees liked the way Continental treated them, so he made it very clear that the maxim \"the customer is always right\" didn't hold sway at Continental.", "So Bethune trusted his people over unreasonable customers. What I like about this attitude is that it balances employees and customers. The \"always right\" maxim squarely favors the customer which is a bad idea, because, as Bethune says, it causes resentment among employees.", "If you still think that the customer is always right, read this story from Bethune’s book “From Worst to First”:", "Contra Jeff above, no, the customer is not always right. Commerce is an exchange between equals. And it’s not cheaper to keep a customer than to get a new one when you’re losing money on the one you got.", "Good example: I was at the local Publix the other day, and this lady was holding up the line because her Nestle coupon was not acceptable to get her a discount on Haagen Daas ice cream. The two companies are not related, yet she insisted and quoted “The customer is always right”. Lo and behold, the managers let her have it! When I questioned them on this, they stated that she did this every week, and this was the best was to get rid of her and get the lines moving again.", "Thank you for this! My sister works at a retail franchise which uses the phrase “The customer is always right” religiously. One day an old lady came in and was annoyed with another woman’s autistic son. She got into the boy’s face and mimicked a noise the boy made. My sister couldn’t say anything to her because if the woman complained to her manager, she would have been fired. If I were in that position they would have booted me out the door so fast, but you can bet I would have taken that old bag with me.", "The old saying that the customer is always right is true……..but, it is a lot harder to deal with. Just because at times it is harder to deal with – doesn’t make it untrue.", "I formerly owned a retail store, and I made sure that my co-workers understood that when it comes to customers and customer service: “The customer is always right… until they’re wrong.”", "I’m a sales representitive for a computer company. I believe in treating customers in a friendly and fair way. That is why the idiom “the customer is always right” – is a terrible way to run a business – because some “customers” SUCK! You are friendly – they throw the phone down. You smile, they frown. You bend over bankwards for them, they kick you. I know from experience NOT TO TAKE CUSTOMERS SERIOUSLY. Just to do your job.", "Perhaps the phrase should be altered slightly..as we used to say….”the customer is always right……….Except when they are WRONG!!”", "“One of the consistent back up statements of “The Customer is Always Right” is the amount of dollars it costs to replace a customer. It costs more to replace a customer than to retain one most times. However, it also costs a lot more to recruit, hire, and train a new employee than it does to keep one happy.”", "Quite frankly, I agree with the phrase; “the customer is always right”…because I define ‘customer’ different than simply someone who shows up to spend money at my establishment.", "I think it’s great to put the employees first as long as it also means great customer service. Some of your quotes in the post are from people famous for outstanding service and working hard to give customers what they want. That gives a lot more credibility to the faulty argument that customers are always right no matter what.", "The Number 1 reason that the customer shouldn’t assume that they are always right is that the expression “The Customer Is Always Right” isn’t a generic rule of thumb or policy for businesses.", "Using the slogan “The customer is always right” abusive customers can demand just about anything – they’re right by definition, aren’t they? This makes the employees’ job that much harder, when trying to rein them in.", "Osmanthus, it’s not an idiom. The meaning of “the customer is always right” is most certainly deducible from the phrase’s individual words. An idiom’s meaning cannot be deduced in this way. The reader knows what a customer is and most likely understands what it means to be right. The definition is literal and obvious, and can be extracted by simple examination of the subject and predicate. “Raining cats and dogs” does not mean that there are literally cats and dogs involved. “Barking up the wrong tree” does not mean that there are literally trees involved. “The customer is always right” does in fact mean a customer is involved.", "Top 5 reasons why \"The customer is Always Right\" is wrong - The Chief Happiness Officer Blog", "Obviously “the customer is always right” hasn’t been around forever (just for a little over a century, something I didn’t know until I read this article!) so before that businesses existed and prospered on so many other things. The most important of which (the second that you bring on so much as one other person to work with or for you) is:", "The problem with “the customer is always right” is that it has been taken much too far for much too long.", "I don�t disagree with your points here but I�m concerned with the message that this sends to employees. In a time of communication bombarding from all sides, it seems to me that the simple axiom �the customer is always right� is still useful no matter how flawed the logic. I think that management needs to determine when the exceptions are to be made.", "Interesting article, and while I agree that while the customer isn’t always right – the customer always needs to be treated right!", "Proof that when you have a policy of “the customer is always right” it just leads to headaches:", "The customer can only be right if they are, well, right. The problem is that sometimes you get customers that aren’t right. Rob, do you think that trying to return something you bought one year ago, had no receipt, and bought from a different company entirely is “right”? I don’t. And yet, you get this kind of behavior every day.", "Best advice I ever got was from my first boss, whose motto was ‘The customer is always wrong’.", "To Ken (7/26/06) — EXCELLENT theory…to confirm to your customer that you were wrong, can’t be right. That is not to say that they should not have their concern(s) addressed in some manner; it just doesn’t have to be by acknowledging a “wrong” (whether real or not)", "If a customer is treated with respect and the product functions as promised, I promise, they will defend you and boast about you. The inverse is also true.", "In conflicts between employees and unruly customers he would consistently side with his people. Here's how he put it:", "In conflicts between employees and unruly customers he would consistently side with his people. Here’s how he puts it:" ]

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[ "What pen name was used by the Spanish orator Dolores Ibarruri, who said \"It is better to die on your feet than to live on your knees\"?", "Many Glasgow citizens fought and died during the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39 – and this is the cityâs monument to the International Brigade which fought in the civil war, and is that of Dolores Ibárruri , a communist from the Basque country who played a prominent role on the Republican side. ‘La Pasionaria’ (The Passion Flower), as she became known, was a great orator and propagandist who coined the phrase, “Better to die on your feet than to live for ever on your knees.”", "\"Better to DIE on our feet than live on our knees.\" Franklin D. Roosevelt made that vow while accepting an honorary degree from Oxford University in 1941. Republican firebrand Dolores Ibarruri (\"La Pasionaria\") said this repeatedly during the 1936-1939 Spanish Civil War. Ibarruri may have been inspired by Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who reportedly said two decades earlier, \"Better to die on your feet than live on your knees.\" (\"Es mejor morir de pie que vivir de rodillas.\") Although it is unlikely that Zapata spoke Yiddish, \"Better to die upright than to live on your knees\" is called a Yiddish proverb by proverb scholar Wolfgang Mieder. In 1866, a Quaker teacher in Virginia quoted a recently freed slave as saying, \"It 'pears like, miss, we should live on our knees, for this great blessed freedom we now have.\"", "As quoted in Liberation Theologies in North America and Europe (1979) by Gerald H. Anderson and Thomas F. Stransky, p. 281; this is sometimes misattributed to the more modern revolutionary, Che Guevara , and to \"La Pasionaria\" Dolores Ibárruri , especially in Spain, where she popularized it in her famous speeches during the Spanish Civil War, to José Martí , and to Aeschylus who is credited with a similar declaration in Prometheus Bound : \"For it would be better to die once and for all than to suffer pain for all one's life.\" The phrase \"better that we should die on our feet rather than live on our knees\" was spoken by François-Noël Gracchus Babeuf in his defence of the Conspiracy of Equals in April 1797. In French it read, 'Ne vaut-il pas mieux emporter la gloire de n'avoir pas survecu a la servitude?' but translated this bears no resemblance whatever to the quote under discussion. see: The Defense of Gracchus Babeuf Before the High Court of Vendome (1967), edited and translated by John Anthony Scott, p. 88 and p. 90, n. 12.", "Emiliano Zapata is the Mexican rebel leader who said “It is better to die on your feet than to live on your knees.” A former sharecropper, he organized and led peasants during the battles of the Mexican Revolution, joining forces with Pancho Villa and others to fight the government of Porfirio Diaz. Zapata supported agrarian reform and land redistribution; his rallying cry was “Land and freedom!” (His positions attracted the support of some urban intellectuals, who linked him to the theories of Karl Marx .) Though Diaz was defeated, Zapata continued to resist subsequent government leaders; he was ambushed and shot by Mexican troops in 1919. Zapata remains a folk hero in Mexico, where his name has often been invoked by more modern-day rebels like Subcommander Marcos .", "Here, too, Low is Orwellian in the coolness of his judgement, pointing out how the young Communists of Asturias, where she was elected, resented having this mythical figure from the past foisted on them. The new generation of Spanish politicians were anxious to get on with the possible, and La Pasionaria gradually faded from the public scene. She died just two days after the fall of the Berlin wall confirmed that the vast majority of her former comrades decided they wanted no more of her kind of dream. All that was left, as Low concludes, were a few ringing phrases: 'better to die on one's feet than to live on one's knees'.", "Isidora Dolores Ibárruri Gómez (9 December 1895 – 12 November 1989) – known as \"La Pasionaria\" ( Spanish , \"the Passionflower \") – was a Spanish Republican heroine of the Spanish Civil War and communist politician of Basque origin, known for her famous slogan ¡No Pasarán! (\" They shall not pass \") during the Battle for Madrid in November 1936.", "or, in it's most famous incarnation to DOLORES IBARRUI (1895- 1989), \"La Pasionara\", as she was known. Ibarrui popularized it for Nationalist forces in a series of radio broadcasts to the women of Spain, exhorting them to FIGHT. She is first said to have broadcast it September 3 1936, but \"La Pasionara\" says she first used it on July 18, 1936.", "1895: Birth of Dolores Gómez Ibarruri, Spanish politician, known as La Pasionaria who won a seat in parliament in 1936. She was a great orator; her passionate speeches against the Fascists, and her cry of They will not pass became the battle cry for the Republican soldiers during the Civil War. She eventually fled to Russia, only returning to Spain in 1977.", "He also declared that Spanish soldiers would be mad to not rise for Spain against Anarchy. In turn, the leader of the communists, Dolores Ibarruri, known as La Pasionaria, allegedly vowed that Calvo Sotelos speech would be his last speech in the Cortes. Although the Nationalist generals were already at advanced stages of planning an uprising, the even provided a convenient catalyst and public justification for their planned coup.", "The statue was funded by money raised by Trade Unionists and Labour movement supporters. [122] However, the £3000 raised was insufficient to cover the artist's plans for the statue to be cast in bronze. Instead, an armature was welded together from scrap iron and covered in fibreglass. The final version of the monument is a stylised female figure, representing Dolores Ibarruri, in a long dress, standing with legs apart and arms raised. [122] On the plinth, Dooley carved Dolores' famous slogan - 'better to die on your feet than live forever on your knees'. The phrase was first used by the Mexican revolutionary leader, Emiliano Zapata , but Ibarruri gave it new meaning when she used it during the miners strike in Asturias, Spain, in 1934.", "The statue was funded by money raised by Trade Unionists and Labour movement supporters. [109] However, the £3000 raised was insufficient to cover the artist's plans for the statue to be cast in bronze. Instead, an armature was welded together from scrap iron and covered in fibreglass. The final version of the monument is a stylised female figure, representing Dolores Ibarruri, in a long dress, standing with legs apart and arms raised. [109] On the plinth, Dooley carved Dolores' famous slogan - 'better to die on your feet than live forever on your knees'. The phrase was first used by the Mexican revolutionary leader, Emiliano Zapata , but Ibarruri gave it new meaning when she used it during the miners strike in Asturias, Spain, in 1934.", "In the months before the Spanish Civil War, she joined the strikers of Cadavio mine in Asturias and stood beside poor tenants evicted in a suburb of Madrid. [8] Around this time, Federico García Lorca , La Pasionaria and friends were chatting and sharing a coffee in a Madrid cafeteria when Lorca, who had been studying Ibárruri's appearance, told her, \"Dolores, you are a woman of grief, of sorrows...I'm going to write you a poem.\" [24] The poet returned to Granada and met his death at the hands of the Nationalists before completing the task.", "In 1933, she founded Mujeres Antifascistas, a women's organization opposed to Fascism and war. [14] On April 18, Soviet astronomer Grigory Neujmin discovered asteroid 1933 HA and named it \" Dolores \" after her. In November she travelled to Moscow as a delegate of the 13th Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International (ECCI), which weighed the danger posed by Fascism and the threat of war. [15] The sight of the Russian capital thrilled Ibárruri. \"To me, who saw it through the eyes of the soul\", she wrote in her autobiography, \"it was the most wonderful city on earth. The construction of socialism was being managed from it. In it were taking shape the earthly dreams of freedom of generations of slaves, outcasts, serfs, proletarians. From it one could take in and perceive the march of humanity toward communism.\" [2] She did not return to Spain until the new year.", "Sometime during 1965 Ibárruri flew from Paris to Dubrovnik to apologize as president of the PCE to Josip Broz Tito . On May 17, 1948, the Cominform , successor to the ECCI, had expelled Yugoslavia from the community of Socialist countries [6] and Ibárruri had lent her voice and pen to his censure. The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union held February 14–26, 1956, repudiated the charges against Yugoslavia. Now Ibárruri came face to face with the man she had slandered. She started to apologize profusely, but Tito cut her short and said, \"Do not vex yourself, Dolores, do not worry. I know very well how things worked in those days. I know it perfectly. Furthermore, believe me, I most likely would have done what you did had I been in your situation.\" Ibárruri returned to visit Yugoslavia several times thereafter. [6] In late December 1965 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR decorated Ibárruri with an Order of Lenin medal. [6] A total of 431,418 decorations were given out between 1930 and 1991, but only seventeen went to foreigners. [6]", "Sometime during 1965 Ibárruri flew from Paris to Dubrovnik to apologize as president of the PCE to Josip Broz Tito . On May 17, 1948, the Cominform , successor to the ECCI, had expelled Yugoslavia from the community of Socialist countries [61] and Ibárruri had lent her voice and pen to his censure. The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union held February 14–26, 1956, repudiated the charges against Yugoslavia. Now Ibárruri came face to face with the man she had slandered. She started to apologize profusely, but Tito cut her short and said, \"Do not vex yourself, Dolores, do not worry. I know very well how things worked in those days. I know it perfectly. Furthermore, believe me, I most likely would have done what you did had I been in your situation.\" [24] Ibárruri returned to visit Yugoslavia several times thereafter. [62] In late December 1965 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR decorated Ibárruri with an Order of Lenin medal. [63] A total of 431,418 decorations were given out between 1930 and 1991, but only seventeen went to foreigners. [64]", "At the 6th Congress of the PCE held in Prague between January 28–31, 1960, 65-year-old Ibárruri ceded the post of secretary-general to Carrillo and accepted the honorary position of president. [50] As confirmation of her retirement from active politics she wrote her first memoir in 1960. The book, entitled El Unico Camino (The Only Way) was published first in Paris in 1962. [51] The following year it was printed in Moscow. [52] The book was translated into English and published in New York in 1966 under a new title. [53] In her second memoir, Memorias de Pasionaria, 1939-1977, Ibárruri observates that the childhood reminiscences recorded in El Unico Camino came to her in sharp detail.", "On November 8, 1972, Ibárruri's estranged husband, 82-year-old Julin Ruiz Gabiña, returned from a workers' clinic in Moscow to Somorrostro, expressing a desire \"to rest and to die in my land.\" [6] On March 14, 1974, Ibárruri condemned the execution on March 2 of 26-year-old Catalan anarchist Salvador Puig Antich . She noted the revolutionary political stance taken by Bishop Antonio Añoveros Ataún of Bilbao who defended Basque cultural identity publicly and who defied Franco's decision to remove him. On November 20, 1975, Spanish dictator Franco died. Ibárruri commented on the news laconically, \"May the earth rest light upon him.\" On the week of November 17 Ibárruri was invested with the Order of the October Revolution. On December 14 many representatives of Communist parties from around the world gathered in Rome to pay homage to her. The next summer Ibárruri attended the 3rd Plenum of the Central Committee of the PCE held July 28–31, 1976, in Rome under the clarion call of \"national reconciliation.\"", "During this time, Ibárruri had six children. Of her five girls, four died very young. She \"used to relate how her husband made a small coffin out of a crate of fruit.\" [9] Her son, Rubén , died at twenty-two in the Battle of Stalingrad . The remaining child, Amaya, outlived her mother. In 2008 Amaya resided in the working-class neighbourhood of Ciudad Lineal in Madrid. [10] [11]", "On April 15, 1964, she spoke at the banquet celebrating Nikita Khrushchev 's 70th birthday. [58] On April 30 she shared the International Lenin Prize for Strengthening Peace Among Peoples , with three others. [59] On February 22, 1965, Ibárruri asked the ministers of External Affairs and the Spanish army and the defense attorney, asking to appear as a witness at the court martial of former Republican commander Justo Lopez de la Fuente. De la Fuente had been condemned to twenty-three years in prison. [60] Everyone expected that he would be sentenced to death. She held a press conference in Moscow to publicize these actions. On February 27 the Captain General of the Madrid region annulled the proceedings. However, the first sentence stuck and Lopez later died in prison.", "Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges KBE (; ; 24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986), was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet and translator, and a key figure in Spanish-language literature. His best-known books, Ficciones (Fictions) and El Aleph (The Aleph), published in the 1940s, are compilations of short stories interconnected by common themes, including dreams, labyrinths, libraries, mirrors, fictional writers, philosophy, and religion.", "Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Spain's greatest literary figure, was born in Alcalá de Henares, a small university town near Madrid, where he was baptized in the church of Santa María on October 9, 1547; he died in Madrid on April 23, 1616. We know little of his early life. The fourth of seven children, Cervantes, his siblings and mother accompanied his father, an itinerant surgeon, who struggled to maintain his practice and his family by traveling the length and breadth of Spain. Despite his father's frequent travels, Cervantes received some early formal education, in the school of the Spanish humanist, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, who was teaching in Madrid in the 1560s. His first literary efforts--poems written on the death of the wife of Philip II--date from this period.", "66. born July 24/26, 1895, London, Eng. died Dec. 7, 1985, Deyá, Majorca, Spain; British man of letters. He served as an officer at the Western Front during World War I and his first three volumes of poetry were published during that time; they include some of the finest English love poems of the century. In 1926 he began a 13-year relationship with the American poet Laura Riding (1901–91), with whom he founded a press, briefly published a journal and collaborated as a writer. After 1929 he lived principally in Majorca, Spain. The most famous of his more than 120 books are Good-bye to All That (1929), a grim memoir of the war; the historical novel I, Claudius (1934; televised in 1976); and erudite, controversial studies in mythology, notably The White Goddess (1948).", "I have never savored life with such gusto as I do now.- Candice Bergen (Born 1946) American actress. Life is a long lesson in humility.- James M. Barrie (1860-1937) English playwright. Hatred is a feeling which leads to the extinction of values.- Jose Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) Spanish philosopher. It soon became obvious that we were but on the threshold of the discovery-Howard Carter (1874-1939) English archaeologist/Egyptologist, discovered tomb of King Tut. If there is anything that is important to a reporter, it is integrity. It is credibility.- Mike Wallace (1918-2012) American TV journalist, (60 Minutes) All born this date, May 9..", "Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo (Spanish pronunciation: [xoɾxe lwis boɾxes]) (24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986) was an Argentine writer and poet born in Buenos Aires. In 1914, his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and essays in Surrealist literary journals. He also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. Borges was bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English. He was a target of political persecution during the Peron regime.", "[B] 1932 - Virgilia d'Andrea (b. 1890), Italian poet, teacher, writer, anarchist and anti-fascist, dies. [see: Feb. 11]", "Author. He was born in Madrid, Spain. He is remembered for his books \"Uno,\" \"La Vida Dif�cil\" and \"Cinemat�grafo.\" Also he worked in the cinema in seven films. For several magazines, he wrote short stories such as \"Los Trabajadores\" or \"De Tres a Cinco de la Madrugada.\" He was politically active, ag... ", "The satirist died in Spain where he had a home in the coastal town of Llafranc.", "William McGuire \"Bill\" Bryson, OBE(honoraria) (8 de diciembre de 1951), es un escritor británico nacido en Estados Unidos, autor de divertidos libros sobre viajes, sobre la lengua inglesa y de divulgación científica. Ha vivido la mayor parte de su vida adulta en el Reino Unido. Actualmente reside en North Yorkshire, Inglaterra.", "Empress Carlota went \"insane\" after returning to Europe from Mexico. She died in Belgium in 1927, at the age of 87, and is buried in that country. She spoke at least 4 languages fluently, but she was not allowed to write about her pregnancy and flight from Mexico.", "Although he maintained a demanding and harsh disposition, Guevara also viewed his role of commander as one of a teacher, entertaining his men during breaks between engagements with readings from the likes of Robert Louis Stevenson, Cervantes, and Spanish lyric poets. Together with this role, and inspired by José Martí's principle of \"literacy without borders\", Guevara further ensured that his rebel fighters made daily time to teach the uneducated campesinos with whom they lived and fought to read and write, in what Guevara termed the \"battle against ignorance\". Tomás Alba, who fought under Guevara's command, later stated that \"Che was loved, in spite of being stern and demanding. We would (have) given our life for him.\" ", "1921 - José Martínez Guerricabeitia (aka Felipe de Orero) (d. 1986), Spanish anarchist and founder of the Ruedo Ibérico (Iberian Circle) publishing house in 1961, born. Active in the Spanish underground 1945-1947." ]

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[ "The Dewey Decimal Classification System is the most widely used method for classifying books in the library. This system is a general knowledge organization tool that is continuously revised to keep pace with knowledge.  It is named after Melvil Dewey, an American Librarian who developed it in 1876. This system is a numerical scheme for the arrangement of subjects of nonfiction books, and it classifies books by dividing them into 10 main subject groups that are called categories. Each category is represented by figures beginning with 000 and going on to 999. In other words, it is a system of numbers used to mark and arrange mostly non-fiction books.", "The Dewey Decimal Classification system, sometimes abbreviated DDC, is a method of categorizing books in a library by subject matter. It is a numerical system using groupings of ten — i.e. there are ten major classes, each of which has ten divisions, each of which has ten sections — and books are placed on the shelf in numerical order. The system was created by Melvil Dewey in 1876 and is currently owned by the Online Computer Library Center in Dublin, Ohio, which acquired the trademark in 1988.", "The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC, also called the Dewey Decimal System) is a proprietary system of library classification developed by Melvil Dewey in 1876, and has since then been greatly modified and expanded through 22 major revisions, the most recent in 2004.", "The Dewey Decimal (DDC) system was invented by Melvil Dewey in 1876. Dewey also founded the first library school in America and started the American Library Association, the largest professional organization for librarians in the country. So Dewey had a huge influence on American libraries, which is why many used his system of classification. The Library of Congress developed the Library of Congress (LC) classification system in 1897. In 1968, Henriette Davidson, a programmer at the Library of Congress, developed the MARC (MAchine Readable Cataloging) standard for bibliographic records. This standard enabled the electronic exchange of bibliographic data. LC created a huge database of MARC records. Instead of creating their own records, libraries could download a MARC record, or order printed cards. Since the records were created by the Library of Congress, they used the LC classification system. More and more libraries chose to save time and money by downloading their catalog records instead of creating them from scratch. So the decision by libraries to go with LC instead of DDC is based more on economics than anything else.", "One of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics. When the system was first introduced, most libraries in the US used fixed positioning: each book was assigned a permanent shelf position based on the book's height and date of acquisition. Library stacks were generally closed to all but the most privileged patrons, so shelf browsing was not considered of importance. The use of the Dewey Decimal system increased during the early 20th century as librarians were convinced of the advantages of relative positioning and of open shelf access for patrons. ", "The year 1876 is key in the history of librarianship in the United States. The American Library Association was formed, as well as The American Library Journal, Melvil Dewey published his decimal-based system of classification, and the United States Bureau of Education published its report, \"Public libraries in the United States of America; their history, condition, and management.\" During the post-Civil War years, there was a rise in the establishment of public libraries, a movement led chiefly by newly formed women's clubs. They contributed their own collections of books, conducted lengthy fund raising campaigns for buildings, and lobbied within their communities for financial support for libraries, as well as with legislatures and the Carnegie Library Endowment founded in the 20th century. They led the establishment of 75–80 percent of the libraries in communities across the country. ", "Dewey Decimal Classification numbers formed the basis of the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses, etc.). Adaptations of the system for specific regions outside the English-speaking world include the Korean Decimal Classification, the New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries, and the Nippon Decimal Classification (Japanese).", "The Dewey Decimal Classification organizes library materials by discipline or field of study. Main divisions include philosophy, social sciences, science, technology, and history. The scheme is made up of ten classes, each divided into ten divisions, each having ten sections. The system's notation uses Arabic numbers, with three whole numbers making up the main classes and sub-classes and decimals creating further divisions. The classification structure is hierarchical and the notation follows the same hierarchy. Libraries not needing the full level of detail of the classification can trim right-most decimal digits from the class number to obtain a more general classification. For example:", "According to a study done in 1927, the Dewey system was used in the US in approximately 96% of responding public libraries and 89% of the college libraries. After the death of Melvil Dewey in 1931, administration of the classification was under the Decimal Classification Committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, and the editorial body was the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee with participation of the American Library Association (ALA), Library of Congress, and Forest Press. By the 14th edition in 1942, the Dewey Decimal Classification index was over 1,900 pages in length and was published in two volumes. ", "Administratively, the very early editions were managed by Dewey and a small editorial staff. Beginning in 1922, administrative affairs were managed by the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a not-for-profit organization founded by Melvil Dewey. The ALA created a Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification as part of the Cataloging and Classification division of ALA, in 1952. The previous Decimal Classification Committee was changed to the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, with participation of the ALA Division of Cataloging and Classification, and the Library of Congress. ", "   The decimal system of units was conceived in the 16th century, when there was a great confusion and a jumble of units of weights and measures.  It was not until 1790, however, that the French National Assembly requested the French Academy of Sciences to work out a system of units suitable for adoption by the entire world.  This system was based on the meter as a unit of length.  The mass of a cubic centimeter of water, the gram, was adopted as a practical measure to benefit industry and commerce.  Physicists soon realized the system�s advantages, and it was adopted also in scientific and technical circles.  The importance of the regulation of weights and measures was recognized in Article 1, Section 8, when the United States Constitution was written in 1787.  The metric system was legalized in this country in 1866.  In 1893, the international meter and kilogram became the fundamental standards of length and mass in the United States, both for metric and customary weights and measures.", "Why do some libraries use the Dewey Decimal System and others use the Library of Congress system? - Quora", "Bliss deliberately avoided the use of the decimal point because of his objection to Dewey's system. Instead he used capital and lower-case letters, numerals, and every typographical symbol available on his extensive and somewhat eccentric typewriter .", "The prerequisite to addition in the decimal system is the fluent recall or derivation of the 100 single-digit \"addition facts\". One could memorize all the facts by rote, but pattern-based strategies are more enlightening and, for most people, more efficient: ", "Since 1988, the classification has been maintained by the OCLC, which also publishes new editions of the system. The editorial staff responsible for updates is based partly at the Library of Congress and partly at OCLC. Their work is reviewed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a ten-member international board which meets twice each year. The four-volume unabridged edition is published approximately every six years, the most recent edition (DDC 23) in mid-2011. The web edition is updated on an ongoing basis, with changes announced each month. An experimental version of Dewey in RDF is available at dewey.info. This includes access to the top three levels of the classification system in 14 languages.", "The modern system of numeration is based on place value, with the same symbol, such as 4, taking on different meaning (4, 40, 400, etc.) depending on its location within the representation of the number. Place value notation was used long ago in Babylonian cuneiform numerals, but our modern decimal place value system was invented by Hindu mathematicians in India, probably by the sixth century and perhaps even earlier. The modern numerals 1, 2, 3, ..., are sometimes called \"Arabic\" numerals in the West because they were introduced to Europeans by Arab merchants. The key figure was the great Persian mathematician Muhammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi, who taught at Baghdad sometime between 800 and 850. He wrote a book on the Hindu number system known today only in a later Latin translation as De numero indorum, \"On the Hindu numbers.\" Subsequently he wrote a longer and very influential work, Al-jabr w'al muqabalah, known in Europe as Algebra, which included all the techniques of arithmetic still taught in schools today. The author's name, Latinized as \"Algorismus,\" is the root of the English word \"algorithm\".", "Use of Decimal Point A decimal point or dot is inserted between the third and fourth digits of the complete number. The dot is not a decimal point in the mathematical sense, but a psychological pause to break the monotony of numerical digits and to ease the transcription and copying of the class number. Educational psychologists believe that 324.12 is more easily remembered than 32412. Hence, this dot has no function other than to reinforce memory.", "It's still hard to believe that the \"obvious\" and so-convenient decimal system didn't catch on in Europe until the late Renaissance. Ancient Greeks, by the way, did not use the unwieldy Roman numerals, but rather used 27 symbols, denoting 1 to 9, 10 to 90, and 100 to 900. Unlike our system, with ten digits separate from the alphabet, the 27 Greek number symbols were the same as their alphabet's letters; this might have hindered the development of \"syncopated\" notation. The most ancient Hindu records did not use the ten digits of Aryabhata, but rather a system similar to that of the ancient Greeks, suggesting that China, and not India, may indeed be the \"ultimate\" source of the modern decimal system.", "These coins are discussed in more detail in The History of Calculators, Computers, and Other Stuff document provided on the CD-ROM accompanying one the book How Computers Do Math . Suffice it to say for the moment that, in February 1971, Great Britain retired the concept of pounds, shillings, and pence and officially adopted a decimal system in which a pound equaled 100 pennies (they were called �new pennies� at the time), much like the American dollar equals 100 cents.", "No one person can be credited with the invention of the decimal system, but key roles were played by early Chinese (Chang Tshang and Liu Hui), Brahmagupta (and earlier Hindus including Aryabhata), and Leonardo Fibonacci. (After Fibonacci, Europe still did not embrace the decimal system until the works of Vieta, Stevin, and Napier.)", "\"The introduction of decimal fractions as a common computational practice can be dated back to the Flemish pamphlet De Thiende, published at Leyden in 1585, together with a French translation, La Disme, by the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin (1548-1620), then settled in the Northern Netherlands . It is true that decimal fractions were used by the Chinese many centuries before Stevin and that the Persian astronomer Al-Kāshī used both decimal and sexagesimal fractions with great ease in his Key to arithmetic (Samarkand, early fifteenth century). [17] \"", "Napier is also credited with bringing the decimal point into common usage. It had been in use in mathematics before this time, but not very widely.", "When the numbers are ‘nice’ it is possible to perform some divisions by decimal using common sense. For example", "A much later advance was the development of the idea that  can be considered as a number, with its own numeral. The use of a 0 digit in place-value notation (within other numbers) dates back as early as 700 BC by the Babylonians, but they omitted such a digit when it would have been the last symbol in the number. The Olmec and Maya civilizations used 0 as a separate number as early as the , but this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica. The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628. However, 0 had been used as a number in the medieval computus (the calculation of the date of Easter), beginning with Dionysius Exiguus in 525, without being denoted by a numeral (standard Roman numerals do not have a symbol for 0); instead nulla (or the genitive form nullae) from nullus, the Latin word for \"none\", was employed to denote a 0 value. ", "The English amateur mathematician William Shanks, a man of independent means, spent over 20 years calculating to 707 decimal places. This was accomplished in 1873, with the first 527 places correct. He would calculate new digits all morning and would then spend all afternoon checking his morning's work. This was the longest expansion of until the advent of the electronic digital computer three-quarters of a century later.", "During the late 19th century many mathematics textbooks were introduced using a variety of instructional techniques.", "You've found an old book with a publication date of \"MDCCCXCVII\". Express the year in decimal numerals.", "In printing , a unit of measurement created in 1737 by the French typographer Pierre Fournier, revised by Firmin-Didot in 1770, and formalized in the United States in the 1870s for indicating the body size (height and width) of type and other elements used in typography ( rule s, border s, etc.). One point equals approximately 1/72 or 0.013837 of an inch and 1 inch equals 72.25433 points. Before the point system was developed, descriptive terms were used for the various type size s: nonpareil (6-point), brevier (8-point), pica (12-point), etc. Also, a unit for measuring the thickness of paper and board , one point equal to one-thousandth (1/1000) of an inch.", "This supplement to Long and Long learning resources (published by Prentice Hall) on computer competency presents the principles of numbering systems, discusses numbering-system arithmetic, and illustrates how to convert a value in one numbering system to its equivalent in another. After studying this supplement you will be able to perform rudimentary arithmetic operations in the binary and hexadecimal numbering systems.", "But there was one influential friend of the sightless who put service before theory or controversy. It was the generosity of Mr. M.C. Migel, President of the American Foundation for the Blind, that made possible the investigation and tests of the various raised prints, and ensured the final victory for uniformity. He gave thousand (sic) dollars to finance the committee which studied the type question. This was a tremendous benefaction to the blind of America. The only fitting expression of gratitude to him is to declare publicly the mental relief and happiness of the blind in at last having, like those who see, a unified, easy method of reading and writing, a method adequate to all the practical uses of life and work. Thus, at last the blind of both hemispheres were united in one method of embossed writing. It is now necessary to print books only in this type to make them available to all the blind.", "It is also true for ISBN-10's that the sum of all the ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example:", "12. ———. The tutor. Center Point large type ed. Thorndike, ME: Center Point Pub.: Melbourne, Australia: Bolinda Publ, 2003." ]

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[ "Elvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977), often known simply as Elvis and also called \"The King of Rock 'n' Roll\" or simply \"The King\", was an American singer, musician and actor. He remains a pop icon and is regarded by some to be the most important, original entertainer of the last fifty years. ", "Elvis Aaron Presley ( January 8 , 1935 – August 16 , 1977 ), often known simply as Elvis and also called \"The King of Rock 'n' Roll\" or simply \"The King\", was an American singer and actor . He is regarded by some to be the most important, original entertainer of the last fifty years and there is little doubt that Presley is the most talked about and written about musician of the 20th Century. (Presley's birth certificate uses the spelling Aron, but his estate has designated Aaron as the official spelling of his middle name.)", "Elvis Aaron Presley ( 8 January 1935 – 16 August 1977 ) was an American singer , musician , and actor , one of the most popular of the 20th century. Among the century's most significant cultural icons, he is widely known by the single name Elvis. He is often referred to as the \"King of Rock and Roll\" or simply \"the King\" and is the best-selling individual recording artist of all time.", "Two legends, and two kings. Michael Jackson, King of Pop and Elvis Presley King of Rock and Roll.", "Figure 2: Elvis Presley– musician, singer, and actor who is regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is often referred to as “the King of Rock and Roll”, or simply, “the King.” Was an early popularizer of rockabilly, an uptempo, backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues and regarded as the leading figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances and chart-topping records. His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines that coincided with the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement, made him enormously popular—and controversial. As one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century, he was commercially successful in many genres pop, blues and gospel and is the best-selling solo artist in the history of recorded music with estimated record sales of around 600 million worldwide.", "Elvis Presley, who will always be known as the “King of Rock and Roll,” first caught the attention of millions of fans worldwide when he appeared on The Ed Sullivan show on September 9th, 1956.", "1. Elvis Presley. The king of rock and roll was just 36 when he received the honor in March 1971. He had been a finalist for Record of the Year with 1959's \"(Now And Then There's) A Fool Such As I\" and 1960's \"Are You Lonesome To-night?.\"", "Elvis Presley was The King of Rock & Roll, the most popular secular musician of all time. In October of 1955, Buddy Holly & the Crickets opened for The King in Lubbock, Texas. (Interesting aside: After Holly's fatal plane crash, Presley sent a flower arrangement to be displayed at the wake of \"The Big Bopper.\") On 16 August 1977, Elvis Presley died as the result of too many drugs being present in his system. Elvis was 42.", "Elvis is the king of rock and roll and michael is the king of pop they’re both kings leave them alone. i personally pick elvis because everybody was inspired by elvis presley look at MJ stand on his toes who did that Elvis Presley in 1957 jailhouse rock micheal grabbed dance moves from everybody then put his own spice on it he made some on his own but elvis made everything he did his own and if you think not tell me who he copied in 1956 when elvis first came out nobody moved like elvis until people studied elvis 2 KINGS", "At a press conference after the show, when a journalist referred to him as \"The King\", Presley gestured toward Fats Domino, who was taking in the scene. \"No,\" Presley said, \"that's the real king of rock and roll.\"", "[on Elvis Presley ] Elvis may be the King of Rock and Roll, but I am the Queen.", "Berry’s King Of Rock’n’Roll status (the Queen of course was Little Richard) rests partly on his ownership of the rock’n’roll manifesto song (see also, Rock And Roll Music, Let It Rock...) and this is his best. Don’t forget to tell “Chikoski” the news.", "Known as \"The King of Rock 'n' Roll,\" the biggest star to come from the country side of the music world. Born in Tupelo, Mississippi, made his first recordings in Memphis at Sun Records, and later recorded for RCA and became a Hollywood film star.", "keep on rockin gene. to me you was the king of rock and roll. long live the king.", "MJ is very well the “king of Pop” … Elvis is however the king of Rock.", "Created in the image of The King Of Rock ‘n’ Roll – powerful, sexy, whimsical, truly unique and larger than life – the show highlights an American icon who transformed popular music and whose image embodies the freedom, excitement and turbulence of his era.", "Indianapolis once again prepared to great royalty-the hip-swivelling singer who has been called the King of rock 'n' roll since the Mid-1950s.", "(= pre-eminent person, creature) the king of rock 'n' roll → le roi du rock 'n' roll", "Commentators have traditionally perceived a decline of rock and roll in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By 1959, the death of Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper and Richie Valens in a plane crash, the departure of Elvis for the army, the retirement of Little Richard to become a preacher, prosecutions of Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry and the breaking of the payola scandal (which implicated major figures, including Alan Freed, in bribery and corruption in promoting individual acts or songs), gave a sense that the initial rock and roll era had come to an end.", "He was voted as a solo artist as the 38th Greatest Rock and Roll Artist by \"Rolling Stone\". The Beatles were voted the Greatest Rock and Roll Artists of all time on the same list in the magazine.", "On what would've been the King of Rock & Roll's 78th birthday, a look back at some of his most impressive chart achievements.", "King was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987, and is considered one of the most influential blues musicians of all time, earning the nickname \"The King of the Blues\", and one of the \"Three Kings of the Blues Guitar\" along with Albert King and Freddie King. King was known for performing tirelessly throughout his musical career, appearing at more than 200 concerts per year on average into his 70s. In 1956, he reportedly appeared at 342 shows. ", "King also found commercial success with the many collaborations he made over the years, including with artists Eric Clapton , Elton John , Sheryl Crow , Van Morrison  and Bonnie Raitt . In 1987, King was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "As a child an enterprising Albert King reportedly built his own guitar out of a cigar box. A brilliant guitarist in his own right, King was originally inspired by Texas blues great Blind Lemon Jefferson. Like B.B. King, he was a master of single string solos and used the technique of \"string bending\" to great emotional effect. He was also left-handed, and instead of restringing the guitar, he just learned to play it upside down, which added an original tone to his style. His blues are infused with a Memphis soul sound; he became a rock and blues star after signing to the Memphis-based Stax label, which was responsible for some of the finest soul music ever recorded. King always managed to keep his sound fresh and original, and had a significant impact on blues and rock; he has influenced Eric Clapton, Robert Clay, Stevie Ray Vaughan and Otis Rush, among others. He had the honor of playing San Francisco's Fillmore West on opening night with John Mayall and Jimi Hendrix and often shared the bill with rock artists throughout his career. King continued to tour until his death in 1992.", "During the late 1960s, praise for King from English rock musicians such as Eric Clapton (1945–) and Jimmy Page (1944–) led to renewed interest in the blues among U.S. audiences. King found himself playing concerts with bands such as Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, and Santana. As African American audiences moved away from the blues, King began to attract young white listeners. In 1969 \"The Thrill Is Gone\" was released; the song won a Grammy in 1971 and became King's biggest hit. In 1971, with attorney F. Lee Bailey (1933–), King founded FAIRR (the Foundation for the Advancement of Inmate Rehabilitation and Recreation), an organization dedicated to the improvement of prison conditions. King often gave concerts in prisons, one of which was recorded and released as Live at San Quentin.", "as one of the kings of rock and roll. “Just let me hear some of that rock and roll music, / Any old way you choose it. / It’s got a back beat, you can’t blues it, / Any old time you use it. / It’s gotta be rock roll music, / If you wanna dance with me. / If you wanna dance with me.” Ever wondered just what", "Rolling Stone magazine ranked him at No.3 on its list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time . [1] According to Edward M. Komara, King “introduced a sophisticated style of soloing based on fluid string bending and shimmering vibrato that would influence virtually every electric blues guitarist that followed.” [2] King has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .", "Portions of this biography appeared in The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001). Joel Hoard contributed to this article.", "Universally hailed as the king of the blues, the legendary B.B. King was without a doubt the single most important electric guitarist of the last half of the 20th century. His bent notes and staccato picking style influenced legions of contemporary bluesmen, while his gritty and confident voice -- capable of wringing every nuance from any lyric -- provided a worthy match for his passionate playing. Between 1951 and 1985, King notched an impressive 74 entries on Billboard's R&B charts, and he was one of the few full-fledged blues artists to score a major pop hit when his 1970 smash \"The Thrill Is Gone\" crossed over to mainstream success (engendering memorable appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show and American Bandstand). After his hit-making days, he partnered with such musicians as Eric Clapton and U2 and managed his own acclaimed solo career, all the while maintaining his immediately recognizable style on the electric guitar.", "King won a Grammy Award for a tune called “ The Thrill Is Gone “; [12] his version became a hit on both the pop and R&B charts , which was rare during that time for an R&B artist. It also gained the number 183 spot in Rolling Stone magazine’s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . He gained further visibility among rock audiences as an opening act on The Rolling Stones ‘ 1969 American Tour . King’s mainstream success continued throughout the 1970s with songs like “To Know You is to Love You” and “I Like to Live the Love”.", "King has taken part in more than 60 albums, with different artists or on his own. He has won 14 Grammys and received dozens of awards and honors over the years, and he still performs several nights a week. He belongs to the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame, and stands in the 3rd position of Rolling Stone's \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\".", "King made his first recording in 1949, and the next year began a 12-year-long association with Kent/RPM/Modern, for which he recorded a string of rhythm and blues hits, including \"You Know I Love You,\" \"Woke Up This Morning\" and \"Three O'Clock Blues,\" which reached No. 1 on the R&B charts and became his first national hit. He also toured the nightclub circuit continuously, averaging more than 300 shows annually for over 30 years. His style of music earned him the title \"King of the Blues.\"" ]

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[ "John H. Watson, known as Dr. Watson, is a fictional character in the Sherlock Holmes stories by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Watson is Sherlock Holmes' friend, assistant and sometime flatmate, and the first person narrator of all but four of these stories. He is described as the typical Victorian-era gentleman, unlike the more eccentric Holmes. He is astute, although he can never match his friend's deductive skills.", "Holmes solved mysteries in hundreds of films with \"elementary deductions\" and with assistance from 221-B Baker Street sidekick assistant Dr. Watson. Their setting in 19th century England was updated in 1942 to the World War II era, with Holmes battling the Nazis. The only actor to have played both Sherlock Holmes and his assistant Dr. Watson was Reginald Owen (see below).", "All of the Sherlock Holmes stories are written in third person by his assistant, John H. Watson MD. As the story goes, Watson met with Holmes after Watson returned from Second Afghan War. Sherlock Holmes was looking for a flat-mate. They agreed to share the apartment at 221b Baker Street .", "In 1887, Arthur Conan Doyle created Sherlock Holmes, arguably the most famous of all fictional detectives. Although Sherlock Holmes is not the original fiction detective (he was influenced by Poe's Dupin and Gaboriau's Lecoq), his name has become a byword for the part. Conan Doyle stated that the character of Holmes was inspired by Dr. Joseph Bell, for whom Doyle had worked as a clerk at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing large conclusions from the smallest observations. A brilliant London-based \"consulting detective\" residing at 221B Baker Street, Holmes is famous for his intellectual prowess and is renowned for his skillful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning, and forensic skills to solve difficult cases. Conan Doyle wrote four novels and fifty-six short stories featuring Holmes, and all but four stories are narrated by Holmes's friend, assistant, and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson.", "Sherlock Holmes is a fictional private detective created by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Known as a \"consulting detective\" in the stories, Holmes is known for a proficiency with observation, forensic science, and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. First appearing in print in 1887 (in A Study in Scarlet), the character's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with \"A Scandal in Bohemia\" in 1891; additional tales appeared from then to 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian periods, taking place between about 1880 to 1914. Most are narrated by the character of Holmes's friend and biographer Dr. Watson, who usually accompanies Holmes during his investigations and often shares quarters with him at the address of 221B Baker Street, London, where many of the stories begin.", "Upon seeing the flat, John expresses interest in renting it. He also learns that Sherlock is a consultant for Greg Lestrade of Scotland Yard . Sherlock requests he come along to a crime scene as his assistant. There, John witnesses more of Sherlock's uncanny deductive ability as well as his complete animosity toward the Yard's investigative team. Sally Donovan goes so far as to warn John to stay away from Sherlock.", "In 2004, Sherlock befriended Inspector Greg Lestrade , (after aiding him in solving a case) where through Lestrade, he became affiliated with the London police force with whom he maintained a rather difficult partnership with several police officers most notably Sally Donovan and Philip Anderson whom came to distrust him for his cold-hearted nature. At some point, Sherlock managed to gain access to St Bartholomew's Hospital , which he utilised the equipment to conduct several experiments, it was during this period where he befriended a specialist registrar Molly Hooper , whom developed a secret affection for him. [15]", "Watson lives with Holmes until he meets Mary Morstan, Holmes's client in The Sign of the Four. The two fall in love and get married, but Watson continues to assist Holmes in his work and returns to Baker Street after Mary's death. Watson serves as the narrator of the Sherlock Holmes stories.", "Sherlock Holmes wakes Dr. John Watson up early one morning, telling him that the housekeeper, Mrs. Hudson , roused him because a client has arrived, a young woman . Watson gets dressed, and they find their client waiting in Holmes' waiting room. She tells them that her name is Helen Stoner, and that she lives with her stepfather, Dr. Grimesby Roylott , the last survivor of the noble Roylott family of Stoke Moran. She explains that her mother met Roylott in India when she and her sister Julia were only two, but on their way back to England, her mother was killed in a railway accident. Despite this, they came to live in Stoke Moran. Holmes also learns that 250 pounds of the family money would go to each daughter once they married. Not to long later, though, Julia became engaged, after which she was killed in her very own room. The dying woman's words were: \"The band! The speckled band!\" Helen also tells them that Roylott let a gypsy camp stay nearby. After she leaves, Roylott himself appears and threatens Holmes to stay out of his business.", "An advertisement has already been placed begging the public for information. It yields a result. A Mr. Davenport knows the woman in question, and she is currently residing at the Myrtles, a house in Beckenham. Sherlock Holmes and his brother Mycroft, who received the message from Davenport, decide that they must go to Beckenham to see about this. Watson comes, too, and they decide to pick up Inspector Gregson, and Melas as well in case some translating needs to be done. They find, however, that he has already been picked up, by a nervous, giggling man brandishing a bludgeon. Holmes knows that this means trouble. Obviously the thugs know that Melas has betrayed them.", "Sherlock Holmes ( ) is a fictional detective created by Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. A brilliant London-based \"consulting detective\", Holmes is famous for his astute logical reasoning, his ability to take almost any disguise, and his use of forensic science skills to solve difficult cases.Holmes, who first appeared in publication in 1887, was featured in four novels and 56 short stories. The first story, A Study in Scarlet, appeared in Beeton's Christmas Annual in 1887 and the second, The Sign of the Four, in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine in 1890. The character grew tremendously in popularity with the beginning of the first series of short stories in Strand Magazine in 1891; further series of short stories and two novels published in serial form appeared between then and 1927. The stories cover a period from around 1880 up to 1914.All but four stories are narrated by Holmes's friend and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson; two are narrated by Holmes himself (\"The Blanched Soldier\" and \"The Lion's Mane\") and two others are written in the third person (\"The Mazarin Stone\" and \"His Last Bow\"). In two stories (\"The Musgrave Ritual\" and \"The Gloria Scott\"), Holmes tells Watson the main story from his memories, while Watson becomes the narrator of the frame story. The first and fourth novels, A Study in Scarlet and The Valley of Fear, each include a long interval of omniscient narration recounting events unknown both to Holmes and to Watson.", "Sherlock Holmes is a fictional character of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who first appeared in publication in 1887. He was the creation of Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. A brilliant London-based \"consulting detective\", Holmes is famous for his intellectual prowess and is renowned for his skillful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning and forensic skills to solve difficult cases.", "* Lucy Liu as Dr. Joan Watson (née Yun): Holmes' sober companion. Watson was a successful surgeon, which adds to her complement of skills. She comes to Holmes when she is hired by his father as his sober companion, to help him remain abstinent after his release from rehabilitation. After her contracted time is finished, she remains on after lying to Holmes, telling him that his father had retained her services. He comes to rely on her input and grows to trust her as she helps him come to terms with his life after addiction. After a while, Holmes reveals that he found out that she was no longer being paid to stay as a companion. He offers her a position as an apprentice, telling her how much she means to him and how she helps him to focus. Watson accepts and starts her training as a detective with Holmes. After Sherlock left for London, Joan became the go-to consulting detective for the 11th Precinct, while also taking on more traditional private investigator-type cases that Sherlock eschews. Despite this, the two resumed working together after Holmes returned to New York, albeit with Joan taking on the occasional independent case away from Holmes.", "Story: Solicitor Lowe seeks Holmes's help in clearing his client, whom he believes innocent of the murder of his neighbour, Arthur Dunn. Holmes's inquiries reveal that while Dunn appears not to exist, another neighbour, Fowler, is not who he seems to be. Holmes puts his theory as to how the man could be murdered at a distance with an ordinary air rifle to the test, but his act leads to another man's death. He begins to recognise the hand of a successor to Moriarty's criminal empire in the events, and is visted by his adversary in Baker Street.", "Anthea (Lisa McAllister) is an assistant to Mycroft Holmes, who appears in \"A Study in Pink\", and \"The Empty Hearse\". She picks the name at random when John asks what he should call her.", "Sherlock Holmes : [to a new client] Good afternoon. I'm Sherlock Holmes, This is my friend and colleague, Dr. Watson. You may speak freely in front of him, as he rarely understands a word.", "A young woman named Helen Stoner contacts Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson for aid in foiling the villainous plans of her stepfather, Grimesby Roylott .", "So it was that dear little Flora Millar came to Baker Street in late January to thank Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson for their help in clearing her name the previous autumn. Holmes, of course, cared little for her thanks, but Dr. Watson, at that point, was happy to bask in any female attentions he could get. Watson was so happy, in fact, that by March of 1888 we find him writing the words: \"I had seen little of Holmes lately. My marriage had drifted us away from each other.\"", "[show] The recurring character of Mrs. Hudson, portrayed by Candis Cayne , the occasional cleaning woman for Sherlock's brownstone, is a nod to the original Arthur Conan Doyle character of the same name, who is the proprietress or landlady of 221b Baker Street, London, in the original canon, and in most Holmes screen incarnations.", "Canonical Characters: Sherlock Holmes; Dr Watson; Baker Street Page; Mary Morstan; Irene Adler; (Mrs Watson; Lad Frances Carfax; Killer Evans)", "Canonical Characters:Sherlock Holmes; Dr Watson; Mrs Hudson; Baker Street Irregulars; Simpson; Inspector Lestrade; Tobias Gregson; Colonel Sebastian Moran; (Mrs Watson)", "Canonical Characters: Sherlock Holmes; Dr Watson; Mrs Hudson; Baker Street Pageboy; Inspector Lestrade; (Mary Morstan; Mrs Watson)", "  / ˈ ʃ ɜr l ɒ k ˈ h oʊ m z / ) [1] is a fictional detective created by Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle . A London-based \"consulting detective\" whose abilities border on the fantastic, Holmes is famous for his astute logical reasoning , his ability to adopt almost any disguise, and his use of forensic science skills to solve difficult cases .", "it is plain that the same passage could apply to another detective, as seen by his biographer-assistant. And that assistant, give or take a consonant or two, was very nearly also named Adso. The similarity between Adso and Watson extends further than their names. Both are removed from the main action of the story by literary devices, and both use their bafflement in the methods of their associates to heighten the suspense before the resolution of the mystery.", "In the episode Sherlock: A Scandal in Belgravia (2012), Sherlock Holmes encounters Irene Adler. Coincidentally, Irene is Sophie Hunter , his wife's middle name.", "Little is known of Holmes' early life or his family background, save that he is the grand nephew of the French artist Emile Jean Horace Vernet.[citation needed] An estimate of Holmes's age in \" His Last Bow \" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as 60 years of age. It is also known that in his younger years, Holmes attended at least one of the country's leading universities ... though it cannot be ascertained whether he was an alumnus of Oxford, Cambridge, or both. Sherlock has an older brother, Mycroft, whom the younger Holmes considered to be more intellectually gifted than himself. Mycroft spent much of his life in Her Majesty's Secret Service. In \" The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter \", Sherlock refers to Mycroft as being \"[s]even years [his] senior\". If Sherlock date of birth of 1854 is correct, that places Mycroft's date of birth as 1847.", "Sherlock Holmes with straight-stemmed pipe by Sidney Paget (1860-1908) (Strand Magazine) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons", "Holmes has been known to charge clients for his expenses, and to claim any reward that might be offered for the problem's solution: he says in \" The Adventure of the Speckled Band \" that Miss Stoner may pay any expenses he may be put to, and requests that the bank in \" The Red-Headed League \" remunerate him for the money he spent solving the case. Holmes has his wealthy banker client in \" The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet \" pay him for the costs of recovering the stolen gems and also claims the reward the banker had put for their recovery.", "Dr. Watson : Holmes! Holmes! I have discovered the identity of our client. It's none other than...", "6. Other than in “A Scandal in Bohemia” where she is referred to as Mrs Turner, what is the name of Sherlock Holmes’ landlady?", "Did Holmes’s friend Molly, the pathologist, supply a Sherlock-sized corpse to be tossed off the building?", "5) Name only woman to impress Holmes in his life time and which  story did she appear in?" ]

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[ "The Maori people are the indigenous people of New Zealand. Their name 'Maori' derives from Ma-Uri, meaning 'Children of Heaven'. Their nickname is 'Vikings of the Sunrise', because they were fierce warriors. Originally, they were hunters, but soon became peasants, living off agriculture. Today, approximately 300,000 Maori live mainly in cities, but remain closely connected to their tribes and ancient traditions.", "The indigenous people of New Zealand are the Maori, belonging to the Polynesian group. Between 800 and 1,350 AD, a wave of Polynesians coming from Tonga and Samoa on their canoes settled in New Zealand. The Maori tradition says that a Polynesian chief of the island of Hawaiki, called Ngahua, knowing the abundance of jade in New Zealand, a shiny tough green stone used for making carvings, collars and adornments, headed an expedition made of 8 canoes. Each canoe was 30 m (100 ft) long, harboring over 100 persons. This contingent settled in Te-Ika-a Maui, the Maori name of the northern island of New Zealand, where they made a population nucleus to which new colonizers were soon added. Maori simply means \"human\" in the Maori language.", "The Māori are the indigenous people of New Zealand. The Māori are eastern Polynesian in origin and began arriving in New Zealand relatively recently, starting sometime in the late 13th century. The word \"māori\" simply means \"normal\", distinguishing the mortal human being from spiritual entities.", "Maori religion is the religious beliefs and practice of the Maori, the Polynesian indigenous people of New Zealand. Traditional Maori religion, that is, the pre-European belief system of the Maori, was little modified from that of their tropical Eastern Polynesian homeland (Hawaiki Nui), conceiving of everything, including natural elements and all living things as connected by common descent through whakapapa or genealogy.", "The Maori people of New Zealand speak a common language, but have historically been divided into tribes called iwi. The Government currently recognizes eighty-one separate iwi in the country and has been negotiating land claims with them through a Waitangi Tribunal named after the Treaty of Waitangi signed between the British and Maori in 1840. [4] Many of the iwi are subdivided into smaller groups called hapu. Fighting between different iwi and hapu pre-dated European colonization. In fact, the period just before colonization was a time of intense conflict and is now known as the period of the Maori wars. It appears that during this time, the heads of fallen warriors were preserved by their communities to remember their sacrifice and were used for ceremonial purposes. However, early European visitors and traders eagerly sought these preserved head as souvenirs. Iwi communities then began preserving the severed heads of enemies for bartering. It appears that there was even a gruesome period between 1815 and 1831 during which various iwi “manufactured” preserved heads by making war for the purpose of collecting them or killing slaves and captives for their heads. [5] Trade in preserved heads was banned by the British government in 1831. [6]", "From the time of European arrival and settlement of the central North Island during 1800 Māori were recognised as the native inhabitants and custodians of the land. During the mid 1800s, increasing settlement and interest in New Zealand from overseas required land to be secured by the Crown for purchase. During this period, a Native Land Court collected a large amount of information on the connections that iwi (i.e., tribes) and individuals had with the land. Unfortunately, the Courts of the time were focused on ownership rather than tribal identity, history and traditional land tenure systems, resulting in individual cultural identity being overlooked, poorly recorded and not understood.", "According to Maori tradition, the first inhabitants of New Zealand were a people of unknown origin, whose racial or tribal name, if any, has not been preserved. The Maori knows them as Maruiwi, which name is said to have been not a tribal one, but merely that of one of their chiefs at the time when the Maori from eastern Polynesia arrived on these shores. The first of these Maori settlers are shown in tradition to have reached New Zealand twenty-eight to thirty generations ago. At that time the Maruiwi folk were occupying many portions of the North Island. They were the descendants of castaways who had reached these shores in past times, and landed on the Taranaki coast. They had been driven from their own land by a westerly storm. Their home-land, according to the accounts given by their descendants, was a hot country—a much warmer land than this In appearance these folk are said to have been tall and slim-built, dark-skinned, having big or protuberant bones, flat-faced and flat-nosed, with upturned nostrils. Their eyes were curiously restless, and they had a habit of glancing sideways without turning the head. Their hair in some cases stood upright, in others it was bushy.\"", "The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to sight New Zealand was Abel Janszoon Tasman on 13 December 1642. Captain James Cook, who reached New Zealand in October 1769 on the first of his three voyages, was the first European explorer to circumnavigate and map New Zealand. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori \"equal rights\" with British citizens. There was extensive British settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to Pākehā (European) ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished. ", "The South is the more visually stunning, but the North is the more populous and cultivated: this is a contrast that recalls each island's proper name. The North Island is Te Ika A Maui, \"the fish of Maui\" (recounting the mythic tale of New Zealand's creation) where the South is Te Wai Pounamu, \"the waters of greenstone\" (describing the glassy stone, prized by Maori, that is found in the swift rivers and along the savage misted beaches of the lonely south). New Zealand national identity lies somewhere between these emphases, North and South: as a bicultural nation, it must identify both as \"the place of this people\" and as \"the people of this place\". In Maori the country's full name, Aotearoa, is a lovely kind of oxymoron: it translates as \"the land of the long white cloud\", as if clouds were properties of the earth, or served in some strange way to invoke it.", "In 2010, there were an estimated 660,000 Maori in New Zealand, making up roughly 15% of the national population. They are the second-largest ethnic group in New Zealand, after European New Zealanders (\"Pakeha\"). In addition there are over 100,000 Maori living in Australia.", "Maori a Polynesian people living in New Zealand, an island country in the South Pacific, southeast of Australia.", "The Rapa Nui people are polynesians, such as Hawaiians, Tahitians and the Maori of New Zealand. The native languages of these islands are very similar.", "The Maori first reached New Zealand circa 1300 CE. Maori ancestry can be traced back to the inhabitants of the Bismark Archipelago east of New Guinea circa 1500 BCE. However, their immediate previous homeland was in the islands of central east Polynesia.", "The descendants of these settlers became known as the Māori, forming a distinct culture of their own. The separate settlement of the tiny Chatham Islands in the east of New Zealand about 1500 CE produced the Moriori people; linguistic evidence indicates that the Moriori were mainland Māori who ventured eastward. ", "The North Island is volcanic and thermal .The South Island is two thirds mountains and one third plains. The North Island offers lush sub-tropical vegetation, exotic flora and fauna, beaches and attractive small friendly towns. Approximately 75% of Maori culture exists on the North Island although only 15% of the total New Zealand population is Maori. The Polynesians from whom the Maoris are descended, settled here many centuries ago. ", "First to arrive were ancestors of Māori. These first settlers probably arrived from Polynesia between 1200 and 1300 AD. They discovered New Zealand as they explored the Pacific, navigating by ocean currents and the winds and stars. In some traditions, the navigator credited with discovering New Zealand is Kupe.", "    The islanders are of the Maori race, very closely linked in culture and language to the Maori of New Zealand, the Maohi of French Polynesia, the Maori of Easter Island (known as Rapanui) and the Kanaka Maoli of Hawaii.", "Early New Zealand history suggests the islands were first settled by eastern Polynesians between 1250-1300. Over the years since, these settlers developed their own distinct culture called 'Maori'.", "And of course New Zealand has a less complex situation in many ways, with one indigenous people and a group of later arrivals.", "Waikato. Te Waru, principal chief of the Nga Ti Apakura tribe. Te Pakaru, principal chief of the Nga Ti Maniapoto tribe. The New Zealanders Illustrated. London, Thomas McLean, 1847.. Ref: PUBL-0014-44. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand.", "The Maori named the country, Aotearoa, \"The Land of the Long White Cloud.\" The Maori culture is widely respected by New Zealanders and many parcels of land under dispute were returned to the Maori in 1998.", "The earliest cultural traditions are that of the Maori, who developed a rich and diverse Polynesian culture in geographic isolation. European settlers put their own traditional stamp and eventually dominated the cultural life. Immigration of peoples from the Pacific Islands and Asia, since the 1950s, has further diversified the cultural fabric of New Zealand.", "Pākehā - The Māori word for New Zealanders of non-Māori descent, generally thought to have arisen from a Māori story about spirit creatures called 'pakepakeha'. Many New Zealanders do not refer to themselves as Pākehā with some finding it offensive, others however see the name as part of their unique identity.", "Land was owned by the whole Iwi or Hapu group together. In the center of each Indigenous village was a place reserved for the Spirit Ancestors to reside. In preserving their Spirit Ancestors, the Maori are similar in traditiuons to Australian Aboriginals and some other groups.", "Hei tūtohu tēnei tauira mō ngā whetū. Ki tētahi kōrero ā-iwi, koia ēnei ngā whetū nāna i taki mai ngā waka ki Aotearoa, ā, noho tonu iho hei tohu mō te rapunga huarahi hou. Ki tētahi atu kōrero ā-iwi, hei tohu te tini whetū i te rangi mō te tini o ngā iwi kei Aotearoa: Māori mai, Pākehā mai, tāne mai, wāhine mai.", "Polynesians had reached Stewart Island/Rakiura by the late 1200s, but did not settle permanently. Māori settled around the coast and on some neighbouring islands. They caught fish and harvested tītī (muttonbirds). According to tradition, the first Māori were of the Waitaha tribe, and later Ngāti Mamoe and Ngāi Tahu people arrived.", "Figure 1: The Hangi is a traditional dish of the Maori culture. Note. From The Hangi of the Maori. Retrieved 1 May 2012, from http://msvolendam.wordpress.com/2010/03/10/the-hangi-of-the-maori/", "Maori: a i k e t o n u h r m w g p (b c d f j l q s v x y z)", "The Maori race is almost entirely confined to the North Island, and, although it was then gradually dying out, numbered about 30,000. They are of fine physique, tall and robust, and are said to belong to the Polynesian type, probably having come over from the Fiji Islands, or some of the Pacific group, in their canoes.", "Contents Introduction Pöwhiri Pöwhiri & Ngä Atua Mäori Kawa & Tikanga Gathering of Manuhiri Matataki/Wero/Taki Karanga Haka Pöwhiri Whaikörero Waiata Koha Hongi & Harirü Kai Häkari Kaimahi & Ringawera Glossary Bibliography", "The Gisborne region has been settled for over 700 years. For centuries the region has been inhabited by the tribes of Te Aitanga-a-Māhaki, Rongowhakaata, Ngāi Tāmanuhiri and Te Aitanga-a-Hauiti. Their people descend from the voyagers of the Te Ikaroa-a-Rauru, Horouta and Tākitimu waka. ", "KO WIKITORIA te Kuini o Ingarani i tana mahara atawai ki nga Rangatira me nga Hapu o Nu Tirani i tana hiahia hoki kia tohungia ki a ratou o ratou rangatiratanga me to ratou wenua, a kia mau tonu hoki te Rongo ki a ratou me te Atanoho hoki kua wakaaro ia he mea tika kia tukua mai tetahi Rangatira – hei kai wakarite ki nga Tangata maori o Nu Tirani – kia wakaaetia e nga Rangatira Maori te Kawanatanga o te Kuini ki nga wahikatoa o te wenua nei me nga motu – na te mea hoki he tokomaha ke nga tangata o tona Iwi Kua noho ki tenei wenua, a e haere mai nei." ]

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[ "Prince Rainier III of Monaco (1923-2005), ruler of the principality of Monaco in the south of France near the Italian border, married American actress Grace Kelly (1929-1982) in 1956.", "Rainier III (rĕnyāˈ) [ key ], 1923–2005, prince of Monaco (1949–2005), a member of the Grimaldi family, which has ruled the tiny principality since 1297. Fiercely anti-Nazi, Ranier served with distinction as an officer in the French Army during World War II. On the death of his grandfather, Louis II, in 1949 he succeeded as ruler of Monaco. Rainier devoted himself to insuring Monaco's independence and financial stability, transforming a state that had been economically devastated by the war into an international business center, a successful resort for the wealthy, and a modern tourist destination. In 1956 he married the American actress Grace Kelly (see Grace , princess consort of Monaco). His son, Albert II , succeeded him.", "MONACO  — Prince Rainier III, whose marriage to American film star Grace Kelly brought elegance and glamour to one of Europe’s oldest dynasties, died Wednesday at the hospital treating him for heart, kidney and breathing problems. He was 81.", "When Prince Rainier III of Monaco was looking for a famous wife to marry, Marilyn was suggested to him. He later married actress Grace Kelly, whose fame turned Monaco into the famous landmark it is today.", "{Also on this day, the actress Grace Kelly marries Prince Rainier III of Monaco in 1956}", "Prince Rainier III and actress Princess Grace Kelly wave from the palace terrace at Monaco on April 18, 1956. The couple is hosting a garden party for the people of Monaco on the palace grounds after being married in a civil ceremony at the palace a few hours earlier.", "Grace Kelly, who lived from 1929 to 1982, grew up in Philadelphia and dreamed of stardom, aspiring to make it on the big stage. Eventually, she did, acting in movies such as Fourteen Hours, Mogambo, Rear Window, Green Fire, The Swan, and High Society. She became one of the most prominent and influential actresses in Hollywood and eventually met and married Prince Rainier III, becoming the Princess Consort of Monaco; a Principality bordered by France.", "Grace Kelly was an Academy Award-winning actress. She started acting for the theater and transitioned to film, becoming a leading lady and winning the best actress Oscar. At age 26, she married Prince Rainier III of Monaco, becoming a princess and a philanthropist.", "After a year-long courtship described as containing \"a good deal of rational appraisal on both sides\" (The Times, 7 April 2005, page 59), Prince Rainier married Oscar-winning American actress Grace Kelly (1929–1982) in 1956. The ceremonies in Monaco were on 18 April 1956 (civil) and 19 April 1956 (religious). Their children are:", "Grace Patricia Kelly (1929 � 1982) was an Academy Award-winning American film and stage actress who, upon marriage to Rainier III, Prince of Monaco in 1956, became Her Serene Highness The Princess of Monaco, but was generally known as Princess Grace of Monaco. Princess Grace maintained dual American and Monegasque citizenship after her marriage.", "Rainier had been on the throne for seven years when he met the beautiful American actress Grace Kelly, who was in Monaco filming the Hitchcock classic To Catch A Thief a film which ironically included scenes on the twisty mountain roads behind Monte Carlo where the actress would meet her untimely death. After a whirlwind romance, Prince Rainier and the princess of the silver screen married in 1956. Hollywood itself could not have come up with a better script, and as Grace Kelly became Princess Grace of Monaco, she cut short a highly successful acting career.", "Grace Kelly met Prince Rainier in May 1955 when, attending the Cannes Film Festival; she had agreed to be photographed with the Prince for French magazine “Paris Match”.  After a year-long courtship, they married in a civil ceremony in the Palace throne room on April 18, 1956 in the presence of their closest family and friends.  The next day, the lavish religious wedding took place at the Cathedral in Monaco in front of 600 guests, including royalty, heads of state and movie stars.  All  week long, Monaco was caught up in a media frenzy of the Grace Kelly wedding.  Thousands of guests and visitors jammed the streets of the tiny Principality while Rainier and Grace were swept through garden parties, formal receptions, gala ballet performances, balls and fireworks.", "Kelly was an Oscar-winning American actress who appeared in many films, including Dial M for Murder and Rear Window. In 1956, she married Prince Rainier III of Monaco and became Her Serene Highness Princess Grace, an event that marked her retirement from acting. The couple had three children, one of whom, Albert II, is Monaco's reigning Sovereign Prince. Kelly died in a car accident in 1982. Why did Frank Sinatra reportedly choose to skip his former costar's wedding? More...", "HRH Caroline Louise Marguerite, The Princess of Hanover, Hereditary Princess of Monaco (Caroline Louise Marguerite Prinzessin von Hannover, Erbprinzessin von Monaco), formally styled Her Royal Highness The Princess of Hanover , (born 23 January 1957) is the eldest child of Prince Rainier III of Monaco and his wife, the former American film actress Grace Kelly. She has many relatives in the United States where her mother is originally from and when she was a child she would spend time at the home of her maternal grandparents in Philadelphia. She married Ernst August V, Prince of Hanover in 1999. Born Her Serene Highness Princess Caroline of Monaco and bearing the surname Grimaldi, she is the second wife of Ernst August, Prince of Hanover and, since her father's death on 6 April 2005, is ...", "In the summer of 1955, Grace Kelly traveled to the South of France to attend her first Cannes festival with her Academy Award-winning performance in The Country Girl. She would meet her future husband, Prince Rainier III of Monaco, in a life-altering twist.", "1956 - Actress Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco were married. The religious ceremony took place April 19.", "Albert II (Albert Alexandre Louis Pierre Grimaldi; born 14 March 1958) is the reigning monarch of the Principality of Monaco, and head of the Princely House of Grimaldi. Prince Albert is the son of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and American actress Grace Kelly. Prince Albert's sisters are Caroline, Princess of Hanover, and Princess Stéphanie. In July 2011, Prince Albert married Charlene Wittstock.", "Her Royal Highness Caroline, Princess of Hanover, Hereditary Princess of Monaco. Princess Caroline Louise Marguerite; born 23 January 1957, is the eldest child of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and American actress Grace Kelly. Caroline's third and present husband is Prince Ernst August of Hanover, Duke of Brunswick, but in 2009, it was reported that Caroline had separated from Ernst August.", "Rainier's future became increasingly unavoidable in the spring of 1949 when Charlotte officially renounced her rights to the throne as Louis II's health worsened. His austere grandfather died in May of that year, and after the stipulated period of mourning Rainier was formally installed as Prince of Monaco in a lavish public ceremony in April of 1950. Over the next few years, he became known as avid sportsman who loved car racing, deep-sea diving, and skiing. His romance with Gisele Pascal ended after she resumed her acting career in 1953 after a three-year hiatus.", "Loosely based on real events, the film focuses on Kelly's life after she wed Monaco's Prince Rainier in 1956, struggling between her new life as a royal and a temptation to return to acting in Hollywood after an offer from Alfred Hitchcock.", "In the summer of 1954, Kelly and Cary Grant were on the French Riviera, working on To Catch a Thief. It was probably the scene after Grace speeds along the Moyen Corniche to quickly get to the \"picnic grounds\", and away from a tailing police car, that she had time to look at the Mediterranean and the countryside along the coast. \"Whose gardens are those?\" she asked screenwriter John Michael Hayes . \"Prince Grimaldi's\". She would not meet the prince until the following year. In New York in March 1955, she received a call from Rupert Allan, Look Magazine's west coast editor, who had become a friend since writing three cover stories on her. The French government wanted her to attend the Cannes Film Festival that May. She had some good reasons to go. One: The Country Girl (1954) would be shown at the festival. Two: she had really loved working on the Riviera the summer before. She met Prince Rainier of Monaco during the Cannes festival. He needed a wife, because with no heir to the throne, Monaco would again be part of France, after his death, all its citizens would have to pay French taxes. And Kelly thought it was time for her to select a husband, one who would finally meet with her parents' approval.", "After embarking on an acting career in 1950, at the age of 20, Grace Kelly appeared in New York City theatrical productions as well as in more than forty episodes of live drama productions broadcast during the early 1950s Golden Age of Television. In October 1953, with the release of Mogambo, she became a movie star, a status confirmed in 1954 with a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award nomination as well as leading roles in five films, including The Country Girl, in which she gave a deglamorized, Academy Award-winning performance. She retired from acting at 26 to enter upon her duties in Monaco. She and Prince Rainier had three children: Caroline, Albert, and Stéphanie. She also retained her American roots, maintaining dual US and Monégasque citizenships.", "..... Click the link for more information. , and The Country Girl, for which she won an Academy Award. She also starred in To Catch a Thief (1955), The Swan (1956), and High Society (1956), among others. She retired from moviemaking in 1956 when she married Rainier III Rainier III", "Rainier enlisted in the Free French Army after his twenty-first birthday. With France now liberated from the Germans and battling them along the shared border, Rainier saw combat as a lieutenant and received the Croix de Guerre for bravery. He remained in uniform until early 1947, and then resumed life in Monaco in his own villa, as well as his affair with Gisele Pascal. The actress, of humble birth, was despised by the women in his family, and his sister Antoinette circulated gossip that Pascal was unable to bear children, which would have made it impossible for her to wed Rainier.", "The couple's civil wedding on Friday was held in the palace's sumptuous throne room where Rainier and Grace married. The actress died in a car crash nearly 30 years ago, and Monaco had been without a princess ever since.", "Meanwhile, Gisèle Pascal was relegated to the role of weekend companion in a villa on Cap Ferrat. But she missed the theatrical world, and in 1953 married the actor Raymond Pellegrin. Thenceforward Rainier was obliged to look elsewhere in order to secure the succession.", "It also said the former film star's husband, Monaco's head of state Prince Rainier, and her three children were at her bedside when she died.", "The Hollywood beauty met Rainier during the Cannes Film Festival and eight months later, the couple were engaged. The lovebirds tied the knot on 19 April, 1956, in Monte Carlo, in a church ceremony and a civil ceremony the day before, as was customary in Monaco.", "Grace Patricia Kelly (12 November 1929–14 September 1982) was a beautiful Oscar-winning actress, fashion icon, and princess of Monaco.", "It was the perfect Hollywood story: starlet of the silver screen marries European prince and becomes a princess in real life. Only no one would have ever imagined the tragic ending for this 1950s equivalent of Charles and Lady Di (see no. 10) who, ironically, would share similar fates. Driving along the serpentine highways of Monaco (a small, coastal principality on the southern coast of France) with her daughter Stephanie, her majesty apparently suffered a stroke and drove down a mountainside, killing her and badly injuring the 25 year old Stephanie. Unlike Princess Diana’s death, however, this time there were no conspiracy theories surrounding her tragic demise; just a sad ending to one of European royalties’ most successful marriages and the life of one of Hollywood’s most beautiful starlets of the fifties.", "Kelly had just won an Academy Award for her lead in The Country Girl, and despite her acting career otherwise fit the shoes of a possible Princess of Monaco: she was a Roman Catholic, unmarried, and hailed from a well-to-do Philadelphia family. By October of 1955, Rainier had decided he wanted to marry her, and traveled to America for the first time in his life that December to meet the Kellys. Rainier gave Grace a twelve-carat diamond engagement ring, and obtained a pledge from her that she would give up her film career permanently. Kelly was also faced with a Monaco law that stipulated should the marriage come to an end, the Prince would receive custody of any children. Though they appeared very much in love, such legal arrangements and the media-circus atmosphere made for a shaky wedding day in April of 1956.", "Her position as Hollywood's number one star was sealed when, in 1925, she married her third husband, Marquis de la Falaise de la Coudraye, a French nobleman and part time interpreter and film director. When she returned from filming '\"Madame Sans-Gene' in Paris with her husband, as a new member of European nobility, she received quasi-royal acclaim in parades through New York and Los Angeles." ]

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[ "William Ewart Gladstone (1809 - 1898), was a titan of Victorian politics, known for his thunderous speeches. He served four terms as PM, making him electorally the most succesful British politician of all time. Among his many achievements in office were reforms to the army and civil service, giving women the right to own property, liberalizing international trade and giving greater autonomy to Ireland [Getty Images]", "William Ewart Gladstone (; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British Liberal politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times (1868–74, 1880–85, February–July 1886 and 1892–94), more than any other person, and served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times. Gladstone was also Britain's oldest Prime Minister; he resigned for the final time when he was 84 years old.", "William Ewart Gladstone, was a British Liberal politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times, more than any other person.", "William Gladstone (1809-1898) - A British Liberal politician and Prime Minister (1868-1874, 1880-1885, 1886 and 1892-1894), a notable political reformer, known for his populist speeches, and was for many years the main political rival of Benjamin Disraeli.", "William Ewart Gladstone, (born December 29, 1809, Liverpool , England —died May 19, 1898, Hawarden , Flintshire, Wales ), statesman and four-time prime minister of Great Britain (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, 1892–94).", "Politically active in Liverpool, Gladstone's allegiances gradually changed from radical whig (a one-time supporter of the abolitionist William Roscoe) to tory (managing several of George Canning's election campaigns). Gladstone was an MP from 1818-27, representing three separate constituencies. He was knighted in 1846, and died in 1851 at Fasque, the Scottish estate he had bought in 1833. John Gladstone's political ambitions were realised through his son, William Ewart Gladstone, four times prime minister between 1868 and 1894.", "William Ewart Gladstone - Gladstone led the greatest reforming administrations of the 19th century. His policies were intended to improve individual liberty by scrapping barriers to freedom and personal advancement. A heavy defeat at the 1874 general election allowed his arch-rival Disraeli to once again reach the top of the greasy pole.", "William Gladstone spent his retirement years fairly peacefully, and died of cancer at Hawarden Castle in Flintshire on May 19, 1898; he is buried in Westminster Abbey . To date he remains the oldest person ever to form a British government (being 82 upon taking office for his fourth term), and the only Prime Minister to serve four separate terms.", "William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833) was an English politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire (1784–1812). In 1785, he underwent a conversion experience and became an evangelical Christian, which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform. In 1787, he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti-slave-trade activists, including Granville Sharp, Hannah More and Charles Middleton. They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition, and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists. He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty-six years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807.", "Born John Gladstones in Leith, Edinburgh, the son of a corn merchant, Gladstones left school at thirteen to serve as apprentice in a rope and sailcloth company before entering his father's business. A new partnership brought him to Liverpool, where in 1787. Their business was in American grain and tobacco, the goods on which Gladstone's fortune was founded. In 1803 Gladstone began trading sugar and cotton in the West Indies; that year he purchased the Belmont estate in Demerara. Over the next quarter century, Gladstone increased his sugar estate holdings in Demerara and Jamaica; he never visited the islands that brought him such immense wealth. Not surprisingly, he was an ardent defender of the plantation system, and was from 1809 chairman of the Liverpool West Indian Association. In 1830 he published his 'Statement on the Present State of Slavery', which opposed total abolition whilst acknowledging the responsibilities of slave owners. After emancipation, Gladstone sold most of his West Indian property and invested in Bengal sugar instead. Politically active in Liverpool, Gladstone's allegiances gradually changed from radical whig (a one-time supporter of the abolitionist William Roscoe) to tory (managing several of George Canning's election campaigns). Gladstone was an MP from 1818-27, representing three separate constituencies. He was knighted in 1846, and died in 1851 at Fasque, the Scottish estate he had bought in 1833. John Gladstone's political ambitions were realised through his son, William Ewart Gladstone, four times prime minister between 1868 and 1894.", "Tory social concern in many respects originates in a group of MPs at this time of which William Wilberforce was the most prominent. Percival was loosely aligned with this group and like Wilberforce was motivated by his evangelical convictions to see the lot of ordinary people improved. Percival was not only a staunch supporter of slave trade abolition, which was finally achieved in 1807, but also promoted a number of other social welfare measures including the regulation of child labour, a cause which was much later to be successfully taken up by another Tory politician with similar evangelical convictions – Lord Shaftesbury.", "In 1884 William Gladstone introduced his proposals that would give working class males the same voting rights as those living in the boroughs. Although the bill was passed in the House of Commons it was rejected by the Conservative dominated House of Lords . Gladstone refused to accept defeat and reintroduced the measure. This time the Conservative members of the Lords agreed to pass Gladstone's proposals in return for the promise that it would be followed by a Redistribution Bill . Gladstone accepted their terms and the 1884 Reform Act was allowed to become law. This measure gave the counties the same franchise as the boroughs - adult male householders and £10 lodgers - and added about six million to the total number who could vote in parliamentary elections. Gladstone and the Liberal Party won the 1886 General Election .", "William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898) was the Liberal counterpart to Disraeli, serving as prime minister four times (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, and 1892–94). His financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes and laissez-faire, were suited to a developing capitalist society but could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed. Called the \"Grand Old Man\" later in life, he was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to British workers and the lower middle class. The deeply religious Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics with his evangelical sensibility and opposition to aristocracy. His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents (including Queen Victoria, who strongly favoured Disraeli), and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal party. His foreign policy goal was to create a European order based on cooperation rather than conflict and mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest. This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by the Germans with a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms. ", "William Wilberforce deserves an important place in the story of emancipation, but he shares it with many others, both black and white, men and women, in Britain and the Caribbean.", "Palmerstone died on October 18, 1865, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Lord John Russell. Gladstone remained Chancellor of the Exchequer, and also became leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons. Russell's government fell after Parliament refused to pass a Reform Bill extending the franchise in national elections, on June 28, 1866.", "Thursday, August 24, 2017 is William Wilberforce Day 2017. William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833) was an English politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade.", "Wilberforce became associated with the “Clapham Sect” called “the Saints.” Members were Christ-centered, Anglican evangelicals, influential in government and business. The group included such abolitionist luminaries as Granville Sharp, Zachary Macaulay, Hannah More and Thomas Clarkson. Wilberforce became the parliamentary “lightning rod” and team-building leader of this group of Christian reformers. John Venn, rector of Clapham parish church, was their chaplain.", "Sir John Gladstone, first baronet (1764-1851) Originally Gladstones; the father of the prime minister, he was a Liverpool merchant and MP aligned with Canning for Lancaster (1818-20), Woodstock (1820-26) and Berwick-on-Tweed (1826-27).", "He originally intended to take orders in the Church of England , but his father dissuaded him. He mistrusted parliamentary reform; his speech against it in May 1831 at the Oxford Union, of which he had been president, made a strong impression. One of his Christ Church friends, the son of the Duke of Newcastle, persuaded the Duke to support Gladstone as candidate for Parliament for Newark in the general election of December 1832; and the “Grand Old Man” of Liberalism thus began his parliamentary career as a Tory member.", "Gladstone's eldest son William (known as \"Willy\" to distinguish him from his father), and youngest, Herbert, both became members of parliament. The former predeceased his father.", "Andrew Bonar Law PC (16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923), commonly known as Bonar Law, was a British Conservative Party statesman and Prime Minister . Born in the crown colony of New Brunswick , he is the only British Prime Minister to have been born outside the British Isles . He was also the shortest-serving Prime Minister of the 20th century, spending 211 days in office.", "In 1786, Wilberforce leased a house in Old Palace Yard, Westminster, in order to be near Parliament. He began using his parliamentary position to advocate reform by introducing a Registration Bill, proposing limited changes to parliamentary election procedures. He brought forward a bill to extend the measure permitting the dissection after execution of criminals such as rapists, arsonists and thieves. The bill also advocated the reduction of sentences for women convicted of treason, a crime that at the time included a husband's murder. The House of Commons passed both bills, but they were defeated in the House of Lords. ", "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, and Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson were popular British heroes of the Napoleonic wars, the one on land, the other at sea. George Canning and the Pitts, William the elder and William the Younger, all served as Prime Minister in the period between 1766 and 1827; the Pitts, father and son, are considered to be among the great British prime ministers, while Canning was regarded as one of the ablest ministers of his day but had the misfortune to serve only 119 days as prime minister before dying in office.", "In England, a family which began with a Rufus (another form of Russell), rose to become the Dukes of Bedford. The 3rd son of the 6th Duke of Bedford studied at Edinburgh University where he was greatly influenced by the independent and democratic philosophy taught there. He became a great Reformer and was an architect of extending the franchise for the Westminster parliament in the first Reform Act of 1832. His grandson, the 3rd Earl Russell, was also an independent thinker, better known as the philosopher Bertrand Russell.", "There was considerable public agitation for further expansion of the electorate, however. In particular, the Chartist movement, which demanded universal suffrage for men, equally sized electoral districts, and voting by secret ballot, gained a widespread following. But the Tories were united against further reform, and the Liberal Party (successor to the Whigs) did not seek a general revision of the electoral system until 1852. The 1850s saw Lord John Russell introduce a number of reform bills to correct defects the first act had left unaddressed. However, no proposal was successful until 1867, when Parliament adopted the Second Reform Act.", "At the age of 17, Wilberforce left for St. Johns College in Cambridgeshire and it was here that he met future Prime Minister William Pitt. Whilst still in his studies, Wilberforce was elected as an MP for Kingston upon Hull and sat as an ‘Independent’ MP siding with neither the Tories nor Whigs.", "There was considerable public agitation for further expansion of the electorate, however. In particular, the Chartist movement , which demanded universal suffrage for men, equally sized electoral districts, and voting by secret ballot , gained a widespread following. But the Tories were united against further reform, and the Liberal Party (successor to the Whigs) did not seek a general revision of the electoral system until 1852. The 1850s saw Lord John Russell introduce a number of reform bills to correct defects the first act had left unaddressed. However, no proposal was successful until 1867, when Parliament adopted the Second Reform Act .", "A social reformer who campaigned against child labour, Richard Oastler (1789–1861), is commemorated by a statue in Northgate and the Oastler Shopping Centre located close to the Kirkgate Shopping Centre W.E. Forster (1818–1886), was MP for Bradford and, commemorated by statue, is the namesake of Forster Square. ", "Which orchestral march by William Walton was first performed at the coronation of King George VI, and was used as the recessional music at the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton in 2011?", "Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, (born February 5, 1788, Bury , Lancashire, England —died July 2, 1850, London ), British prime minister (1834–35, 1841–46) and founder of the Conservative Party . Peel was responsible for the repeal (1846) of the Corn Laws that had restricted imports.", "From 1837 to 1841, Stroud's MP was Lord John Russell of the Whig party, who later became Prime Minister. Russell was an important politician: he was responsible for passing Acts of Parliament such as the Public Health Act 1848, but he is mainly remembered as one of the chief architects of the Reform Act 1867. This Act, also known as the Second Reform Act, gave the vote to every urban male householder, not just those of considerable means. This increased the electorate by 1.5 million voters. Lord John Russell is remembered in the town in the names of two streets, John Street and Russell Street, as well as the Lord John public house.", "The poor were not the only opposition that Liverpool faced. Industrialisation had recently caused some people to become very rich, and a middle class had begun to emerge. Despite their affluence, Britain's industrialists had virtually no political power. The only way they could influence the system was by using their wealth. The right to vote and to stand to parliament was still firmly held by the landed classes. The Tory government, led by Liverpool, was largely against any parliamentary reform which would increase the size of the electorate, as it was thought that the power of the aristocracy would be eroded. Liverpool's rejection of Parliamentary Reform , which would include reform of the corrupt 'pocket boroughs' 4 and would allot political power to the nouveau riche, was an issue which rallied much opposition towards himself." ]

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[ "Goliath was the champion of the Philistines, who had encamped between Shochoh and Azekah against Saul and the men of Israel arrayed for battle in the valley of Elah. He is describedas being six cubits and a span in height, having upon his head a helmet of brass, and wearing a coat of mail weighing five thousand shekels of brass, with greaves of brass upon his legs and a target or gorget of brass between his shoulders. The staff of his spear is said to have been like a weaver's beam, the spear's head weighing six hundred shekels of iron.", "23 In the First Book of Samuel, Goliath is described as the champion of which tribe or people?", "In the 2005 season, below the late 9th-century BCE destruction level, in a stratum dating to an earlier phase of the Iron Age IIA, an important inscription was found. Scratched on a sherd typical of the Iron Age IIA, two non-Semitic names written in Semitic \"Proto-Canaanite\" letters were found. These two names, \"ALWT\" (אלות) and \"WLT\" (ולת), are etymologically similar to the name Goliath (גלית), the well-known Philistine champion, who according to the biblical text, was a native of Gath.", "\"And there came out from the camp of the Philistines a champion named Goliath, of Gath, whose height was six cubits and a span [i.e. about 9 feet / 3 meters]. He had a helmet of bronze on his head, and he was armed with a coat of mail, and the weight of the coat was five thousand shekels [i.e. about 125 pounds / 57 kilograms] of bronze. And he had greaves of bronze upon his legs, and a javelin of bronze slung between his shoulders. And the shaft of his spear was like a weaver's beam, and his spear's head weighed six hundred shekels [i.e. about 15 pounds / 7 kilograms] of iron; and his shield-bearer went before him.\" (1 Samuel 17:4-7 RSV) (see David And Goliath )", "The giant Goliath of Gath was some 3 metres (10 feet) tall and was the champion of the Philistines. He was probably descended from one of the nations that occupied the land of Canaan before Israel conquered it under Joshua. This giant was slain by David prior to the end of Saul's kingship. Later on David found Saul to be his enemy and in the books of Samuel we have the graphic account of David's life at this time. David, perhaps somewhat surprisingly found refuge in the city of Gath under the care of Achish its king. Achish made use of David's skills as a warrior but when the Lords of the Philistines found this out, they were less than impressed and forced David to depart from Gath (1 Samuel 29.1-11).", "(1) The giant of Gath, and champion of the Philistine army ( 1 Samuel 17:4-23 ; 21:9 ; 22:10 ; 2 Samuel 21:19 ; 1 Chronicles 20:5 ). He defied the armies of Israel, challenging anyone to meet him in single combat while the two armies faced each other at Ephesdammim. He was slain by the youthful David. Goliath was almost certainly not of Philistine blood, but belonged to one of the races of giants, or aboriginal tribes, such as the Anakim, Avvim, Rephaim, etc. The Avvim had lived at Philistia, and most probably the giant was of that race. His size was most extraordinary. If a cubit was about 21 inches, he was over 11 feet in height; if about 18 inches, he was over 9 feet in height. The enormous weight of his armor would seem to require the larger cubit. This height probably included his full length in armor, helmet and all. In either case he is the largest man known to history. His sword was wielded by David to slay him and afterward carried about in his wanderings, so it could not have been excessively heavy. The story of his encounter with David is graphic, and the boasts of the two champions were perfectly in keeping with single combats in the Orient.", "Goliath (גָּלְיָת, Standard Hebrew Golyat, Tiberian Hebrew Golyāṯ, Arabic: جالوت Jalut) is a Philistine warrior mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. He is famous for his battle in the 11th century BC with David, the young Israelite boy who had already been chosen by God and anointed by Samuel to become the King of Israel. He hailed from Gath, one of five ancient city states in Philistia.", "b. And a champion went out from the camp of the Philistines, named Goliath: He was a large man (six cubits and a span can be anywhere from 8'5\" to 9'2\"), and he had armor and weapons to match his size.", "\"Then a champion came out from the armies of the Philistines name Goliath, from Gath, whose height was six cubits and a span.\"", "Goliath, known also as Goliath of Gath (one of five city states of the Philistines) is a figure in the Hebrew Bible (Christian Old Testament). Described as a giant Philistine warrior, he is famous for his combat with the young David, the future king of Israel. The battle between them is described in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and, more briefly, in the Qur'an.", "So David prevailed The tradition of the combat between David and Goliath, in which the latter was killed, is preserved among the Arabs; for he is mentioned in the Koran, where he is called Galut or Jalut. The Arabs also call the dynasty of the Philistine kings, who reigned in palestine when the Hebrews came there, Galutiah, or Jalutiah. Achmed Al Fassi say, `Those kings were as well known by the name of Jalaut, as the ancient kings of Egypt by that of Pharaoh. David killed the Jalaut who reigned in his time, and entirely rooted out the Philistines, the rest of whom fled into Africa, and from them descended the Brebers or Berbers, who inhabit the coast of Barbary.' It is remarkable that the Berbers themselves should acknowledge their descent from the Philistines. The name Goliath, which they pronounce Sqhia-lud, is very common among the Brebers, and the history of the champion of the Philistines is very well known to the Moors. When children quarrel, and the bigger one challenges the smaller to fight the latter answers, `Who will fight with you? (Enta men ulid Sgialud.) You are of the race of Golaith.' The Jews who dwell among them, on the mountains, all call them Philistines.", "1 Samuel 17:4-7, New American Bible, revised edition (NABRE) A champion named Goliath of Gath came out from the Philistine camp; he was six cubits and a span tall. He had a bronze helmet on his...", "Most English translations call Goliath a “champion” in 1Sam 17:4 , a paraphrase of a Hebrew expression that can more literally be rendered “a man of the place between.” If a combatant remains standing in the space between two armies at the end of the battle, such a person is a champion, and the implication is that Goliath has been effective in many such conflicts. Goliath’s immense stature must be a reason for such success, but he is also heavily armored as he approaches the Israelite troops. Such a long description of a warrior’s accoutrements—beginning with Goliath’s helmet, then moving down to the coat of mail and bronze greaves on his legs—is uncommon in the Hebrew Bible . In fact, this portrait is much closer to depictions of warrior-heroes in Greek literature and in this case points to the Hellenistic roots of the Philistines.", "Tell es-Safi, the biblical Gath and traditional home of Goliath, has been the subject of extensive excavations by Israel's Bar-Ilan University. The archaeologists have established that this was one of the largest of the Philistine cities until destroyed in the 9th century BC, an event from which it never recovered. An important find relating to Goliath is the discovery of a potsherd, reliably dated to the 10th-early ninth centuries, inscribed with the two names \"alwt\" and \"wlt\". While the names are not directly connected with the biblical Goliath, they are etymologically related, and demonstrate that the name fits with the context of late-10th/early-9th century BC Philistine culture. The name \"Goliath\" itself is non-Semitic and has been linked with the Lydian name \"Alyattes\", which also fits the Philistine context of the biblical Goliath story.[12]", "But Goliath is also from the city of Gath, and according to Josh 11:22 , Gath is home to the “Anakites,” an ancient race of fearsome giants. Consequently, Goliath is pictured as the ultimate hybrid figure: a Greek warrior not unlike Achilles and a member of an ancient race of giants who struck terror into the Israelites moving toward the land of their inheritance (see Deut 1:28 ). Whoever takes on Goliath faces a formidable foe indeed. As if the description of Goliath’s ancestry and weaponry were not enough, he is also presented as an intimidating speaker who verbally assaults the army of Israel and David himself, before any actual fighting: “Come to me, and I will give your flesh to the birds of the air and to the wild animals of the field” ( 1Sam 17:44 ).", "Tell es-Safi , the biblical Gath and traditional home of Goliath, has been the subject of extensive excavations by Israel's Bar-Ilan University . The archaeologists have established that this was one of the largest of the Philistine cities until destroyed in the 9th century BC, an event from which it never recovered. A potsherd discovered at the site, and reliably dated to the 10th to mid 9th centuries BC, is inscribed with the two names \"alwt\" and \"wlt\". While the names are not directly connected with the biblical Goliath, they are etymologically related and demonstrate that the name fits with the context of late-10th/early-9th century BC Philistine culture. The name \"Goliath\" itself is non-Semitic and has been linked with the Lydian name \"Alyattes\", which also fits the Philistine context of the biblical Goliath story. [12] Aren Maeir , director of the excavation, comments: \"Here we have very nice evidence [that] the name Goliath appearing in the Bible in the context of the story of David and Goliath ... is not some later literary creation.\" [13]", "This chapter summarizes the conquest of northern Canaan. The destruction of these northern kingdoms, however, required a long time (see v. 18 ). The note in verse 22 is of interest because the Anakim were a race of giants (see Numbers 13:32–33 ) and because Goliath came from Gath (see 1 Samuel 17:4 ).", "A Goliath makes another appearance in 2 Samuel 21:19, which tells how Goliath the Gittite was killed by \"Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, the Bethlehemite.\" The fourth-century BC 1 Chronicles explains the second Goliath by saying that Elhanan \"slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath\", apparently constructing the name Lahmi from the last portion of the word \"Bethlehemite\" (\"beit-ha’lahmi\"). The King James Bible translators adopted this into their translation of 2 Samuel 21:18–19, although the Hebrew text at this point makes no mention of the word \"brother\". \"Most likely, storytellers displaced the deed from the otherwise obscure Elhanan onto the more famous character, David.\" ", "The Bible [2] describes in detail the one event in the life of Goliath for which any historical record survives. Goliath joined the combined Philistine army at Succoth , in either 1063 BC ( Ussher ) or 1018 BC ( Thiele ). The armies of King Saul camped at Elah , on the far side of a valley. Thus each army commanded a mountain on each side of this valley.", "The biblical giant Goliath of Gath (or \"the Gittite\"), whom the teenage David killed with a sling stone (I Samuel 17). Goliath's brother and sons were also men of great stature, and the Bible explicitly mentions that David and his men killed them all ( II Samuel 21:15-22 ; I Chronicles 20:4-8 ).", "A Philistine giant of Gath (I Sam. xvii. 4). The name \"Goliath\" is probably connected with the Assyro-Babylonian \"Guzali\" = \"running, ravaging spirits,\" \"destroyers\" (Jastrow, \"Religion of Assyria and Babylon,\" p. 500; Muss-Arnolt, \"Concise Dictionary,\" s.v. \"The Throne-Carriers\"; Delitzsch, \"Assyrisches Handwörterb.\" s.v.).", "When reading 2 Samuel 21:15-22 and  1 Chronicles 20:1-8 we can tell you that Goliath had 4 brothers. (He was the fifth) Ishbi-Benob, Saph, Lahmi, and a “Huge man”. All of those giants were sons of the Giant Rapha in Gath.", "Martin Litchfield West has pointed out that a story very similar to that of David and Goliath appears in the Iliad, where the young Nestor fights and conquers the giant Ereuthalion.[15] Each giant wields a distinctive weapon - an iron club in Ereuthalion's case, a massive bronze spear in Goliath's; each giant, clad in armour, comes out of the enemy's massed array to challenge all the warriors in the opposing army; in each case the seasoned warriors are afraid, and the challenge is taken up by a stripling, the youngest in his family (Nestor is the twelfth son of Neleus, David the eighth son of Jesse). In each case an older and more experienced father figure (Nestor's own father, David's patron Saul) tells the boy that he is too young and inexperienced, but in each case the gods (or in David's case, God) comes to the young hero's aid and the giant is left sprawling on the ground. Nestor, fighting on foot, then takes the chariot of his enemy, while David, on foot, takes the sword of Goliath. The enemy army then flees, the victors pursue and slaughter them and return with their booty, and the boy-hero is acclaimed by the people.[16]", "Close to three millennia ago, the city of Gath was on the frontier between the Philistines, who occupied the Mediterranean coastal plain, and the Israelites, who controlled the inland hills. The city's most famous resident, according to the Book of Samuel, was Goliath, famously felled by a well slung stone.", "Caratacus. Caractacus. Caradoc. Caradog. The names conceal a man of many identities. There is the Welsh hero of myth and legend, and there is the historical warrior prince, son of the powerful Cunobelinus, king of the Catuvellauni and the Trinovantes, tribes which originated in and around Essex and Hertfordshire, forming a territory north of the River Thames which stretched from the Chiltern Hills in the west to the Tendring Peninsula in the east..", "The Mohawk called themselves Ganiengehaka, or \"people of the flint country.\" Their warriors, armed with flint arrows, were known to be overpowering; their enemies called them Mowak, meaning \"man eaters.\" The name Oneida means \"people of the standing stone,\" referring to a large rock that, according to legend, appeared wherever the people moved, to give them directions. The Onondaga (\"people of the hills\"), the Cayuga (\"where they land the boats\"), and the Seneca (\"the people of the big hill\") named themselves by describing their homelands.", "Further reference to 1Chr:20 puts the whole history of the \"giant issues\" together, from David in his youth to David in his prime. Here the question is answered: the brother of Goliath is named \"Lahmi\". (please, do read 1Chr:20 --- it is quite plain)", "[Goliath] had a bronze helmet on his head, and he was armed with a coat of mail. . . . And he had bronze greaves on his legs and a bronze javelin was between his shoulders. Now the staff of his spear was like a weaver's beam, and his iron spearhead weighed six hundred shekels; and a shield-bearer went before him. ( I Samuel 17:5-7 )", "The Kogui were responsible for conducting the war ceremonies during the Sun Dance. Many famous families and leaders because of their military exploits and bravery, like Ad-da-te (‘Islandman’), Satanta, Kicking Bird and the war chiefs Big Bow and Stumbling Bear (Set-imkia), and others belonged to this band.", "\"[In the war of Dionysos against the Indians :] The Korybantes Diktaioi (Dictaean Corybantes) joined battle, shaking the plumes of their highcrested helmets, rushing madly into the fray. Their naked swords rang on their beaten shields in emulation, along with resounding leaps; they imitated the rhythm of the dance-at-arms with quick circling movements of their feet, a revel in the battlefield. The Indian nation was ravaged by the steel of those mountaineer herdsmen, the Kouretes (Curetes). Many a man fell headlong into the dust when the heard the bellow of the heavy-thumping oxhides.\"", "Women warriors are found among the myths and folktales of the peoples of India. King Vikramaditiya dreams of the man-hating princess Matiayavati. There are warrior women examples from Arabia, England, and among the Makurep of upper Guapore River in Brazil. On Kodiak Island in Alaska the Konig Inuit have many tales of warrior women. The Dahomey Amazons or Mino are all an female regiment in the Kingdom of Dahomey (now Benin) which lasted until the end of the 19th century, and were founded around 1645 to 1685. The Shield Maidens were warrior women in Scandinavian folklore and often mentioned in sagas. The Valkyries may have been based on the Shield maidens. In the Greek epics Amazons exist in order to be fought and defeated my men in the Amazon-battle or Amazonamachy. Amazons of Greek tradition are briefly mentioned in the Irish Labor Gabala or Book of Invasions. The characters cited are more often in the role of female martial arts teachers such as Aife, Scathach and Buanann. In Russia there were the Slavic Polenitsa or the female warriors led by Vlasta.", "iii. Different sources give different estimates, but Goliath's armor and weapons together probably weighed somewhere between 150 and 200 pounds. This was a big man, and strong enough to carry and use these huge weapons." ]

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[ "Confederate General Thomas Jonathan Jackson earned his famous nickname, \"Stonewall,\" from his steadfast defensive efforts in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). At Chancellorsville, Jackson was shot by one of his own men, who mistook him for Union cavalry. His arm was amputated, and he died from pneumonia eight days later.", "Confederate General Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson got his nickname during the first Battle of Bull Run. During battle, his men noted he stood “like a stone wall.” He was later accidentally shot and killed by his own men.[2]", "Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas, McDowell's troops were forced back to Washington, D.C., by the Confederates under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the nickname of \"Stonewall\" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops.", "Military historians consider Jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in United States history . His Valley Campaign and his envelopment of the Union Army right wing at Chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. He excelled as well in other battles: the First Battle of Bull Run (where he received his famous nickname \"Stonewall\"), the Second Battle of Bull Run , Antietam and Fredericksburg . Jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the Seven Days Battles around Richmond in 1862.", "Military historians consider Jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in United States history. His Valley Campaign and his envelopment of the Union Army right wing at Chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. He excelled as well in other battles: the First Battle of Bull Run (where he received his famous nickname \"Stonewall\"), Second Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the Seven Days Battles around Richmond in 1862.", "Fighting raged throughout the day as Confederate forces were driven back, despite impressive efforts by Colonel Thomas Jackson to hold important high ground at Henry House Hill, earning him the nom de guerre “Stonewall.” Late in the afternoon, Confederate reinforcements including those arriving by rail from the Shenandoah Valley extended the Confederate line and succeeded in breaking the Union right flank. At the battle’s climax Virginia cavalry under Colonel James Ewell Brown “Jeb” Stuart arrived on the field and charged into a confused mass of New Yorkers, sending them fleetly to the rear.  The Federal retreat rapidly deteriorated as narrow bridges, overturned wagons, and heavy artillery fire added to the confusion. The calamitous retreat was further impeded by the hordes of fleeing onlookers who had come down from Washington to enjoy the spectacle. Although victorious, Confederate forces were too disorganized to pursue. By July 22, the shattered Union army reached the safety of Washington. The Battle of Bull Run convinced the Lincoln administration and the North that the Civil War would be a long and costly affair. McDowell was relieved of command of the Union army and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who set about reorganizing and training the troops.", "Jackson earned the name Stonewall from his stand during the First Battle of Bull Run. During the battle, another general noticed that Jackson and his troops were bravely holding their ground. He said \"Look, there is Jackson standing like a stone wall.\" From that day forward he was known as Stonewall Jackson.", "Military historians consider Jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in U.S. history .[ citation needed ] His Valley Campaign and his envelopment of the Union Army right wing at Chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. He excelled as well in other battles; the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) where he received his famous nickname \"Stonewall\", Second Bull Run (Second Manassas), Antietam , and Fredericksburg . Jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the Seven Days Battles around Richmond in 1862.", "Military historians consider Jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in United States history. His Valley Campaign and his envelopment of the Union Army right wing at Chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. He excelled as well at the First Battle of Bull Run (where he received his famous nickname \"Stonewall\"), Second Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the Seven Days Battles around Richmond in 1862.", "By defeating the Union army at Bull Run, Jackson's brigade was henceforth known as the Stonewall Brigade. At Manassas, Jackson's brigade had suffered more casualties than any other Southern brigade. Historians have long since debated the remarks of Gen. Barnard Bee; in particular the words \"stone wall.\" Jackson's stalwart performance at Bull Run, however, reflected and defined Bee's remarks. Bee had exclaimed: \"Rally behind the Virginians!\" Why? Because the Virginians had held the ground. Jackson was a general that was steadfast, tenacious and even ferocious in battle, and had previously performed \"valiantly during the Mexican War.\" Thomas \"Stonewall\" Jackson's subsequent performances in Civil War battles also strongly underscore this position. In legal terms, Jackson's valor during the Mexican War and at First Manassas is referred to as precedent.", "It was at Bull Run that Colonel Jackson received his nickname of ‘Stonewall’ Jackson and his brigade became known as the Stonewall Brigade.  At the point of crisis in the Confederate withdrawal from Matthew’s Hill to Henry’s Hill, Colonel Bee called on Jackson to support his men.  Jackson stayed put with his brigade lying down behind the brow of the hill, largely concealed from the Federal troops assaulting Henry’s Hill and, in particular, from the Federal guns.  Bee returned to the remains of his battered brigade and commented that Jackson was standing like a ‘Stone Wall’.  There is reasonably convincing evidence that Bee’s comment was a complaint not a compliment.  Nevertheless the label stuck as a highly complimentary nickname.  Bee died in the battle so that the only source for the comment was his chief of staff.", "Despite the failure of the maneuver, the Union army initially held the advantage. Union progress was stalled by stern resistance from a brigade of Virginian soldiers led by Colonel Thomas J. Jackson. It was this incident that led to the colonel getting the nickname “Stonewall” Jackson . The Federal numerical supremacy in the battle changed with the arrival by train of Confederate reinforcements under the command of Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston.", "At one point in the battle, a Confederate officer rallied his troops by pointing his sword toward Southern General Thomas J. Jackson. The officer cried, “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall! Rally behind the Virginians!” From this incident, Jackson won the nickname “Stonewall” Jackson. His men held fast against the Union assault.", "# For his resolute action at which battle in 1861 did the Confederate general Thomas Jackson earn the epithet 'Stonewall'?", "‘Stonewall’ Jackson is known to have been a keen student of the Napoleonic Wars, particularly while on the staff of the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington up to the outbreak of war.  It is perhaps no accident that at Bull Run, and in later actions, Jackson adopted the practice of the Duke of Wellington in the Spanish Peninsular War between 1812 and 1814 and at Waterloo in 1815, of causing his infantry battalions to lie down in ranks on the reverse brow of a hill, thereby concealing his position and strength and shielding his regiments from the effects of enemy artillery fire.", "Jackson's sometimes unusual command style and personality traits, combined with his frequent success in battle, contribute to his legacy as one of the most remarkable generals of the Civil War. Although martial and stern in attitude, he was profoundly religious and a deacon in the Presbyterian Church. One of his many nicknames was \"Old Blue Lights,\" a term applied to a military man whose evangelical zeal burned with the intensity of the blue light used for night-time display. He disliked fighting on Sunday, although that did not stop him from doing so after much personal debate. He loved his wife very much and sent her tender letters. In direct contrast to Lee, Jackson was not a striking figure; he often wore old, worn-out clothes rather than a fancy uniform.", "With these words, Brigadier General Barnard Bee called to his routing men during the First Battle of Bull Run. As the Confederate lines began to crumble under the heavy Federal assault, Jackson formed his brigade in a brilliant defensive position which proved vital in turning the tide that day and earning him his enduring nickname. Despite his heroism, Bee received a fatal wound shortly after rallying his men and died the next day, but his South Carolina brigade reformed and together with Jackson’s Virginians drove the Union men from the battlefield and threw them all the way back to Washington D.C.", "General Thomas Jonathan \"Stonewall\" Jackson fought brilliantly from First Bull Run to his death at the battle of Chancellorsville from friendly fire. Learn more about Stonewall Jackson", "At the war’s outbreak, Jackson accepted orders as a Colonel of Virginia militia and commanded at Harper’s Ferry.  Jackson then took on the title of Brigadier general and led troops in the epic battle of First Manassas, where he and his brigade earned him the title “Stonewall.” So began Jackson’s status as a military celebrity.  In November of 1861 he was promoted to major general and dispatched to the Shenandoah Valley to defend the south from Federal troops headed towards Richmond.   ", "In this second battle, Major General John Pope, appointed by President Abraham Lincoln in March 1862 to command the newly formed Army of Virginia, was soundly beaten by Gen. Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, due in part to Pope’s misapprehension of the battlefield, confused orders and the reluctance of other Union commanders to come to his aid. Confederate lieutenant general Thomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson and Lt. Gen. James Longstreet hemmed in and crushed the Federals. Unlike the full-scale rout of inexperienced Union troops that occurred during the First Battle of Bull Run , in Second Bull Run, Pope and his more experienced troops made a determined stand that allowed the army to retreat in an orderly fashion after darkness fell.", "The tide of war shifted noticeably in favor of the Union in 1863, despite a brilliant victory by Robert E. Lee in the Battle of Chancellorsville , a battle that cost the life of his daring lieutenant Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson. Lee then suffered a major defeat at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in early July. The victor, George Gordon Meade , did not pursue aggressively, and the Confederate “Gray Fox” escaped to fight another day. The two antagonists met again in November in a confused, inconclusive affair known as the Mine Run Campaign.", "\"There stands Jackson like a stone wall\" is generally accepted as the quote that caused the name. Although it's unclear whether or not it was actually meant as a compliment. The man who said it, Brigadier General Barnard E. Bee, was in the midst of having his brigade destroyed while Jackson's brigade was standing \"like a stone wall.\" While the conventional interpretation today is that it refers to how Jackson's men were holding off the Yankees, many historians think it was actually meant as a passive-aggressive swipe at Jackson for not supporting and reinforcing Bee's men. Bee died shortly thereafter so nobody knows for sure.", "Battle Of Bull Run Summary: The First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) was the first major land-based confrontation of the American Civil War . The Union army commander in Washington, Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, gave in to great pressure to begin campaigning before his men’s 90-day enlistments expired, although he did not feel the army was adequately trained yet, leading to a stunning Confederate victory and ending northern hopes of a quick end to the war.", "Thomas Jonathan \"Stonewall\" Jackson, one of Robert E. Lee's most outstanding generals in the Army of Northern Virginia, was born in Clarksburg,... Read more", "Standing in the way of the British advance was Major General Andrew Jackson , who had rushed to New Orleans’ defense when he learned an attack was in the works. Nicknamed “Old Hickory” for his legendary toughness, Jackson had spent the last year subduing hostile Creek Indians in Alabama and harassing the redcoats’ operations along the Gulf Coast. The General had no love for the British—he’d spent time as their prisoner during the Revolutionary War—and he was itching for a chance to confront them in battle. “I owe to Britain a debt of retaliatory vengeance,” he once told his wife, “should our forces meet I trust I shall pay the debt.”", "Like many of the earlier US presidents, Andrew Jackson was a career military man. Jackson distinguished himself as commander of American forces during the War of 1812, particularly in the defense of New Orleans. He had a reputation of being fair to his troops, but strict. It was during this time that he was described as \"tough as old hickory\", giving rise to the nickname \"Old Hickory\" that stuck with him for life.", "Jackson was a demanding and disciplined commander. He was one of the more aggressive generals in the war, seldom backing away from a fight even when he was outnumbered. He made sure that his troops were well-trained and ready for battle.", "*Confederate Lieutenant General Thomas \"Stonewall\" Jackson was wounded as a result of friendly fire in the Battle of Chancellorsville on 2 May 1863, and died eight days later. He and some of his men had been returning, under the cover of night, from an intelligence-gathering mission when Confederate troops of the 18th North Carolina Infantry misidentified them as a Union cavalry scout team, as a result, the North Carolina troops open fired.", "When Lee decided to invade the North in the Maryland Campaign , Jackson took Harpers Ferry , then hastened to join the rest of the army at Sharpsburg, Maryland , where they fought McClellan in the Battle of Antietam . Antietam was primarily a defensive battle fought against superior odds, although McClellan failed to exploit his advantage. Jackson's men bore the brunt of the initial attacks on the northern end of the battlefield and, at the end of the day, successfully resisted a breakthrough on the southern end when Jackson's subordinate, Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill , arrived at the last minute from Harpers Ferry. The Confederate forces held their position, but the battle was extremely bloody for both sides, and Lee withdrew the Army of Northern Virginia back across the Potomac River , ending the invasion. Jackson was promoted to lieutenant general . On October 10 his command was redesignated the Second Corps.", "When Lee decided to invade the North in the Maryland Campaign, Jackson took Harpers Ferry, then hastened to join the rest of the army at Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they fought McClellan in the Battle of Antietam. Antietam was primarily a defensive battle fought against superior odds, although McClellan failed to exploit his advantage. Jackson's men bore the brunt of the initial attacks on the northern end of the battlefield and, at the end of the day, successfully resisted a breakthrough on the southern end when Jackson's subordinate, Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill, arrived at the last minute from Harpers Ferry. The Confederate forces held their position, but the battle was extremely bloody for both sides, and Lee withdrew the Army of Northern Virginia back across the Potomac River, ending the invasion. Jackson was promoted to lieutenant general. On October 10 his command was redesignated the Second Corps.", "Withdrawing from Maryland, Confederate forces regrouped in Virginia. On October 10, Jackson was promoted to lieutenant general and his command officially designated the Second Corps. When Union troops, now led by Major General Ambrose Burnside , moved south that fall, Jackson's men joined Lee at Fredericksburg. During the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, his corps succeeded in holding off strong Union assaults south of the town. With the end of the fighting, both armies remained in place around Fredericksburg for the winter.", "In Virginia, the Battle of Chancellorsville began. General Robert E. Lee's forces began fighting with Union troops under General Joseph Hooker. Confederate General Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded by his own soldiers in this battle." ]

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[ "The Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles Peter and Paul there. The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter; he being the first Bishop of Rome. The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome was first under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273 to 35,000 after the Gothic War, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens. ", "“After the martyrdom of Paul and Peter,” records Eusebius, “the first man to be appointed Bishop of Rome was Linus … Then, in the second year of Titus’s reign Linus, Bishop of Rome, after holding his office for twelve years yielded it to Anencletus.” Practically nothing is known about either of these two men … “after twelve years as Bishop of Rome, was succeeded by Clement.” (1)", "The Catholic Church speaks of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. However, it is also said that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. While accepting that Peter came to Rome and was martyred there, scholars find no historical evidence that he held episcopal office there. ", "The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church and in its dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. [24] Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal see there can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. [25] The writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD 180 reflect a belief that Peter \"founded and organised\" the Church at Rome. [26] Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, [27] about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the \"struggles in our time\" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, \"first, the greatest and most just columns\", the \"good apostles\" Peter and Paul. [28] St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. [29] Given this and other evidence, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. [30] [31] [32]", "The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (although some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.", "Early reports, and even Roman Catholic writings, essentially admit there is absolutely no clear early proof that Peter founded an apostolic succession in Rome beginning with Linus—yet that assertion is now the official Roman Catholic position.  It was not until the middle of the 2nd century that there were any who actually took the title “Bishop of Rome.” History shows that it was not until Anicetus (circa 155) that anyone was clearly considered to be a bishop of Rome. Some suspect that Pius , who apparently preceded him, may have been the first—but this is less certain than Anicetus.", "The City of Rome was the sole capital of the Roman Empire until Constantine founded Constantinople in 330. Then it was known as the western capital. Christians made their way to Rome quite early, with a noticable community there by 50 ad. It is believed that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and since Jesus said that he would \"build his church\" on the \"rock\" of Peter, the Bishop of Rome (later known as the Pope ) claimed precedence over bishops of other cities. Rome was one of the three Patriarchates established by the Council of Nicea in 325. After being sacked by Vandals , Visigoths and other northern tribes starting in the fourth century, Rome essentially led an isolated branch of the church for several centuries. Even after reestablishing contact with the East, relations were never good with Constantinople. In 1054, the Pope excommunicated the Orthodox Patriarch , who returned the favor. This event established the separate Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches.", "Paul makes mention of Linus, a Christian at Rome. Irenaeus (Adversus Haereses, 3, 3, 3) tells us that the same Linus was Peter's first successor as bishop of Rome.", "...Christ not only established the episcopate in the persons of the Twelve but, further, created in St. Peter the office of supreme pastor of the Church. Early Christian history tells us that before his death, he fixed his residence at Rome, and ruled the Church there as its bishop. It is from Rome that he dates his first Epistle, speaking of the city under the name of Babylon, a designation which St. John also gives it in the Apocalypse (c. xviii). At Rome, too, he suffered martyrdom in company with St. Paul, A.D. 67 (Joyce G.H. Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter. The Church. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume III. Copyright © 1908 by Robert Appleton Company. Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. Knight. Nihil Obstat, November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York).", "Whether or not this is the same individual named Linus that many Roman Catholics consider to be the first pope (the first \"bishop of Rome\") to succeed Peter cannot be determined from the passages in 2 Timothy. This is confirmed by Catholic scholars, such as J.P. Kirsch, who wrote:", "Peter (crucified upside down)—Recognized as the head of the original Christian community in Jerusalem (Israel), he left the city when King Herod Agrippa I started to persecute all Christians in Jerusalem and ordered the beheading of the Apostle James (the Great) . After escaping from Jerusalem, Peter preached in Judea (originally Palestine) and in Antioch (Syria) where he is historically considered as the first patriarch (bishop) of the Orthodox Church. After staying in Antioch for some time, Peter went to Rome and converted thousands into Christianity. The emperor at the time, Nero, did not like the idea of Romans becoming Christians and used the new members of the group for his amusement (e.g. feeding them to lions or wild dogs, and then burning them at stake in Rome’s coliseum—yes, the tourist spot– if they do not renounce their faith). Peter was one of the most prominent victims of this persecution. He was captured and crucified upside-down at his own request, because he said he was not worthy to be crucified the same way as our Lord. St. Peter’s body lies below the altar of St. Peter’s Basilica at the Vatican City, in Rome.", "One of the most significant events in the town’s history and its namesake was the execution of Alban in around AD 250. Alban was a pagan living in Verulamium who was converted to Christianity when he sheltered a Christian priest. The legend goes that Alban switched cloaks with the priest and was arrested in his stead by Roman soldiers and subsequently executed for his faith. Alban’s declaration \"I worship and adore the true and living God who created all things\" is still used in prayer at St Albans Cathedral. He was later made a saint and named as the first Christian martyr. A shrine was built on the site of his death following Emperor Constantine's adoption of Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire.", "Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, Roman legionaries and immigrants introduced other cults such as Mithraism. At various times, the Christians risked persecution, although the earliest known Christian martyrs in Britain—SS Alban and \"Amphibalus\"—probably lived in the early 4th century. Saints Aaron and Julius, citizens of Caerleon, were said to have been martyred during the Great Persecution under Diocletian, although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the folk etymology of Lichfield as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years. Christianisation intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under Constantine in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three Romano-British bishops, including Archbishop Restitutus of London, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360. A number of references to the church in Roman Britain are also found in the writings of 4th-century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo's doctrine of original sin; St Germanus was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated his heresy.", "Saint Denis, Denis also spelled Denys, Latin Dionysius (born , Rome ?—died 258?, Paris; feast day: Western church, October 9; Eastern church, October 3), allegedly first bishop of Paris , a martyr and a patron saint of France .", "Divine Providence saw it fitting that the Church should be built on the foundation of the great Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul (as well as on the blood of the many other First Martyrs of the Church at Rome).  It is likewise fitting that the feast of these two martyred saints are celebrated on the same day, June 29. Tradition holds that Saint Peter and Saint Paul were martyred in June of the year 67 A.D. (in some traditions, on the same day), while living and ministering in Rome during the reign of the infamously brutal Emperor Nero.", "The earliest feast days of saints were those of martyrs, venerated as having shown for Christ the greatest form of love, in accordance with the teaching: \"Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends.\" Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title \"confessor\" was used for such saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, and confessors are people who died natural deaths. A broader range of titles was used later, such as: Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church.", "Some early Christians sought out and welcomed martyrdom. Such seeking after death is found in Tertullian's Scorpiace but was certainly not the only view of martyrdom in the Christian church. Both Polycarp and Cyprian, bishops in Smyrna and Carthage respectively, attempted to avoid martyrdom.", "All the ancient records of the Roman bishops which have been handed down to us by St. Irenaeus, Julius Africanus, St. Hippolytus, Eusebius, also the Liberian catalogue of 354, place the name of Linus directly after that of the Prince of the Apostles, St. Peter. These records are traced back to a list of the Roman bishops which existed in the time of Pope Eleutherus (about 174-189), when Irenaeus wrote his book �Adversus haereses�. As opposed to this testimony, we cannot accept as more reliable Tertullian�s assertion, which unquestionably places St. Clement (De praescriptione, xxii) after the Apostle Peter, as was also done later by other Latin scholars (Jerome, Illustrious Men 15). The Roman list in Irenaeus has undoubtedly greater claims to historical authority. This author claims that Pope Linus is the Linus mentioned by St. Paul in his 2 Timothy 4:21. The passage by Irenaeus (Against Heresies III.3.3) reads:", "Saint Publius is the first Maltese Saint. He is venerated as the first Bishop of Malta. Publius' conversion led to Malta being the first Christian nation in the West, and one of the first in the world. It was the same Publius who received the Apostle Paul during his shipwreck on the island as recounted in the Acts of the Apostles. According to the Acts of the Apostles, St. Paul cured Publius' dysentery - afflicted father. In fact apart from being the particular patron saint of the town of Floriana, Saint Publius is also one of the patron saints of Malta. He was martyred c. 125, during the persecution of Emperor Hadrian. His feast is celebrated on January 21 in the Roman Catholic Church, which places him as the successor of St. Dionysius the Areopagite, dating his martyrdom to ca. 112 AD. In the Orthodox Church however his feast day is observed on March 13, and according to an epistle of Saint Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, he is placed as the successor of Saint Narcissus of Athens, dating his martyrdom to the period of the persecution under Marcus Aurelius.", "Gregory of Tours states that Denis was bishop of the Parisii and was martyred by being beheaded by a sword. The earliest document giving an account of his life and martyrdom, the \"Passio SS. Dionysii Rustici et Eleutherii\" dates from c. 600, is mistakenly attributed to the poet Venantius Fortunatus, and is legendary. Nevertheless, it appears from the Passio that Denis was sent from Italy to convert Gaul in the third century, forging a link with the \"apostles to the Gauls\" reputed to have been sent out with six other missionary bishops under the direction of Pope Fabian. There Denis was appointed first Bishop of Paris. The persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian community at Lutetia. Denis, with his inseparable companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, who were martyred with him, settled on the Île de la Cité in the River Seine. Roman Paris lay on the higher ground of the Left Bank, away from the river.", "The history of Christian martyrs does not end with the death of the disciples. Thousands willingly gave their lives under Roman persecution by the emperors Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Maximus, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian. The Roman persecution lasted well into the fourth century A.D. and did not end until Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the official religion of his empire. During the same time period, in Persia, where the Gospel had quickly spread, many others were also martyred for their faith.", "During the 1st century of the Church (c. 30–130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. Clement I, at the end of the 1st century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. However, there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: \"41. Both sides agree ... that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch, occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium.\" ", "While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans about AD 57, he greets some fifty people in Rome by name, but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in , about AD 60-62. Church historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero, around AD 65 such as after the Great Fire of Rome. Presently, most Catholic and Protestant scholars, and many scholars in general, hold the view that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero.", "Alban became the first Christian Martyr in Britain. The Emperor Diocletian ordered that all Christians should be persecuted. St Alban, a recent convert to Christianity changed places with a local priest who was wanted by the Romans. When he was discovered he was executed at Verulamium (St Albans).", "The First Christian Martyrs of the Church at Rome | Get Fed | A Catholic Blog to Feed Your Faith", "Christianity made its debut in 38 AD, when Saint Andrew, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ , was led by the Holy Spirit See Pentecost to visit the region. Once there, Saint Andrew laid the ecclesiastical [and no doubt, structural] foundation for the Christian Church, and founded the city's First Diocese . He later became the city's patron Saint. It is very likely that the Apostles Peter , Paul , Barnabas , and many others also visited Constantinople at some time, although currently, there is no historical documentation to support this. [Biblical evidence, however, proves that the apostles visited key regions in southwestern Turkey such as Ephesus , Antioch , Pergamum , Smyrna , etc., spreading the Word of Christ, and founding numerous Christian communities] (See \" Seven Churches of Asia )\" Seven Churches of Asia .", "Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julianus had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage. Edward Gibbon remarked that \"the soldiers' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity\", though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances. Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty-seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus.", "It was during this period that Christianity first arrived in Naples; the apostles Peter and Paul are said to have preached in the city. Januarius, who would become Naples' patron saint, was martyred there in the fourth century AD. ", "Lawrence, St., a deacon of the Church at Rome, who suffered martyrdom in the time of Valerian, 258, by being broiled on a gridiron, which he is represented in Christian art as holding in his hand.", "\"Unquestionably, the Roman church very early developed something like a sense of obligation to the oppressed all over Christendom....Consequently there was but one focus of authority. By the year 252, there seem to have been one hundred bishops in central and southern Italy but outside Rome there was nothing to set one bishop above another. All were on a level together, citizens of Italy, accustomed to look to Rome for direction in every detail of public life. The Roman bishop had the right not only to ordain but even, on occasion, to select bishops for Italian churches....To Christians of the Occident, the Roman church was the sole, direct link with the age of the New Testament and its bishop was the one prelate in their part of the world in whose voice they discerned echoes of the apostles' speech. The Roman bishop spoke always as the guardian of an authoritative tradition, second to none. Even when the eastern churches insisted that their traditions were older and quite as sacred, if not more so, the voice in the West, unaccustomed to rivalry at home, spoke on regardless of protest or denunciation at a distance....", "Who becomes the Bishop of Rome in AD 590? What is he called? Why is he important?", "early Christian leader, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and Acts of the Apostles" ]

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[ "Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose Dictionary of the English Language was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement but was also dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen.", "Johnson may well be the most celebrated lexicographer of English, yet many claims about his lexicography are exaggerated. Conventional wisdom holds that Johnson single-handedly conceived and produced A Dictionary of the English Language. Though he gave up several years of full-time work to the Dictionary, Johnson wasn’t the first professional lexicographer: John Kersey, author of A New English Dictionary, published in 1702, probably owns that distinction. And Johnson did not write his dictionary alone: He had half a dozen assistants, and the history of lexicography tells us that assistants influence dictionary-making more than either eighteenth-century social hierarchies or the Great Author theory behind Johnson’s reputation admits.", "On 13 August 1867 Sir William Craigie, the Scottish lexicographer, was born. Craigie was regarded as the most eminent lexicographer of his day and spent from 1901-1933 as joint editor of the ‘Oxford English Dictionary’. His other passion was the Scots language, and he proposed a “Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue” as early as 1919. He began work on it later in life but had not managed to complete the work at his death.", "The Dictionary was finally published in April 1755, with the title page acknowledging that Oxford had awarded Johnson a Master of Arts degree in anticipation of the work. The dictionary as published was a huge book. Its pages were nearly 18 in tall, and the book was 20 in wide when opened; it contained 42,773 entries, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions, and it sold for the extravagant price of £4 10s, perhaps the rough equivalent of £350 today. An important innovation in English lexicography was to illustrate the meanings of his words by literary quotation, of which there were approximately 114,000. The authors most frequently cited include William Shakespeare, John Milton and John Dryden. It was years before Johnson's Dictionary, as it came to be known, turned a profit. Authors' royalties were unknown at the time, and Johnson, once his contract to deliver the book was fulfilled, received no further money from its sale. Years later, many of its quotations would be repeated by various editions of the Webster's Dictionary and the New English Dictionary. ", "Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), oft-quoted biographer, poet and lexicographer wrote A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), published in two folio volumes. In his time it was the most comprehensive English language dictionary ever compiled and remained the standard reference for over a century. The first edition included a �Grammar and History of the English Language� and thousands of quotations from such authors as John Dryden , William Shakespeare and John Milton to illustrate the use of the over 42,000 words it contained�many more were added in subsequent editions. At a time when literacy rates were improving and the realm of print media was expanding at a rapid pace, pamphlets, newspapers and magazines were becoming available at a reasonable cost. So, standard spellings, uses and meanings of words such as �Cough: A convulsion of the lungs, vellicated by some sharp serosity. It is pronounced coff� was required among printing houses. Johnson was hired by a group of London booksellers and paid a little over �1500 to create this ambitious work. Having outlined his A Plan of an English Dictionary in 1747 Johnson, not without his sense of humour added several bon mots to the dictionary including �Lexicographer: a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge.� The undertaking took almost nine years to complete.", " Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), usually known just as Dr Johnson, was a poet, essayist, literary critic, editor, and lexicographer . He is probably best known for having compiled A Dictionary of the English Language, which was first published in 1755, and took nine years to complete.", "But when we reach the end of the fourteenth century, English is once more in the ascendant. Robert of Gloucester, Robert Mannyng of Brunne, Dan Michel of Canterbury, and Richard Rolle of Hampole, William Langland and John Wyclif, John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer, and many other authors of less known or entirely unknown name, have written in the tongue of the people; English has been sanctioned for use in the courts of law; and, as John of Trevisa tells us, has, since the 'furste moreyn' or Great Pestilence of 1349 (which Mrs. Markham has taught nineteenth-century historians to call the 'Black Death'), been introduced into the grammar schools in the translation of Latin exercises, which boys formerly rendered into French. And under these new conditions lexicographical activity at once bursts forth with vigour. Six important vocabularies of the fifteenth century are printed by Wright-Wülcker, most of them arranged, like the Old English one of Ælfric, under subject-headings; but one large one, extending to 2,500 words, entirely alphabetical. About the middle of the century, also, was compiled the famous Medulla Grammatices [5] , designated, with some propriety, 'the first Latin-English Dictionary,' the popularity of which is shown by the many manuscript copies that still survive; while it formed the basis of the Ortus (i.e. Hortus) Vocabulorum or first printed Latin-English Dictionary, which issued from the press of Wynkyn de Worde in 1500, and in many subsequent editions down to 1533, as well as in an edition by Pynson in 1509.", "The Dictionary of the English Language (1755) by Samuel JOHNSON differs from the works of his predecessors in both scale and intention. On the model of the dictionaries of the French and Italian academies, he sought to encapsulate the ‘best’ usage of his day, and did this on the basis of over 100,000 quotations from Sir Philip Sidney in the 16c to his own time. In definition and the internal arrangement of entries Johnson also went beyond his rivals. Benjamin Martin, in his Lingua Britannica Reformata (1749), had been the first English compiler to mark off the different senses of words; by arranging his senses chronologically, Johnson enabled his readers to follow the evolution of each word and provided the foundation for the historical lexicography of the 19–20c. Johnson gave little attention to collocation, idiom, and grammatical information, although he provided a brief grammar at the front. In cases of divided or uncertain usage he provided a prescriptive comment (governant: ‘a lady who has the care of young girls of quality. The more general and proper word is governess’). His dictionary enjoyed unique authority among successive generations of users in the matter of word choice and word meaning. In spelling, it represented a strongly conservative tradition, compared with which Bailey was progressive: horrour, inferiour, etc., where Bailey has horror, inferior, etc.", "Several more dictionaries followed: in Latin , English, French and Italian. Benjamin Martin 's Lingua Britannica Reformata (1749) and Ainsworth's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (1737) are both significant, in that they define entries in separate senses, or aspects, of the word. In English (among others), John Cowell 's Interpreter, a law dictionary, was published in 1607, Edward Phillips ' The new world of English words came out in 1658 and a dictionary of 40,000 words had been prepared in 1721 by Nathan Bailey , though none was as comprehensive in breadth or style as Johnson's.", "Completed after nine years work, Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755, and was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later. [20]", "↑ An important collection of these early beginnings of lexicography in England was made so long ago as 1857, by the late distinguished antiquary Thomas Wright , and published as the first volume of a Library of National Antiquities. A new edition of this with sundry emendations and additions was prepared and published in 1884 by Professor R. F. Wülcker of Leipzig, and the collection is now generally referred to by scholars in German fashion under the designation of Wright-Wülcker.", "In the golden prime and high noon of English speech; when from the lips of the great Elizabethans fell words that made their own meaning and carried it in their very sound; when a Shakespeare and a Bacon were possible, and the language now rapidly perishing at one end and slowly renewed at the other was in vigorous growth and hardy preservation -- sweeter than honey and stronger than a lion -- the lexicographer was a person unknown, the dictionary a creation which his Creator had not created him to create.", "On 15th April 1755, Samuel Johnson published &#8220;A Dictionary of the English Language&#8221; in London. Johnson was not the first to write a dictionary, but his was the most comprehensive and detailed to date. The.... . .", "Published on 15 April 1755 and written by Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language, sometimes published as Johnson's Dictionary, is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language. There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £220,000 in 2016. Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single-handedly, with only clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he h ... (展开) ad marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 173 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent English dictionary. According to Walter Jackson Bate, the Dictionary \"easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who labored under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time\".", "* 1755 – 15 April: Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published by the group of London booksellers who commissioned it in June 1746. Johnson has been working on the project at his home, 17, Gough Square.", "English critic, biographer, essayist, poet, and lexicographer, regarded as one of the greatest figures of 18th-century life and letters.", "An online guide to Samuel Johnson, author of Dictionary of the English Language (1755), written by the specialist Jack Lynch, editor of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work That Defined the English Language (New York: Walker & Company, 2004).", "By 1858, the need for an update resulted in the first planning for a new comprehensive dictionary to document standard English, a term coined at that time by the planning committee. The dictionary, known as the Oxford English Dictionary, published its first fascicle in 1884. It attracted significant contributions from some singular minds, such as William Chester Minor, a former army surgeon who had become criminally insane and made most of his contributions while incarcerated. Whether the OED is the long-desired standard English Dictionary is debatable, but its authority is taken seriously by the entire English-speaking world. Its staff is currently working on a third edition.", "In the 1840�s a greater man than either Swift or Defoe emerged from the great mass of hack journalists and writers eking in living in �Grubb Street�. This man was Samuel Johnson (1709 - 1784). Ironically he started with the same intentions as Swift and Defoe and published a prospectus proposing a dictionary to �fix� the English language. He was successful in obtaining financial backing, from the Longman brothers amongst others, and set about his work, aided only by a handful of amanuenses, but as his work progressed he came to realise firstly, that in a changing world, a fixed language would not suffice, and secondly (and very importantly) that his task was basically one of description, not prescription. The English language existed before his dictionary, and it was not his job to petrify and prescribe it, but to do describe it as it was used, which he did, with a phenomenal number of examples of usages. This insight showed both the intellect and humility of this great man. He was equally aware that English would continue to change after the completion of his dictionary, and did not resent this.", "Bentham was the quintessential English eccentric. He was particularly fond of inventing new words with tangled Greek and Latin roots rather than just using their humble English equivalents. Some of his lexical constructions have caught on, e.g. \"international\", \"maximize\" and \"codification\". Others, like \"post-prandial vibrations\" (after-dinner walks) remained confined to Mr. Jeremy's circle.", "Appreciation of Cockeram's 'Dictionarie' was marked by the numerous editions through which it passed down as late as 1659. Meanwhile Thomas Blount, Barrister of the Inner Temple, and correspondent of Anthony à Wood, was devoting the leisure hours of twenty years to his 'Glossographia: or a Dictionary interpreting all such hard words, whether Hebrew, Greek, Latin,' etc., 'as are now used in our refined English Tongue,' of which the first edition saw the light in 1656.", "On April 15, 1755, Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language was published. It was the first high quality English dictionary, and it represented the standard until finally replaced by the Oxford English Dictionary.", "* He is cited over 80 times in the Oxford English Dictionary, notably on words such as \"barbecue\", \"avocado\", \"chopsticks\" and \"sub-species\". That is not to say he coined the words, but his use of them in his writings is the first known example in English.", "[ S18 ] Matthew H.C.G., editor, Dictionary of National Biography on CD-ROM (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1995). Hereinafter cited as Dictionary of National Biography.", "The author of the first English dictionary, worked on standardization and regularization of the language according to the idea of ascertainment – “correcting the language”. He collected examples of words and phrases, studied them together with other authorities and finally published a complete collection as a two-volume Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage in 1755.", "The Oxford English Dictionary has been the last word on words for over a century. But, as with a respected professor or admired parent, we count on its wisdom and authority without thinking much about how it was acquired. What is the history of the Oxford English Dictionary? Exploring its origins and development will give new insight into this extraordinary, living document.", "Researching texts on English dictionaries shows how Lexicography history is often based on things people \"just know\".", "The Oxford English Dictionary was the first modern English dictionary ever made and it set a new standard for what dictionaries would be from then on.  To this date, it is considered \"the ultimate authority on the usage and meaning of English words and phrases, unparalleled in its accuracy and comprehensiveness\".", "Title: A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from Their Originals, and Illustrated in Their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers, To Which Are Prefixed a History of the Language and an English Grammar", "Did one man write the first great English dictionary all by himself? Not quite, but close", "The first volume of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was published in February of 1884 and covered from “A” to “Ant”. In the first seven years of work, the editors didn't get past the letter \"b\". The dictionary’s ambitious intention was to record every word used in English since 1150 and trace it back through all its shifting meanings, spellings and uses to its earliest recorded appearance, plus at least one citation for each century of its existence. In the end, it became twenty ponderous volumes long, with 615,000 entries; 2,412,000 supporting quotations, and 60,000,000 words.", "The aim of this Dictionary is to present in alphabetical series the words that have formed the English vocabulary from the time of the earliest records [ca. AD740] down to the present day, with all the relevant facts concerning their form, sense-history, pronunciation, and etymology. It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang." ]

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[ "Richard Avedon, like the subjects of his boldly scaled photographic portraits, is a figure who may at times appear larger than life. In a career that has spanned more than half a century, he has distinguished himself as an artist of immense energy and originality and has created many of the iconic images of our time. Avedon first made his name in the pages of Harper's Bazaar, where his arresting images set a new standard for fashion photography. His fashion photography was the subject of a major exhibition, Avedon: Photographs, 1947–1977, presented at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1978. An equal achievement has been his reinvention of the genre of photographic portraiture. Unlike the fashion work, most of Avedon's portraits were not initiated by commercial assignments but by personal conviction. Each is a virtuoso reckoning with human complexities and contradictions and a powerful expression of this artist's distinctive vision.", "The career of the photographer Richard Avedon, who has died aged 81, was called by Susan Sontag \"one of the exemplary photographic careers of this century\" - alongside Edward Steichen, Bill Brandt and Henri Cartier-Bresson. He himself had no dearth of famous names in the fields of both photography and literature to accompany his volumes of images: from Mark Haworth-Booth and Harold Rosenberg, James Baldwin and Truman Capote to Arthur Miller and George Wallace.", "Richard Avedon (May 15, 1923 – October 1, 2004) was an American fashion and portrait photographer. An obituary published in The New York Times said that \"his fashion and portrait photographs helped define America's image of style, beauty and culture for the last half-century\".", "Avedon was always interested in how portraiture captures the personality and soul of its subject. As his reputation as a photographer became widely known, he photographed many famous people in his studio with a large-format 8×10 view camera. His subjects include Buster Keaton, Marian Anderson, Marilyn Monroe, Ezra Pound, Isak Dinesen, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Andy Warhol, and the Chicago Seven. His portraits are distinguished by their minimalist style, where the person is looking squarely at the camera, posed in front of a sheer white background.[citation needed] By eliminating the use of soft lights and props, Avedon was able to focus on the inner worlds of his subjects evoking emotions and reactions. He would at times evoke reactions from his portrait subjects by guiding them into uncomfortable areas of discussion or asking them psychologically probing questions. Through these means he would produce images revealing aspects of his subject's character and personality that were not typically captured by others.", "Presents a biography of fashion and portraiture photographer, Richard Avedon. In 1946 a young Avedon startled postwar Paris with his fresh approach to fashion photography. Then, as now, his models are not statues, but alive with movement and vitality. Moving to Vogue, he continued to make fashion history; turning to portraiture, he became The New Yorker's first-ever staff photographer. 1995. 87 min. Video/C 8333", "Richard Avedon died of a brain hemorrhage on October 1st, 2004, while shooting an assignment for The New Yorker. Though he has taken some of the most famous portraits of all time and his photographs are included in the permanent collections of the Smithsonian Institution, the Metropolitan, the Museum of Modern Art, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the National Portrait Gallery, London. Major retrospectives of his work have been held at the Smithsonian, the Metropolitan, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Amon Carter Museum, the Corcoran Gallery of Art, and the Art Institute of Chicago, it is his willingness to challenge himself as both photographer and as an artist, and to alway be refining a unique style that was all his own, that made him an icon for more than 60 years in an industry he helped to define.", "Avedon's success in fashion photography is widely recognized. (In 1956 his brilliant early career was fictionalized in the Hollywood musical Funny Face, starring Fred Astaire as the fashion photographer \"Dick Avery.\") Unlike the fashion work, however, most of Avedon's portraits did not issue from commercial assignments but from personal convictions and were solicited by the artist himself. Each is a virtuoso reckoning with human complexities and contradictions and a powerful expression of this artist's distinctive vision.", "Avedon was always interested in how portraiture captures the personality and soul of its subject. As his reputation as a photographer became widely known, he photographed many noted people in his studio with a large-format 8×10 view camera. His subjects include Buster Keaton, Marian Anderson, Marilyn Monroe, Ezra Pound, Isak Dinesen, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Andy Warhol, and the Chicago Seven. His portraits are distinguished by their minimalist style, where the person is looking squarely at the camera, posed in front of a sheer white background. By eliminating the use of soft lights and props, Avedon was able to focus on the inner worlds of his subjects evoking emotions and reactions. He would at times evoke reactions from his portrait subjects by guiding them into uncomfortable areas of discussion or asking them psychologically probing questions. Through these means he would produce images revealing aspects of his subject's character and personality that were not typically captured by others.", "Avedon's portrait work constitutes a modern-day pantheon of many of the major artistic, intellectual, and political figures of the late twentieth-century, and, as such, it belongs to the time-honored tradition of public portraiture. Much like the great nineteenth-century French photographer, Nadar, whose telling portraits of rare individuals captured the creative genius of his generation, so Avedon, a century later, collected the key players and directed them in a brilliant portrait of an era that was questioning, unruly, and self-consciously alive. With Avedon, photography is the instrument of an engaged and liberal sensibility and occasionally the naturalism of his portraits takes on a satirical edge that also brings the caricaturist Honoré Daumier to mind.", "He was hailed by Richard Avedon as photography’s answer to René Magritte, and certainly David LaChapelle’s hyper-kitsch, neon-rinsed images reveal more than a touch of the surreal. His is a visionary and wholly artificial world, capable of seducing and confusing, often all at once.", "Portraiture was a shared focus of both artists, and they made use of repetition and serialization: Avedon through the reproducible medium of photography, and in his group photographs, for which he meticulously positioned, collaged, and reordered images; Warhol in his method of stacked screenprinting, which enabled the consistent reproduction of an image. Avedon’s distinctive gelatin-silver prints and Warhol's boldly colored silkscreens variously depict many of the same recognizable faces, including Marella Agnelli, Bianca Jagger, Jacqueline Kennedy, Marilyn Monroe, and Rudolf Nureyev.", "A native New Yorker, Avedon has always had a special connection to the Metropolitan Museum. As a young man, he spent hours in our paintings galleries, especially taken with works by Goya, Soutine, and Modigliani. He was also drawn to Egyptian art, and in particular, the Fayum portraits, painted panels dating from the first century A.D. that were inserted into mummy wrappings. In these ancient faces, he perhaps first recognized the mysterious power of the art of portraiture.", "^ a b Rourke, Mary. \"Photographer Richard Avedon Dies\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 22, 2013.", "Avedon attended DeWitt Clinton High School in Bedford Park, Bronx, where he worked on the school paper, The Magpie, with James Baldwin from 1937 until 1940. New York City High Schools. After graduating from DeWitt that year, he enrolled at Columbia University to study philosophy and poetry but dropped out after one year. He then started as a photographer for the Merchant Marines, taking ID shots of the crewmen with the Rolleiflex camera his father had given him as a gift. From 1944 to 1950, Avedon studied photography with Alexey Brodovitch at his Design Laboratory at The New School for Social Research.", "The Richard Avedon Foundation is a private operating foundation, structured by Avedon during his lifetime. It began its work shortly after his death in 2004. Based in New York, the foundation is the repository for Avedon's photographs, negatives, publications, papers, and archival materials. In 2006, Avedon's personal collection was shown at the Pace/MacGill Gallery, New York, and at the Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco, and later sold to benefit the Avedon Foundation. The collection included photographs by Martin Munkacsi, Edward Steichen and Man Ray, among others. A slender volume, Eye of the Beholder: Photographs From the Collection of Richard Avedon (Fraenkel Gallery), assembles the majority of the collection in a boxed set of five booklets: “Diane Arbus,” “Peter Hujar”, “Irving Penn”, “The Countess de Castiglione” and “Etcetera,” which includes 19th- and 20th-century photographers.", "Whatever debt Avedon may owe to mid-sixties minimalism, his signature white-background style is fundamentally the graphic expression of a peculiarly modern affect. In the stark, featureless world of these photographs, the individual stands alone, bathed in a shadowless light that makes no effort to palliate the harsh realities of aging and the simple fact of mortality. The pictures convey a sense of the uneasy isolation and free-floating anxiety that pulses like a bass note through the film and literature of the postwar European avant-garde: its vibrations can be felt in the novels of Camus, Sartre, Malraux, and Robbe-Grillet, in the absurdist drama of Beckett and Ionesco, and later, in the films of French New Wave and Italian neo-realist directors like Godard, Resnais, de Sica, Rossellini, Fellini, and Antonioni. Avedon shares with these artists a painfully lucid apprehension of the ambiguity and absurdity of the human situation, combined with a staunch faith in the redemptive consolation of art. \"Of all the schools of patience and lucidity, creation is the most effective,\" wrote Camus. \"It is also the staggering evidence of man's sole dignity: the dogged revolt against his condition. . . . But perhaps the great work of art has less importance in itself than in the ordeal it demands of a man and the opportunity it provides him of overcoming his phantoms and approaching a little closer to his naked reality.\"", "From the start - after war service in the photography section of the US merchant marines - Avedon was linked to fashion, fashion magazines and Irving Penn. Never more so than in Helmut Gernsheim's oft-reiterated comments of their \"creation of a contemporary style\", utilising \"the same strength\" of assigning \"monumentality\" to their subjects.", "Avedon became the first staff photographer for The New Yorker in 1992, where his post-apocalyptic, wild fashion fable “In Memory of the Late Mr. and Mrs. Comfort,” featuring model Nadja Auermann and a skeleton, was published in 1995. Other pictures for the magazine, ranging from the first publication, in 1994, of previously unpublished photos of Marilyn Monroe to a resonant rendering of Christopher Reeve in his wheelchair and nude photographs of Charlize Theron in 2004, were topics of wide discussion. Some of his less controversial New Yorker portraits include those of Saul Bellow, Hillary Rodham Clinton, Toni Morrison, Derek Walcott, John Kerry, and Stephen Sondheim. In his later years, he continued to contribute to Egoïste, where his photographs appeared from 1984 through 2000.[citation needed] In 1999, Avedon shot the cover photos for Japanese-American singer Hikaru Utada's Addicted to You.", "JEFFREY BROWN: For decades, Avedon’s portraits have served as a chronicle of the times. The exhibition playfully features a ’60s era face-off between key figures of the Vietnam War effort, called the Mission Council, and the antiwar activists known as the Chicago Seven. A series of photographs called “The Family” shows the American business and political elite of the 1970s. Some of them– here is a young Donald Rumsfeld– are very much still with us. But Avedon’s prime focus has been on leading cultural figures: Actors Buster Keaton and a playful Charlie Chaplin; writers like Ezra Pound and Truman Capote; composer Igor Stravinsky. Avedon often shows a different side of famous faces, as here, with Groucho Marx. He captured the larger-than- life personality of one of his favorite writers, Isak Dinesan, in a Copenhagen hotel room.", "Although Avedon never pursued the project, its usable residue shaped the Factory portrait of 1969. Working in his most directorial mode, the photographer began with all his actors jumbled together in a single frame. Gradually, as he moved them around, he found he needed to expand the space. He broke the group into smaller clumps, isolating and highlighting certain figures, and the Factory spread out in a lateral frieze across four frames that abutted one another. He embedded a narrative in the scene, as Joe Dallesandro moved across the frieze from left to right leaving the trace of an implied time lapse in his passage. The denouement—Warhol filming Dallesandro coupling with a woman on a mattress—occurred in the far right frame. That frame Avedon ultimately cut out of the work, leaving the reason for the internal movement ambiguous. In the three remaining frames, the Factory \"workers\" in various stages of dress, undress, and dishevelment mill about in an appropriately equivocal expression of on-flowing stasis, to which Avedon added a satiric charade of the three male (as opposed to female) graces, a play of hands owing much to Renaissance painting, and an emotional blankness not unlike Warhol's affectless demeanor. Exquisitely attentive to every detail of the interplay of figures and their graphic positions against the white ground, Avedon created a tour de force cycle laid out flat, as if the figures progressing around the belly of a Greek vase had paused for the photographer's camera before resuming their rounds.", "robyn Richard Avedon photographs “The Quinquagenarians”, portraits of Fred Astaire, James Cagney, Henry Fonda and Cary Grant – an early compilation from his “Richard Avedon Observations” portfolios that were included works in many later Harper's Bazaar magazines.", "This postwar mood of bleakness leavened by hope has never left Avedon's portraits. It is there in his great two-panel portrait of an aging Beckett, dressed in a black turtleneck and dark wool suit, looking like the very embodiment of courageous pessimism, and in his explosive portrait of Oscar Levant, the pianist and Hollywood raconteur, as a divine madman caught between a laugh and a scream, howling into the Void that has somehow crept into his Beverly Hills bungalow. The carnies and drifters Avedon photographed as part of his five-year-long project, In the American West (1979–84), are like younger, American cousins of Beckett's gentleman tramps—elegantly ravaged antiheroes suspended somewhere between comedy and tragedy. The mood is there in his picture of Noto, with its mushroom cloud, and again in his almost otherworldly portrait of J. Robert Oppenheimer as a fallen angel in a three-piece suit, a humbled and mystified destroyer of worlds.", "^ Richard Avedon: Murals & Portraits, May 4 - July 6, 2012 Gagosian Gallery, New York.", "Leibovitz is much influenced by Richard Avedon, and his ‘personal reportage’, developing close rapport with her subjects.", "Director's Foreword by Philippe de Montebello from the exhibition publication Richard Avedon: Portraits (Harry N. Abrams, New York, 2002", "Both Avedon and Warhol originated from modest beginnings and had tremendous commercial success working for major magazines in New York, beginning in the 1940s. The 1960s marked artistic turning points for both artists as they moved away increasingly from strictly commercial work towards their mature independent styles. The works in the exhibition, which date from the 1950s through the 1990s, emphasize such common themes as social and political power; the evolving acceptance of cultural differences; the inevitability of mortality; and the glamour and despair of celebrity.", "JEFFREY BROWN: Not everyone is always happy with the results. Avedon took this portrait of the renowned literary critic Harold Bloom.", "In 1979, Avedon began work on a project that he regarded as the best work of his career. He had become seriously ill as a result of an inflammation of the heart. He visited the West to recuperate and began to photograph what would become a five year project called In The American West , in which Avedon chronicled the people of the West. He photographed drifters, loners, and ordinary people like factory workers, ranchers and coal miners. Avedon was in his 60s and felt he was entering what he called “the last great chapter”. He viewed the project as a reaction to or an identification of his own mortality. The project received decidedly mixed reviews. Some applauded the project for its “unrelenting vision”, while others condemned it as exploitation and “falsifying the West”.", "American photographer David LaChapelle is an interesting case of an artist at the crossroads of art and advertising, having made his name through his highly- colorful fashion photography and flamboyantly baroque and often carefree portraits of celebrities, together with an interest in the underside of the American dream, pop culture and the history of art. In his dream factory, beside popular icons of industry, fashion and music, elaborate stagings that tell entertaining stories emerge in the “tableau vivant” genre. In doing so, his compositions often refer to artworks from previous centuries, for example a recent photographic fresco reinterpreting Leonardo da Vinci’s \"Last Supper\" featuring figureless floating heads and expressive yet detached hands inside cardboard boxes, which compositionally represents the original. a recurrent subject for the artist who mixes the sacred and the profane, he continues to reflect on the renaissance of the spiritual in our material- dominated society.", "Photographer and director David LaChapelle is one of today’s most respected artists. Once called “the Fellini of photography”, he expresses cultural criticism through beauty, colour and boldness.", "On October 1, 2004, Avedon died in a San Antonio, Texas hospital of complications from a cerebral hemorrhage. He was in San Antonio shooting an assignment for The New Yorker. At the time of his death, he was also working on a new project titled Democracy to focus on the run-up to the 2004 U.S. presidential election.", "Versace was determined to enliven daywear. He added risqué factors such as bondage-like fastenings or seductive pleats to superbly crafted suits, created tantalisingly tactile leather garments, and dressed men and women in ebullient prints from head to toe. The late Richard Martin, of New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art, wrote:" ]

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[ "Two years later, Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, led an exodus of persecuted Mormons from Nauvoo along the western wagon trails in search of religious and political freedom. In July 1847, the 148 initial Mormon pioneers reached Utah’s Valley of the Great Salt Lake. Upon viewing the valley, Young declared, “This is the place,” and the pioneers began preparations for the tens of thousands of Mormon migrants who would follow them to settle there.", "Two years later, Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, led an exodus of persecuted Mormons from Nauvoo, Illinois, along the western wagon trails in search of religious and political freedom. In July 1847, the 148 initial Mormon pioneers reached Utah’s Valley of the Great Salt Lake. Upon viewing the valley, Young declared, “This is the place,” and the pioneers began preparations for the tens of thousands of Mormon migrants who would follow them and settle there.", "In Utah, July 24 is Pioneer Day, a state holiday commemorating the day in 1847 when the first Mormon settlers, led by Brigham Young, entered the Salt Lake Valley. Today, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and other Mormon groups make up 58% of Utah’s population and 1.7% of the total U.S. adult population, according to the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey , conducted by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life in 2007. The religious tradition, founded in the United States in 1830, has come under increased public scrutiny in recent years as a result of prominent Mormons in the news, such as Mitt Romney, a 2008 Republican presidential primary candidate and former governor of Massachusetts, and Sen. Harry Reid (D-Nev.), the majority leader in the U.S. Senate, as well as the involvement of the LDS church in political issues, such as the recent debate over gay marriage in California.", "The first Mormons arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, and began building Salt Lake City. By 1869, eighty thousands saints (taken from the church's official name, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) had come to Utah.", "Over the next forty years one hundred thousand pioneers came to Utah. Latter-day Saints from as far as Europe and Hawaii traveled into the Salt Lake Valley. From there the Mormons spread across the Great Basin and built five hundred settlements reaching from Canada to Mexico. In 1847 they had settled on land that the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo would bring into the Union the following year. In 1850 it was organized into the Territory of Utah, and the Mormons were mostly left alone in the Great Basin.", "When Joseph Smith was murdered by an anti-Mormon mob in 1844 , Brigham Young was on the East Coast gathering converts and raising money for the construction of an enormous temple in Nauvoo. On his return, Young played a critical role in keeping the savagely persecuted church together by organizing the exodus that would take the Mormons westward, first to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, in 1846 , and finally on to Utah's Salt Lake Valley , where Young and an advance party arrived on July 24, 1847 . Here Young hoped the Mormons would at last find the freedom to worship and live as their faith decreed. Late in 1847 his leadership was confirmed when he was named president and prophet of the church, inheriting the authority of Joseph Smith.", "The city was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young, Isaac Morley, George Washington Bradley and numerous other Mormon followers, who extensively irrigated and cultivated the arid valley. Due to its proximity to the Great Salt Lake, the city was originally named \"Great Salt Lake City\"—the word \"great\" was dropped from the official name in 1868 by the 17th Utah Territorial Legislature. Home to the headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and Temple Square, Salt Lake City was historically considered a holy city by members of the LDS church; Brigham Young called it a \"Kingdom of Heaven on Earth\". Today, however, less than half the population of Salt Lake City proper are members of the LDS Church. ", "In 1847 Brigham Young led a pioneer band of 153 persons into Utah, as \"the promised land,\" and established Salt Lake City. The city grew; the church grew, but Mormonism had a hard road to travel. Many of its teachings were opposed, such as polygamy. The church has abandoned many early practices, with later \"revelations,\" and today Mormons are accepted as people who have the same right as all other Americans, \"freedom to worship God\" as they will.", "In 1897, 50 years after the Mormon pioneers’ arrival, George Edward Anderson photographed the surviving pioneers of 1847. The photograph was taken on July 24, 1897, on the 50th anniversary of the arrival of the pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley. The portrait was taken on Temple Square.", "In 1848 the Mormons migrated to Salt Lake valley, Utah, led by Brigham Young, who there, as a result of a vision, declared it to be the promised land. Mormonism and polygamy flourished, until enforcement of a law against it curbed the system of a man marrying as many women as he could support.", "The first European inhabitants of the area were the Spanish, who surveyed the region in search of mineral wealth. Southern areas�the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas�border on Mexico and have large Hispanic populations. Street names, foods, and annual celebrations attest to strong historical links to Mexico. Many members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (commonly referred to as Mormons) live in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the church�s sphere of influence covers a much broader area. In the mid-1800s, Mormon farmers migrated to the area around Salt Lake City in search of an isolated area where they could practice their religion in peace. The rush to find gold and other precious minerals prompted sporadic movement into the area later in the 1800s.", "As the frontier of the United States expanded westward in the 19th century, many people traveled through the Great Basin on the way to the West Coast. Few decided to settle there permanently. One notable exception was the Mormon pioneers, members of a religious group who began arriving in the area as early as the 1850s. In their search for religious freedom, they settled near the shores of the Great Salt Lake, began raising crops with irrigated farming, and built a settlement that became Salt Lake City, the region�s major urban center.", "Young had a variety of nicknames, among the most popular being \"American Moses,\" (alternatively the \"Modern Moses\" or the \"Mormon Moses\") because, like the Biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was also dubbed the \"Lion of the Lord\" for his bold personality, and was commonly called \"Brother Brigham\" by Latter-day Sa Brigham Young was an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement. He was the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death. He was also the founder of Salt Lake City and the first governor of the Utah Territory, United States. Brigham Young University was named in his honor.", "For two years after Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents. To prevent war, Smith had predicted that the church would go to the West and be established in the tops of the Rocky Mountains. Brigham Young took Smith's advice and led his followers, known in modern times as the Mormon pioneers, to Nebraska and then in 1847 to what became the Utah Territory. As groups (over 60,000) arrived over a period of years, LDS settlers branched out and colonized a large region now known as the Mormon Corridor.", "Before Mormon settlement, the Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute had dwelt in the Salt Lake Valley for thousands of years. At the time of the founding of Salt Lake City, the valley was within the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone; however, occupation was seasonal, near streams emptying from Canyons into the Salt Lake Valley. The land was treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone was ever recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States. The first U.S. explorer in the Salt Lake area is believed to be Jim Bridger in 1825, although others had been in Utah earlier, some as far north as the nearby Utah Valley (the Dominguez-Escalante expedition of 1776 were undoubtedly aware of Salt Lake Valley's existence). U.S. Army officer John C. Frémont surveyed the Great Salt Lake and the Salt Lake Valley in 1843 and 1845. The Donner Party, a group of ill-fated pioneers, had traveled through the Great Salt Lake Valley in August 1846.", "Mormonism is the predominant religious tradition of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity. Joseph Smith founded the movement in Western New York in the 1820s. During the 1830s and 1840s, Mormonism distinguished itself from traditional Protestantism. Mormonism today represents the new, non-Protestant faith taught by Smith in the 1840s. After Smith's death in 1844, most Mormons followed Brigham Young on his westward journey to the area that became the Utah Territory, calling themselves The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Variations not a part of the LDS Church include Mormon fundamentalism, which seeks to maintain practices and doctrines such as polygamy (which the LDS Church abandoned), and various other small independent denominations. ", "Young, however, had not escaped the troubles that plagued the Church in the East. By early 1848, the Mormons’ haven became a U.S. territory after the American victory in the Mexican War. The Mormons had finally found a permanent home along the Great Salt Lake, but its isolation and freedom from persecution was short-lived.", "When Brigham Young led the persecuted American sect of Mormons into the deserts of Utah in 1847, he found refuge in a land that no one else wanted. The determined Mormons, however, made the desert bloom through their hard work and skill. The descendents of these original settlers still make up a majority of Utah's residents", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the LDS Church or, informally, the Mormon Church) is a Christian restorationist church that is considered by its followers to be the restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has established congregations (called wards or branches) and built temples worldwide. According to the church, it has over 74,000 missionaries and a membership of over 15 million. It is ranked by the National Council of Churches as the fourth-largest Christian denomination in the United States. It is the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith during the period of religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening.", "The Mormons settled in the Salt Lake Valley, which at that time was used as a buffer zone between the Shoshones and the Utes, who were at war. Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to develop and cultivate the arid terrain to make it suitable for habitation. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches and schools. Access to water was crucial. Almost immediately, Brigham Young sent out scouting parties to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed in all directions. Church members eventually headed south into present day Arizona and Mexico, west into California, north into Idaho and Canada, and east into Wyoming, settling many familiar communities in those areas.", "an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement. He was the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death, the founder of Salt Lake City and the first governor of the Utah Territory, United States. Brigham Young University was named in his honor.", "By 1847, Harris had broken with Strang and accepted the leadership claims of fellow Book of Mormon witness David Whitmer. Mormon Apostle William E. McLellin organized a Whitmerite congregation in Kirtland, and Harris became a member. By 1851, Harris had accepted another Latter Day Saint factional leader, Gladden Bishop, as prophet and joined Bishop's Kirtland-based organization.[25] In 1855, Harris joined with the last surviving brother of Joseph Smith, William Smith and declared that William was Joseph's true successor. Harris was also briefly intrigued by the \"Roll and Book,\" a supernatural scripture delivered to the Shakers.[26] By the 1860s, all of these organizations had either dissolved or declined. In 1856, his wife Caroline left him to gather with the Mormons in Utah Territory while he remained in Kirtland and gave tours of the temple to curious visitors.[27]", "A traveler heading West who joins the Mormon faith when the Mormons, led by Brigham Young, rescue him from the desert. The adopted father of Lucy Ferrier, he comes to recognize the danger of the Mormons and tries to escape Salt Lake City with Lucy and Jefferson Hope.", "the American religious group that settled Utah under the leadership of Brigham Young and founded Salt Lake City in the 1800s.", "According to church belief, God inspired Brigham Young, Joseph Smith's successor as President of the Church, to call for the Saints (as church members call themselves) to organize and head west, beyond the western frontier of the United States (into what was then Mexico, though the U.S. Army had already captured New Mexico and California in late 1846). During the winter of 1846-47, Latter-day Saint leaders in Winter Quarters and Iowa laid plans for the migration of the large number of Saints, their equipment, and their livestock. It was here that Brigham Young first met Thomas L. Kane, a non-Mormon from Philadelphia with deep personal connections to the Polk administration. Kane obtained permission for the Mormons to winter on Indian territory, and the site was originally called Kanesville. Brigham Young continued to trust Kane throughout his own lifetime, particularly as an intermediary with the often hostile Federal government. This major undertaking was a significant test of leadership capability and the existing administrative network of the recently restructured Church. For his role in the migration, Brigham Young is sometimes referred to as the \"American Moses.\"", "In 1851, under the direction of Charles C. Rich, an apostle, 437 colonists from Utah were sent to found a settlement near the Cajon Pass. The result was San Bernardino, the principal LDS settlement in California along the \"Mormon Corridor\" connecting Utah settlements and the West Coast. It was intended to be a gathering place for immigrants from the Pacific as well as a way station to assist LDS immigration via the Pacific. Latter-day Saints from the gold fields also gathered there. By 1856 about 3,000 settlers lived in San Bernardino, but the colony was plagued by dissension. In 1857, as the U.S. Army approached Utah (see Utah Expedition), Brigham Young instructed the San Bernardino Saints, along with other outlying settlers, to return to Utah. Only a little more than half complied, and many of those who remained drifted from the Church. After the 1857 evacuation, as before, California attracted some Latter-day Saints who were dissatisfied with Brigham Young's relatively authoritarian style of leadership, or with the practice of polygamy, or with the Great Basin itself.", "This church, founded in 1830 in New York by Joseph Smith, had missionaries in Arkansas as early as 1835, but no congregations were organized that early. In 1875, missionaries baptized nearly ninety people in the Des Arc (Prairie County) area, but that entire congregation moved to Utah two years later. Hostility against Mormons abounded in nineteenth-century Arkansas, and their numbers remained small. This animosity may have led, in part, to the 1857 Mountain Meadows Massacre . A wagon train, made up largely of Arkansans, was traveling across Utah when it was attacked by a party of Mormons and some of their Indian allies.", "1846 – Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints began their exodus to the west from Illinois.", "2. A native of Vermont, he was baptized into his new faith in 1832 while living in New York. In the 1840s, he led the other members of his faith to a new home in Utah. Who became leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints after the murder of Joseph Smith in 1844?", "The successive steps of the migration westward were from Ohio to Illinois, Missouri and to Salt Lake City. The trek westward was one of the most romantic of all the world's history. The advanced guard fitted fields and seeded them to grain. The main body following harvested the grain and ground it to flour in a mill erected for their use. It was in Utah they had hopes to build a mountain-hemmed temporal kingdom on earth. The trek of the original founders, however, proved to be important in the expansion of the nation. Senator Smoot, able in congress, was an apostle, and in early life he was a missionary to the Hawaiian Islands.", "On May 26, 1848, he left the Missouri River settlements for good, leading the 1848 migration to what is now Utah. Thereafter he lived and worked in Utah until his death in 1877. He is generally considered to have been the greatest colonizer in the old west.", "Stephen S. Harding, once Governor of Utah Territory was a native of Palmyra and later wrote an account of a visit that he made to the town in 1830 during which he visited with the Smith family, Oliver Cowdery and Martin Harris. About Martin Harris he wrote:" ]

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[ "1755: Dr Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary; in it he defined lexicographer as a harmless drudge.", "In his 1755 dictionary Samuel Johnson defined the lexicographer as “a writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words.” Unfortunately Johnson was uncharacteristically wrong. A lexicographer, if any good, is hardly a drudge, and if bad, is hardly harmless.  ", "In his 1755 dictionary Samuel Johnson defined the lexicographer as “a writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words.” Unfortunately Johnson was uncharacteristically wrong. A lexicographer, if any good, is hardly a drudge, and if bad, is hardly harmless.", "In its choice of authors and of illustrative selections, the Dictionary is a personal work. These give the whole the aspect of both an encyclopaedia and a conduct book. Even though Johnson defined “lexicographer” as “a writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge,” the drudgery of the Dictionary fell into the decade of Johnson’s most important writing and must be seen in part as enabling it. The payment for the Dictionary amounted to relatively little after deductions were made for his six amanuenses and his own expenses. He left his house in Gough Square (now the most famous of Johnson museums) for smaller lodgings in 1759, ending the major decade of his literary activity famous and poor.", "* Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), 18th century poet, essayist, lexicographer and writer of the first Dictionary of the English Language", "\"Lexicographer: a writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge that busies himself in tracing the original and detailing the signification of words\"", "Hitchings's text is alive with colourful anecdote, local and historical reference, details on 18th-century fashion, the rise of commercialism, attitudes to sport and leisure. With amusing and eloquent examples, he brings to life a society under the microscope, using definitions from Johnson's Dictionary to catalogue an intricate portrait of language and social trends. The Dictionary testified to the growth of scientific thought, the influx of foreign influence and the moral and philosophical attitudes of the day. It is the historical record of an age.", "In 1746, a group of publishers approached Johnson with an idea about creating an authoritative dictionary of the English language. A contract with William Strahan and associates, worth 1,500 guineas, was signed on the morning of 18 June 1746. Johnson claimed that he could finish the project in three years. In comparison, the Académie Française had forty scholars spending forty years to complete their dictionary, which prompted Johnson to claim, \"This is the proportion. Let me see; forty times forty is sixteen hundred. As three to sixteen hundred, so is the proportion of an Englishman to a Frenchman.\" Although he did not succeed in completing the work in three years, he did manage to finish it in eight. Some criticised the dictionary, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, who described Johnson as \"a wretched etymologist,\" but according to Bate, the Dictionary \"easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who laboured under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time.\" ", "Samuel Johnson's famous dictionary was published in 1755, 150 years before the Oxford English Dictionary. The legendary scholar, who was born 300 years ago, suffered from Tourette's syndrome, physical pain and insomnia, was blind in one eye and deaf in one ear, had battled tuberculosis and smallpox. Yet he is the second-most quoted writer in the English language, surpassed only by Shakespeare.", "Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose Dictionary of the English Language was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement but was also dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen.", "Immediately after publication \"The Dictionary was enthusiastically written up in important periodicals such as the London Magazine and—none too surprisingly—the Gentleman's Magazine. In the latter it received an eight-page notice\". Reviews, such as they were, proved generous in tone: \"Of the less positive assessments the only properly judicious one came from Adam Smith in the pro-Whig Edinburgh Review ... he wished that Johnson 'had oftener passed his own censure upon those words which are not of approved use, though sometimes to be met with in authors of no mean name'. Furthermore, Johnson's approach was not 'sufficiently grammatical'\".", "Samuel Johnson, poet, satirist, critic, lexicographer, and dyed-in-the-wool conservative was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England, on September 18, 1709. We are quickly approaching the tercentenary of Johnson’s birth; scholars worldwide have been celebrating throughout the year. If someone’s birthday is worth celebrating three hundred years after the fact, inevitably partygoers will spread their praise pretty thick, as praise for Johnson has been spread since James Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson was published in 1791. As a result, legend has sometimes obscured the truth. Among other aspects of his career, Johnson’s contributions to English lexicography are often misunderstood. It serves both Johnson’s legacy and the history of lexicography to revalue his influence on the modern dictionary.", "* 1755 – 15 April: Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published by the group of London booksellers who commissioned it in June 1746. Johnson has been working on the project at his home, 17, Gough Square.", "Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), a leading London intellectual, repeatedly denigrated the \"vile\" Whigs and praised the Tories, even during the times of Whig political supremacy. In his great Dictionary (1755) Johnson defined a Tory as \"one who adheres to the ancient Constitution of the state and the apostolical hierarchy of the Church of England, opposed to a Whig.\" He linked 18th-century Whiggism with 17th-century revolutionary Puritanism, arguing that the Whigs of his day were similarly inimical to the established order of church and state. Johnson recommended that strict uniformity in religious externals was the best antidote to the objectionable religious traits that he linked to Whiggism. ", "* Martinich, A. P. (2003) \"Thomas Hobbes,\" The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660, Second Series, Detroit: Gale, pp. 130-144.", "The word \"malapropism\" (and its earlier variant, \"malaprop\") comes from a character named \"Mrs. Malaprop\" in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's 1775 play The Rivals. Mrs. Malaprop frequently misspeaks (to great comic effect) by using words which don't have the meaning she intends, but which sound similar to words that do. Sheridan presumably chose her name in humorous reference to the word malapropos, an adjective or adverb meaning \"inappropriate\" or \"inappropriately\", derived from the French phrase, mal à propos (literally \"poorly placed\"). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first recorded use of \"malapropos\" in English is from 1630, and the first person known to have used the word \"malaprop\" in the sense of \"a speech error\" is Lord Byron in 1814. ", "Who edited the 18th century French \"Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des metiers\"?", "84. In the last years of the Seventeenth Century there was to be found among the fops and fools of the London coffee-houses one rangy, gangling flitch called Ebenezer Cooke, more ambitious than talented, and yet more talented than prudent, who, like his friends-in-folly, all of whom were supposed to be educating at Oxford or Cambridge, had found the sound of Mother English more fun to game with than her sense to labor over, and so rather than applying himself to the pains of scholarship, had learned the knack of versifying, and ground out quires of couplets after the fashion of the day, afroth with Joves and Jupiters, aclang with jarring rhymes, and string-taut with similes stretched to the snapping-point. —John Barth, The Sot-Weed Factor (1960)", "What a wicked sense of humor this founding father had. In 1722, a series of “charming” letters were delivered to the New-England Courant (one of the first American newspapers) written by a middle-aged widow named Silence Dogood — who was actually young Benjamin Franklin . After being denied publication in the paper, the sly writer took on the alias, and was quickly published. Of hoop skirts, the cheeky Mrs. Dogood wrote:", "\"drudge\" (scullery maid, scutworker, blog author) for \"dredge\" (scrape the bottom of something, such as a river; or coat something in a powder, such as flour or sugar)", "-From an 18th century colonial Virginia ballad titled “Remonstrance”, comparing this date’s centuries-old executed to a contemporary politician (Richard Beale Davis, “The Colonial Virginia Satirist: Mid-Eighteenth-Century Commentaries on Politics, Religion, and Society,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 57, No. 1 (1967))", "The compiler 4 offers two related, if perhaps not altogether complementary, justifications for his undertaking: he aims to provide a waarschouwing [warning, reminder] for his family and to preserve a record of what has happened for posterity. The critical assumptions behind this declaration are familiar to students of eighteenth-century art and literature. The compiler's purpose is both didactic and historical: he converts ephemeral and topical materials--essentially contemporary forms of news commentary--into a satirical and historical review by enclosing them between the vellum or leather covers of his folio.", "The Abridged edition came out in 1756 in two octavo volumes with entries, \"abstracted from the folio edition by the author\", laid out as two columns per page. The abridged version didn't feature the literary quotes, just the author quoted. This made it cheaper to produce and buy. It sold over a thousand copies a year for the next 30 years bringing \"The Dictionary\" to the reach of every literate home.", "On this day in 1740, writing as Captain Hercules Vinegar, Henry Fielding summoned poet laureate Colley Cibber (portrait) to court, charged with the murder of the English language. Fielding was a lawyer (soon, a Justice of the Peace) and a notorious wag; Cibber was a joke to many, not least for his rewrite of Shakespeare's Richard III: the murder charge would have been popular.", "a person who writes, especially for a living. Dickens was a famous English writer; the writer of this letter. skrywer, outeur كاتِب писател escritor spisovatel, -ka; pisatel, -ka der/die Schriftsteller(in), der/die Schreiber(in) forfatter συγγραφέας , συντάκτης escritor kirjanik, kirjutaja نویسنده؛ مولف kirjailija écrivain/-aine סופר , כותב लेखक pisac író penulis rithöfundur scrittore , scrittrice 作家 작가 rašytojas rakstnieks; autors penulis; pengarang schrijver forfatter , skribent pisarz ليكوال، موْ لف: ليكونكى escritor scriitor писатель ; автор spisovateľ, -ka; pisateľ, -ka pisec književnik författare, skribent ผู้เขียน yazar 作家 письменник; автор لکھنے والا tác giả 作家", "Thackeray originated the modern meaning of the word snob\" in a series of essays for Punch magazine, the British humor periodical. Those essays are collected in this volume. With the organizational drive of a naturalist, Thackeray classifies the varied manifestations of snobbery in society—many of which remain all too common today.", "d e u c e (doos ) n . devil; dickens (used as a mild oath).", "This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia , a publication in the public domain .", "In 1760 Goldsmith began to publish a series of letters in the Public Ledger under the title The Citizen of the World. Purportedly written by a Chinese traveler in England named Lien Chi, they used this fictional outsider's perspective to comment ironically and at times moralistically on British society and manners. It was inspired by the earlier essay series Persian Letters by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu.", "Mid 19th century; earliest use found in The Westminster Review. From Hellenistic Greek πωγωνοτροϕία (Plutarch) from ancient Greek πωγωνο-, combining form of πώγων beard + -τροϕία.", "British philosopher and historian whose emphasis on feeling in his writing on history, moral philosophy, and aesthetics helped to establish the eighteenth-century culture of sensibility. His most important work is Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (1711). [MW]", "In 1759, he came with a minor work titled, âEnquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europeâ. Following year, i.e. in 1760, he started publishing âThe Citizen of the Worldâ in the Public Ledger, a magazine run by John Newberry. The letters provided a fictional perspective and moralistically and ironically commented on the British society and manners. These essays were initially claimed to be written by a Chinese philosopher Lien Chi." ]

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[ ", Mihail Sergeevič Gorbačëv, IPA : [mʲɪxʌˈil sʲɪrˈgʲejɪvʲɪʨ gərbʌˈʨof], commonly written as Mikhail Gorbachev; born March 2 , 1931 ) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991. His attempts at reform helped to end the Cold War , and also ended the political supremacy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and dissolved the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990.", "Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov ( Russian : Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв, commonly anglicized as Gorbachev; born March 2, 1931) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 until its demise in 1991. The first Soviet leader to be born after the revolution , he tried to reform the Soviet Union with his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), attempting to infuse the communist society and economy with a market dynamism.", "The President of the Soviet Union (), officially called President of the USSR () or President of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (), was the head of state of the Soviet Union from 15 March 1990 to 25 December 1991. Mikhail Gorbachev was the only person to occupy the office. Gorbachev was also General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between March 1985 and August 1991. He derived an increasingly greater share of his power from his position as president until he finally resigned as General Secretary after the Soviet coup d'état attempt of 1991.", "Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (; ; born 2 March 1931) is a former Soviet statesman. He was the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991 when the party was dissolved. He served as the country's head of state from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991 (titled as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1988 to 1989, as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet from 1989 to 1990, and as President of the Soviet Union from 1990 to 1991). He was the only General Secretary in the history of the Soviet Union to have been born after the October Revolution.", "Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (Russian: Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв, pronounced;born 2 March 1931) was the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until 1991, and also the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991. He was the only Soviet leader to have been born after the October Revolution of 1917.", "Formally established in 1922, at its height the USSR was composed of fifteen republics, the largest of which was Russia. In 1987, seventy years after the 1917 revolution that established a communist state in Russia, the Soviet Union was in decline. Severe economic problems combined with an international arms race and evidence of imperial overstretch made reforms necessary if the unified nation was to survive. Taking office as chief of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the leader of the USSR in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to implement the necessary reforms through his dual policies of \"perestroika,\" or economic restructuring, and \"glasnost,\" or political openness. At the same time, he applied his \" new thinking \" to Soviet foreign policy, hoping to end the Cold War with the United States and the strains the conflict had placed on the economy.", "Main articles: Cold War (1985–1991) , History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991) , Dissolution of the Soviet Union , 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt , and Commonwealth of Independent States Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with U.S. President Ronald Reagan .Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in Beyond Oil that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so that the USSR's hard currency reserves became depleted. [27 ]", "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords , which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol , which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.", "Gorbachev initiated the process of change in the Soviet Union - what was later called perestroika (1985-1991). Glasnost and openness became perestroika’s driving force. A program of reforms was planned to put the nation’s economy on track to a socially oriented market economy This policy put an end to the totalitarian regime in the USSR: in 1990 state power in the USSR moved from the communist party to the Congress of People’s Deputies of the USSR - the first parliament in Soviet history, made on the basis of free, democratic and contested election. the Congress of People’s Deputies elected Gorbachev President of the USSR on March 15, 1990.", "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and  Belarus  (formerly Byelorussia), signed the  Belavezha Accords , which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States  (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia  signed the  Alma-Ata Protocol , which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded to the inevitable and resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the  Russian tricolor  was raised in its place.", "Soviet official, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1985 to 1991 and president of the Soviet Union in 1990–91. His efforts to democratize his country’s political system and decentralize its economy led to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In part because he ended the Soviet Union’s postwar domination of eastern Europe, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990", "Mikhail S(ergeyevich) [mi-kahyl sur-gey-uh-vich,, mi-keyl;; Russian myi-khuh-yeel syir-gye-yi-vyich] /mɪˈkaɪl sɜrˈgeɪ ə vɪtʃ,, mɪˈkeɪl;; Russian myɪ xʌˈyil syɪrˈgyɛ yɪ vyɪtʃ/ (Show IPA), born 1931, Soviet political leader: general secretary of the Communist Party 1985–91; president of the Soviet Union 1988–91; Nobel Peace Prize 1990.", "In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well. Central authorities initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup, resulting in the banning of the Communist Party. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation is the legal successor of the USSR. ", "Gorbachev's hopes of a new Union were further hit when the Congress of People's Deputies dissolved itself on 5 September. Though Gorbachev and the representatives of eight republics (excluding Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) signed an agreement on forming a new economic community on 18 October, events were overtaking Gorbachev. [14] The Soviet Union collapsed with dramatic speed during the latter part of 1991, as one republic after another declared independence. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow, and he was challenged even there by Yeltsin. Following the coup, Yeltsin suspended all CPSU activities on Russian territory and closed the Central Committee building at Staraya Square . He also ordered the Russian flag raised alongside the Soviet flag at the Kremlin . In the waning months of 1991, Russia began taking over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Kremlin.", "Elections to the new Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. Gorbachev, as General Secretary of the Communist Party, could be forced to resign at any moment if the communist elite became dissatisfied with him. In order to proceed with reforms opposed by the majority of the communist party, Gorbachev aimed to consolidate power in a new position, President of the Soviet Union , which was independent from the CPSU and the soviets (councils) and whose holder could be impeached only in case of direct violation of the law [4] . On March 15, 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive president. At the same time, the constitution was changed to deprive the CPSU of political power.", "Soviet politician who was general secretary of the Communist party from 1985 to 1991 and president of the USSR from 1989 to 1991, ushering in an era of unprecedented glasnost and perestroika. He won the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize.", "The early 1980s  were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of  Korean Air Lines Flight 007  (1983), and the  “Able Archer” NATO military exercises  (1983). The United States increased  diplomatic, military, and economic pressures  on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from  economic stagnation . In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader  Mikhail Gorbachev  introduced the liberalizing reforms of  perestroika (“reorganization”, 1987) and  glasnost  (“openness”, ca. 1985) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in  Eastern Europe , especially  Poland . Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was  a wave of revolutions  that peacefully (with the exception of the  Romanian Revolution ) overthrew all of the Communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe. The  Communist Party of the Soviet Union  itself lost control and was banned following an  abortive coup attempt  in August 1991. This in turn led to  the formal dissolution of the USSR  in December 1991 and the collapse of Communist regimes in other countries such as  Mongolia ,  Cambodia  and  South Yemen . The United States remained as the world’s only superpower.", "The final blow to Gorbachev's vision was effectively dealt by a Ukrainian referendum on December 1st, where the Ukrainian people voted for independence. The Presidents of Russia , Ukraine and Belarus met in Belovezh Forest, near Minsk , Belarus , on December 8th, founding the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring the end of the Soviet Union in the Belavezha Accords . Gorbachev was presented with a fait accompli and reluctantly agreed with Yeltsin , on December 17th, to dissolve the Soviet Union . Gorbachev resigned on Christmas Day and the Soviet Union ceased to exist on the 1st January 1992. Gorbachev suffered the indignity of Yeltsin taking over his office on December 27th. [2]", "Gorbachev was elected to the General Secretariat by the Politburo on 11 March 1985. By the mid-to-late 1980s Gorbachev had launched the policies of perestroika (literally meaning \"reconstruction\", but varies) and glasnost (\"openness\" and \"transparency\"). The dismantling of the principal defining features of communism in 1988 and 1989 in the Soviet Union led to the unintended consequence of breaking-up the Soviet state into 15 successor states after the failed August Coup of 1991 led by Gennady Yanayev.", "Mikhail Gorbachev served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991. Before he assumed office, much attention went to building up the nation’s military at the expense of development within the Soviet Union , which ultimately weakened the economy. Gorbachev was instrumental in several reforms which changed the military, cultural and political climates, which eventually led to his downfall.", "In a series of summit talks (1985–88), Gorbachev improved relations with U.S. President Ronald Reagan , with whom he signed an Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) arms limitation treaty in 1987. By 1989 he had brought about the end of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (see Afghanistan War ) and had sanctioned the end of the Communist monopoly on political power in Eastern Europe. For his contributions to reducing East-West tensions, he was awarded the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize. By 1990, however, Gorbachev's perestroika program had failed to deliver significant improvement in the economy, and the elimination of political and social control had released latent ethnic and national tensions in the Baltic states , in the constituent republics of Armenia , Georgia , Ukraine , and Moldova , and elsewhere.", "a former Soviet statesman; served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985-91; last head of state of the Soviet Union, serving from 1988-91; important in his infectious impact on Hungary and the DDR and in his clear unwillingness to follow the Brezhnev doctrine; pic of him checking his watch w/ Hoenecker, illustrates \"time punishes those who don't move with the times\"", "Yeltsin was demoted to a deputy minister for construction but then staged the most remarkable comeback in Soviet history. His popularity with Soviet voters as an advocate of democracy and economic reform had survived his fall, and he took advantage of Gorbachev’s introduction of competitive elections to the U.S.S.R. Congress of People’s Deputies (i.e., the new Soviet parliament) to win a seat in that body in March 1989 with a landslide vote from a Moscow constituency . A year later, on May 29, 1990, the parliament of the Russian S.F.S.R. elected him president of the Russian republic against Gorbachev’s wishes. In his new role, Yeltsin publicly supported the right of Soviet republics to greater autonomy within the Soviet Union , took steps to give the Russian republic more autonomy, and declared himself in favour of a market-oriented economy and a multiparty political system .", "He was the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1985 until its collapse in 1991.", "Became the leader of the USSR in 1985. He proposed major reforms and adopted policies of greater openness (glasnost and perestroika) and allowed Soviet-bloc states greater independence. In 1991, there was an unsuccessful attempted overthrow of his government. The USSR dissolved in 1991 with his resignation.", "the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1985 until its collapse in 1991", "Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (; ;  – 2 July 1989) was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War. He served as Minister of Foreign Affairs (1957–1985) and as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1985–1988). Gromyko was responsible for many top decisions on Soviet foreign policy until he retired in 1988. In the 1940s Western pundits called him Mr. Nyet (\"Mr. No\") or \"Grim Grom\", because of his frequent use of the Soviet veto in the UN Security Council.", "1985 Andrei Gromyko is appointed the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union", "Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999 after the end of Communism.", "Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (; ;  – 9 February 1984) was a Soviet politician and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 12 November 1982 until his death fifteen months later.", "He became the Party's first leader to have been born after the Russian Revolution of 1917 . As de facto ruler of the Soviet Union, he tried to reform the stagnating Communist Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost (\"openness\"), perestroika (\"restructuring\"), and uskoreniye (\"acceleration\", of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986.", "Dramatic changes, both political and economic, occurred during the late 1980s and early ’90s, ushered in by the adoption of perestroika (“restructuring”) and glasnost (“openness”). On the economic side the planned, highly centralized command economy was to be replaced by the progressive introduction of elements of a market economy, a change that proved difficult to achieve and was accompanied by declining production in many sectors and increasing distribution problems. In the political sphere, amendments to the constitution in 1988 replaced the old Supreme Soviet with the Congress of People’s Deputies of the U.S.S.R. The new congress had 2,250 members; one-third of these were elected on a constituency basis, one-third represented the political territories (as in the old Supreme Soviet), and the remaining third came from “all-union social organizations” such as the trade unions, the CPSU, and the Academy of Sciences . Voters were presented with a choice of candidates, and many non-Communists were elected. The Congress of People’s Deputies elected a new Supreme Soviet of 542 members and also chose the chairman of that body, who was to be the executive president of the U.S.S.R. Congresses of People’s Deputies were also established in each republic." ]

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[ "Profiling Spartacus, the gladiator who led a slave revolt against Rome from 73 to 71 B.C. and whose story was dramatized in Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film starring Kirk Douglas. In this hour, re-creations follow the onetime Roman soldier and 70 or so other escapees from a gladiator school. At first, this ragtag band “doesn't have much choice except to fight dirty,” says historian Crispin Swayne. But guerrilla victories swell his army to 100,000, and it will take Rome two years to stop him.", "73 B.C. - Slave Rebellion / Spartacus - \"In 73 B.C., a third slave rebellion broke out, under the leadership of a gladiator from Thrace named Spartacus (d. 71 B.C.). It raged over Italy for two years before being put down by Pompey and by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus was Rome's richest man, who had gotten rich by business practices so questionable he would probably have felt right at home on Wall Street.\" [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 85] ", "Profiling Spartacus, the gladiator who led a slave revolt against Rome from 73 to 71 B.C. and whose story was dramatized in Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film starring Kirk Douglas. In this hour, re-creations follow the onetime Roman soldier and 70 or so other es", "Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator who commanded a massive slave army during the Third Servile War, the largest and most successful slave rebellion in Roman history. The uprising began in 73 B.C. when Spartacus and a small band of slaves escaped from a gladiator school by using kitchen utensils as weapons. Slaves from across the Roman countryside soon flocked to join the revolt, and the rebel army caused a panic in the Roman senate after it defeated a militia at Mt. Vesuvius and two legions near Mt. Garganus.", "In 73 BCE, a Thracian slave leads a revolt at a gladiatorial school run by Lentulus Batiatus. The uprising soon spreads across the Italian Peninsula involving thousand of slaves. The plan is to acquire sufficient funds to acquire ships from Silesian pirates who could then transport them to other lands from Brandisium in the south. The Roman Senator Gracchus schemes to have Marcus Publius Glabrus, Commander of the garrison of Rome, lead an army against the slaves who are living on Vesuvius. When Glabrus is defeated his mentor, Senator and General Marcus Licinius Crassus is greatly embarrassed and leads his own army against the slaves. Spartacus and the thousands of freed slaves successfully make their way to Brandisium only to find that the Silesians have abandoned them. They then turn north and must face the might of Rome. Written by garykmcd", "died 71 bc, Thracian slave, who led an ultimately unsuccessful revolt of gladiators against Rome (73–71 bc)", "The Third Servile War (73–71 BC), also called the Gladiator War and the War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Roman Servile Wars.", "Little is known about this fighting slave from Thrace beyond his role in the spectacular revolt that became known as the Third Servile War (73–71 B.C.). But sources agree that Spartacus had once fought for Rome as a legionnaire and was enslaved and sold to become a gladiator . In 73 B.C., he and a group of fellow gladiators rioted and escaped. The 78 men who followed him swelled to an army of 70,000 men, who terrified the citizens of Rome as they plundered Italy from Rome to Thurii in present-day Calabria.", "In 73 BC, the Thracian gladiator Spartacus , along with his allies Crixus , Oenomaus  and Gannicus , grew tired of the growing brutality given towards them and all other slaves by the Romans . He allegedly told the other gladiators, \"If we must fight, we might as well fight for freedom\".", "Spartacus (c. 109-71 B.C.) was a gladiator from Thrace, most famous as a leader in a major slave revolt. This uprising against the Roman Republic, commonly referred to as the Third Servile War, saw Spartacus joined by a number of Gauls in fighting against Roman dominance. Although relatively little is known about him beyond his role in the war, it is generally believed that he was a gladiator and that his military leadership was impressive.", "A Thracian by birth, Spartacus served in the Roman Army, perhaps deserted, led bandit raids, and was caught and sold as a slave. With about 70 fellow gladiators he escaped a gladiatorial training school at Capua in 73 and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius, where other runaway slaves joined the band. After defeating two Roman forces in succession, the rebels overran most of southern Italy. Ultimately their numbers grew to at least 90,000. Spartacus defeated the two consuls for the year 72 and fought his way northward toward the Alps, hoping to be able to disperse his soldiers to their homelands once they were outside Italy. When his men refused to leave Italy, he returned to Lucania and sought to cross his forces over to Sicily but was thwarted by the new Roman commander sent against him, Marcus Licinius Crassus. Hemmed in by Crassus' eight legions, Spartacus' army divided; the Gauls and Germans were defeated first, and Spartacus himself ultimately fell fighting in pitched battle. Pompey's army intercepted and killed many slaves who were escaping northward, and 6,000 prisoners were crucified by Crassus along the Appian Way.", "Spartacus summary: Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator. Little is known about his life before he became one of the slave leaders in the Third Servile War, the slave uprising war against the Roman Republic. Spartacus may have served in the Roman Army. It is generally believed he deserted, and some sources say he led bandit raids. What is known is that he was captured and sold into slavery.", "As well as being the first to break out on the mainland, this was by far the most dangerous of the slave revolts. Under the leadership of an energetic and charismatic gladiator called Spartacus, it posed a serious threat to ordered life in the area. Roman forces sent against the slaves were defeated, and the revolt spread over a wider and wider area. As the slave army marched northward, Rome itself began to feel threatened. ", "Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves—originally a small cadre of about 78 (primarily Thracian, Gallic and Germanic escaped gladiators) which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children—wandered throughout and raided Italy with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus. The able-bodied adults of this band proved a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed that it could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and to flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself.", "It was not the governing class alone that would react in horror to the prospect of a slave insurrection. Whatever the grievances of men disenfranchised and dispossessed by Sulla, they would have found unthinkable any common enterprise with Thracian or Gallic slaves. It causes no surprise that Marxist historians and writers have idealized Spartacus as a champion of the masses and leader of the one genuine social revolution in Roman history. That, however, is excessive. Spartacus and his companions sought to break the bonds of their own grievous oppression. There is no sign that they were motivated by ideological considerations to overturn the social structure. The sources make clear that Spartacus endeavored to bring his forces out of Italy toward freedom rather than to reform or reverse Roman society. The achievements of Spartacus are no less formidable for that. The courage, tenacity, and ability of the Thracian gladiator who held Roman forces at bay for some two years and built a handful of followers into an assemblage of over 120,000 men can only inspire admiration.", "According to the surviving sources, Spartacus was from Thrace, an area in southeast Europe that the Romans were often trying to subjugate during the first century B.C.. He appears to have served in a Roman auxiliary unit for a time, deserted and became either a bandit or insurgent against the Romans. At some point he was captured, brought to Rome and sold as a slave to a man referred to at times as “Vatia.” This man owned a gladiator school in Capua, about 120 miles (193 kilometers) southeast of Rome. While at the school, Spartacus helped organize a breakout that led to more than 70 gladiators escaping armed with knives, cleavers and other makeshift weapons they got from the kitchen.", "It may have been pure brutality that convinced 78 gladiators to rebel at the school of Lentulus Batiatus, near Capua, in 73 bc. The gladiators, who had been severely treated, sallied from their quarters and overpowered their guards with cleavers and spits seized from some kitchen, reported Roman historian Plutarch. After scrambling over the school’s walls, the slaves were fortunate to find a wagon transporting gladiators’ weapons to another city. Armed with these familiar–if not military-issue–weapons, the little band had suddenly become a dangerous fighting force.", ", a slave revolt broke out lead by perhaps the most famous of all slaves in history –  Spartacus . Crassus took the field against Spartacus and won a major victory for which Pompey received the credit.", "* Third Servile War begins with gladiators, led by the Thracian Spartacus, breaking out of a gladiatorial training school in Capua and forming an army, made up of runaway slaves and others with little to lose. With some 70,000 men, Spartacus rampages throughout Campania, assaulting the prosperous cities of Cumae, Nola and Nuceria.", "Florus (2.8.8) described him as one \"who, from a Thracian mercenary, had become a Roman soldier, that had deserted and became enslaved, and afterward, from consideration of his strength, a gladiator\". The authors refer to the Thracian tribe of the Maedi, which occupied the area on the southwestern fringes of Thrace, along its border with the Roman province of Macedonia - present day south-western Bulgaria. Plutarch also writes that Spartacus' wife, a prophetess of the Maedi tribe, was enslaved with him.", "In these altercations Spartacus proved to be an excellent tactician, suggesting that he may have had previous military experience. Though the rebels lacked military training, they displayed a skillful use of available local materials and unusual tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies. They spent the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum. The distance between these locations and the subsequent events indicate that the slaves operated in two groups commanded by the remaining leaders Spartacus and Crixus.", "\"The gladiators took refuge atop the mountain, which was accessible only by one narrow and difficult passage. By keeping this passageway guarded, the Roman general thought that he had caught the gladiators in a trap, since the mountain top was surrounded on all other sides with steep and slippery cliffs. On the mountaintop was a crater, in which grew a profusion of wild vines. Cutting as many vines as they needed, the gladiators twisted them into ropes, and constructed ladders long enough to reach the bottom of the cliffs. By this means they all descended except for one man, who remained at the top long enough to lower their weapons; then he also descended. The Romans had failed to notice what was happening, so the gladiators decided to attack them by surprise. They stormed into the rear of the Roman camp and captured it. Many of the slaves in that region now revolted against their masters and joined the rebel gladiators. After Spartacus defeated the army that had been sent to subdue him, the Roman senate dispatched two larger armies against the slaves\".", "* 71 BC – Spartacus, leader of a slave rebellion against the Roman Empire. Although he was presumed killed in battle during the Third Servile War, his body was never found and his fate remains unknown. ", "* Third Servile War ends; Slave rebellion under leadership of Spartacus is crushed by a Roman army under Marcus Licinius Crassus. Slaves taken prisoner are crucified all naked along the Via Appia.", "A gladiator (, \"swordsman\", from , \"sword\") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death.", "In early times they were actually soldiers, captives taken in war, and fought naturally with the weapons and equipment to which they were accustomed. When the professionally trained gladiators arose, they were given the old names, and were called Samnites, Thracians, etc., according to their arms and tactics. In much later times victories over distant peoples were celebrated with combats in which the weapons and methods of war of the conquered were shown to the people of Rome; thus, after the conquest of Britain esseddrii exhibited in the arena the tactics of chariot fighting which Caesar had described generations before in his Commentaries.", "Slave insurrections were not really new to Rome. Extreme cruelty to slaves had sparked a revolt on the island of Sicily in 135 bc. More than 70,000 slaves had taken up arms and effectively battled local militia until a Roman army triumphed over the rebels two years later. A second servile war erupted on the island in 104 bc, when 40,000 slaves rampaged through its farmlands. After four years of bloody fighting, the last remnants of that rebel horde were captured by Roman consul Manius Aquillius and shipped to Rome to fight wild beasts in the arena.", "* The Siege of Alesia in 52 BC, where Gaius Julius Caesar, leading roughly 50,000 Roman soldiers, laid siege to a rebel Gaul army consisting of roughly 85,000 infantrymen and 15,000 cavalry led under Vercingetorix in the fortress of Alesia. The Belgae tribe attempted to relieve the siege with an army of 260,000 warriors. The Romans, through the personal leadership of Titus Labienus, wrought a terrific slaughter upon the Belgae; this demoralising event led the defenders at Alesia to yield, ending Vercingetorix's rebellion.", "The ex-gladiator fought for over two years and defeated several Roman armies. However, while trying to escape from Italy (at the port city of Brundisium / Brindisi, where the Appian road ended); he unwittingly moved his forces into Apulia / Calabria. This allowed the Romans to pin his forces in between two of their armies. After their defeat, the slaves were deemed no longer deserving of life. In 71 B.C., about 6,000 of them were crucified, starting at Rome, along a 124-mile (200 kilometer) stretch of the Appian.", "After the sack of Rome left the plebeians in pitiful condition, they were forced to borrow large sums of money from the patricians, and once again became the poor debtor class of Rome. Manlius, the hero of Rome, fought for them. Livy says, with some inaccuracy, that he was the first patrician to act as a populist (popularis). Seeing a centurion led to prison for debt, he freed him with his own money, and even sold his estate to relieve other poor debtors, while he accused the Senate of embezzling public money. He was charged with aspiring to kingly power, and condemned by the comitia, but not until the assembly had adjourned to a place outside the walls, where they could no longer see the Capitol which he had saved. The Senate condemned him to death in 385 BC, and he was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock one year later. He is considered the second martyr in the cause of social reform at Rome.", "This high concentration and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars, respectively, erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious civil disturbances by the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome. This would all change with the Third Servile War.", "A Roman slave of the first century b.c. He led an insurrection of slaves that defeated several Roman armies before being crushed." ]

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[ "Duke of Windsor was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 8 March 1937, for the Prince Edward, former King Edward VIII, following his abdication in December 1936. The dukedom takes its name from the town where Windsor Castle, a residence of English monarchs since the time of Henry I, following the Norman Conquest, is situated. Windsor has been the house name of the Royal Family since 1917.", "Edward, Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII of England, and his wife Wallis Simpson, are seen, June 3, 1937, during their wedding, in France. Edward VIII abdicated because of his love affair with American-born divorcee Wallis Simpson, whom he could not marry without giving up the throne. After his abdication, he became Duke of Windsor and married the twice-divorced Mrs. Simpson, who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield. They spent their lives in France.", "The Duke of Windsor, once King Edward VIII, abdicated in 1936 after constitutional objections to his plans to marry the twice-divorced Wallis Simpson. He was succeeded to the throne by George VI, father of the present Queen.", "Edward VIII (1894-1972) was King of England for only one year, 1936, abdicating the throne to marry the \"woman I love,\" the twice-divorced Wallis Simpson. He was Duke of Windsor after his abdication.", "Edward VIII became King of Great Britain in January, 1936 on the death of his father and abdicated the throne in December of the same year to marry American Wallis Simpson. He is the only British monarch to willingly abdicate. Although given the title Duke of Windsor in 1937, he lived abroad for most of the remainder of his life.", "On the same day as the abdication, King George VI bestowed upon Edward the family name of Windsor. Thus, Edward became the Duke of Windsor and when he married, Wallis became the Duchess of Windsor.", "Upon the abdication, on 11 December 1936, the Duke was proclaimed Sovereign, assuming the style and title King George VI to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy. His first act was to confer upon his brother the title HRH The Duke of Windsor. Three days after his accession he invested the Queen with the Order of the Garter. [5]", "And so Edward VIII would be Edward Windsor, until he became Duke of Windsor on his abdication less than a year into his 1936 reign.", "Prior to his accession to the throne, Edward VIII held the titles of Prince Edward of York, Prince Edward of York and Cornwall, Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, and Prince of Wales (all with the style Royal Highness). After his abdication he reverted to the style of a son of the sovereign, The Prince Edward, and was created Duke of Windsor on 8 March 1937. During World War II (1939–45) he was the Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Bahamas .", "It is worth noting that Edward was actually granted the title Duke of Windsor on December 12, 1936 (the day after his abdication). The Duke mentions in his book, A King's Story, that it was the first act of George VI's reign, and it was proclaimed at the new King's Accession Privy Council that his brother would be known as \"His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor\" and that he had recreated him a Knight of the Garter. However, the formal letters patent were not signed until March 8, 1937.", "(Biography) 1894–1972, king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1936; son of George V and brother of George VI. He abdicated in order to marry an American divorcée, Mrs Wallis Simpson (1896–1986); created Duke of Windsor (1937)", "In 1936, the prince succeeded his father, George V, becoming King Edward VIII. He was a popular king, although those who worked around him found him irresponsible in regard to his official papers. On December 11, 1936, he abdicated the throne in the face of opposition to his proposed marriage to Simpson, proclaiming to the public, \"I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love.\" Edward was then given the title of Duke of Windsor, and in 1937, he married Simpson in a small private ceremony in France.", "The King's desire to marry a woman who had two living ex-husbands threatened to cause a constitutional crisis in the United Kingdom and the Dominions, and ultimately led to his abdication in December 1936 to marry \"the woman I love\". After the abdication, the former king was created Duke of Windsor by his brother and successor, King George VI. Edward married Wallis six months later, after which she was formally known as the Duchess of Windsor, without the style \"Her Royal Highness\". She was instead styled as \"Her Grace\", a style normally reserved only for non-royal dukes and duchesses.", "England�s Duke of Windsor/Edward VIII: only British monarch to voluntarily abdicate the throne; died May 28, 1972", "1937 Britain's Duke of Windsor married American divorcee Wallis Simpson in France following his abdication from the throne as Edward VIII.", "Note: Edward VIII died as Duke of Windsor at the age of 77 years and 340 days, almost 36 years after his abdication.", "After his abdication, he reverted to the style of a son of the Sovereign, The Prince Edward, and was created Duke of Windsor on 8 March 1937. During World War II, he was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France, but after private accusations that he held pro-Nazi sympathies, was moved to the Bahamas as Governor and Commander-in-Chief. After the war, he was never given another official appointment, and spent the remainder of his life in retirement.          ", "Edward VIII, or David as he is more usually known before ascending the throne, decides that his love for an American divorcee is stronger than his desire to serve the United Kingdom as its head of state. He abdicates the throne, leaving his unprepared younger brother to take over the reins. He and the double-divorcee, socialite Wallace Simpson, are granted the title 'Duke and Duchess of Windsor'. They live largely abroad, finding that they are never welcomed by David's abandoned subjects in the UK, are are kept out of the way with a posting to Bermuda during the Second World War, primarily due to their apparent sympathy for the Nazi cause.", "The widespread unwillingness to accept Simpson as the King's consort, and Edward's refusal to give her up, led to his abdication in December 1936. He remains the only British monarch to have voluntarily renounced the throne since the Anglo-Saxon period. He was succeeded by his brother Albert, who took the regnal name of George VI. Edward was given the title His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor following his abdication, and he married Simpson the following year. They remained married until his death 35 years later.", "At the death of his father in 1936, the future George VI's brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII. However, less than a year later Edward expressed his desire to marry the twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. For political and religious reasons, the British Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, advised Edward that he could not marry Mrs Simpson and remain king. So, Edward abdicated in order to marry. By reason of this abdication, unique in the history of the British Isles (previous abdications were forced by military or political pressures), George VI ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor.", "1936 - On 10 December Edward signs the Instrument of Abdication over his wish to marry Mrs Wallis Simpson. Witnessed by all his brothers, it is a simple declaration of his intent to renounce the throne for himself and all his descendants. He is subsequently created Duke of Windsor.", "Famous for:  Abdicating to marry Wallis Simpson.  Edward – known as David – was a popular Prince of Wales, though a bit of a playboy.  His desire to marry twice-divorced American Mrs Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis, largely because the monarch was Head of the Church of England, which officially opposed marriage to divorcees whose ex-spouses were still alive.  Edward chose to abdicate.  It subsequently emerged that he held Nazi sympathies.  Edward and Wallis married, were created the Duke and Duchess of Windsor and lived most of their lives in France.  The Duchess of Windsor died in 1986 and was buried alongside her husband.", "Edward VIII is the only British monarch to have voluntarily relinquished the throne. He signed the instrument of abdication on 10 December 1936. The British Parliament passed His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the next day and, on its receiving Royal Assent from Edward VIII, he legally ceased to be King in all but one of his realms. His abdication as King of Ireland occurred one day later. After Lady Jane Grey and Edward V , he is the third shortest-reigning monarch in British history, and like them, he too was never crowned.", "1936 – Facing increased opposition to his plans to marry twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson, Edward VIII abdicated the throne, becoming the first British monarch to voluntarily do so since the Anglo-Saxon period.", "When King Edward abdicated the throne to marry Wallis Simpson in 1936, Prince Albert, Duke of York ascended the throne. He chose to reign as King George VI, his full name was Albert Frederick Arthur George.", "The Prince of Wales succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, King George V, but abdicated on 11 December 1936. His brother, the Duke of York was proclaimed King George VI two days later.", "World War I occurred during George's reign. Due to the family's German connections, the Royalty began to become unpopular; George's cousin, Wilhelm II, was especially despised. In 1917, to appease the public, George changed the Royal House's name from the German-sounding Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to the more English Windsor.", "King Edward VIII has renounced the Throne, and will be succeeded by the Duke of York.", "Edward lived for another 35 years, but the rest of his life, though far from uneventful, served as an epilogue to the abdication crisis. He left England for Europe immediately after the abdication and, as soon as her divorce became final, married Wallis on June 3, 1937. Edward was created duke of Windsor upon his brother's succession; several months later he - but not his wife - was granted the title of \"Royal Highness,\" a slight which hurt the duke deeply and which he continued to feel for the rest of his life.", "King George V died on 20 January 1936, and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII. The next day, he broke royal protocol by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James's Palace in the company of the then still-married Simpson. [33] Edward became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council . [34]", "LONDON, Sunday, May 28--The Duke of Windsor, who gave up the British throne in 1936 to marry an American divorcee, died in his home near Paris early today, a Buckingham Palace spokesman announced here. The Duke was 77 years old.", "His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor (12 December 1936 / 8 March 1937 to 28 May 1972)." ]

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[ "On 12th April 1961, Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space. Gagarin's spacecraft, Vostok 1, completed one orbit of the earth, and landed about two hours after launch.", "On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics held only the day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. [9] Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. [8] On April 20 Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. [10] Johnson responded on the following day, concluding that \"we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership.\" [11] His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future to make it possible that the United States could achieve it first. [11]", "Yuri Gagarin (March 9, 1934 – March 27, 1968) – Soviet cosmonaut who on April 12, 1961 became the first man in space and the first human to orbit Earth.", "On April 12, 1961, Soviet pilot and cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to journey into outer space when his spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth.", "Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (; 9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Russian Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961.", "Caption: First US manned space flight, 1961. Alan Shepard (1923-1998), on board the Freedom 7 spacecraft capsule just prior to the launch of the Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR-3) mission, on 5th May 1961. MR-3 was part of the Mercury program and the first American mission to put a human in Space. It made Shepard the first American in space, and the second person worldwide after Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin - who had made his flight in April of that year. Shepherd's flight lasted less than 16 minutes, reaching a height of 187 kilometres. Unlike Gagarin, Shepherd did not orbit the Earth. Photographed on 5th May 1961, at Launch Complex 5 (LC-5), Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA.", "May 5, 1961. Just 23 days after Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union became the first person in space, NASA launched astronaut Alan Shepard aboard the Freedom 7 capsule powered by a Redstone booster to become the first American in space. His historic flight began from Cape Canaveral in Florida lasted 15 minutes, 28 seconds, before a splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean.", "{Also on this date, Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man to travel into outer space in 1961}", "| \"Only On The Web\": President John F. Kennedy answers frustrated questions on the day that Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human being in space, on April 12, 1961.", "Fifty three years ago on May 5, 1961, NASA astronaut Alan Shepard blasted off in a Freedom 7 capsule atop a Mercury-Redstone rocket to become the first American in space.", "On April 12, 1961 the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space on an orbital flight. Alan Shepard became the first American in space on a suborbital flight three weeks later, on May 5, 1961. John Glenn, the third Mercury astronaut to fly, became the first American to reach orbit on February 20, 1962, but only after the Soviets had launched a second cosmonaut, Gherman Titov, into a day-long flight in August 1961. Three more Mercury orbital flights were made, ending on May 16, 1963 with a day-long, 22 orbit flight. However, the Soviet Union ended its Vostok program the next month, with the human spaceflight endurance record set by the 82-orbit, almost 5-day Vostok 5 flight. ", "1961 : Astronaut Alan Shepard Jr. Became America's first space traveler as he made a 15-minute, sub-orbital flight in a Capsule launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla.", "Not only had the Soviet Union launched the first satellite into orbit on October 4, 1957, but in 1959 Soviet rocket scientists launched three successful interplanetary craft into space. The second, Luna II impacted on the Moon in September; Luna III flew behind the Moon in October 1959. On April 12, 1961, Major Yuri Gagarin became the first person to \"leave this planet, enter the void of space, and return.\" By 1961, with the encouragement of the Democratic Party campaign for the presidency, Americans had begun agonizing over the \"missile gap.\" After the elections and the inauguration, on May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy and Congress set a new course for NASA, preempting existing developmental programs and schedules. The United States, before the decade is out, should land \"a man on the Moon\" and return him safely to Earth. 11", "1961 - Alan Shepard became the first American in space when he made a 15 minute suborbital flight.", "1961: First person in space (International definition) and in Earth orbit, Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1, Vostok programme", "1961: On May 5, Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space in his Mercury capsule Freedom 7.", "In a dramatic \"space race\" with the Soviet Union, the U.S. was the first to put man on the moon. U.S. achievements included America's first man in space, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., on May 5, 1961, and John H. Glenn, Jr.'s first manned orbital flight on February 20, 1962. Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin A. Aldrin, Jr., were the first men on the moon. Armstrong's first step on the moon, in the Sea of Tranquility, was made on July 20, 1969, a mere 66 years after Orville Wright's first flight in an airplane.", "In April 1961, weeks into the Kennedy presidency, the Soviet Union launched the first man into orbit. Less than a month later, Alan Shepard became the first American in space with a 15-minute suborbital flight. The idea of a moon landing \"caught my attention, and I knew it would catch Kennedy's,\" Sorensen recalled. \"This is the man who talked about new frontiers. That's what I took to him.\"", "1961: The US put astronaut Alan B Shepard in space for a sub-orbital flight and President J F Kennedy promised that the US would be the first to get a man on the moon.", "1961 Alan Shepard becomes the 1st American to travel into space, making a sub-orbital flight of 15 minutes", "Shepard became the first American in space by making a suborbital flight in May 1961. He went on to fly in the Apollo program and became the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the Moon. Gus Grissom, who became the second American in space, also participated in the Gemini and Apollo programs, but died in January 1967 during a pre-launch test for Apollo 1. Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in February 1962, then quit NASA and went into politics, but returned to space aboard STS-95. Deke Slayton was grounded in 1962, but remained with NASA and flew on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975. Gordon Cooper became the last to fly in Mercury and made its longest flight, and also flew a Gemini mission. Carpenter's Mercury flight was his only trip into space. Schirra flew the third orbital Mercury mission, and then flew a Gemini mission. Three years later, he commanded the first manned Apollo mission, becoming the only person to fly in all three of those programs.", "On 20 July 1969, Apollo 11, the first human spaceflight landed on the Moon. Launched on 16 July 1969, it carried mission Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, and the Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin. Apollo 11 fulfilled President John F. Kennedy's goal of reaching the moon by the end of the 1960s, which he had expressed during a speech given before a joint session of Congress on 25 May 1961: \"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\"", "1961 --- 1st American in space; (Freedom 7). 2nd human in space; member of original Mercury 7.", "He made history in April 1961 when he became the first man to journey into space.", "The Soviet Union launched the first manned spacecraft in 1961, prompting U.S. efforts to raise proficiency in mathematics and science and President John F. Kennedy 's call for the country to be first to land \"a man on the moon,\" achieved in 1969 . Kennedy also faced a tense nuclear showdown with Soviet forces in Cuba. Meanwhile, America experienced sustained economic expansion. A growing civil rights movement headed by prominent African Americans, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. , fought segregation and discrimination, leading to the abolition of Jim Crow laws. Following Kennedy's assassination in 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed under President Lyndon B. Johnson . Johnson and his successor, Richard Nixon , expanded a proxy war in Southeast Asia into the unsuccessful Vietnam War .", "As space exploration continued through the 1960s, the United States was on its way to the Moon. Project Gemini was the second NASA spaceflight program. Its goals were to perfect the entry and re-entry maneuvers of a spacecraft and conduct further tests on how individuals are affected by long periods of space travel. The Apollo Program followed Project Gemini. Its goal was to land humans on the moon and assure their safe return to Earth. On July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 astronauts—Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin Jr.—realized President Kennedy's dream.", "One hundred and 20 miles above the earth, Major Edward H. White II opens the hatch of the Gemini 4 and steps out of the capsule, becoming the first American astronaut to walk in space. Attached to the craft by a 25-foot tether and controlling his movements with a hand-held oxygen jet-propulsion gun, White remained outside the capsule for just over 20 minutes. As a space walker, White had been preceded by Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei A. Leonov, who on March 18, 1965, was the first man ever to walk in space.", "* In 1969, Apollo 11 was launched towards the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first person from Earth to walk on another celestial body.", "Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin are in high spirits as they look out through the window of their mobile quarantine van on July 24, 1969. (NASA via Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation", "1961: Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom is the second American astronaut in space on a non-orbital rocket flight over the Atlantic.", "On January 1st, 1969, he was named commander of Apollo 11, the first manned spaceship scheduled to land on the moon. His crewmates were fellow space veterans Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin and Michael Collins.", "He is the first person to have set foot on the Moon. His first spaceflight was aboard Gemini 8 in 1966, for which he was the command pilot. On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft together with pilot David Scott." ]

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[ "The Swedish chemist and industrial magnate Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) made a name for himself with the invention of dynamite, in the process making a fortune. In his last will and testament, he bequeathed some of that fortune to the founding of a foundation. The Nobel Prize is the oldest award for scientific achievement. It has been awarded since 1901, always on the anniversary of Nobel�s death, December 10. With the exception of a few years (during wars), Nobel prizes have been awarded ever since. Besides a financial reward, a gold medal and certificate are also presented.", "The founder of the prestigious Nobel Prizes made his fortune with a big bang by inventing dynamite, a stabilized form of nitroglycerin.", "1833: Birth of Alfred (Bernhard) Nobel, Swedish industrialist, chemist and inventor of dynamite. His factory once made nitro-glycerine until it blew up in 1864 killing his younger brother. Three years later he found a safer explosive and patented dynamite in 1867. With the vast fortune he made from this and his oil field holdings, he founded the Nobel prize to honour the worlds leading scientists, artists and peacemakers from 1901.", "Alfred Nobel   © Alfred Nobel was a Swedish chemist and the inventor of dynamite, who established the Nobel Prize.", "Alfred Nobel (1833–96) was a Swedish chemist and the inventor of dynamite. He also established the Nobel Prize. Nobel was interested in the safe manufacture and use of nitro-glycerine, a highly unstable explosive. He found that mixing it with silica (silicon dioxide) made it safer and easier to manipulate. This he patented in 1867 under the name of dynamite. It was soon used in blasting tunnels and making cuttings for canals , railways and roads all over the world. In the 1870s and 1880s, Nobel set up factories to manufacture explosives. Having made a fortune from his businesses, he set aside most of it to establish annual prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature and Peace. An Economics Prize was added later.", "Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist and the inventor of dynamite, left more than 9 million dollars of his fortune to found the Nobel Prizes. Under his will, signed in 1895, the income from this fund was to be distributed yearly in five equal parts as prizes to those who had most helped humankind. A prize was to be awarded in each of five fields: physics, chemistry, physiology (or medicine), literature, and peace. The physics and chemistry awards were to be made by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; physiology or medicine, by the Caroline Institute of Stockholm; literature, by the Swedish Academy; and peace, by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian parliament. A prize in economics was established in 1968. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was designated to make the award. The Nobel Foundation is the legal owner and administrator of the prize funds, though it is not involved in awarding the prizes.", "�10/12/1901. Nobel prize first awarded. Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel had invented a powerful new explosive, called dynamite. He thought that, if two armies could annihilate each other in an instant, war would become impractical, an idea similar to the MAD (Mutual Assured Destruction) concept that kept the peace during the Cold War of the 1950s, 60s and 70s. Nobel made a fortune from his new explosive and when he died in 1896 he left most of that fortune to a Foundation to award prizes annually to those who in the preceding year have most benefitted mankind. The first Nobel Prize was worth US$ 30,000. They are awarded in Stockholm and Oslo, in the categories of literature, chemistry, physics, medicine and peace. The first ever Nobel Prize was shared between Jean Henri Dunant (founder of the Red Cross) and Frederic Passy (founder of the French Society for the Friends of Peace).", "Alfred Nobel (1833 – 1896) Swedish chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer. Nobel invented dynamite and held 350 other patents, including for a gas meter. Perhaps most famous for his legacy of Nobel awards.", "Nobel’s brothers Ludvig and Robert, in the meantime, had developed newly discovered oilfields near Baku (now in Azerbaijan) along the Caspian Sea and had themselves become immensely wealthy. Alfred’s worldwide interests in explosives, along with his own holdings in his brothers’ companies in Russia, brought him a large fortune. In 1893 he became interested in Sweden’s arms industry , and the following year he bought an ironworks at Bofors , near Varmland, that became the nucleus of the well-known Bofors arms factory. Besides explosives, Nobel made many other inventions, such as artificial silk and leather, and altogether he registered more than 350 patents in various countries.", "It all began with a journalistic error. In 1888, a French newspaper mistakenly wrote that Alfred Nobel, inventor of dynamite, had died. It was actually his brother, Ludvig, who had passed. But, in addition to lackluster fact checking, the paper commemorated the event with defamatory prose: “Dr. Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before, died yesterday,” it wrote. Nobel, it is said, was crushed by the idea that he’d be remembered as a “merchant of death.” In order to regain control of his legacy, he willed his fortune to create an award that would recognize people who had made positive contributions to mankind.", "Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, arranged in his will for his estate to fund the Nobel Prize.", "� Alfred Nobel (1833-96) was a Swedish inventor who devised military weapons such as mines, torpedoes, and dynamite.", "The Life and Accomplishments of Alfred Nobel - Alfred Nobel, born in 1833, was the inventor of dynamite. He was much more than an inventor, was fluent in several languages, enjoyed poetry and was considered to have radical ideas during his time. He left a lasting legacy by establishing the famous peace prize which is named in his honour. Nobel’s father was an engineer and inventor. He built bridges and in relation to this, he experimented with ways to blast rock. In the year Alfred was born, his father went bankrupt because several barges of building materials went missing....   [tags: biography]", "• Alfred Nobel (1833-96) was a Swedish inventor who devised military weapons such as mines, torpedoes, and dynamite.", "1. Alfred Nobel, the man after whom the Nobel Prizes are named, was originally well known for inventing what?", "Dynamite was invented in 1866 by a Swedish inventor, chemist and industrialist Alfred Nobel.  In 1860 Alfred started experimenting with nitroglycerine. In 1867, Alfred Nobel got U. S. patent for dynamite. Alfred was born on 21st October in the year 1833 in Stockholm of Sweden. He was the third son of Immanuel and Andriette Ahlsell Nobel. When he was just nine, his family shifted to Russia. He proudly acclaimed of himself as the world citizen as he stayed in many countries. Alfred’s travels made him fluent in five languages. His interest in literature forced him to write novels, poetry and plays in his free time. When he was 18, he went to the U. S. to study chemistry for four years.", "On 27 November 1895, Alfred Nobel signed his last will and testament, giving the largest share of his fortune to a series of prizes, the Nobel Prizes. As described in Nobel's will one part was dedicated to \"the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement\". Learn more about the Nobel Prize in Chemistry from 1901 to 2016.", "Alfred Bernhard Nobel was born in Stockholm on 21 October 1833. His father, an inventor and engineer who struggled financially for much of his life, was forced to declare bankruptcy. Immanuel left Sweden and began working in St. Petersburg, Russia, where he impressed the czar with one of his inventions, submerged explosive mines that could thwart a naval invasion. In 1842, when his father was financially stable, Alfred moved with his family to St. Petersburg.", "The awards founded by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish inventor and entrepreneur honor “men and women from all corners of the globe for outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and for work in peace.”", "The market for dynamite and detonating caps grew very rapidly and Alfred Nobel also proved himself to be a very skillful entrepreneur and businessman. By 1865 his factory in Krümmel near Hamburg, Germany, was exporting nitroglycerine explosives to other countries in Europe, America and Australia. Over the years he founded factories and laboratories in some 90 different places in more than 20 countries. Although he lived in Paris much of his life he was constantly traveling. Victor Hugo at one time described him as \"Europe's richest vagabond\". When he was not traveling or engaging in business activities Nobel himself worked intensively in his various laboratories, first in Stockholm and later in Hamburg (Germany), Ardeer (Scotland), Paris and Sevran (France), Karlskoga (Sweden) and San Remo (Italy). He focused on the development of explosives technology as well as other chemical inventions, including such materials as synthetic rubber and leather, artificial silk, etc. By the time of his death in 1896 he had 355 patents.", "When he died in 1896, Nobel stipulated the year before in his last will and testament that 94 percent of his total assets go toward the creation of an endowment fund to honor achievements in physical science, chemistry, medical science or physiology, literary work and service toward peace. Hence, the Nobel prize is awarded yearly to people whose work helps humanity. In total, Alfred Nobel held three hundred and fifty-five patents in the fields of electrochemistry, optics, biology, and physiology.", "Alfred B. Nobel - Swedish engineer, chemist and industrialist; commercially manufactured chemical explosives throughout the world and did other chemical research; manufactured glyceryl nitrate - nitroglycerine (1862); the difficulty and danger of handling liquid nitroglycerine led him to experiment with ways of making it safer; he mixed nitroglycerine with powder, kieselguhr, and called it \"dynamite\" (1866); received a patent for dynamite (1867); establish a fund in his ill for the annual Nobel Prizes, awarded in the areas of chemistry, physics, physiology or medicine, literature and international peace.", "The Nobel prizes are awarded under the will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, who died in 1896. The interest of the fund is divided annually among the persons who have made the most outstanding contributions in the fields of physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine, who have produced the most distinguished literary work of an idealist tendency, and who have contributed most toward world peace.", "1901 – The first Nobel Prizes were awarded, on the anniversary of the 1896 death of their founder, Swedish chemist and industrialist Alfred Nobel.", "Alfred Nobel touched on many disciplines -- from science, invention and entrepreneurship, to literature and peace. His will stated that he wanted to award outstanding people in those fields, and in 1900, the Nobel Foundation was established to award the Nobel Prizes. The prizes are international awards given by the Norwegian Nobel Committee with a ceremony held on December 10, the day Nobel died. The Peace prize includes a medal, diploma and money.", "An entirely new industry grew up, based on Alfred Nobel's patents and with Alfred as the initiator.", "December 5, 1901 Werner Heisenberg, German physicist/discovered uncertainty, Nobel 32December 5, 1901 Walt Disney, born in Chicago, animator, Mickey Mouse", "all of which were patented, to realize that an essential cornerstone of the American success story is the framework for innovation provided by the patent system. The inventor is rewarded with the grant of the power to exclude and thus is encouraged to come forth with new developments while the public benefits because, through patents, knowledge of inventions is made available to everyone.  Thomas Edison obtained 1093 patents and these patents formed the exclusive position upon which the General Electric Company was based.  Donald Weder of Highland, Illinois has over 1100 patents related to the floral supply industry, and nearly every floral product made in the world is made under license from his foundation.  Jerome Lemelson was an independent inventor who came up with a concept of putting markings on packages and reading them to control machines in a process he called “machine vision”, and his foundation has received over a billion dollars in royalty from this invention that is more commonly known as “bar coding.”", "free school milk and school meals, cancer research centre, and zoonosis research centre all originated in Liverpool. The first British Nobel Prize was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross, professor at the School of Tropical Medicine, the first school of its kind in the world. Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas, and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray.", "Engineer Zenobe Gramme invented the Gramme dynamo, the first generator to produce power on a commercial scale for industry. Chemist Ernest Solvay gave his name to the Solvay process for production of soda ash, important chemical for many industrial uses. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université Libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry.", "8/8/1901, Ernest Lawrence, US physicist who invented the first subatomic particle accelerator and the first colour TV tube, and won the Nobel Physics prize in 1939, was born.", "When Edison heard his ideas he was not interested but gave him a job. Edison promised $50,000 if Tesla could perfect a new type of dynamo. When Tesla succeeded and asked for the money he was told that he did not understand American sense of humour. At this point Tesla quit. He was unemployed and was forced to dig ditches at $2 per day to earn a living. Fortunately his foreman introduced him to a Mr Brown of Westinghouse and once more he had a laboratory. Tesla continued on his invention and in May 1890, he was granted the first string of patents, and they grew faster. George Westinghouse offered one million dollars to Tesla for his patents. During the Spanish -American war Tesla offered to the government his invention of a \"robot\" to be operated by remote control by means of his wireless system. They laughed at him. He died a pauper leaving behind a golden legacy in the shape of his great inventions." ]

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[ "Charles Sherwood Stratton (January 4, 1838 – July 15, 1883), better known by his stage name \"General Tom Thumb\", was a dwarf who achieved great fame as a performer under circus pioneer P.T. Barnum. ", "General Tom Thumb was the stage name of Charles Sherwood Stratton (January 4, 1838 – July 15, 1883), a midget who achieved great fame under circus pioneer P.T. Barnum. Stratton was a son of a Bridgeport, Connecticut, carpenter. He was born in Bridgeport, CT.", "General Tom Thumb was the stage name of Charles Sherwood Stratton (January 4, 1838 – July 15, 1883), a dwarf who achieved great fame as a performer under circus pioneer P.T. Barnum.", "(WIKIPEDIA): General Tom Thumb was the stage name of Charles Sherwood Stratton ... a midget who achieved great fame under circus pioneer P.T. Barnum.", "Birthday - Promoter and showman P.T. Barnum (1810-1891) was born in Bethel, Connecticut. His American Museum opened in 1842, exhibiting unusual acts such as the Feejee Mermaid, Siamese Twins Chang and Eng, and General Tom Thumb. In 1871, Barnum opened \"The Greatest Show on Earth\" in Brooklyn, New York. He later merged with rival J.A. Bailey to form the Barnum and Bailey Circus.", "PT Barnum teamed up in 1842 with Charles Stratton, who later earned fame as General Tom Thumb.  This pair of charlatans were so successful in their scams and misadventures that they were given an audience with presidents and the Queen of England, Queen Victoria.  It is said that Barnum's name, although connected with the great American Circus, reached his highest point of fame in 1850, when he presented European opera star, Jenny Lind to the American audiences, who nicknamed her “The Swedish Nightingale.”  Jenny Lind performed over 100 concerts for Barnum, enchanting audiences wherever she sang.", "UNDER BARNUM: At this time, P.T. Barnum heard about Stratton and after reassuring his parents, taught the boy how to sing, dance, mime, impersonate famous people, and perform. Barnum also went into business with Stratton's father, who died in 1855. Barnum was actually a distant relative (half fifth cousin, twice removed). In 1843, at the tener age of five years old, Tom Thumb made his first tour of America, with routines that included imperonating characters such as Cupid and Napoleon Bonaparte as well as singing, dancing and comical banter with another performer who acted as a straight man. It was a huge success and the tour expanded.", "Once back in New York, the entrepreneurial Barnum fell into an Ovid role to young Stratton’s Pygmalion. They spent long hours together, transforming the four-year-old waif into General Tom Thumb, a doll-sized prodigy from some nonspecific European locale. The “general” was trained in courtly etiquette, song, dance, theater, celebrity impersonations and the rote memorization of dozens of sassy witticisms. Stratton excelled at mimicry, imitating a Scottish highlander, Hercules, Cupid and Napoleon, among others.", "Born in Bethel, Connecticut, Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties, and founded a weekly newspaper, before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called \"Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater\", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum, which he renamed after himself. Barnum used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Feejee mermaid and General Tom Thumb. In 1850 he promoted the American tour of singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000 a night for 150 nights. After economic reversals due to bad investments in the 1850s, and years of litigation and public humiliation, he used a lecture tour, mostly as a temperance speaker, to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded the wax-figure department.", "Born in Bethel, Connecticut , Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties, and founded a weekly paper, The Herald of Freedom, in Danbury in 1829. He moved to New York City in 1834 and embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called \"Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater\", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum , which he renamed after himself. Barnum used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the \" \"Feejee\" mermaid \" and \" General Tom Thumb .\" By late 1846, Barnum's Museum was drawing 400,000 visitors a year. [2] In 1850 he promoted the American tour of singer Jenny Lind , paying her an unprecedented $1,000 a night for 150 nights.", "Tom Thumb Ties the Knot Despite its stunning architecture and traditional upperclass congregation, the most famous event ever to occur at Grace Church was a less than dignified one. P. T. Barnum arranged for the nuptials of two of his “biggest” sideshow stars, the diminutive Gen. Tom Thumb and his like-sized bride, Lavinia Warren, to be celebrated at the church. Though attended by the cream of society, their 1863 wedding exhibited all of the rowdiness and hoopla of a typical Barnum production. A parishioner who challenged sexton Isaac Hull Brown about the propriety of the affair received the response: “Even little people have the right to marry in a big church.”", "In 1844, Barnum took his young protege on a much-publicised European tour debut. Tom Thumb was a huge sensation, appearing before the crowned heads of Europe and visiting Queen Victoria not once, but twice. Audiences were enchanted with the man-boy whose charm combined innocence with pomposity. Over time, Tom made so many visits to royalty that Barnum had a special carriage built for him. ", "Posted in Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln , General Tom Thumb , P.T. Barnum , PEOPLE , Queen Victoria & Prince Albert , tagged biographies of performers , Charles Stratton , General Tom Thumb , Lavinia Warren , P.T. Barnum , President Lincoln , Queen Victoria , the Civil War , Tom Thumb on February 5, 2010 | 13 Comments »", "1863 World-famous dwarfs General Tom Thumb and Lavinia Warren marry in New York City; invited to the White House on their honeymoon", "Barnum exaggerated Charles’s age, saying that the four year old was eleven, and altered his identity to ‘General Tom Thumb’ from London. Despite Charles’s mother expressing concerns about this fabrication, Barnum insisted that it was a necessary marketing device and would ensure that his ‘exhibit’ was successful.", "Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman, and entertainer, remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the circus that became the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. His successes may have made him the first \"show business\" millionaire. Although Barnum was also an author, publisher, philanthropist, and for sometime a politician, he said of himself, \"I am a showman by profession...and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me,\" and his personal aims were \"to put money in his own coffers.\" Barnum is widely but erroneously credited with coining the phrase \"There's a sucker born every minute\". (See the Cardiff Giant article for correct attribution to the man who said this in response to Barnum's actions in the matter).", "At about the same time, the Americans improved on the British circus by introducing a multitude of rings. The large, lavish, boisterous circus was the invention of Phineas-Taylor Barnum, the owner of the \"American Museum\" of New York that exhibited midgets and Siamese twins to a morbid audience: in 1871 he opened a mobile circus based in Brooklyn and marketed it as \"the greatest Show on Earth\". Within a decade it had become just that, touring all over Europe. In 1884 the five \"Ringling Brothers\" organized their first circus, soon to become a colossal business enterprise.", "In 1815, the year after Philip Astley, \"the father of the circus,\" had died in Paris at the age of seventy-two and which same year had also marked the appearance of Ducrow, most famous of all equestrians, the first tenting circuses began to travel the English roads. Horses, acrobats and talking clowns were the entertainment offered with perhaps the addition of a spectacular dancer on a tight-rope. Rope-walking was the rage: Madame Saqui, fresh from sensational triumphs in Paris, was performing nightly at Vauxhal Gardens where thousands of sightseers congregated and jostled to see her mount the rope at midnight, an enormous plume of ostrich feathers surmounting her head, the spangles and tinsel of her costume glittering and glistening in the sparks thrown off from the grand display of fireworks.", "Phineas Taylor Barnum (1810-1891), America's greatest showman of the 19th century, instructed and amused a nation with his museum and later his circus.", "In April 1874 Barnum opened his Roman Hippodrome in New York; this was to grow into the great circus. He did not invent the circus, an ancient form of entertainment, but along with his enterprising young partner, James A. Bailey, whose circus merged with Barnum's in 1881, he made it a three-ring extravaganza the likes of which had never been seen before. Barnum's last great coup was his 1881 purchase from the London Zoo of the largest elephant in captivity, Jumbo. Violent objections by the English only made Jumbo and the circus that much more appealing. The variety and splendor of the show delighted the American audiences that Barnum had trained, over the years, to be delighted. In 1882 the circus opened its season in Madison Square Garden, where it was to become an American institution; and everywhere the \"big top\" traveled, a \"Barnum Day\" was declared. Circling the arena in an open carriage as leader of the parade always brought roars of approval (and great satisfaction) to the aging genius.", "To see the circus in all its glory one must visit the Continent, where it enjoys a distinguished popularity. Perhaps it is better conducted and more highly appreciated in Germany than in any other nation, the circus there holding as high a position as Italian opera in England. The name of Renz in Germany, as the first equestrian director in the world, is as celebrated as Bismarck's himself, - no director or manager in England being so well known or possessing so much property. In Berlin he is as popular as the king. The name alone, without giving the name of an artiste, is sufficient to cause overflowing houses, the public well knowing they will be served with a superior bill of fare. After Renz comes Coure's, Salamousky's, and Ciniselli's circuses, establishments that can boast of a stud of 100 superior horses and the best English and foreign artistes. (Note.- Since this was written, however, Salamousky, by the splendid circus he has erected in Berlin, has risen to be the first and principal director in the world.) In the large towns, handsome stone buildings are erected and devoted expressly to the noble equestrian art; and kunstreiters (equestrians) hold as high and commanding a position in Germany at the present time as ever they did in the ancient Roman hippodromes.", "(July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman, scam artist and entertainer, remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the circus that became the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus.", "In 1875, Dan Castello and William Cameron Coup persuaded P. T. Barnum to lend his name and financial backing to the circus they had already created in Delavan, Wisconsin. It was called \"P.T. Barnum's Great Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan, and Hippodrome.\" The moniker \"Greatest Show on Earth\" was added later.", "Established in 1948, the Ringling Museum of the American Circus was the first to document the rich history of this phenomenally popular entertainment. And because in 1927 John Ringling had made Sarasota the Winter Quarters of the Ringling Bros and Barnum & Bailey® Circus, many of the performers moved to the immediate area. As a result of their generosity, the Museum’s collection of wardrobes and circus memorabilia quickly grew.", "In 1875, Dan Castello and William Cameron Coup persuaded Barnum to lend his name and financial backing to the circus they had already created in Delavan, Wisconsin. It was called \"P.T. Barnum's Great Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan, and Hippodrome\". The moniker \"Greatest Show on Earth\" was added later.", "The Barnum Museum showcases the career of American showman P.T. Barnum, who housed his circus in Bridgeport during winters. At the Downtown Cabaret Theatre, a professional non-profit organization producing quality musical and other theatre for children and adults in a cabaret setting.", "In the summer of 1887, as part of the Golden Jubilee celebration of the reign of Queen Victoria, the American soldier, Bison hunter, and showman Colonel William \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody brought to London his famous show \"Buffalo Bill's Wild West.\" Cody's show was a circus-like attraction with a Cowboy and Indian theme created to provide spectators with an education of the American West. The show also offered entertainment with bronco riding and demonstrated the handling of bovine and equine livestock. Cody also displayed cowboy roping and other herdsmen skills.", "In the years before the American Civil War, entertainment existed on a different scale. Certainly, variety theatre existed before 1860 in Europe and elsewhere. In the US, as early as the first decades of the 19th century, theatregoers could enjoy a performance consisting of Shakespeare plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedy. As the years progressed, people seeking diversified amusement found an increasing number of ways to be entertained. Vaudeville was characterized by traveling companies touring through cities and towns. A handful of circuses regularly toured the country; dime museums appealed to the curious; amusement parks, riverboats, and town halls often featured \"cleaner\" presentations of variety entertainment; compared to saloons, music halls, and burlesque houses, which catered to those with a taste for the risqué. In the 1840s, the minstrel show, another type of variety performance, and \"the first emanation of a pervasive and purely American mass culture\", grew to enormous popularity and formed what Nick Tosches called \"the heart of 19th-century show business\". A significant influence also came from Dutch minstrels and comedians. Medicine shows traveled the countryside offering programs of comedy, music, jugglers, and other novelties along with displays of tonics, salves, and miracle elixirs, while \"Wild West\" shows provided romantic vistas of the disappearing frontier, complete with trick riding, music and drama. Vaudeville incorporated these various itinerant amusements into a stable, institutionalized form centered in America's growing urban hubs.", "It was the age of great showmen and traveling entertainers. Cody put together a new traveling show based on both of those forms of entertainment. In 1883 in the area of North Platte, Nebraska he founded \"Buffalo Bill's Wild West,\" (despite popular misconception, the word \"show\" was not a part of the title) a circus-like attraction that toured annually.", "The showman P.T. Barnum was a resident of the city and served as the town's mayor in the late 19th century. Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport, and housed his circus in town during winter. The first Subway restaurant opened in the North End section of the city in 1965. The Frisbie Pie Company was located here, and Bridgeport is credited as the birthplace of the Frisbee. ", "William F. Cody, an American adventurer, soldier, and showman of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His popular “Wild West Show,” begun in the 1880s, featured acts such as the marksmanship of Annie Oakley , mock battles between Native Americans and army troops, and breathtaking displays of cowboy skills and horsemanship. It toured the United States, Canada , and Europe .", "For many years Cody performed during the winter and continued scouting for the army in the summer or escorting hunting parties to the West. In the process, the line began to blur even further between the scout William F. Cody and the legend and entertainer Buffalo Bill. Indeed, as early as his scalping of Yellow Hair in 1876, Cody had consciously worn his flamboyant theatrical clothes into battle, later donning the same outfit to re-create his attack onstage. In 1883 Cody, with the help of producer and partner Nate Salsbury, organized his own Wild West show —a spectacular outdoor entertainment with a cast of hundreds, featuring fancy-shooting, hard-riding cowboys and yelling Indians, along with re-creations of a buffalo hunt, the capture of the Deadwood (South Dakota) stagecoach , and a Pony Express ride. Its stars included Annie Oakley , the famous rifle shot, and, in 1885, Chief Sitting Bull . The show played at Queen Victoria ’s Golden Jubilee in 1887 and was staged throughout Europe. In 1893 three million people attended the show (by this point known as Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World, which included Cossacks and vaqueros) during its tenure on the Midway adjacent to the official grounds of the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago . By the end of the 19th century, Buffalo Bill was one of the most-recognized persons in the world." ]

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[ "The Irish revolutionary leader and statesman Eamon De Valera served as prime minister and later president of Ireland (1959-1973).", "The Irish revolutionary leader and statesman Eamon De Valera (1882-1975) served as prime minister and later president of Ireland (1959-1973).", "Eamon de Valera, original name Edward de Valera (born Oct. 14, 1882, New York , N.Y., U.S.—died Aug. 29, 1975, Dublin , Ire.), Irish politician and patriot, who served as taoiseach (prime minister; 1932–48, 1951–54, 1957–59) and president (1959–73) of Ireland . An active revolutionary from 1913, he became president of Sinn Féin in 1917 and founded the Fianna Fáil party in 1926. In 1937 he made his country a “sovereign” state, renamed Ireland, or Éire. His academic attainments also inspired wide respect; he became chancellor of the National University of Ireland in 1921.", "Éamon de Valera [1] [2] ( / ˈ eɪ m ən d ɛ v ə ˈ l ɛr ə / ; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth century Ireland . His political career spanned over half a century, from 1917 to 1973; he served multiple terms as head of government and head of state . He also led the introduction of the Constitution of Ireland . [3]", "Eamonn de Valera played a key role in Ireland’s recent history . De Valera was one of the leaders in the failed 1916 Easter Uprising . He was also president of Sinn Fein from 1917 to 1926 and was to become prime minister and president of an independent Ireland. Eamonn de Valera was born in 1882 in New York. His mother was Irish and his father was Spanish. Though de Valera was born in America, he was educated in Ireland and became a mathematics lecturer at Maynooth. ", "Affectionately nicknamed the ‘long fellow’, Eamon de Valera was the dominant political figure in the history of twentieth century Ireland. Fortunate to avoid execution after the Easter Rising, he went on to lead the country as Taoiseach (Prime Minister) and represent it as President over the following fifty years.", "In 1926, de Valera decided that it was in the interests of Ireland to accept the new Irish parliament (the Dáil) and he founded a new political party called Fianna Fáil which served as an opposition party from 1926 to 1932. In 1932, Fianna Fáil was elected to power in a coalition with Labour politicians. De Valera was to remain Ireland’s prime minister for 16 years. During this time he did what he could to totally cut Ireland from any form of British linkage. In June 1937, Ireland introduced a new constitution which introduced a new democratic and sovereign state of Eire. After years of internal turmoil, de Valera kept Eire neutral during World War Two . Fianna Fáil lost the 1948 general election but won the 1951 one. De Valera was returned to the prime minister’s office until 1954. He was prime minister again from 1957 to 1959. In 1959, he stood for and won Eire’s presidential election – an election he won again in 1966. De Valera was the first Irish leader to address America’s Congress (June 1964) and he gained considerable prestige abroad. De Valera retired from politics aged 90 in 1973. He died in 1975.", "Éamon de Valera (; first registered as George de Valero; changed some time before 1901 to Edward de Valera; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was a prominent politician in twentieth-century Ireland. His political career spanned over half a century, from 1917 to 1973; he served several terms as head of government and head of state. He also led the introduction of the Constitution of Ireland.", "1882: Birth of Eamon de Valera, Irish Prime Minister and President, who was born in New York City. He was sent to Ireland for his schooling and later became a teacher. In 1917 he became president of Sinn Fein. In 1920 he was elected president but, wanted by the British, he went into hiding. When Ireland was divided, he refused to accept the treaty. He was elected again in 1932 and renegotiated with Britain, defeated in 1948, but back again in 1951-4 and 1957-9, and President 1959-73.", "De Valera, as his prime minister, wrote in July 1936 to King Edward VIII in London indicating that he planned to introduce a new constitution, the central part of which was to be the creation of an office de Valera provisionally intended to call President of Saorstát Éireann (Uachtarán Shaorstát Éireann), which would replace the governorship-general. De Valera used the sudden abdication of Edward VIII as king to pass two bills: one amended the constitution to remove all mention of the monarch and governor-general, while the second brought the monarch back, this time through statute law, for use in representing the Irish Free State at diplomatic level. With the implementation of the new constitution, named in Irish as Bunreacht na hÉireann (meaning the Constitution of Ireland), the title ultimately given to the president was President of Ireland (Uachtarán na hÉireann).", "Éamon de Valera was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth-century Ireland. His political career spanned over half a century, from 1917 to 1973; he served multiple terms as head of government and head of state. He also led the introduction of the Constitution of Ireland.", "After 16 years as head of independent Ireland, Eamon de Valera steps down as the taoiseach, or Irish prime minister, after his Fianna Fail Party fails to win a majority in the Dail Eireann (the Irish assembly). As a result of the general election, the Fianna Fail won 68 of the 147 seats in the Dail, and de Valera resigned rather than lead a coalition government. In his place, John A. Costello, leader of the Fine Gael Party, joins with several smaller groups to achieve a majority and becomes Irish prime minister.", "Ireland's dominant political personality for many decades, de Valera received numerous honours. He was elected Chancellor of the National University of Ireland in 1921, holding the post until his death. Pope John XXIII bestowed on him the Order of Christ. He received honorary degrees from universities in Ireland and abroad. In 1968 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), a recognition of his lifelong interest in mathematics. He also served as a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland (for Down from 1921 to 1929 and for South Down from 1933 to 1937), although he held to the Republican policy of abstentionism and did not take his seat in Stormont. He retired from the Presidency in June 1973, having served for fourteen years.", "Éamon de Valera, President of the Executive Council (Taoiseach) (1932–48) while the Irish Free State was within the Commonwealth. (Later Taoiseach in the Republic of Ireland government in 1951–54 and 1957–59, and President of the Republic 1959–73.) He had been MP for East Clare 1917–22 and East Mayo 1918–22, although never sat at Westminster.", "De Valera’s prestige was enhanced by his success as president of the council of the League of Nations in 1932 and of its assembly in 1938. He also entered negotiations with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in which he guaranteed that he would never allow Ireland to be used as a base for attacking Britain in the event of war. This culminated in the Anglo-Irish defense agreement of April 1938, whereby Britain relinquished the naval bases of Cobh, Berehaven, and Lough Swilly (retained in a defense annex to the 1921 treaty), and in complementary finance and trade treaties that ended the economic war. This made possible de Valera’s proclamation in September 1939, upon the outbreak of World War II , that Ireland would remain neutral and would resist attack from any quarter. In secret, however, de Valera also authorized significant military and intelligence assistance to both the British and the Americans throughout the war; he realized that a German victory would imperil Ireland’s independence, of which neutrality was the ultimate expression. By avoiding the burdens and destruction of the war, de Valera achieved a relative prosperity for Ireland in comparison with the war-torn countries of Europe, and he retained office in subsequent elections.", "In 1959, de Valera resigned as prime minister and was elected Irish president–a largely ceremonial post. On June 24, 1973, de Valera, then the world’s oldest head of state, retired from Irish politics at the age of 90. He passed away two years later.", "De Valera, now leader of the opposition, left the actual parliamentary practice of opposing the government to his deputy, Seán Lemass, and himself embarked on a world campaign to address the issue of partition. He visited the United States, Australia, New Zealand and India, and in the latter country, was the last guest of the Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, before he was succeeded by the first Indian-born Governor-General. In Melbourne, Australia, de Valera was feted by the powerful Catholic Archbishop Daniel Mannix, at the centenary celebrations of the diocese of Melbourne. He attended mass-meetings at Xavier College, and addressed the assembled Melbourne Celtic Club. In October 1950, just thirty years after his dramatic escape from Lincoln Gaol, he returned to Lincoln and received the freedom of the gaol. The Anti-Partition of Ireland League of Great Britain marked the occasion with a dinner in his honour and the toast was 'Anglo-Irish Friendship'. A key message in de Valera's campaign was that Ireland could not join the recently established North Atlantic Treaty Organization as long as Northern Ireland was in British hands; although the coalition government favored alliance with NATO, de Valera's approach won more widespread support and prevented the state from signing onto the treaty.", "De Valera, now leader of the opposition, left the actual parliamentary practice of opposing the government to his deputy, Seán Lemass, and himself embarked on a world campaign to address the issue of partition. He visited the United States, Australia, New Zealand and India, and in the latter country, was the last guest of the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten of Burma before the handover of Indian independence. In Melbourne, Australia, he was feted by the powerful Catholic Archbishop Daniel Mannix, at the centenary celebrations of the diocese of Melbourne. He attended mass-meetings at Xavier College, and addressed the assembled Melbourne Celtic Club.[69] A key message in de Valera's campaign was that Ireland could not join the recently established North Atlantic Treaty Organization as long as Northern Ireland was in British hands; although the coalition government favored alliance with NATO, de Valera's approach won more widespread support and prevented the state from signing onto the treaty.", "Teacher, author, former prime minister and president of the Irish Republic. Led party of insurgents in Irish nationalist uprising, 1916; imprisoned, 1916-17, 1918-19; president of Sinn Fein, 1918-26 and of the provisional Republican government, 1918-22; leader of opposition to Anglo-Irish treaty (Dec. 1921) and imprisoned by Irish Free State, 1923-24; established and presided over Fianna Fail Republican opposition party, 1924; led Fianna Fail into Free State parliament, 1927; president of executive council and minister for external affairs, 1932-37; prime minister, 1937-48, 1951-54, 1957-59; president of Ireland, 1959-73; Chancellor of the National University of Ireland, 1921-1975.", "In the anti-British Easter Rising in Dublin (1916), de Valera commanded an occupied building and was the last commander to surrender. Because of his American birth, he escaped execution by the British but was sentenced to penal servitude. Released in 1917 but arrested again and deported in May 1918 to England, where he was imprisoned, de Valera was acclaimed by the Irish as the chief survivor of the uprising and in October 1917 was elected president of the revolutionist Sinn Féin (“We Ourselves” or “Ourselves Alone”) party, which won three-fourths of all the Irish constituencies in December 1918.", "De Valera was inaugurated President on 25 June 1959. He was re-elected president in 1966 aged 84, until 2013 a world record for the oldest elected head of state. At his retirement in 1973 at the age of 90, he was the oldest head of state in the world.", "In 1959 de Valera agreed to stand as a candidate for the presidency. He resigned his position as taoiseach and leader of the Fianna Fáil party. In June he was elected president, and he was reelected in 1966. He retired to a nursing home near Dublin in 1973 and died there in 1975.", "De Valera was inaugurated President on 25 June 1959. He was re-elected president in 1966 aged 84, still a world record for the oldest elected head of state. At his retirement in 1973 at the age of 90, he was the oldest head of state in the world.", "O'Kelly was elected unopposed to the presidency a second time 25 June 1952. During his second term he visited many nations in Europe and addressed the United States Congress in 1959. He retired at the end of his second term in 1959, to be replaced by his old mentor, Éamon de Valera.", "On 29 December 1937, the new Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann) came into force, which replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and re-established the state as Ireland (or Éire in Irish ), declared the sovereign nation of Éire to be the whole island of Ireland, and abolished the oath of loyalty to the British crown. The Governor-General was replaced by a President of Ireland and a new more powerful Prime Minister, called the Taoiseach, came into being, while the Executive Council was renamed the \"Government.\" Though it had a president, the new state was not a republic. The British monarch continued to reign theoretically as King of Ireland and was used as an \"organ\" in international and diplomatic relations, with the President of Ireland relegated to symbolic functions within the state but never outside it.", "�amon De Valera was born in New York. He was one of the leaders of the 1916 Rising and for his role he was sentenced to death by the British. However it was later commuted to life imprisonment but he was released from jail in 1917 and in the 1918 General Election led Sinn F�in to a landslide victory. He was the biggest opponent of the Treaty but after the Civil War he left Sinn F�in and founded Fianna F�il (1926). He was Taoiseach on three occasions and wrote the 1937 Constitution- Bunreacht na h�ireann. He was 76 when he was elected President on June 25, 1959 and served two terms in office before he retired on June 24, 1973. De Valera died on August 28, 1975 aged 92, having been at the forefront of Irish politics for over half a century.", "The President of Ireland (,) is the head of state of Ireland and the Supreme Commander of the Irish Defence Forces. Unless a candidate runs unopposed, the President is directly elected by the people. The President holds office for seven years, and can be elected for a maximum of two terms. The presidency is largely a ceremonial office, but the President does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion. The President's official residence is Áras an Uachtaráin in Dublin. The office was established by the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, and became internationally recognised as head of state in 1949 following the coming into force of the Republic of Ireland Act.", "1926: Birth of Dr Garret Fitzgerald, Irish Prime Minister who sought to reduce tensions between the republic and Northern Ireland.", "Fianna Fáil's election victory in 1932 marked the beginning of sixteen years in power during which de Valera was both prime minister and Minister for external affairs. Policies of promoting small-scale tillage farming and industrial development behind high tariff walls, reinforced by the Economic War, reflected the traditional nationalist goal of economic self-sufficiency. On the political front, de Valera saw off the threat from both the Blueshirts and the IRA and in 1937 his new constitution was enacted. In foreign affairs de Valera achieved some notable successes. The Economic War was concluded in 1938 on very favourable terms and at the League of Nations de Valera was president of both the council and the assembly.", "Ireland is a republic whose operative constitution was adopted as a result of the plebiscite of July 1, 1937, and went into effect on Dec. 29, 1937. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the people for a seven-year term. The president has the right to convoke and dissolve the lower house of parliament. In addition, he promulgates laws, appoints judges and other high officials, and serves as chief of the armed forces.", "Following the Anglo -Irish Agreement, the Irish Free State is established as a dominion in the British Commonwealth. Irish nationalist leader Michael Collins, head of the Irish Free State, is killed by militant republicans.", "The chief of state is the president, who is elected by universal suffrage to serve a seven-year term and may be reelected only once. The presidency is traditionally a figurehead role with limited powers. The president appoints a cabinet based upon a nomination from the prime minister and approval from the house of representatives. As of 2005, Mary McAleese held the presidential office. The head of government is the prime minister, who is nominated by the house of representatives and appointed by the president. As of 2005 Bertie Ahern was prime minister and had occupied the position since 26 June 1997." ]

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[ "The Blue Dahlia is a 1946 film noir, directed by George Marshall based on an original screenplay by Raymond Chandler. The film marks the third pairing of stars Alan Ladd and Veronica Lake. It was Chandler's first original screenplay.", "Alan Ladd and Veronica Lake in The Blue Dahlia (1946), directed by George Marshall and written by Raymond Chandler.", "Alan Ladd and Veronica Lake in The Blue Dahlia (1946), written by Raymond Chandler and directed by George Marshall.", "The popular noir couple were brought together again in George Marshall's post-war crime thriller The Blue Dahlia (1946), with an Oscar-nominated screenplay by Raymond Chandler (the only work he ever wrote directly for the screen). Alan Ladd portrayed returning war veteran Johnny Morrison who discovered that his wife Helen (Doris Dowling) was unfaithful during his absence. When she turned up dead and he became the prime suspect, he was aided in the case by the mysterious Joyce Harwood (Lake) - the seductive ex-wife of his wife's former lover.", "Directed by Phil Rosen. Cast: Alan Ladd, Joan Woodbury, Jack LaRue, John Archer, Vince Barnett, Linda Ware. An innocent anguished woman is incarcerated on a hit-and-run rap. She emerges from prison a hardened criminal who turns to armed robbery and eventually rises through blackmail to a position of power in the local crime organization. Ladd plays an undercover reporter doubling for a notorious gangster. 73 min. DVD X971", "Lake and Ladd reunited once again to make their third and final film noir together, The Blue Dahlia, which was based on an original screenplay written by Raymond Chandler. Prior to filming in 1945, Ladd was due to return to the army near the end of World War II, so the movie was rushed through production with Lake and co-star William Bendix already attached. Ladd played Johnny Morrison, a war veteran who comes home to find his wife (Doris Dowling) cheating with another man. She soon winds up dead and Morrison takes the blame. While on the run, he seeks the help of his wife's lover's ex-wife, Joyce (Lake), and tries to clear his name. The Blue Dahlia began production without an ending, but that turned out to be the least of the movie's problems. Chandler fiercely despised Lake – he dubbed her \"Moronica Lake\" – while the actress was becoming increasingly difficult to work with on set. Check Amazon rating »", "Ruth Elizabeth Davis (April 5, 1908 - October 6, 1989), better known as Bette Davis, was an Academy Award winning American actress.", "Also the daughter of famous parents (Bruce Dern and Diane Ladd), Laura Dern is the perfect counterpoint to Rossellini. She may be most famous for Jurassic Park (1993), but she first gained stardom as the beautiful flower of David Lynch, a relationship that continued into Wild at Heart (1990), for which Lynch won the Palm d’Or at Cannes and where Dern played a much flashier role. In Blue Velvet, she’s reminiscent of the virginal Juliette Lewis in Cape Fear (1990), epitomizing quiet innocence and named after the malt shop memory of Sandra Dee.", "Rita Hayworth (born Margarita Carmen Cansino; October 17, 1918 – May 14, 1987) was an American dancer and film actress who garnered fame during the 1940s as one of the era's top stars. Appearing first as Rita Cansino, she agreed to change her name to Rita Hayworth and her hair color to dark red to attract a greater range in roles. Her appeal led to her being featured on the cover of Life magazine five times, beginning in 1940. The first dancer featured on film as a partner of both the stars Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly , Hayworth appeared in a total of 61 films over 37 years. She is listed by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 Greatest Stars of All Time.", "Ruth Elizabeth \"Bette\" Davis (April 5, 1908 – October 6, 1989) was an American actress of film, television and theater. Regarded as one of the greatest actresses in Hollywood history, she was noted for her willingness to play unsympathetic, sardonic characters and was reputed for her performances in a range of film genres, from contemporary crime melodramas to historical and period films and occasional comedies, although her greatest successes were her roles in romantic dramas. ", "Ladd and daughter Laura Dern have appeared in a total of nine films together, including Wild at Heart, Citizen Ruth and Daddy and Them (though a few of Dern's minor cameos in her mother's earlier films were uncredited). Both mother and daughter earned Oscar nominations for best actress (Dern) and best supporting actress (Ladd) for their performance in 1991's Rambling Rose.", "Doris Day (born Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff; April 3, 1924 is an American actress, singer, and animal rights activist.", "Laura Leggett Linney (born February 5, 1964) is an American actress of film, television, and theatre. Linney has won three Emmy Awards, two Golden Globes, and a Screen Actors Guild Award. She has been nominated three times for an Academy Award and once for a BAFTA Award. She has also been nominated three times for a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play. She received a Golden Globe award for her portrayal of a suburban woman diagnosed with terminal cancer in The Big C.", "Barbara Stanwyck (née Ruby Catherine Stevens; July 16, 1907 – January 20, 1990) was an American actress. She was a film and television star, known during her 60-year career as a consummate and versatile professional with a strong, realistic screen presence, and a favorite of directors including Cecil B. DeMille, Fritz Lang, and Frank Capra. After a short but notable career as a stage actress in the late 1920s, she made 85 films in 38 years in Hollywood, before turning to television.", "The winner in the Best Actress award category was a big surprise and upset - Loretta Young (with her first of two career nominations - and only Oscar win) won for her role as Katrin Holstrom, a Swedish-American farm girl in Minnesota (a maid in the house of a mid-western Congressman) who ended up elected to Congress where she faces a showdown with her lover and rival Joseph Cotten in director H. C. Potter's The Farmer's Daughter (with two nominations and one win - Best Actress). Young was a respected and dependable, but minor film actress who made her first screen appearance in 1928, and had appeared on the screen 84 times by 1947 (in non-nominated roles including Capra's Platinum Blonde (1931), Zoo in Budapest (1933), Borzage's Man's Castle (1933), and The Stranger (1946)). The Oscar-winning part was given to her after Ingrid Bergman turned down the role.", "Famous for: American actress of notable versatility as a leading lady who appeared in some 80 films and TV shows. Called, “Woman of a Thousand Faces.” Notable roles are Emlen Davies from Mission to Moscow, Anne Bergner from Between Two Worlds, Irene Carr from Crime by Night, Kitty Kelly from The Last Ride, Ruth Hartley from Pride of the Marines, Mildred Rogers from Of Human Bondage, Ellen Gayley from Never Say Goodbye, Laurie Fairlie Ann Catherick from The Woman in White, Joan “Jo” Holloway from Chain Lightning, Marie Allen from Caged, Susan Adele Connors Chase from Three Secrets, Christabel “Christy” Sloane from A Millionaire for Christy, Mary McLeod from Detective Story, Lenore from Scaramouche, Lucey Tibbets from Above and Beyond, Joanna Leiningen from The Naked Jungle, Ann Barclay Mercedes from Valley of the Kings, Zosh Machine from The Man with the Golden Arm, Marjorie Lawrence from Interrupted Melody, Carol Carwin from The Seventh Sin, Louise Harris from Panic Button, Esperia Vincenzini from The Tiger and the Pussycat, Baroness Elsa Schrader from The Sound of Music, Aunt Danny from Eye of the Cat, Paula Burgess from Circle of Fear, and Katherine Richardson from Madame X.", "If you are a fan of mysteries or just old movies, The Blue Dahlia is a must. Fantastic.", "Melanie Daniels (Tippi Hedren) is a young San Francisco socialite. She decides to follow lawyer Mitch Brenner (Rod Taylor) to his home in Bodega Bay, California. She apparently picks the wrong time to visit. The birds of Bodega Bay are becoming increasingly aggressive and soon every human being around comes under attack, with Annie Hayworth (Suzanne Pleshette), a close friend of the Brenners, becoming one of the early casualties.", "Famous for: American actress whose career began at 21 and came to prominence almost immediately in the 1950s. In the 1960s, she withdrew from the public eye and only acted sporadically until her retirement in 1991. Notable roles are Marjorie “Madge” Owens from Picnic, Molly from The Man with the Golden Arm, Jeanne Eagels, Linda English from Pal Joey, Judy Barton from Vertigo, Gillian “Gil” Holroyd from Bell, Book, and Candle, Betty Preisser from Middle of the Night, Mildred Rogers from Of Human Bondage, Polly the Pistol from Kiss Me, Stupid, Moll Flanders from The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders, Lola Brewster from The Mirror Crack’d, and Lillian Anderson Munnsen from Liebestraum.", "Famous for: British American actress who appeared predominantly in films she made in Great Britain during and after WWII and in Hollywood from 1950 onwards. Notable roles are Young Estella from Great Expectations, Kanchi from Black Narcissus, Ophelia from Hamlet, Emmeline Foster from The Blue Lagoon, Lavinia from Androcles and the Lion, Princess Elizabeth from Young Bess, Carolyn Parker from Affair with a Stranger, Diana from The Robe, Ruth Gordon Jones from The Actress, Meryt from The Egyptian, Désirée Clary from Desiree, Sergeant Sarah Brown from Guys and Dolls, Julie Maragon from The Big Country, Sharon Falconer from Elmer Gantry, Varinia from Spartacus, Fräulein Rottenmeier from Heidi, Mary Spencer from The Happy Ending, Em Reed from How to Make an American Quilt, and Grandma Sophie from Howl’s Moving Castle.", "Ruth Elizabeth \"Bette\" Davis (Apr 5, 1908 – Oct 6, 1989) was an American actress of film, television and theater.", "Alana Hamilton Stewart (; born May 18, 1945) is an American actress and former model. She has also used her maiden name, Alana Collins, and her names from her first marriage, Alana Collins-Hamilton and Alana Hamilton, professionally.", "Diane Ladd (Laura Dern's co-star and real-life mother) (with her third unsuccessful nomination) as genteel Southern matron Mother Hillyer in Rambling Rose", "* January 15 – Elizabeth Short, an aspiring actress nicknamed the \"Black Dahlia\", is found brutally murdered in a vacant lot in Los Angeles. The case remains unsolved to this day.", "Jean Hagen as Lina Lamont. Fresh off her role in The Asphalt Jungle , Hagen read for the part for producer Arthur Freed. She did a dead-on impression of Judy Holliday 's Billie Dawn character from Born Yesterday , which won her the role.", "Lotte Lenya (October 18, 1898 � November 27, 1981), singer and actor, born Karoline Wilhelmine Blamauer, in Vienna, Austria.", "Academy Award-winning actress: Network [1976]; Poltergeist, Bloodline, Endless Love; Tony Award: The Crucible [1953]; died Apr 7, 2001", "Diane Ladd (3) - no wins; nominated for Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974), Wild at Heart (1990), Rambling Rose (1991)", "(1965- ) American actress and former child model. Best-known roles in \"Pretty Baby\" (1978), \"The Blue Lagoon\" (1980) and \"Endless Love\" (1981); star of the US sitcom \"Suddenly Susan\".", "Lillita McMurray, better known as Lita Grey, was the flirtatious angel in The Kid'. She also played Ednas maid in The Idle Class . (Litas mother played alongside Lita as a maid in the same film.)", "actress: The Harder They Fall, Pony Express, High School Confidential, The Incident, Split Second; died Mar 26, 2004", "actor: �Like sands through the hourglass these are the Days of Our Lives�; Comanche Territory, The Rebels, Who is the Black Dahlia, Access Code; died Mar 21, 1994" ]

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[ "A little black dress (LBD) is a black evening or cocktail dress, cut simply and often quite short. Fashion historians ascribe the origins of the little black dress to the 1920s designs of Coco Chanel and Jean Patou intended to be long-lasting, versatile, affordable, accessible to the widest market possible and in a neutral colour. Its ubiquity is such that it is often simply referred to as the \"LBD\". ", "As hard as it is to believe today, the little black dress was at its inception quite revolutionary. Designed by fashion maverick Coco Chanel in 1926, the little black dress broke all the rules. Black was traditionally the color of mourning. The original little black dress was made of jersey fabric, which at the time was used almost exclusively to create men’s underwear. The combination of fabric and color was quite rebellious, and yet it worked. The time was ripe for a fashion rebellion, as modernist women were tired of the rules that bound them. By 1926, Coco was already a star, having turned the fashion world on its ear with her menswear-inspired practical designs. Her iconic perfume, Chanel No. 5 had been introduced in 1922 and the famous Chanel suit in 1923. Thus, Coco was well placed to change fashion forever.", "A little black dress is an evening or cocktail dress, cut simply and often quite short. Fashion historians ascribe the origins of the little black dress to the 1920s designs of Coco Chanel and Jean Patou intended to be long-lasting, versatile, affordable, accessible to the widest market possible and in a neutral colour. Its ubiquity is such that it is often simply referred to as the \"LBD\".", "Coco Chanel - Mini Biography (TV-14; 3:03) A short biography of Coco Chanel who's famous for her timeless designs, trademark suits, and creating the \"little black dress.\"", "Designer Coco Chanel gave the world the little black dress, Chanel No. 5 perfume, and the revolutionary notion that style could be both classic and casual. Coco -- a nickname meaning \"little pet\" -- was raised in an orphanage, where she learned to sew. In 1910 she began selling hats from her own shop, and by the 1920s her fashion business had expanded to include a couture house, her own textile factory and a line of perfumes that included the famous No. 5. Chanel took women's fashions away from stiff corsets and introduced casual, practical clothing that borrowed fabrics and attitudes from men's fashion. She was the first to introduce black as a fashion color; her versatile, semi-formal \"little black dress\" became a Chanel trademark and an enduring fashion standard. During and after World War II Chanel's popularity waned, and her love affair with a Nazi officer sent her into a form of self-imposed exile in Switzerland for nearly 15 years. She made a comeback in 1954 and her designs became some of the most popular in the western world, especially in the United States. After her death the Coco Chanel Company was directed, among others, by designer Karl Lagerfeld.", "For centuries, black clothes were associated with mourning or mystery and piety. In 1926 all that changed when Coco Chanel used the colour in fashion, and the little black dress was born.", "The second chapter throws light on the Chanel classics, which have retained their fascination till today. Thus historical original examples of the Chanel Suit are juxtaposed with some 20 different adaptations of it, including models from other fashion houses, unknown ateliers and garment manufacturers. The procession of “lookalikes” and “distant cousins” by no means comes to an end with Chanel’s lifetime, but integrates aspects of contemporary fashion. A selection of the endless variations on the theme of the “little black dress” from the 1920s till the present will also be on show, some of them by designers such as Yves Saint Laurent, Max Heyman and Issey Miyake or Nina Ricci. They should by no means be seen as just copies of Chanel models. The short black dress was in keeping with the modern, dynamic lifestyle of the 1920s. Later the “little black dress” is an indispensable requisite in every woman’s wardrobe and, in the Fifties and Sixties, the epitome of Parisian chic.", "The House of Chanel is known for the \"little black dress\", the perfume No. 5 de Chanel, and the Chanel Suit. Chanel’s use of jersey fabric produced garments that were comfortable and affordable. Chanel revolutionized fashion — high fashion (haute couture) and everyday fashion (prêt-à-porter) — by replacing structured-silhouettes, based upon the corset and the bodice, with garments that were functional and at the same time flattering to the woman’s figure.", "Chanel encouraged and inspired the style we typically envision when we think of flappers. She was fond of working with neutral colors and soft easy-to-wear jersey fabrics that were simple in shape and cut. Chanel was able to infuse comfort and sophistication into fashion, and this combination was considered revolutionary. It was during her early work, that Chanel designed and introduced the first little black dress to the world.", "After the jersey suit, the concept of the little black dress is often cited as a Chanel contribution to the fashion lexicon and as an article of clothing survives to this day. Its first incarnation was executed in thin silk, crèpe de chine, and had long sleeves. Chanel started making little black dresses in wool or chenille for the day and in satin, crepe or velvet for the evening.The dress was fashionable, yet comfortable and practical because it was stripped of all excess. In 1926, the American edition of Vogue highlighted such a Chanel dress, dubbing it the garçonne (little boy look). They predicted it would “become sort of a uniform for all women of taste”, embodying a standardized aesthetic, which the magazine likened to the democratic appeal of the ubiquitous black Ford automobile. Its spare look generated widespread criticism from male journalists who complained: “no more bosom, no more stomach, no more rump…Feminine fashion of this moment in the 20th century will be baptized lop off everything.”[116] The popularity of the little black dress can be attributed to the timing at which it was introduced. The 1930s brought in the Great Depression Era during which women desired affordable fashion. Chanel quoted, “Thanks to me they (non-wealthy) can walk around like millionaires.”", "he reception of Coco Chanel’s fashion and her style is already very widespread in her lifetime. A comparison with other contemporary couturiers reveals that Coco Chanel operated a very tolerant policy as regards the copyright for her models: The fashion designer allowed her models to be copied up to a certain point with her consent. For her, it was an acknowledgement of her eminence if women all over the world dressed in her style – an aspect whose influence on the “Chanel Legend” should not be underestimated, and which is investigated in this exhibition for the first time. In October 1926, the American Vogue magazine described a short black dress by Chanel as “The Chanel Ford – the frock that all the world will wear”. This drew a parallel between Chanel’s dress in its universality and modernity and one of the most important inventions of the time and prophesied a great future for it.", "French actress Marion Cottilard radiated with elegance at the Dior Fashion Show during this year’s Paris Fashion Week. She wears Dior’s version of a little black dress, which just happens to be super sophisticated. This ensemble made Harpers Bazaar’s list of The 100 Best Little Black Dresses of 2014.", "Coco Chanel Dress ~ The Story of Chanel Little Black Dress | Fashion & Style Guru", "So it may come as a surprise in “Little Black Dress,” an intriguing exhibition in Paris at the Mona Bismarck American Center for Art & Culture (until Sept. 22) to encounter first a black lace dress worn by the American designer Marc Jacobs to the 2012 Metropolitan Museum gala by the Japanese designer Rei Kawakubo of Comme des Garçons and a sleek dinner dress, worn by the artist Rachel Feinstein, made by Mr. Jacobs.", "Gabrielle Bonheur \"Coco\" Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 January 1971) was a French fashion designer of women's clothes and founder of the Chanel brand. Along with Paul Poiret, Chanel was credited in the post-World War I era with liberating women from the constraints of the \"corseted silhouette\" and popularizing a sporty, casual chic as the feminine standard of style. She is widely regarded as the greatest fashion designer who ever lived, thus making the name of Chanel iconic. A prolific fashion creator, Chanel extended her influence beyond couture clothing, realising her design aesthetic in jewellery, handbags, and fragrance. Her signature scent, Chanel No. 5, has become an iconic product. She is the only fashion designer listed on Time magazine's list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. ", "Chanel also popularized the little black dress , whose blank-slate versatility allowed it to be worn for both day and night.", "Yves Henri Donat Mathieu-Saint-Laurent, known as Yves Saint Laurent (August 1, 1936 – June 1, 2008), was a French fashion designer, one of the greatest names in fashion history. In 1985, Caroline Rennolds Milbank wrote, \"The most consistently celebrated and influential designer of the past twenty-five years, Yves Saint Laurent can be credited with both spurring the couture's rise from its sixties ashes and with finally rendering ready-to-wear reputable.\" He is also credited with having introduced the tuxedo suit for women, became the first designer to use ethnic models in his runway shows, and referenced other non-European cultures in his work.", "Coco Chanel was a renowned French fashion designer who founded the fashion brand âChanelâ. She was the first person to see style as both, classic and casual. Chanel created timeless classics and set a high benchmark for the fashion designers to come. She was instrumental in breaking the stereotype and liberating woman from the stifling âcorseted silhouetteâ and making the sporty casual chic look not only acceptable but also trendy and very fashionable. Her extraordinary fashion sense was not just limited to couture clothing but also reflected in fragrance, handbags and jewellery. She also was quite a party animal and had wide network of people with whom she socialised, built connections and did business. Chanel was ambitious, determined and hard-working lady whose effort clearly reflected in her work. She seemed more of an enigma and lied on many instances, masking her real age and place of birth. Chanel and her work can be best described in her own words âFashion fades, only style remainsâ. This speaks volumes about what a legendary style and fashion icon she was.", "It was said that women used to wear black dresses while mourning...until the age of Coco Chanel, that is. She didn't create the concept, but it wasn't until Vogue published a sketch of the visionary's simple-yet-elegant design that it became popular.", "The Windsors were famous for their elegant Paris dinner parties, creating a demand for expensive clothes and jewels for them and their guests. Thus, the prewar years in France from 1935-1940 were rich in the decorative arts, putting trendy fashion designers front and center. It was a time when Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel was “rethinking the suit” to allow for the way women really move and Elsa Schiaparelli* was designing lobster dresses with surrealist Salvador Dali.*", "Created nearly a century ago by Coco Chanel as emblematic of Gallic chic and worn by Edith Piaf as she sang about love and loss, the dress did make it to America, perhaps most notably as Audrey Hepburn’s costume in the 1961 movie “Breakfast at Tiffany’s.” But that dress was, of course, made by the Paris couturier Hubert de Givenchy.", "Coco Chanel was a French designer and costume maker, instrumental in defining feminine style and dress during the 20th Century. Her ideas and business practises were revolutionary.", "Quant probably deserves primary but not exclusive credit for the miniskirt. One French designer also caught the spirit of the era and did for France what Quant did for England (and America)—André Courrèges. Though he began to experiment with hemlines as early as 1961, Courrèges showcased his futuristic, space-age minimalistic dresses which scandalously fell above the knee in late 1964. Like Quant, Courrèges shocked the fashion world. Unlike Quant, he tended to design his skirts with more sophistication and maturity, which, in turn, helped make the miniskirt acceptable to French haute couture (Cawthorne 1999).", "Quant probably deserves primary but not exclusive credit for the miniskirt. One French designer also caught the spirit of the era and did for France what Quant did for England (and America), André Courrèges. Though he began to experiment with hemlines as early as 1961, Courrèges showcased his futuristic, space-age minimalistic dresses which scandalously fell above the knee in late 1964. Like Quant, Courrèges shocked the fashion world. Unlike Quant, he tended to design his skirts with more sophistication and maturity, which, in turn, helped make the miniskirt acceptable to French haute couture.", "The Russian collection was a real watershed. For the first time, a Parisian couturier restaged his show in NYC, the hype was so great and the clothes so in-demand. Easily the most influential designer of the century, maybe after Coco Chanel.", "Riccardo Tisci, creative director of Givenchy, said of the dress: “It was 1961 and this dress is in a way very sixties. The front is severe, elegant, very clean, but at the back there is the very interesting neckline, somewhere between ethnic and Parisian; a softness that other designers in that time didn’t have.”", "Gradually, mainstream fashion culture began to adopt the styles of the counterculture. By the end of the 1980s, runway models began to appear in completely redesigned little black dresses. Plunging necklines, rising hemlines and strategically placed cutouts were in, along with an ever-increasing variety of fabrics. Endless redesigns remained popular throughout the 1990s.", "Now attached to design details like sequins, cutouts or leather, the little black dress has definitely evolved. Designers have found ways to modernize the staple with current trends. Could you wear Taylor Swift 's glittery mini with an army jacket around your waist to a backyard BBQ? You may be a smidgen overdressed. Could you wear a classic, toned-down version that you can keep forever? Well, isn't that the point?", "Fashion designer, born in Saumur, W France. She worked as a milliner until 1912, and after World War 1 opened a couture house in Paris. She revolutionized women's fashions during the 1920s, her designs including the chemise dress and the collarless cardigan jacket. Many of the features she introduced, such as the vogue for costume jewellery and the evening scarf, still retain their popularity.…", "Our bet for break out designer of 2004 is It-girl favorite Sari Gueron. The French-Israeli-American designer creates dresses that are so gorgeous and yet so nonchalantly cool that budding style icons like Maggie Gyllenhaal are swooning. Miss Gueron's designs are uniquely soft and structured at the same time, with an eye for luxurious fabrics and architectural details. Don't miss the debut of her line at Henri Bendels and Kirna Zabete this spring.", "In France, the costumes he designed for singer Mylène Farmer gained much attention. In spring 2008 he signed a contract to be again the fashion designer for her tour in 2009. ", " Italian-born fashion designer who established an important couture house in Paris. She was famous for her Surrealist ( Surrealism ) fashions of the 1930s and for her witty accessories, such as a purse in the shape of a telephone." ]

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[ "Lanolin is a yellow, sticky substance that's derived most commonly from the sebaceous glands of sheep, although it can come from other wool-bearing animals like goats as well. It can't be made synthetically. In sheep, this oily substance helps to protect their coats against the environment and insect bites. Lanolin can be obtained from sheep without harming them. When sheep are sheared to remove their coat, the lanolin can be extracted by squeezing the wool between tight rollers without harm to the animal. Lanolin has been used topically for thousands of years to treat dry skin and other skin conditions.", "Lanolin is obtained from the wax found on sheep's wool; refined and purified to cosmetic specifications.", "Lanolin or wool wax secretes from the glands of sheep. Crude wool is collected and diluted with alkali to obtain the wax. It has been in use since ancient times as a cure for skin diseases. Today it is in great demand in industries connected with fabrics, ink and lubricants.", "; Lanolin: Trademarked as the term for a preparation of water and the wax from sheep's wool. ", "Lanolin is a waxy substance that coats a sheep’s fur, keeping it moist and protecting its skin. After a sheep has been shorn, a waxy substance called sebum is left on the fur, which comes from the animal’s sebaceous glands – just like human skin produces oil – and is affected by hormone production. While lanolin contains sebum, according to “ The Scouring Post ” by Elaine Benfatto, lanolin can also contain sweat, dirt, dust, pollen, fecal matter and more. In addition, different sheep breeds create different consistencies and make up of lanolin. Lanolin must first be purified before it can be used in any products to remove all the garbage and that can be a challenge. This refining process varies greatly between different companies, the chemicals used and the degree of purity in the process. After refinement, lanolin is used in a number of skin care and beauty products for consumer and in hospitals for wound care, but it’s also one of the most common ingredients for nipple cream, which provides relief from cracked and sore nipples to breastfeeding moms.", "Subcutaneous fat and vegetable oils are composed of high fatty acid triglycerides. However, lanolin, like carnauba wax, is composed of both high fatty acids and alcohol esters which makes lanolin a wax as well. It coats the surface of sheep wool, protecting it from harsh environmental influences.", "/lan·o·lin/ (lan´ah-lin) a purified, waxlike substance from the wool of sheep, Ovis aries, occurring in an anhydrous form and also a form containing 25 to 30 percent water; used as a water-in-oil ointment or cream base. Modified l. has been additionally processed to reduce the amount of free lanolin alcohols and detergent and pesticide residues.", "Fine-wool sheep grow wool fibers with the smallest fiber diameter (usually less than 22 microns). Their fleeces tend to be the shortest in length and contain the most lanolin (wool wax or grease). Fine wool fleeces usually yield a lower percentage of clean fiber than longer, coarser fleeces. However, fine wool is the most valuable wool in the commercial market place because it is used to make the highest quality wool garments and has the most versatility of use. Fine-wool is less likely to itch when it is used in garments that are close to the skin.", "Grease, or fleece, wool is obtained from live animals by shearing (sheep, goats, and others), combing (camels, yaks, dogs, goats, and rabbits), or gathering during molting (cows, horses, and yaks). Wool removed from the hides of slaughtered animals is called pulled wool. Wool is a keratinized filament produced by the animal’s skin. Animals produce a hairy outer coat and a downy undercoat. In sheep the outer coat consists of guard, transitional, and surface hairs; the downy undercoat is homogeneous. Fibers from the outer coat have a cuticle, a cortex, and usually a medulla; undercoat fibers have a cuticle and a cortex. The cuticle is a thin (0.5–2 micrometers) protective fiber casing. It accounts for the wool’s spinning and felting properties. Damage to the cuticle leads to deterioration of the cortical layer and lessens the usefulness of the wool. The condition of the cortical layer, located underneath the cuticle, affects the strength, elasticity, resiliency, and other properties of the wool. The medulla may be solid or porous (with air cavities) and is situated along the fiber axis. Increased medullation lessens the usefulness of the wool.", "LANOLIN is the precious oily secretion from the sheep’s skin that becomes trapped in its wool.  Each Spring season, after the sheep is shorn – think of the sheep having a ‘hair cut’ – the wool is washed & processed.  The pure Lanolin oil is then extracted & refined.", "The fat that comes from sheep, which is called tallow, can also be used to produce soap and candles", "Lanolin is wool grease; this substance, sometimes called \"yolk\", is a secretion from the sebaceous glands of the sheep.", "A.) Lanolin is a skin secretion of sheep and is extracted in the processing of wool.", "A natural grease formed from dried perspiration found in the fleece of sheep, formerly used as a source of potash.", "Generally referred to as the perspiration of sheep and is naturally excreted from the glands at the roots of the wool. Suint consists of soapy compunds of potash and fatty acids, together with a little free fatty acid and saline matter. It is soluble in water. This is one part of what is called the grease on an unwashed fleece.", "Bees busily buzz around making fantastic honeycombs with their own wax. Later on Man copied them. The term ‘wax’ is a substance whose properties are akin to beeswax – plastic and malleable, with a melting point of 45 °C, having low viscosity when melted. It is not soluble in water.", "Sheep skins are removed from the carcasses after slaughter. They are treated in a process called tanning and made into soft leather. Sheep skin is commonly used for making the chamois cloth that you wash your car with. A small number of skins are preserved as sold as sheepskins, with the wool still attached.", "Beeswax is a wax used for batik as a resist, it doesn't crack very well if any and is usually mixed with paraffin to create a crackling effect. It melts at 120 degrees.", "Sheep (Ovis aries) are quadrupedal, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Although the name \"sheep\" applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep.Though sheep's milk may be drunk rarely in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is pecore) and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, which may affect those who are intolerant.", "By the Middle Ages candles were common. Tallow, beeswax, and vegetable wax such as bayberry in North American, candleberry in the East, and waxberry in South America, were later supplemented by whale oil (spermaceti) and by stearine or stearic acid in the early 1800s (this is still obtained from plants which process the carcasses of dogs and cats killed in animal pounds and shelters), then by paraffin in the mid-1800s.", "wool in its natural state, after removal from the sheep and before any commercial processing; contains yolk, suint, moisture, extraneous soil and vegetable matter.", "Carnauba Wax A wax obtained from the leaves of the Carnauba Palm or Wax Palm (Copernicia cerifera) of Brazil. During the 19th century it was imported into Europe on a substantial scale to be made into candles, which burned with the aroma of new-mown hay.", "��������� This is a greenish turbid oleoresin with the odor of rosemary.� It is obtained from Commiphora opobalsamum, in Arabia.� This material has long been used in incense and for perfumes of an oriental type.� It has some medicinal value.� The supply of Mecca balsam has always been limited and thus is a rare and costly product.", "Wax used for grooming the topknot of sekitori. Usually made from a soybean extract. See also oicho-mage and tokoyama .", "n. A brown, fatty, waxlike substance that forms on dead animal tissues in response to moisture.", "Vegetable wax is also a safe ingredient. This is simply a waxy excretion on the leaves or fruits of certain plants, such as the bayberry.", "Sellotape: n Scotch tape. Sellotape (a contraction of �cellophane tape�) is the name of the largest manufacturer of sticky tape in the U.K.", "Spermaceti (from Latin sperma meaning \"semen\", and ceti meaning \"whale\" ) is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale (and, in smaller quantities, in the oils of other whales). Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale's head.", "The Vegetable lamb of Tartary (Latin: Agnus scythicus or Planta Tartarica barometz ) is a legendary zoophyte of Central Asia, once believed to grow sheep as its fruit.The sheep were connected to the plant by an umbilical cord and grazed the land around the plant. When all accessible foliage was gone, both the plant and sheep died.", "A special comb is used to maintain the grip of the wax. Usually, the comb is used to engrave criss-cut valleys into the wax to create a tackier surface.", "Customary among farmers is the practice of coating their farm tools and implements with flaxseed oil to prevent rust. The oil dries on the implements and forms a hard seal that does not evaporate or dissipate.", "* Saltgrass Lamb – A term used to describe a type of lamb exclusive to Flinders Island (Tasmania). The pastures on the island have a relatively high salt content, leading to a flavor and texture similar to saltmarsh lamb. " ]

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[ "Teflon - The trademarked name for a coating used on pots and pans to prevent food from sticking. This nonstick coating can cut down (or eliminate in some cases) the need for oil in cooking, and is helpful to people on low-fat diets.", "Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications. PTFE's most well known trademark in the industry is the DuPont brand name Teflon, as DuPont initially discovered PTFE . PTFE has an extremely low coefficient of friction and is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, and so is often used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals.", "Polytetrafluoroethylene is better known by the trade name Teflon®. It's used to make non-stick cooking pans, and anything else that needs to be slippery or non-stick. PTFE is also used to treat carpets and fabrics to make them stain resistant. What's more, it's also very useful in medical applications. Because human bodies rarely reject it, it can be used for making artificial body parts.", "Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides. It is more commonly known as Teflon.", "Teflon is a brand name of DuPont for a variety of the polymer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which belongs to a class of thermoplastics known as fluoropolymers. It is known as a coating for non-stick cookware. Being chemically inert, it is used in making containers and pipes that come in contact with reactive compounds. It is also used as a lubricant to reduce wear from friction between sliding parts, such as gears, bearings, and bushings.", "It takes 7 ceramic pans to deliver the same level of nonstick performance of 1 pan with Teflon™ Platinum nonstick coating systems. That's because our high quality coatings have been perfected for over 50 years. Additionally, now Teflon™ nonstick coatings are made without the use of PFOA.", "Teflon is DuPont's brand name for polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE, a fluoropolymer in which the fluorine atoms are so tightly bonded to the carbon atom that everything else slips right off. It's a miracle of modern chemistry that you encounter whenever you use non-stick cookware. But... if Teflon is non-stick, then how do they get it to stick to pans in the first place?", "SilverStone fluoropolymer coatings provide families throughout the world with superior non-stick, scratch-resistant cookware. The product grew out of chemical experimentation with Teflon® polytetrafluoroethylene. Teflon was discovered in 1938, but its sales were modest until its introduction as a non-stick coating for cookware in 1961. Over the next several years, DuPont sought fluorocarbon polymers that would provide even greater non-stick performance and scratch resistance.", "PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is typically used as a coating layer on, for example, cooking utensils to provide a non-stick surface. Its usable temperature range up to 350 °C and chemical inertness make it a useful additive in special greases. Under extreme pressures, PTFE powder or solids is of little value as it is soft and flows away from the area of contact. Ceramic or metal or alloy lubricants must be used then. \"Teflon®\" is a brand of PTFE owned by DuPont Co.", "Back in the good old days, miners would take a canary underground and if the bird became ill or died, they knew to get out fast. A product used in many kitchens the world over is having the same effect on parrots and other pet birds and the effect on humans could cause serious health risks. The use of the chemical cocktail polytetrafluoroethylene, more well known by its DyPont brand name Teflon, has become a bone of contention in the cookery world. The convenience of the product is being outshone by questions about the safety of Teflon, as one of the chemical compounds used in the production of Teflon, tetraphosphorus (P4), comes under scrutiny. Three local men have taken the intiative to introduce to Australian cooks an alternative product for non-stick cooking. Oren Hamama, Dudi Partush and Dan Regev have become the sole Australian distributors of the new Neoflam cookware range. ‘We always had a conflict of having healthy foods but using unhealthy cookware,’ says Oren. ‘Then we found Neoflam cookware non-stick cookware terested persons to attend an introductory walk. For comprehensive information about the club, including how to join, who to contact and a walks program, please visit our website: northernriversbushwalkersclub.org.au.", "             Teflon is a trade name of polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE. It is formed by the addition polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene, CF2=CF2 (tetrafluoroethene). PTFE is distinguished by its complete resistance to attack by virtually all chemicals and by its slippery surface. It maintains its physical properties over a large temperature range, -270° to 385°C. These properties make it especially useful for components that must operate under harsh chemical conditions and at temperature extremes. Its most familiar household use is as a coating on cooking utensils.", "Cast iron: Pans made of cast iron are especially cheap, and they offer great heat retention. They also develop a natural nonstick coating over time if you treat them correctly. But cast iron is very heavy, a poor conductor of heat, liable to react with acidic foods, and potentially a hassle to care for if it isn’t coated with enamel. Like steel, cast iron can work on induction burners.", "Amazon sells them and also on Ceramcor.com; non-stick pans are probably safer when they are new before the coating starts to come off and also at lower temperatures.", "Porcelain enamel is applied as a coating only on pots and pans made of other material, such as cast iron or aluminum. It prevents them from corroding or reacting with the food being cooked. A pan coated with porcelain on the inside cannot be used for sautéing or frying but will work as a saucepan and can be used in the oven.", ";Ceramics: Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles contained levels of lead, which can possess health risks; although this is not a concern with the vast majority of modern ware. Some pottery can be placed on fire directly. ", "Is nonstick the most favorable for your skillets? Non-stick cookware becomes popular for making our life easier these days-for comfy to cook, less oil or butter and breezy cleaning. There’re lots of nonstick types on the market -from traditional nonstick, infused coats to PFOA- and PTFE-free pans for reducing harmful chemicals.", "This nonstick, anodized aluminum cookware offers unbeatable performance, for a price (from $24.99 for an 8-inch pan to $299.99 for a 10-piece set, available at amazon.com ).", "Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminium, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless steel. Some pans feature a copper or aluminium layer that extends over the entire pan rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base.", "Second, radiant energy striking the medium gray ceramic nonstick coated cleaning shield is reradiated at a lower infrared frequency than radiant energy striking a shiny cleaning shield. This lower frequency tends to absorb quicker and deeper into foods which in turn results in shorter cooking times.", "*Teflon® is a registered trademark of the DuPont Company for many of its fluorine-based products including fluoropolymer resins, films, coatings, additives and other products.", "@StarJo: I have stainless steel cookware but it is not considered nonstick. I use some olive oil or some other type of cooking spray to keep food from sticking.", "PENNINE Material. Glaze. Brand name of a particular glaze recipe introduced by Josiah Wedgwood and Sons Ltd of Barlaston, Stoke-on-Trent, England, in 1965s. Used on Oven-to-Table ware ranges.", "Cookware and bakeware may be clad in stainless steels, to enhance their cleanability and durability. Because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminum, which conduct heat more readily.", "Non-Reactive Pan - A non-porous pan which does not produce a chemical reaction when it comes into contact with acidic foods. An aluminum pan is reactive, while stainless steel, glass, and enamel are not.", "<?xml version=\"1.0\" encoding=\"UTF-8\"?> <material name=\"EP Kaolin\" descrip=\"Plastic White Firing Kaolin\" searchkey=\"EPK, Edgar Plastic Kaolin, EPK Kaolin\" loi=\"0.00\" casnumber=\"95077-05-7\"> <oxides> <oxide symbol=\"CaO\" name=\"Calcium Oxide, Calcia\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.180\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"MgO\" name=\"Magnesium Oxide, Magnesia\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.100\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"K2O\" name=\"Potassium Oxide\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.330\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"Na2O\" name=\"Sodium Oxide, Soda\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.060\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"P2O5\" name=\"Phosphorus Pentoxide\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.240\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"TiO2\" name=\"Titanium Dioxide, Titania\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.370\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"Al2O3\" name=\"Aluminum Oxide, Alumina\" status=\"\" percent=\"37.360\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"SiO2\" name=\"Silicon Dioxide, Silica\" status=\"\" percent=\"45.730\" tolerance=\"\"/> <oxide symbol=\"Fe2O3\" name=\"Iron Oxide, Ferric Oxide\" status=\"\" percent=\"0.790\" tolerance=\"\"/> </oxides> <volatiles> <volatile symbol=\"H2O\" name=\"Water\" percent=\"1.400\" tolerance=\"\"/> <volatile symbol=\"LOI\" name=\"Loss on Ignition\" percent=\"13.200\" tolerance=\"\"/> <volatile symbol=\"SO3\" name=\"Sulfur Trioxide\" percent=\"0.210\" tolerance=\"\"/> </volatiles> </material>", "A shallow, long-handled pan used for frying food. Also called skillet; also called regionally fry pan, spider.", "Clay is an earthen material, moldable or plastic when wet, non-plastic when dry, and permanently hard when baked or fired. It is widely distributed geographically, and often found mixed with sand in soils of a loam type-a mixture of clay, silt and sand. Relatively pure clay is not usually a surface deposit, although, in some cases, it may be exposed by erosion. Clay types vary throughout the world, and even within a region. Each type of clay possesses a unique combination of special properties such as plasticity, hardness and lightness, as well as color and texture, which makes some clays better suited for one kind of ceramic than another. The correct clay mixture needed for a particular purpose can be created by blending clays and adding other materials, but using the wrong type of clay can result in expensive production problems such as crazing (the formation of tiny cracks in a tile glaze) or warping of the tile itself. Traditionally, chalky clays have been preferred for many kinds of ceramic tiles, in part because they produce, when fired, a white body which is desirable for decorating. Other materials can be added, including grog (or ground-up fired clay) that helps aerate the clay and prevents warping, speeds firing and reduces shrinking, or calcined flint, to harden it.", "Foodstuff coating compositions comprising aldobionate products are described. The compositions may also include one or more thermally coagulating proteins that coat foodstuffs and render them less permeable to fat and oil in a frying medium, thus reducing the amount of fat or oil absorbed by the foodstuff during cooking. Methods for preparing such foodstuffs are also described. A variety of compositions useful in coating foodstuffs are also described.", "2coating products of various colors are used for the out case of microwave and gas ovens, while metallic high-gloss 3coating productsare also used.", "- A carbon steel product continuously hotâdipped coated, nominally by weight, with 55% aluminum, 1.6% silicon and the balance Zinc. The product is intended for applications requiring corrosion resistance, heat resistance or both.", "Yes, its a brand, its Miriams Earthen Cookware. I love their pots, really good and very healthy. the best ones I have in my kitchen.", "Among other methods for applying metal layers to metal is thermal spray coating, a generic term for processes in which a metal wire is melted by a plasma arc or a flame, atomized, and sprayed onto a surface in an inert gas. Another method is vacuum coating, which produces thin, bright, attractive layers on a part by evaporating and depositing a coating metal in a high vacuum." ]

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[ "Cast iron is used for things like manhole covers, cast iron pipes, valves and pump bodies in the water industry, guttering and drainpipes, cylinder blocks in car engines, Aga-type cookers, and very expensive and very heavy cookware.", " Cast Iron: Traditional structural material, hardware, stairs, decorative features, fences, tools, utensils, and stoves. Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole covers.", "Cast Iron – carbon 2 – 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but brittle. Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole covers.", "often along with substantial quantities of scrapiron and scrap steel, and taking various steps to remove undesirablecontaminants such as phosphorus and sulphur. The melting unit may becupola, electric arc, and induction furnaces etc. The common cast ironsare brittle and have lower strength properties than steels.", "Iron castings which have been made less brittle by heat treatment. There are two types, known as blackheart and whiteheart. See also SG iron.", "If all the carbon is removed from the iron to give high purity iron, it is known as wrought iron. Wrought iron is quite soft and easily worked and has little structural strength. It was once used to make decorative gates and railings, but these days mild steel is normally used instead.", "Wrought iron has been largely replaced by steel. Traditional applications include architectural metalwork and fencing. It remains a useful material in the construction industry, for manufacturing tools, automotive crankshafts and suspension arms, and also for cooking equipment, due to its high thermal conductivity.", "In theory steel could be made harder than tungsten, but it'd be so brittle that it'd have so few applications, whereas tungsten is both hard, dense and ductile.", "A magnetic silver white metal of high tensile strength, ductile and malleable. Chemically iron is chiefly base forming. The principal forms of commercial iron are steel, cast iron and wrought iron. An element that has an average atomic number of 55.85 and that always, in engineering practice, contains small but significant amounts of carbon. Thus iron-carbon alloys containing less than about 0.1% C may be referred to as irons. Alloys with higher carbon contents are always termed steels.", "Includes heat-shield for protection of hoses, wiring, and other engine componentsCast iron or stainless tubular construction protects against warping and/or cracking", "·  CSteel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable iron, titanium, deep case hardened steel and other materials harder than B 100", "Steel with less than 0.6% Carbon content cannot be hardened enough by simple heat-treatment to make useful hardened-steel tools. Hence, in what follows, wrought-iron, low-carbon-steel, and other soft unhardenable iron varieties are referred to indiscriminately as just iron.", "Shell (n.) A concave rough cast-iron tool in which a convex lens is ground to shape.", "Ductile iron is ductile and shock resistant and is made by a heat treatment of gray cast iron where the graphite flakes change shape into small spheres. Malleable iron is strong, ductile and shock resistant.", "Jerry Iron: A shipbuilding tool. An iron tool used for extracting old oakum from seams. Also called meaking iron.", "PEARLITE – The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite in slowly cooled iron carbon alloys as found in steel and cast iron.", "Cheap anvils made from inferior steel or cast iron, which are unsuitable for serious use, have been derisively referred to as \"ASOs\", or \"Anvil Shaped Objects\". Amateur smiths have used a piece of railroad rail as a makeshift anvil.", "Iron is the cheapest of all structural metals. With some skill of an artisan known as a blacksmith it can be worked into many useful objects such as horseshoes, nails, plows, chains, pails, ladders, and many tools. In foundries, iron and steel are shaped in far greater quantities into such objects as furniture and parts of aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, and appliances.", "32,000 pounds of iron - Used to make steel for cars, subways, ships, cans, building construction, heavy equipment, appliances, power transmission turbines and towers.", "An alloy of iron and carbon. Other elements added to steel to improve the mechanical properties include chromium, nickel, molybdenum and manganese.", "Molybdenum is a refractory metallic element used principally as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron, and superalloys to enhance hardenability, strength, toughness, and wear and corrosion resistance. The mineral molybdenite (molybdenum sulfide) is an important source of molybdenum.", "This type of iron, now obsolete, consists of a metal cylinder oriented horizontally on a stand. It was used to iron ruffs and collars. ", "A gray-white metal resembling iron that is used to form many alloys; in steel, improves strength, toughness, stiffness, wear resistance and hardening; also used in dry cell batteries. Plows, safes, steel for rail switches, tools, axes, batteries.", "Sorbite (obsolete) - A fine mixture of ferrite and cementite produced either by regulating the rate of cooling of steel or tempering steel after hardening. The first type is very fine pearlite difficult to resolve under the microscope; the second type is tempered martensite. Structure of steel, resulting from the tempering of martensite. In a truly sorbitic structure, the cementite is completely dispersed in the matrix. The trend is to call this structure tempered martensite.", "This picture is taken from a very good article by Patrick Ferneman , which explains how to use primitive tools to work iron. He uses stone anvil and hamerstone:", "The common blacksmith's anvil is made of either forged or cast steel, forged wrought iron with a hard steel face or cast iron with a hard steel face (cast iron anvils are not used for forging as they are incapable of standing up to the impact and will crack and dent. Also cast iron anvils without a hard steel face do not have the rebound that a hard anvil would and will tire out the smith). Historically, some anvils have been made with a smooth top working face of hardened steel welded to a cast iron or wrought iron body, though this manufacturing method is no longer in use. It has at one end a projecting conical bick (beak, horn) used for hammering curved work pieces. The other end is typically called the heel. Occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, partly rectangular in section. Most anvils made since the late 18th century also have a hardy hole and a pritchel hole where various tools, such as the anvil-cutter or hot chisel, can be inserted and held by the anvil. Some anvils have several hardy and pritchel holes, to accommodate a wider variety of hardy tools and pritchels. An anvil may also have a softer pad for chisel work.", "There are other elements used to make this steel as well, including nickel, nitrogen and molybdenum . Bringing these elements together forms different crystal structures that enable a variety of properties in machining , welding and forming.", "Barber said: “We discovered that the fibres of goethite are just the right size to make up a resilient composite structure. This discovery means that the fibrous structures found in limpet teeth could be mimicked and used in high-performance engineering applications such as Formula One racing cars, the hulls of boats and aircraft structures.", "Iron Flake [Fe] Makes an intensely orange spray on non-branching sparks. Good forcomets, stars and other effects.", "When used as an alloying element it increases the strength of steel at normal and elevated temperatures. Its \"red hardness\" value makes it suitable for cutting tools as it enables the tool edge to be maintained at high temperatures. In conjunction with other alloying elements it finds applications in heat resisting and other severe service conditions.", "physics a piece of metal that can make iron or steel objects come to it so that they seem to stick to it", "Chemical and mechanical processes can cause the breakdown or reduced effectiveness of structural metal fixings such as bolts, rivets, and pins. Stress failure is often a contributor to breakdown situations. Iron connections which are water traps are particularly susceptible." ]

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[ "There are two units used to measure the loudness of sound, phon and sone. Loudness is considered a subjective measurement which is influenced not only by sound pressure, but the length of the sound.", "Sone. In acoustics, a unit of loudness. Defined as the loudness of a 1000 Hz tone 40 dB above threshold. A millisone is one-thousandth of a sone and is often called the loudness unit. [3]", "Since humans do not directly perceive sound intensity, a logarithmic scale for loudness was developed. The unit of loudness is the decibel, named after Alexander Graham Bell. The threshold of hearing—0 dB—represents a sound intensity of 10-12 W/m2. Each tenfold increase in intensity corresponds to 10 dB on the loudness scale. Thus 10 dB is ten times the sound intensity of 0 dB. A sound of 20 dB is ten times the intensity of a 10 dB sound and one hundred times the intensity of a 0 dB sound. The list below shows the loudness of some common sounds.", "Unit of relative loudness. One decibel is the smallest amount of change detectable by the human ear.", "Did You Know? The form of energy called sound is produced when matter moves or vibrates. The vibrations are transferred to another medium, usually the air, and travel through it as sound waves. You hear a sound when its vibrations reach your eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The pitch of a sound is directly related to the frequency of the vibrations of its waves. People with excellent hearing can hear very low sounds, vibrating about 20 times per second, all the way up to high pitches with frequencies of 20,000 vibrations per second. Other animals can hear sounds at higher vibrations. Bats, for instance, can hear sounds with vibrations as high as 100,000 times a second. The loudness, or intensity, of sound is measured in decibels. For each increase of 10 decibels, the sound wave has 10 times as much energy. For example, a sound of 20 decibels is twice as loud as one of 10 decibels, but has 10 times the energy. The softest sound humans can hear, at the very threshold of hearing, has a loudness of 0 decibels. A moderate conversation has a loudness of about 60 decibels, and thunder at very close range has a loudness of about 140 decibels. Sound with intensity greater than 85 decibels can cause ear damage, and sound with intensity above 120 decibels causes pain.", "A unit of loudness, which is a subjective characteristic of a sound; the sone scale is based on data from people judging the loudness of pure tones; as an example, a noise at four sones is perceived to be four times as loud as a noise of one sone", "A VU meter is often included in analog circuit, audio equipment to display a signal level in Volume Units. It is intentionally a “slow” measurement, averaging out peaks and troughs of short duration to reflect the perceived loudness of the material. It was originally invented in 1939 by the combined effort of Bell Labsand broadcasters CBS and NBC for measuring and standardizing the levels of telephone lines. The instrument used to measure VU is called the volume indicator (VI) instrument. Most users ignore this and call it a VU meter.", "In physics and electronics amplitude is literally the maximum absolute value of a periodically varying quantity. In layman’s terms it is the strength of a signal or sound without regard to its content. Amplitude measurements of audio signals generally refer to the signal voltage, which is only one component of what determines power (watts), or the ability to do work. Thus it is important to understand that amplitude alone does not singly determine power (or loudness in audio), but does affect it. In the physical world the amplitude of a sound is measured in dB of SPL (Sound Pressure Level), which again does not define the true sound power or intensity (many people are confused about this), only the sound level at a point in time. We’ll cover this in more detail later when we define those words.", "\"Decibels provide a relative measure of sound intensity. The unit is based on powers of 10 to give a manageable range of numbers to encompass the wide range of the human hearing response, ...", "a customary logarithmic measure most commonly used (in various ways) for measuring sound. The human ear is capable of detecting an enormous range of sound intensities. Because of this great range, and because our perception of sound is not linear, it makes sense to measure sound on logarithmic scales. Informally, if one sound is 1 bel (10 decibels) \"louder\" than another, this means the louder sound is 10 times louder than the fainter one. A difference of 20 decibels corresponds to an increase of 10 x 10 or 100 times in intensity. The beginning of the scale, 0 decibels, can be set in different ways, depending on exactly which aspect of sound is being measured. For sound intensity (the power of the sound waves per unit of area) 0 decibels is equal to 1 pico watt per square meter; this corresponds approximately to the faintest sound that can be detected by a person who has good hearing. A quiet room has a normal sound intensity of around 40 decibels, ten thousand times louder than the faintest perceptible sound, and a nearby thunderclap may have an intensity of 120 decibels, a trillion times louder than the faintest sound. For sound pressure (the pressure exerted by the sound waves) 0 decibels equals 20 micropascals (µPa) RMS , and for sound power 0 decibels sometimes equals 1 picowatt. In all cases, one decibel equals about 0.115 129 neper and d decibels equal d(ln 10)/20 nepers. See also dB- (above).", "Loudness:  physiological measure of amplitude of a sound wave; heard on pitch and tone color as well as amplitude.", "DOSITS Home  >   Science of Sound  >   Sound Measurement  >  What units are used to measure sound?", "One tenth of a bel; unit for expressing the relative loudness of sound on a logarithmic scale.", "a logarithmic measure of sound intensity, invented by engineers of the Bell telephone network in 1923 and named in honor of the inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922). If one sound is 1 bel louder than another, this means the louder sound is 10 times more intense than the fainter one. A difference of 2 bels corresponds to an increase of 10 x 10 or 100 times in intensity. The beginning of the scale, 0 bels, can be defined in various ways (see decibel ) originally intended to represent the faintest sound that can be detected by a person who has good hearing. In practice, sound intensity is almost always stated in decibels. One bel is equal to approximately 1.151 293 nepers .", "Does a sound with twice as great an amplitude sound twice as loud to us? In general, the answer is \"no\". First of all, our subjective sense of \"loudness\" is not directly proportional to amplitude. Experiments find that for most listeners, the (extremely subjective) sensation of a sound being \"twice as loud\" requires a much greater than twofold increase in amplitude. Furthermore, our sense of loudness varies considerably depending on the frequency of the sounds being considered. We're much more sensitive to frequencies in the range from about 300 Hz to 7,000 Hz than we are to frequencies outside that range. (This might possibly be due evolutionarily to the importance of hearing speech and many other important sounds which lie mostly in that frequency range.)", "The relationship between the objectively measured amplitude of a sound and our subjective impression of its loudness is very complicated and depends on many factors. Without trying to explain all of those factors, we can at least point out that our sense of the relative loudness of two sounds is related to the ratio of their intensities, rather than the mathematical difference in their intensities. For example, on an arbitrary scale of measurement, the relationship between a sound of amplitude 1 and a sound of amplitude 0.5 is the same to us as the relationship between a sound of amplitude 0.25 and a sound of amplitude 0.125. The subtractive difference between amplitudes is 0.5 in the first case and 0.125 in the second case, but what concerns us perceptually is the ratio, which is 2:1 in both cases.", "Sound waves also have intensity and, when the comparison is made with ripples on the pond, this equates to the volume of the wave. In real life, it is easier to measure the pressure of the wave rather than its intensity and this pressure is measured in units called pascals (Blaise Pascal [1623–1662] was, among other things, a mathematician and physicist of genius working on statistics, probability and geometry, and atmospheric pressure). One pascal is rather large for sound pressure measurements so that micropascals (µPa), that is, one-millionth of a pascal, tend to be used.", "The intensity of a sound wave is the average amount of energy transmitted per unit time through a unit area in a specified direction. The amount of energy per unit time is power, and intensity is therefore the amount of power transmitted through a unit area in a specified direction. Power is measured in watts, and intensity is therefore measured in watts per square meter. Scientists often specify sound intensity as a ratio, however. The sound intensity level, I, in decibels is defined as 10 times the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of a sound wave to a reference intensity:", "A standardized measure of the sound output of a loudspeaker for a known input signal. Originally, the input power was 1 watt. Nowadays, the input is standardized to 2.83 volts (1 watt into 8 ohms). Measurements are made on axis in an anechoic space, at a distance that places the microphone in the far-field of the loudspeaker system, and then the sound pressure level is calculated for a microphone distance of 1 meter. A measurement distance of 1 meter is too close for all but single drivers and very small loudspeaker systems. See also: Far Field, Input Sensitivity.", "This question has been answered by the scientific studies in the late 20th century. In 1967, D. W. Batteau showed us that the earlap has a function in determining the source of sound. This role has been explained  in the following way:", "Intensity of sound: Intensity of sound is measured in watts per square meter. To calculate the intensity level in decibels, find the ratio of the intensity (I) of sound to the threshold intensity (I0).", "7. If you're studying the science of sound, you're studying which of the following? A. Frequency B. Pitch C. Acoustics D. Wavelength.", "The range of pressures that the ear can hear is enormous. The quietest, just detectable sound may be 20 µPa, but a jet engine heard close by has a level of 20,000,000 µPa. For convenience these levels are recorded as decibels (dB) after Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), teacher of the deaf and inventor of the telephone, the audiometer and gramophone, who derived a convenient way of expressing this huge range of sound pressures.", "Loudness is the subjective human response to sound. It depends primarily on sound pressure but is also influenced by frequency.", "Backus reports that this critical band is about 90 Hz wide for sounds below 200 Hz and increases to about 900 Hz for frequencies around 5000 Hertz. It is suggested that this corresponds to a roughly constant length on the basilar membrane of length about 1.2 mm and involving some 1300 hair cells. If the tones are far apart in frequency (not within a critical band), the combined sound may be perceived as twice as loud as one alone.", "a logarithmic unit of sound intensity as computed from the sound pressure level. The reference level is a pressure of 20 micro pascals . If sound waves exert a pressure of P pascals, the sound intensity is 100 + 20·log10(P/2) dB spl.", "AMPLITUDE : The strength of a vibrating wave ; in sound, the loudness of the sound.", "As we've seen throughout this article, the ear is a very complicated device, and hearing is a delicate and complex phenomenon. Even if we restrict ourselves to monaural audition, the sense of hearing seems to be at the origin of many illusions. Perceptual aspects that we generally think of as independent, such as timbre, volume and pitch, are in fact inter‑related. The fundamental frequency of a harmonic sound, the very one we use to define pitch, is actually of no importance at all as far as our perception of pitch is concerned.", "a measurement of sound approximating the sensitivity of the human ear, used to note the intensity or annoyance of sounds.", "Loudness A subjective interpretation of a sound that is related to the energy of the vibrating source, related to the condition of the transmitting medium, and related to the distance involved", "A natural next step would be to measure the ultrasonic content of orchestral sound as heard from normal listening or recording distances. This will automatically allow for the absorption of ultrasonics by the air. The project will be expensive, because musicians' union rules require players to be paid at recording rates, which are several times ordinary \"scale,\" whenever a live microphone is present; and I anticipate difficulty in having these rules waived for our research. We solicit funding for this project!", "Pick a specific sound , give the decibels of the sound, and explain what this measurement means?" ]

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[ "Acoustics is the science that is concerned with the behavior of sound. It also means the way sounds echo or reverberate in an auditorium or concert hall. People say, \"The acoustics of this concert hall are very good,\" or \"This auditorium has poor acoustics.\"", "Acoustics is the science of sound. It relates to recorded music, to speech and hearing, to the behavior of sound in concert halls and buildings, and to noise in our environment. Sound waves are used in medical diagnosis, for testing critical materials, and for locating fish in the ocean or oil-bearing rock formations underground.", "Reverberation. In concert hall acoustics, reverberation refers to sound that persists in a venue after a tone is suddenly stopped. A hall that is reverberant is called a \"live\" hall. (See also liveness.) A room that is not reverberant is called a \"dead\" or \"dry\" room. [2]", "ACOUSTICS : The behaviour of sound and its study. The acoustics of a room depend on its size and shape and the amount and position of sound-absorbing and reflecting material.", "The physical science dealing with how sound is produced, propagated, manipulated and perceived. See also: Room Acoustics", "Acoustics: The area of study which deals with the behaviour of sound. Also the effect a given environment has on sound.", "1. Acoustics is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration, acoustics may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena of sound-producing vibration.", "Acoustics 1) The science of sound. 2) The factors and characteristics of a room or space that determine the sound capabilities and properties of that room.", "Designed to introduce non-science majors to basic concepts, laws and skills in physics, in the context of a study of sound, acoustics and music. Energy and force involved with the physical nature of sound waves; application to harmonics, tone quality, pitch. Sound production, propagation, detection and perception are demonstrated and illustrated by many different musical instruments, building acoustics and the behavior of the voice and the ear. See PHYC 108L for an optional laboratory.", "acoustics  (1) the science of sound; (2) the art of optimizing sound in an enclosed space.", "acoustics the science concerned with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound. The term is derived from the Greek akoustos, meaning “hearing.” Beginning with its origins in the study of mechanical vibrations and the radiation of these...", "Digital reverberation has been a topic of interest for both concert hall acousticians and composers of electronic music. The father of concert hall reverberation simulation research has been Schroeder, whose articles Colorless Artificial Reverberation and Improved Quasi Stereophony and Colorless Artificial Reverberation (both written in 1961) have supplied the foundations of most digital reverberators in use today (Schroeder 1961). For a recent review of computer models for concert hall acoustics, the reader is referred to Schroeder's Progress in Architectural Acoustics and Artificial Reverberation: Concert Hall Acoustics and Number Theory (Schroeder 1984). The essential goal of these studies is to be able to predict architectural acoustic character before actually constructing concert halls, and to determine the reverberation characteristics most favored by listeners in listening to symphonic music. Work towards this goal has influenced researchers such as Moorer in considering necessary parameters for obtaining the most natural sounding reverberation.", "Musical acoustics deals with the way in which we hear and perceive musical sound, the instruments that produce it, and even the structure of melody and harmony. It combines elements of both the arts and science.", "His major treatise, 'Theory of Sound,' 9 in two volumes, includes a chapter on the 'Vibrations of Plates' and is still considered an important work. In it he explored modal phenomena in depth, now part of the emergent science of cymatics.", "..... Click the link for more information. , the study of sound, is often considered a branch of mechanics because sound is due to the motions of the particles of air or other medium through which sound waves can travel and thus can be explained in terms of the laws of mechanics. Among the important modern branches of acoustics is ultrasonics ultrasonics,", "One common myth is that you can ‘EQ the room’. Rooms have their own resonances (largely due to room dimensions and parallel surfaces), as well as surfaces that reflect some frequencies more than others. Sometimes there are areas within the room (the stage area, the area under the stage, the balcony...) that add their own resonant and reflective characteristics. If the stage area is effectively a wooden box, performers may comment that their monitors sound ‘boxy’.", "The acoustics of an auditorium (i.e., its hearing properties) depend upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.", "7. If you're studying the science of sound, you're studying which of the following? A. Frequency B. Pitch C. Acoustics D. Wavelength.", "Architectural acoustics deals with sound in and around buildings of all kinds. Good acoustical design ensures the efficient distribution of desirable sounds as well as the exclusion of undesirable sound. It is the branch of acoustics that comes most readily to mind when a layperson thinks of \"acoustics.\"", "Scientists can, however, measure the intensity of a sound. Intensity refers to the amount of energy in the sound, no matter who hears it.", "According to Minnesota Public Radio (http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/04/03/daily-circuit-quiet-room/), the typical quiet room -- such as your bedroom late at night -- has an ambient noise level of about 30 decibels, caused by the rustling of sheets, the hum of the air conditioner, and similar sources of white noise. Orfield's anechoic chamber has a noise level of -9 decibels -- yes, negative nine. According to Guinness World Records, it is the world's quietest room. The silence-producing design, according to the Deccan Chronicle (http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/sci-tech/others/worlds-quietest-room-absorbs-all-sound-601) and seen above, features a \"trampoline\"-like mesh floor, which prevents sounds from reflecting off of it; and walls with one meter-long pieces of soundproofing protruding outward, which absorb sound.", "For sounds with no harmonics, the argument just given cannot eliminate the possibility of room contamination; so instead I attempted to eliminate the room from the sound. To do this, I analyzed only the very beginning of a sound (so the room was not already excited), and cut short the time record before the first reflection could return from the nearest surface. A shorter time record means coarser resolution of frequency; but since we're no longer looking for harmonic peaks, this does not matter. This procedure was followed for Figures 11 through 16; but first I present Figure 10, in which the speech sibilant of interest happened to come after the beginning of the sound, so any rattles might already have been excited. I believe Figure 10 to be all right nonetheless, for two reasons. First, the microphone was much closer to the desired source than to any possible rattle except those in the microphone mount, boom, or cable. Second, the spectrum presents a coherent picture. One would expect rattles to be at one or a few specific frequencies or narrow frequency bands; but this spectrum smoothly covers a very broad band. I rely on the latter point also to support my ignoring the possibility of rattles from the microphone cable, shock mount and boom in Figures 10-16.", "Electroacoustics is a branch of engineering acoustics that deals with microphones, loudspeakers, and other transducers, as well as the recording and reproduction of sound.", "The potential of organized interaction between sound source locations was probably recognized early on by man for hunting purposes. Birds communicate across space by calls that say essentially, \"I'm over here!,\" and there can be no doubt that such signaling proved useful for man to imitate. This establishment of spatial relationships with sound was soon taken into the context of religious ritual. The call and response between a congregation and a leader was probably the first organized (composed) type of spatial manipulation. The well documented use of antiphony (c.f. Michael Praetorious Syntagnum Musicurn, Vol. III) was a Renaissance tradition that exploited the architectural acoustics of the performing space. Giovanni Gabrielli's In Ecdessis and the works designed for St. Mark's Cathedral are examples; the Sonata Piano e Forte is well known for advances in music that were in conjunction with its antiphony. The Baroque concertato principle helped influence a tradition of echo pieces, exemplified by works of Vivaldi, Mozart, and Haydn. Berlioz used four separate brass choirs in the famous Requiem. A listener hearing these works is not only aware of the specific location of each choir, but also of the space in between the choirs, and of the nature of the architectural space.", "Room EQ; Room Tuning: The process of compensating for acoustic deficiencies in both venues and PA systems using graphic equalisers in FOH and foldback signal paths.", "Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first “Audium” concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by a work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above. In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, \"the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored\". In 1967, the first Audium, a \"sound-space continuum\" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance. “In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's Poeme Electronique (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stanley Schaff's Audium installation, currently active in San Francisco” Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff “sculpts” sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers. ", "One way of reconciling Scruton’s interesting suggestions with a physicalist account of sounds is to draw a distinction (which of course should be properly developed) between the ontology we need to account for our ecological ability to hear sounds in our natural environment and the ontology we need to account for our (at least partly acquired) ability to hear sounds as music. Eventually, the ontology of sounds as music, which Scruton wants to focus on, might be quite different from the ontology of natural sounds, which can still be of the physicalist kind.", "In contrast, the following octave band analysis (Table III - 2) obtained during concrete demolition (multiple noise sources) indicated that nearly all frequencies contributed to the noise level at that position -- a distance of 60 feet from the demolition point. At that point, the overall sound level was 91 dB, demonstrating a standard principle of sound: the sum of all octave bands is greater than any single octave band reading, but the logarithmic values cannot be summed by simple arithmetic addition. See Appendix B for more information on determining the sum of two or more sound levels.", "The heart of the ROOM design is a comb filter matrix that distributes successive delays to multiple outputs. The user specifies to the program the dimensions of a rectangular room to be modeled, the dimensions and coordinates of objects within the room, a feedback matrix for the delay outputs, a list of delay values, and a list of sound source locations within the room. From this, the early response is modeled via calculated values given to the filter parameters.", "In a veritable perpendicular perception room, the hard, collateral artefact of the walls, floorboard and hallway spawn first-string acoustic resonance", "What name is given to the study and use of frequencies above the limits of human hearing?", "Scientist (with headphones): We're getting another one of those strange 'aw blah es span yol' sounds." ]

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[ "Iguanas are some of the largest lizards found in the Americas, with their whiplike tail making up about half of that length. Like other reptiles, iguanas are cold-blooded, egg-laying animals with an excellent ability to adapt to their environment.", "Iguanas are large lizards belonging to the family Iguanidae. They occur mainly in America and, outside the western hemisphere, only in Madagascar, Fiji, and Tonga. They are known to live in a variety of habitats ranging from trees, to the water's edge, or arid areas.", "Iguanas are native to the jungles of central and south America, and the Caribbean. The iguana is a large docile species of lizard , meaning that iguanas are often a popular choice when keeping exotic pets.", "Green Iguanas are forest dwelling lizards that live high in the tree canopy of the South American rainforest . Young iguanas get to grips with tree top living by staying in areas lower in the canopies while older mature adult iguanas reside higher up in the tree tops. This tree dwelling habit allows the iguana to bask in the sun, with little need to go down to the forest floor below. The only real exception to this is when the female iguanas must come down from their sky high home in order to dig burrows in which the female iguanas lay their eggs.", "Iguanid Lizards (Iguana Family, the Iguanidae): These are the \"typical lizards,\" such as the Black Iguana, Ctenosaura similis, shown above. Iguanid lizards are usually the most commonly encountered ones. They can be either arboreal or terrestrial. Typically but not always they feed on insects and other invertebrates. Most are egg-layers, and most are very visually oriented, communicating with one another with their colors and behavioral signals. Mates are courted, territories are defended, and during confrontations they often bob their heads, do body  push-ups, and open their mouths at one another. Many species are intensely colored during mating season. Included in this large family are fence lizards, iguanas, horned lizards, chuckwallas and anoles.", "Most iguanas are herbivores, eating fruits, flower buds, and young leaves. Some species also eat the occasional juicy mealworm or wax worm! The marine iguana dives in the ocean to scrape algae from rocks.", "RainForest Facts: These iguanas are some of the most seriously threatened reptiles on earth.  Loss of habitat along with the introduction of cats and other feral animals to their island homes has led to a serious decline in numbers", "Bahamas rock iguanas are part of a group of large, 'dinosaur-like' lizards known as the West Indian rock iguanas (Cyclora... More 6 Images 0 Videos", "The Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is an iguana found only on the Gal�pagos Islands that has the ability, unique among modern lizards, to live and forage in the sea. It has spread to all the islands in the archipelago, and is sometimes called the...", "The young Green Iguana above looks like it has no need to hide from anyone or anything – it appears almost dinosaur-like. No surprise that iguanas were often used as “actors” in early sci-fi or horror films when a Battle Of Prehistoric Monsters was called for.", "One of the two species of Iguanas found on the Galapagos Islands. The Marine Iguana lives on beaches and comes in the sea to forage on seaweed, making it the only lizard in the world that regularly inhabits the sea.", "Iguana species vary greatly in size, color, behavior, and their endangered status in the wild. Some species, like the green iguana, are quite common; others, like Fiji’s banded iguanas, are endangered. Iguanas native to San Diego County are the desert iguana and the chuckwalla.", "In addition to the caiman, the following reptiles inhabit the Pantanal: the yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus), the gold tegu (Tupinambis teguixin), the red-footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) and the green iguana (Iguana iguana).", "Fiji is also battling the introduction in 2000 of the green or common iguana Iguana Iguana, called the American iguana in Fiji. That species has become quite a pest and is said to be a threat to local vegetation; eradication measures are underway.", "Marine iguanas have the same features as other diving animals: when they dive, their blood moves away from the surface to save body heat, and their heart beat slows down drastically. Only the largest males dive because larger animals lose less body heat.", "Although iguanas tend to prefer the forest environment , iguanas can adjust well to a more open areas. However, wherever the iguanas inhabit, iguanas prefer to have water around them as iguanas are excellent swimmers and will often dive beneath the water to avoid oncoming predators.", "The green iguana’s extensive range comprises the rain forests of northern Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean Islands, and southern Brazil. They spend most of their lives in the canopy, descending only infrequently to mate, lay eggs, or change trees.", "The Galapagos Land Iguana is endemic to the Islands and is found on nearly all of the islands in the Galapagos archipelago. The size and color varies depending on the island, as these reptiles have adapted to each island’s environment. Isabela Island is home to the largest in size of these iguanas. The iguanas feed primarily on cacti, where they find their source of fresh water. The Galapagos Land Iguana has a life span of approximately 50-60 years.", "The teeth of a green iguana are designed to shear plant material, but can deliver a painful bite to people and pets.", "Iguanas have excellent sight allowing the iguana to detect movement from incredibly long distances. The iguana can use this skill to seek out prey and be aware of approaching predators often before the predators has even noticed the iguana.", "Hi, I am 12 and i would really like to get a Gecko or a small lizard, I've done my research, but i can not find any vegetarian lizards or Geckos. I know that Iguana's are vegerarians but they are simply too big.", "This species belongs to the group of spiny-tailed iguanas of Mexico and Central America, (genus Ctenosaura), which are united... More 4 Images 0 Videos", "At the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Zoo Safari Park, our iguanas are offered a fruit salad that includes dark leafy greens and a variety of fruits, while some species also receive crickets, mealworms, and wax worms. But because wax worms are high in fat, they are considered the “dessert” part of the menu!", "Green Iguanas measure around 1.8 meters (6 feet) and have a row of leathery spines along the back from the neck to the long, powerful tail.", "Trapping, either with live traps or snares, should be considered a last resort. Traditional live animal traps baited with grapes, pieces of ripe melon, papaya, or mango can be very effective, especially if the traps are prebaited for some time prior to setting the trap. Prebaiting simply means securing the door open and placing food in the trap so the animals get used to entering the trap for food. Once they are regularly entering the trap, release the door and set the trap normally. Florida law requires that animal traps be checked at least once every 24 hours. When trapping iguanas, or any animal, check the trap as often as possible. Iguanas will often get cuts and abrasions when trying to escape from traps. Covering the trap with a burlap bag or old blanket when setting it may reduce this behavior by making the animal feel less exposed or vulnerable. There are many other types of live traps that may catch iguanas, such as funnel entrance traps, etc.", "Adult banded iguanas may reach 21 inches long—more than half of which is the tail. When fully mature, they weigh between 3.5 and 7 ounces, and males tend to be larger and heavier than females.", "Prominent animals from the subtropical north include big cats like the jaguar, puma, and ocelot; primates (howler monkey); large reptiles (crocodiles), the Argentine Black and White Tegu and a species of caiman. Other animals include the tapir, peccary, capybara, bush dog, and various species of turtle and tortoise. There are a wide variety of birds, notably hummingbirds, flamingos, toucans, and swallows.", "They're all bright green with a yellow streak on their side. The biggest one (about a foot long) has black rimmed (beautiful) eyes. Their faces are different from the iguanas' in that they are wider and their heads are proportionately larger, too. They", "Many species live in the subtropical north. Big cats like the jaguar, cougar, and ocelot; primates (howler monkey); large reptiles (crocodiles),Argentine Black and White Tegu and a species of caiman. Other animals include the tapir, peccary, capybara, bush dog, raccoon and various species of turtle and tortoise. There are a wide variety of birds, notably hummingbirds, flamingos, toucans and swallows.", "Many species live in the subtropical north. Big cats like the jaguar, puma, and ocelot; primates ( howler monkey); large reptiles ( crocodiles), and a species of caiman. Other animals include the tapir, capybara, anteater , ferret, raccoon, and various species of turtle and tortoise. There are many birds, notably hummingbirds, flamingos, toucans, and parrots.", "The llama, is the humpless, South American ungulate of the Camel family (Camelidae). These sturdy creatures have been domesticated and are used by the locals to the Andes Mountains. (Their wild conspecifics are the guanacos and vicuñas). These animals will regularly lie down on the ground and they may spit, hiss, or even kick at their owners until their burden is lessened. Much like cattle, the llama will graze on grass and, regurgitate their food and chew it as cud. They will do this for some time before swallowing the clump of wads, for complete digestion. Llamas are very versatile; surviving by eating many different kinds of plants, and they need little water. These attributes make them durable and dependable even in sparse mountainous terrain.", "Protect valuable plants with cages or screen enclosures. There are currently repellents registered for preventing feeding damage from iguanas. Install sheet metal around trees to prevent them from climbing, about 18 in. from tree base, or create an “L-shaped wire barrier to prevent digging." ]

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[ "The molten rock below the Earth’s surface is known as magma. Magma is a combination of a molten and semi-molten rock mixture that is extremely hot. Magma is between 1,292 and 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit, or 700 and 1,300 degrees Celsius.", "The inside of the earth is very hot - hot enough to melt rocks. The deeper you get the hotter it gets. Below the surface, the molten rock is called magma; at the earth's surface it becomes lava, nothing has changed only the name of the liquid. Igneous rock is made by fire. Small wonder the magma from which igneous rock is formed can reach temperatures close to 1200 degrees Celsius.", "Molten rock that flows beneath the earth's surface and is made up of gases, liquids, and crystals. When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava.", "Lava rock is rock formed from the cooling and solidification of lava issued from volcanoes. Most lava rock in the North American continent is located in the western half. • Molten rock beneath the earth’s surface is referred to by geologists as magma. Once this molten material is expelled through volcanic eruption onto the earth’s surface, it is then referred to as lava.", "Magma: Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises in volcanic vents. Lava is the term for magma after it erupts from a volcano.", "Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning \"thick unguent\") is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solids that is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and is expected to exist on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion. Magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks (forming igneous dikes and sills), extrusion onto the surface as lava, and explosive ejection as tephra to form pyroclastic rock.", "Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word \"igneous\" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning \"fire\".", "Once molten rock (magma) reaches the earth’s surface, we call it ‘lava’. Once the lava hardens, it is rock - which is named according to its composition and textural characteristics.", "Intrusion: An intrusion is a body of igneous rock that has crystallized from molten magma below the surface of the Earth. Bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the earth are called plutons, named for Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Correspondingly, rocks of this kind are also referred to as igneous plutonic rocks or igneous intrusive rocks. This is to be contrasted with extrusive rocks.", "Igneous rock is composed of crystals or is glassy. It is formed from magma molten or partially molten rock in the interior of Earth where temperatures are very hot. Magma exists at temperatures of 1,100° to 2,400° F (600° to 1,300° C). It is thought to be generated underneath Earth's crust, at a depth below about 40 miles (60 kilometers). Because magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rocks, it rises toward the surface. It may settle within the crust or erupt at the surface from a volcano , such as in a lava flow. When magma cools down, it returns to a solid state and become igneous rock.", "intrusion—liquid (molten) rock that forms under the surface of the earth that typically migrates upward, displacing and/or melting other rock as it moves.", "Magma is molten rock made by the partial melting of rocks in the earth's interior under conditions of high temperature and high pressure. As rock melts, it becomes less dense and rises towards the earth's surface. Magma that reaches the earth's surface is called lava. Most lava flows are quiet, but some can be violent, such as the eruption of Mount St. Helens back in 1980.", "magma) crystallizes and solidifies. The melt originates deep within the Earth near. Igneous rocks form from molten rock (magma) crystallizing below earth's", "Extrusive , or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools outside of, or very near the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures. The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and solidifies almost instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere.", "igneous rocks—A rock formed from molten materials, includes intrusive rocks (rocks cooled below the surface) and rocks formed on the Earth's surface by volcanism (and from melting associated with extraterrestial impacts).", "lava:  Magma erupted on the earth’s surface; the term most commonly applies to streams of molten rock flowing from a volcanic vent, but also refers to solidified volcanic rock.", "Magma Chamber: A space beneath the surface of the earth surrounded by solid rock and containing magma.", "      Basaltic magmas that form the oceanic crust of the Earth are generated in the asthenosphere at a depth of about 70 kilometres. The mantle rocks located at depths from about 70 to 200 kilometres are believed to exist at temperatures slightly above their melting point, and possibly 1 or 2 percent of the rocks occur in the molten state. As a result, the asthenosphere behaves plastically, and upon penetrating this zone seismic waves experience a slight drop in velocity; this shell came to be known as the low velocity zone. Only after the acceptance of the plate tectonic theory has this zone become known as the asthenosphere (see plate tectonics ). The most common mantle rock within the asthenosphere is peridotite , which is composed predominantly of magnesium-rich olivine, along with lesser amounts of chromium diopside and enstatite and an even smaller quantity of garnet. Peridotite may undergo partial melting to produce magmas with different compositions.", "As their name implies, igneous rocks were formed at high Temperatures, and they are defined as those rocks made by the cooling of molten matter that originated within the Earth. This molten matter when rising from the depths is more or less highly charged with gases; and these gases begin to escape as soon as the pressure on the liquid is reduced, and they are entirely eliminated when the liquid solidifies. The liquid rock-matter plus its content of dissolved gas is called magma. There are many kinds of magma at least forty and they have a wide range in composition.", "The Earths Mantle  Is the mantle molten rock or solid rock? Find out what we know about this large layer of the Earth.", "The first question this raises is: what exactly is this \"material from the inside\"? On our planet, it's magma, fluid molten rock. This material is partially liquid, partially solid and partially gaseous.", "An igneous rock is one that has crystallized from a liquid magma, or has been formed by diffusion and recrystallization below the melting point. The mantle of the earth (the thick layer between the crust and the core that makes up most of the volume of the earth) is not composed of melted rock, as was once assumed, but rather magmas are created locally by the grindings of plate tectonics, which also provides active fluids that dissolve and modify rocks. Old magmas are exposed by erosion as batholiths here and there, and their rocks have intruded surrounding rocks, dissolving and wedging into every crack. Rocks that show evidence of later modification by heat, pressure and the action of these active fluids are separately classified as metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are quite distinct in structure from those that are composed of material weathered from pre-existing rocks, and deposited in the ocean or on dry land, where they have become cemented, hardened and consolidated into sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale and limestone. Sandstone and shale are mostly silica, but the limestone represents the carbon dioxide that was once present in the atmosphere.", "A massive, often bottomless intrusion of magma that cools beneath the earth's surface to form igneous, intrusive rock", "An area where material from deep within earths mantle rises to the crust     And melts to form magma", "As we have seen the only part of the earth that is liquid is the outer core.  But the core is not likely to be the source of magmas because it does not have the right chemical composition.  The outer core is mostly Iron, but magmas are silicate liquids.  Thus magmas DO NOT COME FROM THE MOLTEN OUTER CORE OF THE EARTH.  Thus, since the rest of the earth is solid, in order for magmas to form, some part of the earth must get hot enough to melt the rocks present. We know that temperature increases with depth in the earth along the geothermal gradient.  The earth is hot inside due to heat left over from the original accretion process, due to heat released by sinking of materials to form the core, and due to heat released by the decay of radioactive elements in the earth.  Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient is not high enough to melt rocks, and thus with the exception of the outer core, most of the Earth is solid.  Thus, magmas form only under special circumstances.  To understand this we must first look at how rocks and mineral melt.", "Basalt — Volcanic rock formed by rapidly cooling lava. Found on the moon and the earth.", "It is generally thought that mantle rocks are predominately olivine, mostly Mg2SiO4. In lunar rocks, the dominant minerals are pyroxenes, e.g. Mg2Si2O6, richer in SiO2. Ringwood's picture accounted for this by having SiO2 boil off preferentially when bombardment had raised the temperature of the Earth's surface to some 1500K.", "magma) crystallizes and solidifies. The melt originates deep within the Earth near. ples of igneous activity are volcanic eruptions, in which liquid rock material works", "a hard, black, often glassy, volcanic rock. It was produced by the partial melting of the Earth's mantle.", "Igneous - rocks solidified from a melt. The melt is usually associated with volcanic activity on the surface, but occurs abundantly underground as well.", "Basalt Volcanic rock formed by rapidly cooling lava. Found on the moon and the earth.", "These magmas from the asthenosphere may in turn be heat sources for melting at shallower levels. For example, hot basaltic magma, generated in the asthenosphere, may rise into the lithosphere (the crust or upper mantle) and produce melts that may rise along separate paths to the surface or become mixed with the original magma." ]

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[ "These contagious diseases, typically spread by droplets, range from \"the common cold\" to deadly viral pneumonitis.", "Organisms spread by droplet transmission include respiratory viruses (e.g., influenza, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, human metapneumovirus), Bordetella pertussis, Pneumococci, Diphtheria, Rubella. ", "Droplet transmission can spread diseases such as influenza, pertussis (whooping cough), and some forms of bacterial meningitis. Droplets are produced when the infected person coughs, sneezes, or speaks, and they travel about three to six feet before drying out or falling to the ground or another surface.", "Transmission is by droplets. The incubation period is two weeks. Measles begins as a cold and eye discomfort, followed by Koplik's spots (blister-ulcers next to Stensen's ducts), generalized lymphoid hyperplasia, and then by a typical rash.", "A malaria-like infectious disease spread by parasites, often in dirty water. Symptoms include high fever and severe chills.", "of new water-related infection diseases and the re-emergence of ones already known. Data are available for some water-, sanitation- and hygiene-related... diseases (which include salmonellosis, cholera, shigellosis), but for others such malaria, schistosomiasis or the most modern infections such legionellosis or SARS CoV the analyses remain to be done. The burden of several disease groups can only partly be attributed to water determinants. Even where water plays an essential role in the ecology of...", "a critical factor in Nigerian public health. The most damaging drinking water-borne illnesses are typhoid, cholera, and diarrhea. Other human diseases are... spread merely through contact with contaminated water. Bathing water illnesses include schistosomiasis (formerly known as bilharziasis), dracunculiasis (guinea worm infection), and roundworm infections. Drinking and bathing are not the only methods through which water-borne illnesses are spread. Contaminated water is often used to wash foods like...", "The virus spreads by direct contact with body fluids, such as blood, of an infected human or other animals. This may also occur through contact with an item recently contaminated with bodily fluids. Spread of the disease through the air between primates, including humans, has not been documented in either laboratory or natural conditions. Semen or breast milk of a person after recovery from EVD may carry the virus for several weeks to months. Fruit bats are believed to be the normal carrier in nature, able to spread the virus without being affected by it. Other diseases such as malaria, cholera, typhoid fever, meningitis and other viral hemorrhagic fevers may resemble EVD. Blood samples are tested for viral RNA, viral antibodies or for the virus itself to confirm the diagnosis.", "The disease affects many people in developing countries, particularly children who may acquire the disease by swimming or playing in infected water.[1]", "There have been no major outbreaks of illness or serious safety concerns associated with bottled water in the past decade, an FDA official stated in testimony before a July 9, 2009 Congressional hearing. Conversely, as noted in the Drinking Water Research Foundation's (DWRF) 2013 report, \"Microbial Health Risks of Regulated Drinking Waters in the United States,\" EPA researchers reported an estimated 16.4 million cases of acute gastrointestinal illness per year are caused by tap water. Subsequent research has estimated that number of illnesses to be closer to 19.5 million cases per year. In addition, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that waterborne diseases, such as Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis, cost the U.S. healthcare system as much as $539 million a year in hospital expenses. ", "Infectious droplets. When a person has plague pneumonia, they may cough droplets containing the plague bacteria into air. If these bacteria-containing droplets are breathed in by another person they can cause pneumonic plague . Typically this requires direct and close contact with the person with pneumonic plague. Transmission of these droplets is the only way that plague can spread between people. This type of spread has not been documented in the United States since 1924, but still occurs with some frequency in developing countries. Cats are particularly susceptible to plague, and can be infected by eating infected rodents. Sick cats pose a risk of transmitting infectious plague droplets to their owners or to veterinarians. Several cases of human plague have occurred in the United States in recent decades as a result of contact with infected cats.", "It is transmitted by droplet infection, multiplies in the throat, enters the bloodstream, and multiplies further in the lymphoid tissue. Two weeks after infection, the rash appear synchronously over the body. The spots become vesicles (i.e., sites of necrosis of the lower skin layers) and then pustules (i.e., vesicles that have been invaded by neutrophils). Systemic involvement caused death; survivors were scarred.", "1. Splashing water enhances disease development and spread. Thus rains and sprinkler irrigations favor the pathogen.", "The transmission of the disease is still not very well known, but most experts think that it is passed through respiratory droplets. The disease has a varied incubation period, from a few weeks through to 30 years.", "Everyone knows the story of the 1976 American Legion convention. The microbe had been causing sporadic cases and small outbreaks of pneumonia for decades, and the organism was found to thrive in air-conditioning systems, where it enjoys the company of certain amoebas and photosynthetic bacteria. It survives the water-treatment procedure, being chlorine-resistant. Person-to-person contact hasn't been documented.", "A different group of diseases such as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease and leishmaniasis, are characterized by the limited availability of safe and cost-effective control tools. This group includes infections of complex epidemiology, which, if untreated, can result in very high death rates. Strategies to control them hinge on early diagnosis and treatment, as well as on vector control. Accurate, spatially-explicit information is essential to target, monitor and evaluate interventions against these challenging and deadly diseases [ 10 – 12 ]", "might have been picked up by people with open wounds who were forced to wade through polluted floodwaters for a long time : 7 cases and 5 deaths have been recorded to Sep 8. It is possible you could have a significant outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV)", "A number of safe and effective oral vaccines for cholera are available. Dukoral, an orally administered, inactivated whole cell vaccine, has an overall efficacy of about 52% during the first year after being given and 62% in the second year, with minimal side effects. It is available in over 60 countries. However, it is not currently recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for most people traveling from the United States to endemic countries. One injectable vaccine was found to be effective for two to three years. The protective efficacy was 28% lower in children less than 5 years old. However, as of 2010, it has limited availability. Work is under way to investigate the role of mass vaccination. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends immunization of high-risk groups, such as children and people with HIV, in countries where this disease is endemic. If people are immunized broadly, herd immunity results, with a decrease in the amount of contamination in the environment.", "The remote geographical location of Ireland is one of the most important factor in limiting the incursion and spread of vector-borne viral diseases. For example, while Bluetongue spread rapidly and widely throughout the ruminant populations of north-western Europe in 2006/2007, including into the south-east of England [ 25 ] there was no evidence of incursion into Ireland during that outbreak. Ireland’s remote location means complex rare meteorological events are likely to be required to facilitate the wind borne introduction of a vector borne disease into the country. A Scottish SBV model indicates that introduction of SBV must occur relatively early in the vector season to bring about extensive spread [ 14 ]. The model also showed that mean Scottish summer temperatures (similar to Irish summer temperatures) facilitate only limited spread as SBV is so temperature dependent. Assuming this model is applicable to Ireland, for extensive spread of SBV by a wind borne vector to occur requires a relatively rare meteorological event to occur early in the vector season in a year with above average temperatures. While these events can occur, the fact that all three are necessary reduces the probability of SBV being successfully established in Ireland.", "Prevention and control 1. Provide health education programs in endemic communities to covey three messages: The guinea-worm infection comes from their drinking water Villagers with blisters or ulcers should not enter any source of drinking water and That drinking water should be filtered through fine mesh cloth to remove copepods 2. Provision of safe drinking water", "The Silurian Virus , and how it spreads rapidly to kill people in the hundreds in a matter of hours.", "Winther B, McCue K, Ashe K, Rubino JR, Hendley JO. Environmental contamination with rhinovirus and transfer to fingers of healthy individuals by daily life activity. J Med Virol. 2007 Oct. 79(10):1606-10. [Medline] .", "The pathogen-containing particles, also called Flügge droplets (after Carl Flügge), are 0,1–2 mm in diameter, and are reduced by evaporation to droplet nuclei – small (smaller than 100 μ in diameter), dry particles that can remain airborne for long periods. ", "Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fallen fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations, which have led to research towards viral shedding in the saliva of bats. Fruit production, animal behavior, and other factors vary at different times and places that may trigger outbreaks among animal populations. Transmission between natural reservoirs and humans are rare, and outbreaks are usually traceable to a single index case where an individual has handled the carcass of gorilla, chimpanzee, or duiker. The virus then spreads person-to-person, especially within families, hospitals, and during some mortuary rituals where contact among individuals becomes more likely.", "Wet soils promote development of this soil borne disease. Recent research suggests that disease spores may be found in surface waters used for irrigation and distributed along drip irrigation lines.", "inadequacy and lack of clean water supply and as such skin infectious diseases were reported. A ", "The virus is passed through contact with bodily fluids, such as mucus, saliva and blood. It incubates for four to 10 days. Eventually, the virus causes severe internal bleeding, vomiting and diarrhea.", "Chin 2000, 220—1. Reservoir: humans and possibly certain wild and domestic animals. Associated with drinking water from unfiltered surface water sources. Person-to-person transmission occurs by hand to mouth transfer involving feces of an infected individual.", "While researchers do not know what causes outbreaks, the virus is believed to be carried by some animals and insects. The disease could then make the jump into a human victim, who spreads it in a community.", "In Central America a pretty native mosquito, Haemagogus spegazinii, transmits the virus from monkey to monkey in the tree tops. If a tree falls in the jungle and human beings are nearby, the Haemagogus can transmit the virus to them. These individuals may then serve as reservoirs of the fever in their villages.", "Bessell PR, Searle KR, Auty HK, Handel IG, Purse BV, dec Bronsvoort BM. Epidemic potential of an emerging vector borne disease in a marginal environment: Schmallenberg in Scotland. Sci Rep. 2014;18:5746. Google Scholar", "What are the symptoms of this illness? How does it spread? Is there an incubation period?" ]

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[ "Tendons are strong inelastic cords or bands of connective tissue that connect muscle to bone. They are composed of collagen and contain blood vessels. The inelastic tendon will not stretch when the muscle contracts. Therefore the full pull is transmitted to the bone and the full range of motion is accomplished.", "a cord consisting of connective tissue; a tendon attaches a muscle to a bone and causes a contracting muscle to move. Tendons are composed of thick, strong, inelastic collagen fibers. The fibers are continuous with the muscle fibers at one end and are interwoven into the periosteum at the other end. Tendons vary in shape; those attached to long muscles are cylindrical, and those attached to transverse muscles are flattened and are termed aponeuroses. The centrum tendineum and galea aponeurotica are distinctive in shape. Some tendons, for example, those of the long flexor muscles of the fingers and toes, are surrounded by a synovial membrane that releases a fluid enabling the tendons to slide easily during motion.", "Definition of a Tendon: a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.", "( Christensen et al. 2008 ), indicating that the ultrastructure of collagen fibril might not alter with chronic unloading. An increase in the water content in extracellular space may therefore provide a possible explanation for tendon hypertrophy. It is possible that extracellular space could be increased in response to chronic unloading (Kotani et al. 1998, Tsuchida et al. 1997 ). Although the tendon hypertrophy observed may be expected to compensate for the reduction in the tendon stiffness, the absence of any significant correlation between the magnitude of tendon hypertrophy and reduced Young’s modulus ( Figure 7 ) seen in Kinugasa’s study (2010 ) suggests that dimensional factors are not critical to the elastic properties. The literature seems to indicate that the altered tendon elastic modulus is largely due to material deterioration. Changes in the structure and packing of the collagen fibers ( Danielsen & Andreassen 1988 ), such as loss of transverse bands of collagen fiber ( Paavola et al. 2002 ), increased collagen fiber crimping ( Patterson-Kane 1997 ), and reduction in the covalent intramolucular cross-links (Bailey 2001), may generally be considered to befactors in the alteration of tendon material properties.", "Dense regular connective tissue in which the extracellular fibers all run in the same direction and plane. It is further classified relative to function and by the type of fibers present. If the matrix consist mainly of collagen, it provides great tensile strength and can withstand tremendous pull in the direction that the fibers run without stretching. This type of dense regular connective tissue is found in the tendon, which connects muscles to bones or cartilage ( Tendon 1 ). Between bundles of eosinophilic collagen, fibroblasts are readily observed ( Tendon 2 ). Ligaments connect bones to bones in the movable joints. Since bony tissue has no flexibility, the connective tissue must provide it and therefore elastic fibers are now found in the matrix; collagen is also present to provide tensile strength ( Ligament 1 ). Histologically, ligaments consist of bundles of eosinophilic collagen, fibroblast, and yellowish elastin fibers (often with a \"ribbon candy\" morphology) ( Ligament 2 ).", "Tendon, tissue that attaches a muscle to other body parts, usually bones . Tendons are the connective tissues that transmit the mechanical force of muscle contraction to the bones; the tendon is firmly connected to muscle fibres at one end and to components of the bone at its other end. Tendons are remarkably strong, having one of the highest tensile strengths found among soft tissues. Their great strength, which is necessary for withstanding the stresses generated by muscular contraction, is attributed to the hierarchical structure, parallel orientation, and tissue composition of tendon fibres.", "The primary role of tendon is to transmit the force of its associated muscle to bone. As such, the tendon needs to be relatively stiff and strong under tension. Herzog (2007) have stated that mechanical properties, such as fiber-bundle organization of the tendon allow for the maintenance of high tensile strength, with considerable flexibility in bending, in the same way that a wire rope maintains high tensile strength and flexibility as compared to an equal cross-section of solid steel (e.g., Alexander (1988a); Alexander (1988b) and Wainwright et al. (1982 )). The significance of the observed tensile properties can be appreciated by considering the tendon function. Tendon must be sufficiently stiff and strong to transmit muscle force to bone. Ker et al. (1988 ) studied that relative size of muscle and tendon dimensions. The thin tendons require long muscle fiber, which allow for significant changes in length, to compensate for tendon deformation during muscle contraction ( Ker et al. 1988 ). In contrast, the thick tendons deform less than thin tendons, and may not need extra-long fibers, indicating that the tendon dimension could have an impact on its mechanical properties.", "A tendon is tough, but flexible, band of fibrous connective tissue. One end of the tendon connects to muscle. The other end the tendon connects to bone. Contraction of the muscle pulls on the tendon, causing the tendon to pull the bone. In this way, tendons play an important role in muscle control of the body.", "Tendons are similar to ligaments, except these tension-withstanding fibrous tissues attach muscle to bone. Tendons consist of densely packed collagen fibers.", "Tendon - A tendon is a structure in the body that connects muscle to bone. As the muscle contracts, it pulls on the tendon, which moves the bone. Tendons are made mostly of collagen. Inflammation of a tendon is called tendinitis. Tendons can tear or rupture if they are pulled too hard by the muscle or if they degenerate.", "Tendons are predominantly composed of dense collagen fiber bundles. Because of their extreme short T2-relaxation time they appear typically signal-weak, respectively, dark. Degenerative changes, inflammations and also partial and complete tears cause loss of the original tendon structure. Fatty deposits, mucous degeneration and hemorrhages lead to an increased intratendinal T1-image. Edema formations, inflammatory changes and ruptures increase the signals in a T2-weighted image.", "Some tendons save energy by acting as springs. In humans, the Achilles tendon reduces the energy needed for running by about 35%. This tendon is stretched during the first half of each step, storing energy which is then returned during takeoff. This elastic energy transfer involves little energy loss, whereas the equivalent work done by muscles would require metabolic energy in both stages. See Connective tissue , Muscular system", "Tendon – Fibrous connective tissue serving for the attachment of muscles to bones and other parts", "Collagen is secreted by fibroblasts as procollagen molecules, converted extracellularly into tropocollagen which self-assembles into microscopically visible fibers and grossly evident mechanical structures such as tendons.  (For more on the biochemistry and related pathology of collagen, see Kierszenbaum, Histology and Cell Biology. )", "In animal models, extensive studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of mechanical strain in the form of activity level on tendon injury and healing. While stretching can disrupt healing during the initial inflammatory phase, it has been shown that controlled movement of the tendons after about one week following an acute injury can help to promote the synthesis of collagen by the tenocytes, leading to increased tensile strength and diameter of the healed tendons and fewer adhesions than tendons that are immobilized. In chronic tendon injuries, mechanical loading has also been shown to stimulate fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis along with collagen realignment, all of which promote repair and remodeling. To further support the theory that movement and activity assist in tendon healing, it has been shown that immobilization of the tendons after injury often has a negative effect on healing. In rabbits, collagen fascicles that are immobilized have shown decreased tensile strength, and immobilization also results in lower amounts of water, proteoglycans, and collagen crosslinks in the tendons.", "There are numerous different types of collagen, at least 16 types5, but 80-90% of collagens in the body belong to types I, II and III. The collagens in the human body are strong and flexible. Type I collagen fibrils are particularly tensile, and are stronger than steel, gram for gram.", "The microfibrillar structure of adult tendon was confirmed in 2006 by Fraser, Miller and Wess (amongst others). They found the D-periodic pentameric arrangement and termed it microfibril.", "these two substances bind with water content of the tendon or connective tissue to form a gel-like material", "The Achilles tendon is the strongest tendon in the body, linking the heel bone to the calf muscle. Problems with the Achilles are some of the most common conditions seen by sports medicine doctors. Chronic, long-lasting Achilles tendon disorders can range from overuse injuries to tearing of the tendon. Pain in the heel is often caused by a combination of both acute and chronic problems, including inflammation (paratenonitis, insertional tendonitis and retrocalcaneal bursitis) and tendinosis.", "defined as the tendons & ligaments; strong, thick thissue that binds material connects muscles together and binds skin to the rest of the body", "connective tissue (endo, peri, and epimysium) that enclose the muscle fibers together and constitute the material of muscle tendons", "Imaging Studies of the Mechanical and Architectural Characteristics of the Human Achilles Tendon in Normal, Unloaded and Rehabilitating Conditions | InTechOpen", "41 - T. Muramatsu, T. Muraoka, D. Takeshita, Y. Kawakami, Y. Hirano, T. Fukunaga, 2001 + Mechanical properties of tendon and aponeurosis of human gastrocnemius muscle in vivo. J Appl Physiol 90:1671 8 ,", "Muscle force generation is length and velocity sensitive. The process is repetitive in the sense that muscles will always generate force based on their length-tension and force-velocity properties, causing tendon deformation. The magnitude of tendon deformation will depend on its own mechanical properties such as stress-strain relationship. Stress-strain curves are an extremely important graphical measure of a material’s mechanical properties. Stress is defined by the ratio of tendon force to tendon cross-sectional area, and strain is defined by the amount of tendon deformation relative to its resting length.", "It is widely recognized that our muscular system changes its properties in response to altered mechanical loading. Previous studies have documented deleterious changes in muscle following chronic unloading, while recent studies provide information of significant changes in tendinous structures within the muscle. Recent work in our laboratory ( Finni et al. 2003 ) in addition to work of others (Gans 1982) has demonstrated a significance of muscular structural organization. We believe the integrated structure of muscle and tendon is specifically tuned to the normal operating environment and normal physiological state. A better understanding of this interaction between muscle and tendon and their co-dependence in maintaining normal physiological function is essential, as is a better understanding of how unloading and atrophy disrupt normal function. One of the main objectives of our group’s research has been to investigate the effects of chronic unloading on the mechanical properties of tendinous structures in in-vivo human skeletal muscles and furthermore, to gain insight into the possible mechanism(s) of undesirable adaptations of human muscular-tendinous structures occurring secondary to decrease in mechanical loading.", "Ligaments and interosseous membranes hold joint together. Small amount of twisting or stretching movement can occur (amphiarthrotic)", "For most joints, the muscle tendons that cross the joint are the most important stabilizing factor", "45 - U. Proske, D. L. Morgan, 1987 Tendon stiffness: methods of measurement and significance for the control of movement. J Biomech 20: 75 82 ,", "It is an atypical connective tissue since it does not bind, connect, or network with any body cells. It is made up of blood cells and is surrounded by a nonliving fluid called plasma.", "12 - C. C. Danielsen, T. T. Andreassen, 1988 Mechanical properties of rat tail tendon in relation to proximal-distal sampling position and age. J Biomech 21: 207 12 ,", "1 - R. M. Alexander, H. C. Bennet-Clark, 1977 Storage of elastic strain energy in muscle and other tissues. Nature 265: 114 7 ,", "A manufactured elastomeric fiber that can be repeatedly stretched over 500% without breaking, and will still recover to its original length. " ]

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[ "Tooth enamel is the outermost layer of the portion of the tooth not surrounded by bone. It is the hardest material in the body, harder than even bone. It is made up of calcium hydroxyapatite crystals surrounding a mixture of various proteins. It is susceptible to degradation (demeralization) by acid. This acid comes from two major sources. The first is acid-producing bacteria that can inhabit the surface of the teeth (which causes tooth decay). The second is from external influences such as stomach acid (from frequent vomiting or esophageal reflux/heartburn) or acidic liquids like soda. If the enamel becomes too thin, the tooth can be weaker or sensitive to cold. ", "Enamel is the outermost layer of the tooth structure of the crown, the part of the tooth that is above the gums. Dental enamel is the hardest and most mineralized substance in the human body. It looks like bone but it is much harder, denser, and its composition is 96% inorganic.", "Enamel is the outer white layer that protects your tooth from damage. It is the hardest material in your body. Enamel protects the softer center of the tooth.", "• Enamel: The hardest, white outer part of the tooth . Enamel is mostly made of calcium phosphate, a rock-hard mineral.", "Tooth enamel is the hardest substance in the human body. It consists mainly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Enamel covers the crown of each tooth and is important because its hard structure protects the tooth from mechanical wear e.g. due to chewing food. Tooth enamel also protects the rest of the structure of the tooth from chemical attack by acids that might otherwise dissolve the dentin part of the tooth.", "It is an even further feature of this invention to provide a novel laminate dental veneer which is composed tof layers, the outer layer being a dense, relatively hard material such as a cross-linked polymer, glass, procelain or the like, and a less dense or porous, or cellular inner layer or layers having the capability of efficient bonding to the labial surface of a tooth.", "The tooth is made up of five parts. The enamel is the white covering on the top. It is the hardest substance in your whole body. The layer under the enamel that you can't see is the dentin . It makes up most of the tooth and isn't as hard as the enamel. The pulp is under the dentin and it is the softest part of the tooth. It is made up of nerves and blood vessels. It is what hurts when you get a toothache. The root is what holds the tooth in place and a thin layer of tissue called the clementum protects it.", "Over the last two decades we have studied the mechanical properties of teeth: the hard outer covering of enamel and to a lesser degree the softer mid-layer of dentin. We have found significant variations in the hardness and stiffness of human molar enamel, and we have correlated these changes with trends in the local chemistry and organic content. In addition, we have identified similar trends in monkey teeth and human incisors.", "A. Teeth are made of a bonelike substance called dentin. The portion of the tooth that is visible in the mouth is called the crown, which is covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the human body. Teeth fall into 3 categories: incisors, which are made for cutting food, aiding speech and appearance. Behind the incisors are the cuspids, which are for ripping and tearing food, guiding the lower jaw in its movements and protecting the other teeth from wear. In the back you'll find molars, which have a flatter surface for grinding food.        [ Return to top ]", "Tooth enamel is a thin layer of calcified material that covers the crown’s surface, and it’s responsible for that translucent glow that teeth have. Enamel is composed of enamel rods that look like, well, rods, but they're very tiny and there are hundreds of them threaded in there. Each rod is composed of a mineral called hydroxyapatite. The hydroxyapatite is made up of a matrix of calcium and phosphate crystals. The tighter the matrix’s structure, the harder the enamel is. The thing about enamel is that, no matter how “loose” its structure, it is always going to be the hardest substance in your entire body.", "Enamel   The hard white coating on the outside of teeth . Enamel is the hardest substance in the body.", "Keratins are proteins that are key structural components of hair, nails, and the skin�s outer layer. Now, new research led by Maria Morasso, Ph.D., chief of the Laboratory of Skin Biology at the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), has shown that certain types of hair keratin also help form dental enamel, the tough outer covering of teeth. The study appeared online October 27, 2014, in The Journal of Clinical Investigation.", "If you were able to peel away the enamel, you would find dentin (say: DEN-tin). Dentin makes up the largest part of the tooth. Although it is not as tough as enamel, it is also very hard.", "A tooth (plural teeth) is a small, calcified, whitish structure found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or for defensive purposes. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of multiple tissues of varying density and hardness. The cellular tissues that ultimately become teeth originate from the embryonic germ layer, the ectoderm.", "Unlike enamel, the dentin reacts to the progression of dental caries. After tooth formation, the ameloblasts, which produce enamel, are destroyed once enamel formation is complete and thus cannot later regenerate enamel after its destruction. On the other hand, dentin is produced continuously throughout life by odontoblasts, which reside at the border between the pulp and dentin. Since odontoblasts are present, a stimulus, such as caries, can trigger a biologic response. These defense mechanisms include the formation of sclerotic and tertiary dentin. ", "Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human teeth the protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. While the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface, whales have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at the tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel. ", "During tooth development, amelogenin and other matrix components (enamelin, ameloblastin) are deposited by enamel-secreting ameloblasts in a highly structured manner to form enamel rods that are fully mineralized during maturation, with degradation of protein components and deposition of hydroxyapatite minerals ( 6 ). Mature enamel consists of approximately 96% minerals, 3% water, and 1% organic material by weight. Most of the organic material is located in the inner enamel where it forms very characteristic structures called enamel tufts due to their appearance at the dentin-enamel junction. Tuft material extends throughout the enamel thickness as thin enamel rod sheaths surrounding each individual rod ( 7 ). Enamel tufts and rod sheaths play an essential role in the mechanical performance of enamel ( 8 , 9 ) and influence the initiation and progression of caries ( 10 , 11 ). It has been suggested that they contain keratin-like material ( 12 , 13 ), but a high degree of crosslinking has precluded full characterization of their protein composition ( 14 ).", "Dentin has a light yellow color, which gives the tooth its natural color prevailing through the almost translucent enamel. It consists of 70% inorganic materials, with a spongy, porous structure made of tubules extending from the enamel to the pulp chamber. Nerve endings enter the dentinal tubules and may transmit signals such as pain in response to external stimuli.", "The main structure of teeth consists of dentin, which is a calcified connective tissue. This gives the tooth its overall shape and rigidity.", "Dentin. The inner layer and the main part of the tooth, and the largest dental tissue.", "The main parts of tooth anatomy are Enamel , Dentin , Cementum , and Pulp .", "Enamel The hard outer layer of the crown. Enamel is the hardest substance in the body.", "Like enamel, it is a hydroxyapatite, but with a slightly different composition. The unique structure and composition of dentin allows it to function as the substructure for rigid enamel tissue. This provides teeth with the ability to flex and absorb tremendous forces without fracturing.", "Alveolar bone: The alveolar bone forms the jaw and the sockets into which the roots of the teeth extend.", "The tissues that surround the teeth are called the \"peridontium\" and consist of the alveolar bone, periodontal ligaments, cementum, and gingiva.", "The dental formula is I:1/1, C:0/0, PM:1/0, M:3/3. The incisors are large and ever-growing, with enamel coating only the anterior surface, as in rodents. They are used to gnaw into hard-shelled fruit such as coconuts and to tear bark off trees. There is a large diastema present in both jaws.", "Incisors are kept sharp by gnawing and bruxing , also called thegosis. Because rat incisors have hard enamel only on the front surface, the incisors wear at an angle, with the soft dentin in the back back wearing off before the enamel in the front. This guarantees a sharp, bevel-shaped cutting edge (Fig 6). Rats can actually move their lower jaw so far foward that their lower incisors are in front in front of their upper incisors. When a rat bruxes, its jaw is pulled forward, and its lower incisors sometimes grind behind the upper incisors (wearing down the uppers) and sometimes in front of them (wearing down the lowers) (Fig 7).", "Zoologythe hard white substance, a variety of dentin, composing the main part of the tusks of the elephant, walrus, etc.", "The molars or molar teeth are large, flat teeth at the back of the mouth. They are more developed in mammals. They are used primarily to grind food during chewing. The name molar derives from Latin, molaris dens, meaning \"millstone tooth\", from \"mola\", millstone and dens, tooth. Molars show a great deal of diversity in size and shape across mammal groups.", "* a fourth, the premaxillary, forms the incisive bone which carries the incisor teeth and corresponds to the premaxilla of the lower vertebrates; ", "Top: Image of a transparent RepliDens, a lower molar. (left) Micro-computed tomography image illustrating the root canal system of an upper molar. (right) Above: Electron microscopy image of ultrafine particles for smart materials.", "The Incisors are the teeth in the very front. They’re the sharpest teeth, built to cut food and shaped to shovel the food inward." ]

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[ "It’s a well-known fact that all snowflakes have six sides. Or at least I thought it was. Why Google is unable to Google that fact and has on at least two occasions created a Doodle with an eight-sided snowflake is a mystery. What’s less mysterious is how scientists can be so sure that all snowflakes have six sides. Have we examined all snowflakes? No, of course not, but the explanation lies in two words: hydrogen bonding. Thanks to the intermolecular force of hydrogen bonding, all snowflakes have six sides, and hydrogen bonding also makes life as we know it possible. Now that’s an important bond.", "All snowflakes contain six sides or points owing to the way in which they form. The molecules in ice crystals join to one another in a hexagonal structure, an arrangement which allows water molecules - each with one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms - to form together in the most efficient way. It is these hexagonal structures which when repeated successively give a snowflake it six-sided shape.", "Snowflakes can assemble ice crystals into all kinds of complex shapes. But the crystals themselves will usually have six sides.", "As a snowflake moves up and down in the atmosphere, slight changes in temperature and humidity cause the exact pattern to change as it is built. The overall shape of each flake, however, remains six-sided.", "A snowflake is either an individual snow crystal or a series of snow crystals stuck together; therefore, its chemical formula is the same as water. Snowflakes have symmetrical patterning, unlike sleet particles which do not have this type of patterning. The ice crystals that make up snow are a six-fold symmetrical pattern. They resemble hexagonal prisms. As snowflakes grow, they tend to branch out and make more complex shapes than simple hexagonal prisms.", "Some snowflakes are six-sided columns. The columns may be short and squat or long and thin. Some columns may be capped. Sometimes (rarely) the columns are twisted. Twisted columns are also called Tsuzumi-shaped snow crystals.", "Snowflakes made from copier paper will be more symmetrical although not completely. They'll be good for hanging but may droop. Try laminating them when finished to make them more durable. This way you can use them year after year.", "Figure 2. The six-fold pattern in a snow flake. Image: ‘Bentley Snowflake5’ by Wilson Bentley – Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.", "Von Koch’s snowflake curve , for example, is the figure obtained by trisecting each side of an equilateral triangle and replacing the centre segment by two sides of a smaller equilateral triangle projecting outward, then treating the resulting figure the same way, and so on. The first two stages of this process are shown in Figure 7 . As the construction proceeds, the perimeter of the curve increases without limit, but the area it encloses does approach an upper bound, which is 8/5 the area of the original triangle.", "   While it grows, the crystal is blown to and fro inside the clouds, so the temperature it sees changes randomly with time.  But the crystal growth depends strongly on temperature (as is seen in the morphology diagram ).  Thus the six arms of the snow crystal each change their growth with time.  And because all six arms see the same conditions at the same times, they all grow about the same way.  The end result is a complex, branched structure that is also six-fold symmetric.  And note also that since snow crystals all follow slightly different paths through the clouds, individual crystals all tend to look different.", "Each of the vertex pieces has four sides which indicates that it has four different possible orientations (shown below) and each of the edge pieces has two sides which indicates that it has two different possible orientations. (Note that the shape of the vertex pieces in the diagram below have been simplified)", "A nonagon is a closed shape that has nine sides. If it is a regular nonagon, all nine sides are the same length, and all the angles are equal.", "The word Ice inside a white rectangle below a picture of a snow flake inside a red outlined triangle.", "A snowflake is either a single ice crystal or an aggregation of ice crystals which falls through the Earth's atmosphere. They begin as snow crystals which develop when microscopic supercooled cloud droplets freeze. Snowflakes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Complex shapes emerge as the flake moves through differing temperature and humidity regions, such that individual snowflakes are almost always unique in structure. Snowflakes encapsulated in rime form balls known as graupel. Snowflakes appear white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small crystal facets.", "There are many types of ice halos. They are produced by the ice crystals in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds high in the upper troposphere, at an altitude of 5 km to 10 km, or, during very cold weather, by ice crystals called diamond dust drifting in the air at low levels. The particular shape and orientation of the crystals are responsible for the types of halo observed. Light is reflected and refracted by the ice crystals and may split into colors because of dispersion. The crystals behave like prisms and mirrors, refracting and reflecting sunlight between their faces, sending shafts of light in particular directions. For circular halos, the preferred angular distance are 22 and 46 degrees from the ice crystals which create them. ", "Have you ever looked at a snowflake and wondered how it formed or why it looks different from other snow you might have seen? Snowflakes are a particular form of water ice. Snowflakes form in clouds, which consist of water vapor . When the temperature is 32° F (0° C) or colder, water changes from its liquid form into ice. Several factors affect snowflake formation. Temperature, air currents, and humidity all influence shape and size. Dirt and dust particles can get mixed up in the water and affect crystal weight and durability. The dirt particles make the snowflake heavier, and can cause cracks and breaks in the crystal and make it easier to melt. Snowflake formation is a dynamic process. A snowflake may encounter many different environmental conditions, sometimes melting it, sometimes causing growth, always changing its structure.", "The symmetry group of an n-sided regular polygon is dihedral group Dn (of order 2n): D2, D3, D4, ... It consists of the rotations in Cn, together with reflection symmetry in n axes that pass through the center. If n is even then half of these axes pass through two opposite vertices, and the other half through the midpoint of opposite sides. If n is odd then all axes pass through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side.", "She ran on as fast as she could. There then came a whole regiment of snow-flakes, but they did not fall from above, and they were quite bright and shining from the Aurora Borealis. The flakes ran along the ground, and the nearer they came the larger they grew. Gerda well remembered how large and strange the snow-flakes appeared when she once saw them through a magnifying-glass; but now they were large and terrific in another manner--they were all alive. They were the outposts of the Snow Queen. They had the most wondrous shapes; some looked like large ugly porcupines; others like snakes knotted together, with their heads sticking out; and others, again, like small fat bears, with the hair standing on end: all were of dazzling whiteness--all were living snow-flakes.", "*A parallelogram has rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180°) (or order 4 if a square). If it also has exactly two lines of reflectional symmetry then it must be a rhombus or an oblong (a non-square rectangle). If it has four lines of reflectional symmetry, it is a square.", "Figure 16. Penrose tiling showing that five-fold symmetry is aperiodic. Image: Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons", "Column-shaped snowflakes sometimes taper at one end, forming a bullet shape. When the bullet-shaped crystals are joined together they can form icy rosettes.", "The short answer is that snowflakes have so many light-reflecting surfaces they scatter the light into all of its colors, so snow appears white . The longer answer has to do with the way the human eye perceives color. Even though the light source might not be truly 'white' light (e.g., sunlight, fluorescent, and incandescent all have a particular color), the human brain compensates for a light source. Thus, even though sunlight is yellow and scattered light from snow is yellow, the brain sees snow as white because the whole picture received by the brain has a yellow tint that is automatically subtracted.", "With the dodecahedron and the icosahedron having so many regular pentagons associated with them, it shouldnt surprise us to find some golden rectangles occurring. We can show that the rectangles having as opposite edges those three pairs of equal, parallel and mutually orthogonal edges of the icosahedron, are in fact golden rectangles. Furthermore, the rectangles themselves are mutually perpendicular.", "A snowflake begins life as a tiny droplet of supercooled water which freezes in the sky to create an ice crystal. The droplet becomes frozen either because temperatures are sufficiently cold (−35 °C or lower) to freeze to other droplets, or in warmer clouds, they can form around a nucleus such as a dust or pollen particle.", "If you plan to turn your snow flakes into artwork, make some in different sizes and maybe even in slightly different shades of white and ice blue. Cover them in glitter to make them sparkle like ice crystals, if you wish. You could casually distribute them over a table as a festive decoration (and glue them to place cards for your guests) or turn them into a mobile to hang from the ceiling.", "For two-dimensional geometric shapes, there are four fundamental types of symmetry: reflection symmetry, rotation symmetry, translation symmetry, and glide symmetry.", "A. Snow consists of a vast number of crystals (or small prisms), which separate the rays into their elemental colours; but as these crystals are very numerous, the colours unite again before they meet the eye, and appear white.", "While the diagonal of a rectangle is not a line of symmetry, the rectangle does have a vertical and a horizontal line of symmetry, as seen above.", "A fall of non-branched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates.", "A fall of non- branched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates. (same as ice crystals)", "This is a parallelogram. It is easy to get caught out with parallelograms, because they do not have any lines of symmetry. Parallelograms do not have reflection symmetry.", "ABSTRACT: A regular tiling is one in which any flag (the union of an edge, vertex, and tile) can be mapped onto another tile by a symmetry of the tiling. It has been shown that the only regular tilings are those of the square, equilateral triangle, and regular hexagon. We will explore this definition and analyze some of the properties of the symmetry groups of simple tilings." ]

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[ "A negatively charged particle within an atom is called an electron. Electrons were discovered in 1897 by a British scientist named J.J. Thomson.", "Electron. An atomic particle that carries a negative charge. It orbits the nucleus of an atom.", "A fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It participates in electromagnetic interactions, and its mass is less than one thousandth of that of the smallest atom. Its electric charge is defined by convention to be negative, with a value of −1 in atomic units. Together with atomic nuclei (protons and neutrons), electrons make up atoms; their interaction with adjacent nuclei is the main cause of chemical bonding.", "Electrons - Subatomic particle that has almost no weight and carries a negative charge; orbits in a shell about the nucleus of an atom.", "Electron An electron is an Elementary Particle carrying a unit charge of negativeelectricity. An Atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded byelectrons that whirl about it in orbits, forming a cloud of charge. Ordinarily there are justenough negative electrons to balance the positive charge of the nucleus, and the atom isneutral. If electrons are added or removed, a net charge results, and the atom is said tobe ionised Atomic electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of matter(Valence). The electron was discovered in 1897 by Joseph John Thomson, who showedthat cathode rays are composed of electrons. The electron is the lightest known particlehaving a non-zero rest mass. The positron, the electron’s antiparticle (Antimatter), wasdiscovered in 1932.", "The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb. The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19  coulomb. Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle. ", "   First I'd like to point out a misleading quirk of terminology. Back in the beginning of understanding atomic particles, someone decided electrons had a \"negative\" charge while protons were \"positive\". It doubtless all seemed pretty arbitrary, perhaps even using the words \"positive\" and \"negative\". Of course, these two words have other, well known meanings. But they have been applied backwards.", "An atom typically has the same number of neutrons and electrons as the number of protons. When an atom has a different number of electrons, the atom's electric charge becomes either positive, if fewer electrons are present, or negative, if additional electrons are present. Atoms with a positive or negative charge are called ions. When an atom has a different number of neutrons, because neutrons have no electric charge, the atom's electric charge is not affected. Isotopes do have a different atomic weight, though.", "An atom or molecule that has been stripped of one or more of its orbiting electrons , thus giving it a net positive electric charge . Technically, an atom which gains an electron (thus giving it a net negative electric charge ) is also a type of ion, known as an anion.", "electron Sub-atomic particle, with a negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons.", "Unlike protons, electrons can move from atom to atom. If an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, its net charge is 0. If it gains an extra electron, it becomes negatively charged and is known as an anion. If it loses an electron, it becomes positively charged and is known as a cation.", "a negatively charged elementary particle that normally resides outside (but is bound to) the nucleus of an atom.", "When atoms gain electrons, they become negatively charged. Atoms losing electrons become positively charged. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus equals the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. Protons are the positive particles in an atom, while electrons are the negative ones. A neutral atom has the same number of positive as negative charges. With the positive and negative charges canceling each other out, a neutral atom has no net charge.", "3.a. A negatively charged elementary particle that has a mass 3270 times the mass of an electron.", "atom, the result is a negative ion or anion. Not only did the concept of ions greatly influence the future of chemistry, but it also provided Arrhe-nius with the key necessary to formulate his distinction between acids and bases.", "�  Electron � A single, negative electric charge that contributes virtually no mass to an atom.", "A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of approximately one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as \"nucleons\". One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number (represented by the symbol Z). Since each element has a unique number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number. The word proton is Greek for \"first\", and this name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years Rutherford had discovered that the hydrogen nucleus (known to be the lightest nucleus) could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by collision. Protons were therefore a candidate to be a fundamental particle and a building block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei.", "Atoms with Z - z ranging from 1 to Z are called positive ions. Those having z - Z = 1 are called negative ions; none has been found with z - Z greater than 1. See Negative ion", "an atom or group of atoms that has an electrical charge, either positive or negative, because of the loss or gain of one or more electrons", "An atom that has either gained or lost an electron, causing the atom to become either negatively or positively charged, respectively", "An elementary particle, carrying a positive electric charge, a component of all atomic nuclei. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom dictates what type of atom it is.", "Negative ions that consist of a single atom are named by adding the suffix -ide to the stem of the name of the element.", "a subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom; the number of protons of the nucleus is the atomic number, which determines the identity of an element", "Discuss the positions of these particles within the atom and what electric charge they carry, if any.", "Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom was a huge step forward in understanding nature at the ultrasmall scale. But even as it closed the casebook on the alpha particle experiment, it threw open another one. Since the nucleus and its retinue of electrons are oppositely charged, and therefore attract one another, there didn't seem anything to stop the electrons from being pulled immediately into the nucleus. Throughout the universe, atomic matter ought to implode in the wink of an eye. Rutherford countered by saying that the atom was like a miniature solar system: the electrons circled the nucleus in wide orbits just as planets orbit the sun. This is the picture of atoms that most of us still carry around in our heads. It's an appealing, easy-to-grasp image – one that's inspired many a logo of the atomic age. Yet theorists were well aware of its shortcomings right from the start.", "Ionized An atom or a particle that has a net charge because it has gained or lost electrons", "An elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge located in the nucleus of an atom.", "Positive ion Atom or particle that has a net positive charge due to an electron or electrons being torn away", "The physical study of subatomic particles became possible only during the 20th century, with the development of increasingly sophisticated apparatuses to probe matter at scales of 10−15 metre and less (that is, at distances comparable to the diameter of the proton or neutron ). Yet the basic philosophy of the subject now known as particle physics dates to at least 500 bce, when the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his pupil Democritus put forward the notion that matter consists of invisibly small, indivisible particles, which they called atoms . For more than 2,000 years the idea of atoms lay largely neglected, while the opposing view that matter consists of four elements—earth, fire, air, and water—held sway. But by the beginning of the 19th century the atomic theory of matter had returned to favour, strengthened in particular by the work of John Dalton , an English chemist whose studies suggested that each chemical element consists of its own unique kind of atom . As such, Dalton’s atoms are still the atoms of modern physics. By the close of the century, however, the first indications began to emerge that atoms are not indivisible, as Leucippus and Democritus had imagined, but that they instead contain smaller particles.", "a subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom", "The center of an atom is made up of one or more protons. It has a positive charge.", "What is the name given to the tiny clump of positive material at the center of an atom?" ]

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[ "DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell ( nuclear DNA ) and in mitochondria ( mitochondrial DNA ). It has two nucleotide strands which consist of its phosphate group, five-carbon sugar (the stable 2-deoxyribose ), and four nitrogen-containing nucleobases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.", "DNA found in the mitochondria of a cell; inherited only from the mother and thus serves as an identity marker for maternal relatives.", "DNA found in the nucleus of a cell; inherited from both the mother and the father.", "Typically, when one describes DNA in the context of a criminal investigation, it's assumed that the subject of attention is the DNA found within the nucleus of a cell. Actually, a human cell contains two types of DNA - nuclear and mitochondrial. The first constitutes the 23 pair of chromosomes contained within the nuclei of our cells. Each parent contributes to the genetic makeup of these chromosomes. On the other hand, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is found outside the nucleus and is inherited solely from the mother.", "The high molecular weight nucleic acid, DNA, is found chiefly in the nuclei of complex cells, known as eucaryotic cells, or in the nucleoid regions of procaryotic cells, such as bacteria. It is often associated with proteins that help to pack it in a usable fashion.", "DNA can be found inside the nucleus of every cell, apart from red blood cells. It's tightly wound and spread throughout the 46 chromosomes. One set of 23 chromosomes is inherited from each parent. Inside the chromosomes the DNA exists as genes. A gene is a sequence of DNA, that by and large, though there are exceptions, codes for one protein. There is large volume of so-called 'junk DNA' that apparently serves no purpose, although there are bodies of work that are starting to show otherwise.", "The nucleus is the round object in the cell that holds the genetic information (DNA) of the cell. It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and has a nucleolus inside.", "The human genome has about three billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes [47] , and contains 25-30,000 genes [48] , the simple nematode C elegans has almost as many genes (more than 19,000) [64] . In eukaryotes, DNA is located mainly in the cell nucleus (there are also small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts). In prokaryotes, the DNA is in an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid . [65] The DNA is usually in linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes.", "Nuclear: The nucleus is a compartment that holds the cell's DNA. The DNA is divided into packages called chromosomes, and it contains all the information needed to form an organism. It's small differences in our DNA that make each of us unique.", "* Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.", "The nucleus contains the DNA, as mentioned above, the hereditary information in the cell. Normally the DNA is spread out within the nucleus as a threadlike matrix called chromatin. When the cell begins to divide, the chromatin condenses into rod-shaped bodies called chromosomes, each of which, before dividing, is made up of two long DNA molecules and various histone molecules. The histones serve to organize the lengthy DNA, coiling it into bundles called nucleosomes. Also visible within the nucleus are one or more nucleoli, each consisting of DNA in the process of manufacturing the components of ribosomes. Ribosomes are shipped to the cytoplasm where they assemble amino acids into proteins. The nucleus also serves as the site for the separation of the chromosomes during cell division.", "While DNA is present inside the nucleus of every cell of the body, mitochondrial DNA is distinct from nuclear DNA in that it possesses its own genome that exists outside of the cell nucleus. And whereas autosomal cchromosomal DNA undergoes the process of recombination, where sections of DNA from the mother and the father are mixed resulting in a more distorted genetic history, mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, or non-recombinant part of Y-chromosome DNA, inherited only from the father, allows for the tracing of a more direct genetic lines.", "* The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.", "Some organelles in eukaryotic cells ( mitochondria and chloroplasts ) have their own DNA with a similar organization to bacterial genomes. This DNA encodes for some of the functions in these organelles. Both the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) originate in the female egg, so the organelle DNA is always inherited from the mother. Some cells, such as blood cells, do not have a nucleus and do not contain DNA. In prokaryote cells (organisms such as common bacteria), DNA is located in a region called the nucleoid . Viruses have a single type of nucleic acid , either DNA or RNA, directly encased in a protein coat called the capsid .", "Nuclear DNA is organized and stored as chromosomes within the nucleus. The nucleus is a double membrane separating the DNA from the cytoplasm of the cell enabling certain processing to occur prior to protein synthesis. Each chromosome holds hundreds or thousands of genes. A gene can be described in different ways but in general can be thought of as a whole unit of genetic information.", "DNA exists in nature as a macromolecule millions of base pairs long. In multicelled organisms, the complete set of genetic information—the genome —is divided among several DNA macromolecules (called chromosomes) in the cell nucleus. In contrast, the genomes of many one-celled organisms consist of a single, often circular, chromosome. The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs distributed among twenty-three chromosomes. Laid end to end, these would make a macromolecule 1.7 meters (5.5 feet) long; printed out, they would fill one thousand one-thousand-page telephone books. Furthermore, two copies of the genome are in almost every cell of humans and other diploid organisms. This vast amount of DNA packs into a cell nucleus, whose volume is only a few millionths of a cubic meter, by first spooling around globular proteins called histones . The DNA/histone complex then coils and curls up into even denser configurations, like a rubber band does when one holds one end and rolls the other end between one's fingers. Yet the human genome isn't nearly nature's biggest: the genome of a lily is just over ten times larger than a human's, although its nuclei are not significantly larger.", "DNA [DNA: The material inside the nucleus of cells, carrying genetic information. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. ] (deoxyribose nucleic acid) molecules are large and complex. They carry the genetic code that determines the characteristics of a living thing.", "DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes. Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In alternative fashion, a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.", "Nucleus: in a cell, the organelle that contains genetic material (DNA and chromosomes); the cell's control center. Also: the center of an atom around which the electrons orbit.", "The organelle in a eukaryotic cell that contains the genetic blueprint in the form of DNA.", "Chromatin: The complex of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) and proteins that make up chromosomes; located in the cell nucleus.", "The amount of DNA in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is expressed as the total number of base pairs (bp) in a haploid (1C) chromosome complement. 9 BAC = bacterial artificial chromosome. BACS can accommodate large quantities of inserted DNA cloned from an organism and a physical map of overlapping BAC clones can span an entire chromosome.", "The smalles unit of DNA that governs a genetic characteristic and contains the code for the synthesis of a protein or an RNA molecule. Genes are located on chromosomes.", "deoxyribonucleic acid: an extremely long, double-stranded nucleic acid molecule arranged as a double helix that is the main constituent of the chromosome and that carries the genes as segments along its strands: found chiefly in the chromatin of cells and in many viruses.", "There is an enormous amount of information stored in the DNA of a cell. The 48 chromosomes of a human cell contain a total length of about 6 billion base pairs of DNA. This is enough to code for the thousands of enzymes and structural proteins in the cell. DNA is the molecule that directs all of the activities of living cells, including its own reproduction and perpetuation in generation after generation.", "nucleus (noo´kle-us) A spheroid body within a cell that contains the genetic factors of the cell.", "the fundamental unit of all living tissue. Eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles surrounded by a plasma membrane. Within the nucleus are the nucleolus (containing ribonucleic acid) and the chromatin (containing protein and deoxyribonucleic acid), which form chromosomes, wherein are located the determinants of inherited characteristics. Organelles within the cytoplasm include the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and centrosome. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells, even lacking a nucleus. The specialized nature of body tissue reflects the specialized structure and function of its constituent cells. See also cell theory . cellular, adj.", "Noncoding DNA is defined as all of the DNA sequences within a genome that are not found within protein-coding exons, and so are never represented within the amino acid sequence of expressed proteins. By this definition, more than 98% of the human genomes is composed of ncDNA.", "Well cells do not have a brain, so they do not “know” anything, they instead are controlled by a very important chemical; deoxyribonucleic acid, or as it is better known, DNA . Every characteristic, quality, function, appearance and location of a cell is determined by DNA, which means that every characteristic, quality, function and appearance of our body is also determined by our unique DNA.", "When the cell divides, its DNA also replicates in such a way that each of the two daughter molecules is identical to the parent molecule (see DNA replication ). See also complementary DNA .", "The order of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule; determines structure of proteins encoded by that DNA.", "Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information and determines the characteristics of a living organism." ]

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[ "Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is better known to most people by its common name, aspirin . A combination of sodium salicylate and acetyl chloride, this medication is the first non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ( NSAID ) to be developed, and it’s been in use for over a century. It was developed by Charles Frederic Gerhardt in the mid 19th century, but it didn’t gain popularity until the early 20th century, when its ability to reduce pain and fever were widely noted and the company Bayer® began to manufacture and distribute it in many countries.", "Acetylsalicylic acid, better known as aspirin, is well known for its properties as a nonnarcotic analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug. A derivative of salicylic acid, the drug crystallizes in the form of a white, needle-like powder with only a faint odor. It was first synthesized in 1897 by chemist, Felix Hoffmann, an employee at the Bayer� Company in Germany to relieve his father's rheumatism. The compound later became the active ingredient in aspirin named - \"a\" from acetyl, \"spir\" from the Meadowsweet plant Spiraea ulmaria (now called Filipendula ulmari) that yields salicin, and \"in,\" a common suffix for medications.", "Aspirin ( USAN ), also known as acetylsalicylic acid (pronounced /əˌsɛtɪlsælɪˌsɪlɪk ˈæsɪd/ , abbreviated ASA), is a salicylate drug , often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever , and as an anti-inflammatory medication.", "Bayer AG was founded in Germany by Friederich Bayer in 1863.  The pharmaceuticals company’s first major product was acetylsalicylic acid, which is derived from a remedy found in willow plant bark.  It was discovered that acetylsalicylic acid could be used as an anti-inflammatory medication, as well as for minor pain/ache relief and fever reduction.  Today acetylsalicylic acid is known as aspirin.", "Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication, often used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation. Aspirin is also used long-term, at low doses, to help prevent heart attacks, strokes, and blood clot formation in people at high risk of developing blood clots. Low doses of aspirin may be given immediately after a heart attack to prevent clotting and reduce the risk of another heart attack or the death of heart tissue. Aspirin may be effective at preventing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. ", "Aspirin-also known as acetylsalicylic acid-is sold over the counter and comes in many forms, from the familiar white tablets to chewing gum and rectal suppositories. Coated, chewable, buffered, and extended release forms are available. Many other over-the-counter medicine contain aspirin. Alka-Seltzer Original Effervescent Antacid Pain Reliever, for example, contains aspirin for pain relief and sodium bicarbonate to relieve acid indigestion, heartburn, and sour stomach.", "Bayer's first major product was acetylsalicylic acid (originally discovered by French chemist Charles Frederic Gerhardt in 1853), a modification of salicylic acid or salicin, a folk remedy found in the bark of the willow plant. By 1899, Bayer's trademark Aspirin was registered worldwide for Bayer's brand of acetylsalicylic acid, but \"Aspirin\" lost its trademark status in the United States, France, and the United Kingdom because of the confiscation of Bayer's US assets and trademarks during World War I by the United States and the subsequent widespread usage of the word to describe all brands of the compound. It is now widely used in the US, UK, and France for all brands of the drug. However, it is still a registered trademark of Bayer in more than 80 other countries, including Canada, Mexico, Germany, and Switzerland. As of 2011, approximately 40 thousand tons of aspirin are produced each year and 10 to 20 billion tablets are taken in the U.S. alone each year for prevention of cardiovascular events. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. ", "Aspirin is the most widely-used medicinal compound in the world, and it has a long history. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, the \"father of medicine\" and the namesake of the Hippocratic oath taken by all physicians, administered willow-leaf tea (containing the natural compound from which aspirin is derived) to women during childbirth to ease pain. German chemist Friedrich Bayer developed aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) in 1897, and it became an over-the-counter drug in 1915. By 1998, the FDA approved aspirin for use during a heart attack and for the prevention of a second heart attack, and for the prevention of stroke.", "The word aspirin (1899) was coined as a trademark name in Germany (56). However it was actually in 1897, whilst German chemist Felix Hoffmann (1868-1946) was searching for something to relieve the pain of his father's arthritis (Inventorsabout.com: 2009), that a stable form of acetylsalicylic acid was produced that is now more commonly known as aspirin.", "Most anti-inflammatory analgesics are derived from three compounds discovered in the 19th century— salicylic acid , pyrazolone, and phenacetin (or acetophenetidin). Although chemically unrelated, the drugs in these families have the ability to relieve mild to moderate pain through actions that reduce inflammation at its source. Acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin , which is derived from salicylic acid, is the most widely used mild analgesic. It is considered the prototype for anti-inflammatory analgesics, the two other major types of which include acetaminophen (a derivative of phenacetin) and the aspirin-like drugs, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ), which include compounds such as ibuprofen , naproxen, and fenoprofen. Pyrazolone derivatives, with some exceptions, are no longer widely used in many countries, because of their tendency to cause an acute infection known as agranulocytosis .", "Today, aspirin is one of the most widely used medications in the world, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes of it being consumed each year. In countries where Aspirin is a registered trademark owned by  Bayer , the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid (ASA).", "Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid is a derivative of salicylic acid. It is a mild, non-narcotic analgesic that’s useful in the relief of headache and muscle and joint aches. The drug works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, body chemicals that are necessary for blood clotting and also responsible for sensitizing nerve endings to pain.", "; Aspirin: Still a Bayer trademark name for acetylsalicylic acid in about 80 countries, including Canada and many countries in Europe, but declared generic in the U.S. ", "Aspirin or acetylsalicylate acid is a compound that is widely used in medicine. The use of aspirin in medicine began long before the active reagent was removed from its natural source. The first documented use of aspirin was found in the writings of Hippocrates, the so called father of medicine. Hippocrates prescribed that willow bark could be used to remedy a wide range of conditions such as pain, fever and inflammation. Scientists began to seek to extract the active compound from willow tree bark. The name of the compound that was first extracted was salicin. Scientist such as Henri Leroux continued to work on salicin, first converting it to a sugar (glucose) and an aromatic compound (salicyaldehyde) and then converting it to an acid (salicylic acid) by oxidation and hydrolysis. This acidic compound was found to be too harsh on the stomach so scientists such as Charles Frederic Gerhardt and Hoffman sought to find a way to buffer it. Finally, acetyl chloride was used to buffer the salicylic acid and that is how aspirin or acetylsalicylate was formed.", "Answer:  The chemical name of aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid. Its chemical structure is very similar to plain old salicylic acid, except it has an acetyl group stuck to it. This 'acetyl group' is simply an older name for what nowadays chemists call a 'phenolic hydroxyl' group. The overall structure is quite complicated, unless you've studied A-level chemistry.", "Now the most common drug in household medicine cabinets, acetylsalicylic acid was originally made from a chemical found in the bark of willow trees. In its primitive form, the active ingredient, salicin, was used for centuries in folk medicine, beginning in ancient Greece when Hippocrates used it to relieve pain and fever. Known to doctors since the mid-19thcentury, it was used sparingly due to its unpleasant taste and tendency to damage the stomach.", "            1915 –Friday Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), invented by Felix Hoffman in 1897, searching for something to relieve his father's arthritis, was sold for the first time without the need of a prescription. It had been available since 1900 in tablet form. The pills were manufactured by Bayer pharmaceuticals in", "1. A white, crystalline compound, C9H8O4, derived from salicylic acid and commonly used in tablet form to relieve pain and reduce fever and inflammation. It is also used as an antiplatelet agent. Also called acetylsalicylic acid.", "A white crystalline compound derived from salicylic acid and used as a drug to relieve fever and pain. Also called acetylsalicylic acid.", "Posted: January 11th, 2011 | Author: Verity Penfold | Filed under: Wiki | Tags: Acetylsalicylic Acid , Antiplatelet , Arthur Eichengrün , Aspirin , Drugs , Esterification Reaction , medicine , Salicylic Acid , Wiki | Comments Off on Wiki! ASPIRIN", "Aspirin was first isolated by Felix Hoffmann, a chemist with the German company Bayer in 1897. Plant extracts, including willow bark and spiraea, of which salicylic acid was the active ingredient, had been known to help alleviate headaches, pains, and fevers since antiquity. The father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, who lived sometime between 460 BC and 377 BC, left historical records describing the use of powder made from the bark and leaves of the willow tree to help these symptoms.Today, aspirin is one of the most widely used medications in the world, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes of it being consumed each year. In countries where Aspirin is a registered trademark owned by Bayer, the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid.", "In 1899 the Bayer company in Germany altered salicylic acid to create acetylsalicylic acid, which is safer for the stomach. Although all aspirin available for purchase today is this synthetic form, the man-made drug would never have existed without having its chemical roots in a natural remedy.", "The letter “A” stands for Acetyl, which is the remaining portion of acetic acid in the molecule of the product’s active ingredient, acetylsalicylic acid. The next syllable,“spir”, is derived from the plant known as Spirea ulmaria, which yields salicin, a sugar combination of salicylic acid. Salicylic acid is the base product from which acetylsalicylic acid is synthesized. The ending, “in”, was a common suffix used for drugs at the time of the very first stable synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid by Felix Hoffmann in 1897.", "A French chemist,  Charles Frederic Gerhardt , was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid in 1853. In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various  acid anhydrides , he mixed  acetyl chloride  with a sodium salt of salicylic acid –  sodium salicylate . A vigorous reaction ensued, and the resulting melt soon solidified. Since no structural theory existed at that time, Gerhardt called the compound he obtained “salicylic-acetic anhydride” (wasserfreie Salicylsäure-Essigsäure). This preparation of aspirin (“salicylic-acetic anhydride”) was one of the many reactions Gerhardt conducted for his paper on anhydrides and he did not pursue it further.", "Six years later, in 1859, von Gilm obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid (which he called \"acetylierte Salicylsäure\", acetylated salicylic acid) by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride. [10] In 1869 Schröder, Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt's (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm's (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded that both reactions gave the same compound—acetylsalicylic acid. They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen. [11]", "Six years later, in 1859, von Gilm obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid (which he calledacetylierte Salicylsäure, acetylated salicylic acid) by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride. In 1869, Schröder, Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt’s (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm’s (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded both reactions gave the same compound—acetylsalicylic acid. They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen.", "The prototypical analgesic used in the treatment of mild to moderate pain. It has anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties and acts as an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase which results in the inhibition of the biosynthesis of prostaglandins. Acetylsalicylic acid also inhibits platelet aggregation and is used in the prevention of arterial and venous thrombosis. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p5)", "^ \"Acetylsalicylic acid\". Jinno Laboratory, School of Materials Science, Toyohashi University of Technology (March 1, 1996). Retrieved on 2007-09-07.", "A: Aspirin belongs to the group of drugs called salicylates. Because aspirin interferes with blood clotting, it is used to treat or prevent cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks, strokes, and chest pain (or angina). Unfortunately, we are unable to provide any more specific information because we are unsure what you are asking. If you would like to submit a new question, you may do so from the Ask the Pharmacist page. Please do not reply to this email; this address does not receive email. For more specific information, consult with your doctor or pharmacist for guidance based on your health status and current medications, particularly before taking any action. Michelle McDermott, PharmD", "From the German trademark Aspirin, from Acetylirte Spirsäure (“acetylated spiræic acid”). The trade name Aspirin is a registered trademark in some countries, but has entered the English language in generic usage.", "Levesque, H. and Lafont, O. [Aspirin throughout the ages: a historical review]. Rev Med Interne 2000;21 Suppl 1:8s-17s. View abstract.", "Aspirin is a derivative of salicylate, which can be found in such plants as willow trees and myrtle" ]

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[ "An insect has six legs. Insects' legs are jointed, and the movement of these joints is controlled by a combination of partial musculature and passive biomechanical non-muscular structures. Some insects also have a clawlike structure on the last segments of their legs.", "All insects have six legs. Insect legs can be many sizes and lengths. These legs help the insects survive by helping them escape prey.", "INSECT has 6 legs Of the creatures on Earth that have legs, most of them have 6.  Insects have an exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae.", "One way all insects are alike is that they have six legs.  Three legs on each side of the body.  The legs are attached to the thorax.  The thorax is the middle part of an insect's body.  Many insects have wings that are attached to the thorax.", "Most insects have three pairs of legs. Each leg contains five structural components (segments) that articulate with one another by means of hinge joints. These five components are known as the coxa, the trochanter, the femur, the tibia, and the tarsus.", "Except in species in which legs have been lost or become vestigial through evolutionary adaptation, adult insects have six legs, one pair attached to each of the three segments of the thorax. They do also have paired appendages on some other segments, in particular, mouthparts, Antennae and cerci, all of which are suspected to be derived from paired legs on each segment of some common ancestor. ", "Class Insecta - (750,000 sp.) If we knew all the different insects on Earth, there could be as many as 30 million species. Insects evolved about 200 mya, with cockroaches and dragonflies among the first to appear. Insects have a head, thorax, and abdomen, with three pair of legs (6 legs) on the thorax. (Crustaceans have legs on the abdomen as well as on the thorax). Most insects have one or two pairs of wings. They are the only invertebrates that fly. Most have compound eyes, and can communicate by sound and scent, using powerful chemical hormones called pheromones.", "Insects have three tagmata, or fused segments: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. They have a pair of antennae; a series of complex, highly variable mouthparts, which vary greatly from species to species; and three pairs of legs. Both the antennae and mouthparts are evolved from modified appendages (walking legs, most likely). Most insect species also have two pairs of wings, although these are absent in a few very primitive species and have been reduced in others, becoming nonfunctional or adapted for a different purpose. Insect legs and wings are associated with the thorax, not the abdomen, which does not usually carry appendages except for appendages that are evolved into reproductive organs. A theory of the origin of insect flight maintains that wings evolved from external gills that were present in certain primitive groups. Aside from their breathing function, these gills served as flaps that assisted insects in leaping and jumping, and were advantageous because they made escape from predators more likely. Gradual increases in wing size allowed for gliding movement, and ultimately for flapping flight.", "Insects are actually arthropods that belong to the Insecta class. The adult stage of an insect is characterized by a segmented body of three parts, namely the head, abdomen and thorax. They also possess a hard exoskeleton and 6 joined legs. This group in the animal kingdom has the numerous and most diverse class of species that is categorized into wasps, lice, ants, praying mantis, grasshoppers, dragonflies, true bugs, fleas, flies, bees, butterflies, beetles and moths. The total species are counted to be around 6 to 10 million, and out of it, only 1 million species have been described till now. Insects account for more than 50% of the known living beings present on the earth and represents around 90% of the diverse life forms on this planet. Hence the insects in human surroundings are unavoidable. The diversity in the species is also seen in their biting or stinging nature. Some insect bites or stings can be severe, whereas some may be barely felt, while some can also turn life threatening and poisonous.  ", "The katydid is an insect , and like all insects, they have 3 body segments , (the head, thorax, and abdomen), 6 legs, and 1 pair of antennae. Katydid's are shaped like grasshoppers and crickets , but have longer antennae. They are also covered in a exoskeleton , which provides support and protection for all insects. Most katydids are generally green, but brown, white, and even pink varieties have been found. Most katydids range from 1-1/4\" to 5\" long. Adult katydids have 2 pairs of wings that are shaped and colored like leaves . It also has long legs that enable it to jump long distances. [4]", "But where segmented worms have setae, arthropods have legs, sometimes lots and lots of them, sometimes modified to do some very un-leggy jobs, like manipulating food or pinching predators.  Arthropod legs and other leglike appendages show a great deal of serial homology , a visible remnant of segmentation.  It is common for subgroups of the arthropods to have characteristic numbers of legs, such as the decapods (10 legs), including crabs and lobsters, or the arachnids (8 walking legs), including spiders and scorpions, or the insects (6 legs).", "Insects (from Latin ', a calque of Greek ['], \"cut into sections\") are a class of invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species and representing more than half of all known living organisms. The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans, a habitat dominated by another arthropod group, crustaceans.", "The legs of a caterpillar are usually sixteen in number, and composed of two distinct kinds, viz. of six true legs, answering to those of the perfect insect, and placed on the foremost segments of the body; and of ten others, called \"prolegs;\" temporary legs, used principally for strengthening the creature's hold upon leaf or branch.", "# Hexapods comprise insects and three small orders of insect-like animals with six thoracic legs. They are sometimes grouped with the myriapods, in a group called Uniramia, though genetic evidence tends to support a closer relationship between hexapods and crustaceans.", "The painted lady butterfly is sometimes thought to have only four legs. These butterflies do have six legs, but the front two legs are very small.", "In addition to six legs, caterpillars may have five (occasionally fewer) pairs of false legs ( prolegs ) that enable them to move. Prolegs are plump, fleshy, and often hooked to allow the caterpillar to hold onto a plant ( Figure 4–6 ). Sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera) have six or more pairs of prolegs that lack hooks. This is an important distinction to note when looking to manage a caterpillar pest as proper identification of the larvae will aid in selecting an appropriate treatment. For example, some pesticides such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) will work only on lepidopteran larvae and will not work on sawflies.", "Larvae are grublike or maggotlike. They have either no legs (wasps, bees, ants) or three pairs of legs on their thorax and six pairs of prolegs (without hooks) on their abdomen (some sawfly larvae).", "..... Click the link for more information. , are quite diverse, but all are equipped with the six legs characteristic of adults. Moths moth,", "The multisegmented legs end in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders, beetles bear claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs may be variously modified and adapted for other uses. Among aquatic families – Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, many species of Hydrophilidae and others – the legs, most notably the last pair, are modified for swimming and often bear rows of long hairs to aid this purpose. Other beetles have fossorial legs that are widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and clown beetles (family Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such as flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), are enlarged and designed for jumping.", "Wings - Some insects have wings. Insects have either 2 or 4 wings to help them fly.", "The larvae are generally whitish grubs, roughly oval and bluntly-pointed at both ends. They have fifteen segments and spiracles in each segment for breathing. They have no legs but are able to move within the confines of the cell, helped by tubercles on their sides. They have short horns on the head, jaws for chewing their food and an appendage on either side of the mouth tipped with a bristle. There is a gland under the mouth that secretes a viscous liquid which solidifies into the silk they use to produce their cocoons. The pupa can be seen through the semi-transparent cocoon and over the course of a few days, the insect undergoes metamorphosis into the form of the adult bee. When ready to emerge, it splits its skin dorsally and climbs out of the exuviae as a winged adult and breaks out of the cell.", "Entomologists have described over 3,000 species of Stick Insects, and those of the genus Phobaeticus – the Giant Walking Stick – are the world's longest insects by far. Not including extended legs, these amazing creatures measure as much as 13 inches (33 cm) from head to the tip of their abdomen. Though Stick Insects of all types are strictly herbivorous, some species secrete a substance that produces intense irritation in the eyes and mouths of predators (or overly curious humans). In some cases, victims have been afflicted with temporary blindness.", "Depending on the mode of life to which an insect has become adapted, great variation can be seen in the morphology of the legs of different insect species. A rapidly running insect like the tiger beetle (Cicindelidae) will have long, slender legs, while an insect that leaps, such as a grasshopper, flea, or flea beetle (Haltica) will have enlarged femora or coxae, at least on the hindlegs. The legs of insects that dig into soil or wood are usually short and stout, and may be armed with spurs. The forelegs may be specialized for the grasping of prey, as in the case of the praying mantis and ambush bugs. Aquatic insects often have legs adapted for swimming. Arboreal insects, such as the cerambycid beetles, may have greatly expanded and hairy tarsi and strongly developed claws and pulvilli to afford the maximum grip.", "Head, thorax, abdomen; 3 pairs of legs (one on each thoracic segment); One pair of antennae on head; 1-2 pairs of wings in most; Pair of compound eyes in most, along with 1-3 simple eyes;", "Flying insects and crustaceans share many features, such as jointed legs and a jointed exoskeleton. Crustaceans live in water and are able to swim by rapidly flapping their jointed legs through the fluid. Many scientists believe that the jointed wings of insects evolved from a pair of jointed legs that allowed the creatures to \"swim\" through the air much like crustaceans swim through water. The earliest wings were probably little more than flaps that could catch the wind and carry the insects away from predators. Over succeeding generations, the insects learned that flapping the wings could enable them to move through the air on their own. This evolution culminated in the incredibly fast and maneuverable insects we know today, creatures capable of flying in any direction, turning on a dime, and performing aerobatics a stunt pilot could only dream of.", "The purest form of the tripedal gait is seen in insects moving at speed. However, this type of locomotion is not rigid and insects can adapt a variety of gaits; for example, when moving slowly, turning, or avoiding obstacles, four or more feet may be touching the ground. Insects can also adapt their gait to cope with the loss of one or more limbs.", "For the most part the femur and tibia are the longest leg segments but variations in the lengths and robustness of each segment relate to their functions. For example, gressorial and cursorial, or walking and running type insects respectively, usually have well-developed femora and tibiae on all legs, whereas jumping (saltatorial) insects such as grasshoppers have disproportionately developed hind femora and tibiae. In aquatic beetles (Coleoptera) and bugs (Hemiptera), the tibiae and/or tarsi of one or more pairs of legs usually are modified for swimming (natatorial) with fringes of long, slender hairs. Many ground-dwelling insects, such as mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae), nymphal cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae), and scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), have the tibiae of the fore legs enlarged and modified for digging (fossorial), whereas the fore legs of some predatory insects, such as mantispid lacewings (Neuroptera) and mantids (Mantodea), are specialized for seizing prey, or raptorial. The tibia and basal tarsomere of each hind leg of honey bees are modified for the collection and carriage of pollen.", "Hemiptera /hɛˈmɪptərə/ is an order of insects most often known as the true bugs (cf. bug), comprising around 50,000–80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts. Sometimes, the name true bugs is applied more narrowly still to insects of the suborder Heteroptera only.", "Figure 11.  Several respresentative hexapods.  A. A cricket B. A solitary bee C. A leafhopper D. A butterfly. (Click image to enlarge)", "b.� All the arthropods have segmented a segmented body.� A pair of legs is attached to each segment.� This does not hold true for all species.�", "Above: left, an insect (Aleochara bilineata) whose 450 or so ommatidia, each about 4 micrometres in", "The hexapods are the largest extant subgroup. They have jaw-like mandibles, compound eyes, one pair of sensory antennae, and unbranched (uniramous) appendages. This subgroup includes Class Insecta, which have distinct segments that may be highly specialized.  Flight evolved in this group, and is in part responsible for its success and diversity." ]

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[ "late 14c., flowering plant (Iris germanica), also \"prismatic rock crystal,\" from Latin iris (plural irides) \"iris of the eye, iris plant, rainbow,\" from Greek iris (genitive iridos) \"a rainbow; the lily; iris of the eye,\" originally \"messenger of the gods,\" personified as the rainbow. The eye region was so called (early 15c. in English) for being the colored part; the Greek word was used of any brightly colored circle, \"as that round the eyes of a peacock's tail\" [Liddell and Scott].", "Flowers are tiger lily, forsynthia, gentian, honeysuckle, red poppy, geraniums, hollyhocks, anemone, red clover, crocus, narcissus, cuckoo flower, bachelor's buttons, stonecrop.", "A flower that has both the male parts and female parts in the same flower. Examples: roses, lilies, and dandelion.", "The common daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) bears a single yellow flower. It differs from other narcissuses in having a long bell-shaped corona. It is also called the lent lily or trumpet narcissus. The poet's narcissus, or pheasant's eye (N. poeticus), has a single white flower with a short, red-margined corona. The jonquil (N. jonquilla) bears several fragrant golden blossoms, the oil from which is used in perfumes. The paper-white narcissus carries as many as a dozen all-white flowers on a single stalk. It is a form of N. tazetta, a species that includes the Chinese sacred lily, or joss flower.", "a. Their petals, when present, were free (unattached to one another). Flowers with distinct bilateral symmetry, modern violets or snapdragons, and flowers with fused petals, such as the cape honeysuckle, did not appear until the Paleocene period, less the 65 million years ago.", "dī-an′thus, n. the genus of herbaceous flowers to which carnations and pinks belong. [Gr. dianthēs—dis, di-, two, anthos, a flower.]", "The term Padparadsha is derived from the Sanskrit / Sinhalese Padma Raga, the colors seen in the lotus flower with pink petals Blue colour of peacock neck The colors seen in the lotus flower with pink petals and yellow colour pollen. A view of a gem mining area in Sri Lanka 112 | Lustrous Gems & Gem Mining in Sri Lanka and yellow colour pollen. It is a special variety of the corundum species in an extraordinary mixture of pink and orange colours. Some define the gem's color as a blend of lotus flower and sunset.", "Haplomorphic.   Flowers with parts spirally arranged at a simple level in a semispheric or hemispheric form; petals or tepals colored; parts numerous; e.g., Nymphaea, Magnolia", "The chief of these is the DAFFODIL, or Lent Lily (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, Linn.). The botanical name of the genus, Narcissus, is considered to be derived, not as is often said, from the name of the classical youth who met with his death through vainly trying to embrace his image reflected in a clear stream, but from the Greek word narkao (to benumb), on account of the narcotic properties which the plant possesses. Pliny describes it as Narce narcissum dictum, non a fabuloso puero, 'named Narcissus from Narce, not from the fabulous boy.'", "Closely related to some species in Edible Flowers: Part 18 is the Forest Lily, Veltheimina bracteata. A native to Africa it is found in flower gardens in warmer climates around the world.  The species is named for the German patron of botany, August Ferdinand Graf von Veltheim (1741-1801). There are only two species in the genus. The Forest Lily’s inflorescence is a dense raceme of tubular flowers on a long stalk. The color of the flowers vary from pale pink to dusky pink to orange-pink or deep rose pink, occasionally greenish-yellow.  The tips of the flowers are sometimes green or spotted with green. Forest lilies flower during late winter to spring. Each flower-head lasts about a month. They are eaten like spinach.", "First, let's dispel the confusion that surrounds this group: Once they were known as Kaempferi Irises, today many call them \"The Butterfly Irises\", but the correct common name is simply \" Japanese Iris .\" In luscious colors of purple, pink, and endless bicolors, they have been cultivated in Japan for over 500 years, and were once restricted to enjoyment by royalty only. Though many think they are, they are not water dwellers. They require about the same conditions as ferns, astilbes or impatiens—just moist ground, which most all gardeners can easily provide. As you can see by the photos, these iris blooms are quite different from the tall \"stand-up\" flowers of the big Bearded Irises . With Japanese Irises , both sets of petals are more flat, forming a simpler, flatter—and many think more beautiful—flower. Japanese Irises form large lavish hardy clumps and are highly decorative. They're also great for cutting.", "Iris is a genus of 260–300 species of flowering plants with showy flowers. It takes its name from the Greek word for a rainbow, referring to the wide variety of flower colors found among the many species. As well as being the scientific name, iris is also very widely used as a common name for all Iris species, though some plants called thus belong to other closely related genera. A common name for some species is 'flags', while the plants of the subgenus Scorpiris are widely known as 'junos', particularly in horticulture. It is a popular garden flower. The often-segregated, monotypic genera Belamcanda, Hermodactylus, and Pardanthopsis are currently included in Iris.", "Snowdrop, usually spoken of as the first flower of our year, though the Winter Aconite has perhaps a better title to be so considered, has never been of much account in physic, and has never been recognized. Gerard says 'nothing is set down hereof by the ancient Writers, nor anything observed by the moderne.' He calls it the Bulbous Violet, but adds that some call it the Snowdrop, the earliest mention of it by this name, and it was known to all the old botanists as a bulbous violet.", "Anagallis is a genus of about 20–25 species of flowering plants in the family Primulaceae, commonly called pimpernel and perhaps best known for the scarlet pimpernel referred to in literature. The botanical name is from the Greek, ana, \"again\", and agallein, \"to delight in\", and refers to the opening and closing of the flowers in response to environmental conditions.", "There are about 90 varieties of Black-eyed-Susan. The Black-eyed Susan flower is the best known of the Coneflowers, so named because their centers are cone shaped and the petals bend downward from the center which accentuates the cone.", "Brilliant magenta with a black eye. Flowers all summer. Quite bushy plants about 1ft 6in tall. It is a hybrid of GG.endressii and psilostemon.", "Carnations are also commonly referred to by their scientific name, \"Dianthus\", the name given by the Greek botanist Theopharastus. Carnations got the name Dianthus from two Greek Words - \"dios\", referring to the god Zeus, and \"anthos\", meaning flower. Carnations are thus known as the \"The Flowers of God\".", "Trumpet-Flowered Daffodils have blooms with flattened outer petals and trumpet shaped cups that flare from their base to a wide, open rim. Flowers come in a wide variety of shades like red, orange, yellow, green, white, and pink.", "Rafflesia Arnoldi, the largest flower in the world, was discovered in 1818 by an Indonesian guide working for Dr Jospeh Arnold from Beccles. It was named after Sir Stamford Raffles, the leader of the field trip in Bengkulu, Indonesia. The Rafflesia Arnoldia is called the corpse flower as it has a strong small of decaying flesh.", "The tall, erect stem is crowned by racemes of large blue, purple, white, yellow or pink zygomorphic flowers with numerous stamens. They are distinguishable by having one of the five petaloid sepals (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet; hence the English name monkshood. There are 2–10 petals. The two upper petals are large and are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the nectar. The other petals are small and scale-like or non-forming. The 3–5 carpels are partially fused at the base.", "Superstitions:  For the ancient Greeks, the jonquil is believed to be the flower of the dead since it is believed that it’s a flower that grows in the underworld.  In other parts of the world like in Maine, USA, it was a superstition that if you pointed to the jonquil with your index finger, it is not going to bloom.", "The dianthus plant is also called Sweet William (Dianthus barbatus) and has a fragrance with cinnamon or clove notes. The plants are small and usually between 6 and 18 inches tall. Dianthus flowers are most often in pink, salmon, red and white hues. The foliage is slender and sparsely spread on thick stems.", "Other plants with similar flowers include hawkweeds (Hieracium) and hawksbeards (Crepis). These are both readily distinguished by their branched flowering stems.", "In June and July (Northern Hemisphere), the plant is topped with a raceme of many flowers, varying in color from purple and blue, to red, yellow, or white. In most species each flower consists of five petal-like sepals which grow together to form a hollow pocket with a spur at the end, which gives the plant its name, usually more or less dark blue. Within the sepals are four true petals, small, inconspicuous, and commonly colored similarly to the sepals. The eponymous long spur of the upper sepal encloses the nectar-containing spurs of the two upper petals.", "The flowers have a bilateral symmetry with the corolla consisting of five petals. A single, large, upper petal is known as the banner (also vexillum or standard petal). The semi-cylindrical base of the banner embraces and compresses two equal and smaller lateral wings (or alae). The wings in turn enclose a pair of small keel petals, that are situated somewhat lower than the wings, but are interior to them. They have concave sides and correspond with the shape of the wings. The two keel petals are fused at their bases or stuck together to form a boat-shaped structure that encloses the essential flower organs, namely the androecium and gynoecium. Typically these flowers have a vexillary (i.e. descendingly imbricate or overlapping) aestivation.", "The leaf-like organs, the sepals and the petals are together known as the perianth of the flower. They are similar in appearance.", "The typical flower has three rather narrow petals : two are fringed, and the third is the conspicuous lip with a fringed margin and various markings and specks. At the base, the fringed margins are folded into a tube. Each flower stalk originates from a pseudobulb. The number of flowers varies; it can be just one or two, or sometimes up to ten.", "FLOWER, a term popularly used for the blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the finest part or aspect of anything. Here it is dealt with only botanically. The flower is characteristic of the highest group of plants�the flowering plants (Phanerogams) �and is the association of more or less leaf-like organs which are concerned with the production of the seed. In modern botany the group is often known as the seed-plants or Spermophyta (see ANGIOSPERMS and GYMNOSPERMS). As the seed develops from the ovule, fertilised by the pollen, the essential structures for seed production are the pollen-bearer or stamen and the ovule-bearer or carpel. In comparative morphology, these are known as sporophylls because they bear the microspores (pollen-grains), developed in the microsporangia (pollen-sacs) or the megaspore, contained in the megasporangium (ovule). In the more primitive gymnosperms (q.v.) the micro- or mega- sporophylls are gen erally associated in separate cones, to which the term \"flower\" has been applied. But it is to more definite and elaborate struc tures in the higher angiosperms (q.v.) that \"flower\" generally refers.", "One of the three lobes of the stigma can be seen in focus in the image on the left below.  The image to the right is a more highly magnified photograph of the same lobe.", "The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical with 5 united petals, 5 united sepals. They are usually bisexual and verticillastrate (a flower cluster that looks like a whorl of flowers but actually consists of two crowded clusters).", "*Flowers: Diuretic, Anti-bilious, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Sedative and Anti-filarial. Its dried flowers are used as components of recipe in Assamese food.", "This pocket guide carries a description and clear colour photograph of each flower, along with its name in English, French, German, Italian and Latin. The 230 flowers featured are grouped by colour to aid quick identification..." ]

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[ "One class of arthropods is the arachnids which include spiders, scorpions, and mites. Spiders have two main body parts and eight legs.", "Scorpions are arthropods , they have eight legs, two pedipalps , and a tail with a venom-injecting barb. Scorpions have two venom glands that produce venom used in hunting and self defense. Scorpions do not have bones instead they have an exoskeleton made of chitin , which is similar to the shell of a shrimp.", "Arachnids are a class (Arachnida) of joint-legged invertebrate animals (arthropods), in the subphylum Chelicerata. All arachnids have eight legs, although the front pair of legs in some species has converted to a sensory function, while in other species, different appendages can grow large enough to take on the appearance of extra pairs of legs. The term is derived from the Greek word (aráchnē), meaning \"spider\". Spiders are the largest order in the class.", "Spiders belong to a group of animals called Arachnids (uh-RACK-nidz)—animals that have eight legs. Ticks, mites, and scorpions are also arachnids. What makes spiders special? They produce silk and have fangs.", "The arachnids encompass respectively over 40,000 identified species worldwide, in which 3,400 species call North America their home. Spiders have eight legs, two body regions, and anywhere from two to as many as eight eyes. Sizes vary from family to family, as small as 1mm to 70mm or larger.", "piders (orderAraneae) are airbreathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea colonization. As of 2008, at least 43,678 spider species, and 109 families have been recorded by taxonomists; however, there has been dissension within the scientific commu-", "Spiders belong to a group of animals called \"arachnids\", mites and Scorpions and a tick is also in the arachnid family. An Arachnids is a creature with eight legs, two body parts, no antennae or wings and are not able to chew on food. Redback Spiders are not insects because insects have three main body parts and six legs and most insects have wings.", "An arthropod (from Greek arthro-, joint + podos, foot) is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton (external skeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages (paired appendages). Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. ", "Arachnids are instantly recognizable by their eight legs, although it should be mentioned that both mites and the rare order Ricinulei hatch as six-legged larvae, and acquire the last pair of legs later in development. The eight legs of arachnids are in fact part of a wider body plan in which the front half of the body — the prosoma or cephalothorax — bears six pairs of limbs. These are the chelicerae (or mouthparts), the pedipalps and four pairs of walking legs. This division of the body into a prosoma at the front and an opisthosoma (or abdomen) at the back is another textbook character of arachnids (Fig 2). It is very obvious in animals such as spiders, but in groups such as harvestmen the two halves of the body may be broadly joined together. Mites are also problematic, in that their body plan does not always conform to a neat prosoma/opisthosoma division.", "The phylum Arthropoda is the largest and most varied in the animal kingdom. It includes well over one million described species. This represents approximately three-quarters of all known biological organisms, living or extinct. Countless arthropods remain undescribed (not yet named and studied), and the actual number of living species could be as high as ten million or more. Some of the more well-known arthropods include insects, crustaceans, and spiders, as well as the fossil trilobites . Arthropods are found in virtually every known marine (ocean-based), freshwater, and terrestrial (land-based) ecosystem, and vary tremendously in their habitats, life histories, and dietary preferences.", "Any animals that have more than four, jointed legs are arthropods.  Insects, spiders and crustaceans all belong to this class of animals.", "The phylum Arthropoda -- all those bilaterally symmetrical animals who possess external skeletons composed of chitin (a cellulose -- linear-chain hydrocarbon that forms a strong yet somewhat flexible shell), with segmented bodies and paired, jointed legs (insects, spiders, scorpions, crustaceans, centipedes, etc.) -- is far more diverse than are members of the chordate phylum to which all vertebrates including humans belong. Indeed, the number of Arthropod species is far greater than those of all other phyla combined, and there are probably millions of species among the insects alone which have not yet even been identified and described. For a visual image of this varietal dominance, see this link: Group Diversity .", "1.� Arthropod means \"jointed foot\".� The phylum arthropoda contains 3/4 of all animal species.� Some examples are:� lobsters, crabs, crayfish, insects, millipedes, and centipedes.� Although all these animals are different, all are alike in some of their characteristics.� All the arthropods share four characteristics.", "Three-fourths of all animal species, including spiders, crayfish, and insects, are arthropods. This phylum is composed of a very diverse group of animals that are bilaterally symmetrical. The following characteristics have allowed arthropods to adapt to almost every environment on Earth:", "Monstrous eight-eyed, hairy spiders capable of human speech. Carthorse-sized and carnivorous, they have eight legs and sharp pincers. When excited or angry, they make a distinctive clicking sound and secrete poison. They fear Basilisks.", "����������� Arthropod Diversity The four main groups of arthropods are the arachnids, the crustaceans, the millipedes and centipedes, and the insects. Most arachnids live on land. Scorpions, spiders, ticks, and mites are examples (Figure 17.22). Arachnids usually have four pairs of walking legs and a specialized pair of feeding appendages. In spiders, these feeding appendages are fanglike and equipped with poison glands. As a spider uses these appendages to immobilize and chew its prey, it spills digestive juices onto the torn tissues and sucks up its liquid meal.", "The 67,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at , to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to and a mass of 20 kg. Like other arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow. They are distinguished from other groups of arthropods, such as insects, myriapods and chelicerates, by the possession of biramous (two-parted) limbs, and by their larval forms, such as the nauplius stage of branchiopods and copepods.", "Insects (from Latin ', a calque of Greek ['], \"cut into sections\") are a class of invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species and representing more than half of all known living organisms. The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans, a habitat dominated by another arthropod group, crustaceans.", "Joint-legged animals without backbones are called arthropods and are placed in the phylum Arthropoda. Human legs are jointed at the knees, but we have backbones, so we're not arthropods. On the tick at the left (found climbing my screen door, so I scanned him!) you can very clearly see the joints.", "Millipedes are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name being derived from this feature. Each double-legged segment is a result of two single segments fused together. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a ball. Although the name \"millipede\" derives from the Latin for \"thousand feet\", no known species has 1,000; the record of 750 legs belongs to Illacme plenipes. There are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families, making Diplopoda the largest class of myriapods, an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures.", "The coconut crab , Birgus latro, also a crustacean, is the largest land arthropod and the largest land invertebrate, up to 40 cm (1.3 ft) long and weighing up to 4 kg (8.8 lb). Its legs may span 1 m (3.25 ft).", "Figure 7. A Scorpion.  An arthropod that is a chelicerate, and also an arachnid. (Click image to enlarge)", "a) Myriapods -- having 9 or more pairs of legs and two antennae, for example the Centipedes and Millipedes;", "Arachnids have 4 pairs of walking legs, usually 7-segmented. Each leg is composed of a coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus, and tarsus ( figure 207 , chapter 9). Most arachnids are carnivorous, but because they have no mandibles, they commonly predigest their food in the mouth and then suck the juices into the stomach. Some species crush their food with their chelicerae. The black widow spider cannot crush its prey, but pierces it and injects a digestive fluid, then sucks out the digested food. Spiders breathe by means of \"book lungs\" (from 1 to 4 pairs) or tracheae, or sometimes both. Arachnids are oviparous, except for the scorpions and certain mites. There are 11 orders of living arachnids, of which 7 will be considered of more or less importance as household pests, although some are harmless and are of interest only because they may be confused with bona fide pests.", "They have a very superficial similarity to spiders in that they have 4 pairs of legs but their legs are stilt-like and are kept bent with the body close to the ground. The daddy long-legs eats insects and other invertebrates as well as the tender gills of fungi and soft decaying matter.", "↑ Tree of Life Web Project. 1995. Arthropoda. Version 01 January 1995 (temporary). [7] in The Tree of Life Web Project, [8]", "Arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages. The rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all ecological guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living animal species, some of which, unlike most animals, are very successful in dry environments.", "b.� All the arthropods have segmented a segmented body.� A pair of legs is attached to each segment.� This does not hold true for all species.�", "Arachnid legs differ from those of insects by the addition of two segments on either side of the tibia, the patella between the femur and the tibia, and the metatarsus (sometimes called basitarsus) between the tibia and the tarsus (sometimes called telotarsus), making a total of seven segments.", "type of animal that breathes air and has a body divided into three segments, with six legs and usually wings.", "Observe the preserved arthropods on display. How do the various groups use their legs to walk, swim, feed or mate?", "The more than 20 species are in seven genera. Although the evolutionary relationships between the Megapodiidae are especially uncertain, the morphological groups are clear: " ]

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[ "The joule (symbol J, also called newton meter, watt second, or coulomb volt) is the SI unit of energy and work. The unit is pronounced to rhyme with \"tool\", and is named in honor of the physicist James Prescott Joule (1818-1889).", "Many of us commonly think of energy as the ability of a system to do work . Work is a force applied to an object over a certain distance, such as pulling or pushing a wooden block across your desk. Your muscles do work when they facilitate body movement. Units of work and energy are joules (J) . One joule equals one Newton meter (N*m).", "Although casually the terms energy and power are often used interchangeably, technically they have different meanings. The SI unit of energy and work (which are numerically the same) is the joule (J). A joule is the work done by a force of one newton for a distance of one meter. This unit is usually used in physics. Energy comes in many forms, such as heat, motion, gravitational, radiated solar power, and electrical. For different types of energy other physical units are also utilized. For example, the British Thermal Unit (Btu) is often used to measure the heat energy or compare fuels. One Btu is what's needed to heat one pound of water one degree F. The SI derived unit of power is watt (W). Watt is power required to produce or consume one joule of energy per second. This unit and its multiple kilowatt are usually utilized in ratings of various electric loads and sources of electricity, such as residential generators .", "Because energy is defined via work, the SI unit for energy is the same as the unit of work – the joule (J), named in honor of James Prescott Joule and his experiments on the mechanical equivalent of heat. In slightly more fundamental terms, 1 joule is equal to 1 newton metre and, in terms of SI base units", "Energy The capacity of a body to do work is called its energy. Energy is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of energy is Joule.", "Because energy is the capacity to do work , we measure energy and work in the same units (N*m or joules).", "in physics, the ability or capacity to do work or to produce change. Forms of energy include heat, light, sound, electricity, and chemical energy. Energy and work are measured in the same units—foot-pounds, joules, ergs, or some other, depending on the system of", "Now recall that \"work\" is defined as force times distance (see the first section of this primer - \"What is energy?\"), and also that energy has the same units as work. A Joule is the amount of energy we expend as work if we exert a force of  1 Newton of Force over a distance of one meter.", "In the so-called \"International System of Units\", which are based on metric units, and which form the basis for the electrical units we use, both work and energy have the same unit, called the \"Joule\". ", ", abbr. J, unit of work or energy in the mks system of units, which is based on the metric system; it is the work done or energy expended by a force of 1 newton acting through a distance of 1 meter. The joule is named for James P. Joule.", "Work in physics, transfer of Energy by a force acting against a resistance or a body andresulting in displacement. Work W has a magnitude equal to the scalar product (Vector)of the force F and the distance d of the resulting movement; thus W = Fd cos ;gu,where;gu is the angle between the directions of the force and the movement. The foot-pound English Units of Measurement), the erg (cgs system), and the joule (mks system)are the units of work or energy expended, respectively, by a 1-lb force acting through adistance of 1 ft, by a 1-dyne force through 1 cm, and by a 1-newton force through 1 m.One foot-pound equals 1.356 joules; 1 erg equals 10-7 joules.", "Energy is usually and most simply defined as the equivalent of or capacity for doing work . The word itself is derived from the Greek energeia: en, “in”; ergon, “work.” Energy can either be associated with a material body, as in a coiled spring or a moving object, or it can be independent of matter, as light and other electromagnetic radiation traversing a vacuum. The energy in a system may be only partly available for use. The dimensions of energy are those of work, which, in classical mechanics, is defined formally as the product of mass (m) and the square of the ratio of length (l) to time (t): ml2/t2. This means that the greater the mass or the distance through which it is moved or the less the time taken to move the mass, the greater will be the work done, or the greater the energy expended.", "• In 1840, the British scientist, James Prescott Joule, and the German scientist, Hermann von Helmholtz, demonstrated that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy. The unit of energy, the Joule, is named after the Englishman;", "The Watt engine was a defining development of the Industrial Revolution because of its rapid incorporation into many industries. Because of Watt’s contributions to science and industry, the watt , the unit of power in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one joule of work performed per second (or 1/746 horsepower ), was named for him. Some scientists argue that the design of the parallel motion (or double-acting engine) in 1784 should serve as the starting point of the Anthropocene Epoch —the unofficial interval of geologic time in which human activity began to substantially alter Earth’s surface, atmosphere , and oceans .", "For a closed system (a system from which no matter can enter or exit), one version of the first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of the system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system minus the amount of work done by system on its surroundings. The foregoing sign convention for work is used in the present article, but an alternate sign convention, followed by IUPAC, for work, is to consider the work performed on the system by its surroundings as positive. This is the convention adopted by many modern textbooks of physical chemistry, such as those by Peter Atkins and Ira Levine, but many textbooks on physics define work as work done by the system.", "In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery (known of the voltaic pile) and thus improved the way electric currents could also be studied. A year later, Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light—which received strong experimental support from the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel—and the principle of interference. In 1813, Peter Ewart supported the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force. In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted found that a current-carrying conductor gives rise to a magnetic force surrounding it, and within a week after Ørsted's discovery reached France, André-Marie Ampère discovered that two parallel electric currents will exert forces on each other. In 1821, William Hamilton began his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function. In 1821, Michael Faraday built an electricity-powered motor, while Georg Ohm stated his law of electrical resistance in 1826, expressing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit. A year later, botanist Robert Brown discovered Brownian motion: pollen grains in water undergoing movement resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid. In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduced the terms of work (force times distance) and kinetic energy with the meanings they have today.", "Energy.—Now work and energy are two different things. Work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind, either by causing or changing motion, or maintaining it against the action of some other force.", "an MKS unit of \"action\" (energy expended over time) or of angular momentum. The planck is equal to 1 joule second (J·s) or about 0.7375 foot pound second (ft·lb·s). The unit honors the German physicist Max Planck (1858-1947), the originator of quantum theory.", "the SI unit of work is the joule named after _ _ _, a 19th century _ physicist ", "Quantum Mechanics: The work of experimental scientists, such as Marie Curie, on the nature of the atom and theoretical physicists, such as Albert Einstein, Neils Bohr, and Werner Heisenberg, on a mathematical description of the motion of sub-atomic particles culminated in a theory of the fundamental nature of matter as wave-like bundles or packets (quanta) of� energy that have no determinate location and speed until observed. This made matter seem completely unlike the familiar hunks of tangible stuff of our common sense understanding. It also raised serious questions about what the real nature of matter was, whether we could know it, and whether it was dependent on human observation. Marie Curie's work helped to begin what was, perhaps, the most radical reformulation of how we understand the world in the history of humanity.", "Thomas Young (1773–1829) England: first use of the word energy in the modern sense. His definition is almost the same as our current definition of kinetic energy. He's missing a one-half multiplier out front that makes the units work out. A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts . London: J. Johnson (1807).", "The short history of entropy begins with the work of mathematician Lazare Carnot who in his 1803 work Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement postulated that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts all represent losses of moment of activity. In other words, in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy. Building on this work, in 1824 Lazare's son Sadi Carnot published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire in which he set forth the view that in all heat-engines whenever \" caloric\", or what is now known as heat , falls through a temperature difference, that work or motive power can be produced from the actions of the \"fall of caloric\" between a hot and cold body. This was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics.", "In the 19th cent. this connection was established quantitatively by J. R. Mayer and J. P. Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s. This experimental work and the theoretical work of Sadi Carnot, published in 1824 but not widely known until later, together provided a basis for the formulation of the first two laws of thermodynamics in the 1850s by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and R. J. E. Clausius. The first law is a form of the law of conservation of energy, stated earlier by J. R. von Mayer and Hermann Helmholtz on the basis of biological considerations; the second law describes the tendency of energy to be converted from more useful to less useful forms.", "The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density , J/m3. This applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurized gasses, but also to the energy density of electric , magnetic , and gravitational fields.", "This year marks the 100th anniversary of Max Planck's creation of the quantum concept. In his seminal paper on thermal radiation, Planck hypothesized that the total energy of a vibrating system cannot be changed continuously. Instead, the energy must jump from one value to another in discrete steps, or quanta, of energy. The idea of energy quanta was so radical that Planck let it lay fallow. Then Albert Einstein , in his wonder year of 1905, recognized the implications of quantization for light. Even then the concept was so bizarre that there was little basis for progress. Twenty more years and a fresh generation of physicists were required to create modern quantum theory.", "It was found in the late 19th century that the spectral distribution of the energy of thermal radiation, derived from the law of classical statistical mechanics of equipartition of energy, was inconsistent with experiments. It followed from theory that matter should emit electromagnetic waves at any temperature, lose energy, and cool to absolute zero; that is, thermal equilibrium between matter and radiation would be impossible, a conclusion everyday experience contradicted. An answer was provided in 1900 by M. Planck, who showed that theoretical results agreed with experiment if it were assumed that atoms emitted electromagnetic radiation in individual bundles—quanta—rather than continuously as posited in classical electrodynamics. The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency, and the proportionality factor is the quantum of action h = 6.6 × 10–27 erg · sec, subsequently named Planck’s constant.", "It is hard to assign priority to workers who state, “We repeat that the unit that we adopted is that adopted by all the physicists.” This is confirmed in the 1855 version (4th edition) of Ganot's basic physics text. This text contains a modern definition ( 11 ):", "In this book we will refine our definitions of energy in its various forms. We will explore the transformations of energy as it changes from one form to another, and we will learn that energy is conserved - it cannot be created or destroyed, only changed. Although energy never vanishes, we will learn that not all forms of energy are equally useful, and we can measure the quality of an energy form with a property called entropy. We will conclude by discussing energy use by humans, including the relationship of energy use to the environment and the prospects for human energy use in a world in which the human population is growing and the energy resources that we use are shrinking.", "In 1850, Clausius published a paper in which he developed the second law of thermodynamics, which states that energy always flows from a high energy state (for example, a system that is hot) to a low energy state (one that is cold) (Clausius, 1850). In later work, Clausius coined the term entropy to describe the energy lost from a system when it is transferred, and as an acknowledgement of the pioneering work of Sadi Carnot in providing the foundation for his discoveries, Clausius used the symbol S to refer to the entropy of a system.", "During the 18th century, thermodynamics was developed through the theories of weightless \"imponderable fluids\", such as heat (\"caloric\"), electricity, and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Lavoisier's identification of oxygen gas late in the century). Assuming that these concepts were real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical reactions. This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden Jar; and new kinds of measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones, such as the thermometer. Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black's notion of latent heat and Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin's characterization of electrical fluid as flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of positive and negative charges). Franklin also showed that lightning is electricity in 1752.", "Schrodinger was educated at the University of Vienna. He taught physics at the universities of Stuttgart, Germany; Breslau, Poland; Z�rich, Switzerland; Berlin, Germany; Oxford, England; and Graz, Austria. He was director of the school of theoretical physics of the Institute of Advanced Study in Dublin, Ireland, from 1940 until his retirement in 1955. Schr�dinger's most important contribution to the understanding of the atom was his development of an elegant and rigorous mathematical description of the discrete standing waves that electrons must follow in their orbits around atomic nuclei (Schr�dinger's equation). Schr�dinger proved that his theory, published in 1926, was mathematically equivalent to the theories of matrix mechanics advanced the previous year by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg. Together, their theories formed much of the foundation of quantum mechanics. Schr�dinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in physics with the British physicist Paul A. M. Dirac for his contribution to the development of quantum mechanics. His research included important work on atomic spectra, statistical thermodynamics, and wave mechanics. ", "Rudolf Clausius (1822 – 1888), was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy." ]

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[ "Fluorine belongs to group number 17, which is the halogen family of elements that also includes astatine, iodine, bromine and chlorine. The element fluorine is a highly reactive gas at room temperature that is not found freely in nature. Fluorine has a melting point of 363.32 degrees F, a boiling point of 306.62 degrees F and a density of 0.001696 grams per cubic centimeter.", "The halogens are the salt forming elements placed in Group 17 of the periodic table . The halogen family elements include elements Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine. These exist in the elemental form as diatomic molecules. The Group 17 gases are also called as halogen gases.", "Chlorine is a member of the halogen family. Halogens are the elements that make up Group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table, a chart that shows how elements are related to one another. They include fluorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Chlorine is highly reactive, ranking only below fluorine in its chemical activity.", "Table salt, bleach, fluoride in toothpaste, chlorine in swimming pools—what do all of these have in common? Add halogen lamps to the list, and the answer becomes more clear: all involve one or more of the halogens, which form Group 7 of the periodic table of elements. Known collectively by a term derived from a Greek word meaning “salt-producing,” the halogen family consists of five elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The first four of these are widely used, often in combination; the last, on the other hand, is a highly radioactive and extremely rare substance. The applications of halogens are many and varied, including some that are dangerous, controversial, and deadly.", "valence electron is 7 the halogens or fluorine family- halogen elements are a series of nonmetal elements from Group 17 IUPAC Style (formerly: VII, VIIA) of the periodic table, comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117, provisionally referred to by the systematic name ununseptium, may also be a halogen. The group of halogens is the only periodic table group which contains elements in all three familiar states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. Owing to their high reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as ions. Halide ions and oxoanions such as iodate (IO3 ?) can be found in many minerals and in seawater. Halogenated organic compounds can also be found as natural products in living organisms. In their elemental forms, the halogens exist as diatomic molecules. At room temperature and pressure, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine and astatine are solids; Group 17 is therefore the only periodic table group exhibiting all three states of matter at room temperature.", "The Group 7 elements are also known as the halogens. They include fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, which all have seven electrons in their outer shell.", "Chemists found that bromine belonged in the halogen family. They knew that it had properties similar to other halogens and placed it below fluorine and chlorine in the periodic table.", "The halogens are the collective name given to the elements in group VII of the Periodic Table. There are five halogens; fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Astatine is very radioactive and cannot exist for more than a few microseconds before decaying. We will thus be concerned with the chemistry of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.", "Along with fluorine , bromine , iodine and astatine , chlorine is a member of the halogen series that forms the group 17 of the periodic table - the most reactive group of elements. It combines readily with nearly all elements.", "The halogens are located on the left of the noble gases on the periodic table. These five toxic, non-metallic elements make up Group 17 of the periodic table and consist of: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). Although astatine is radioactive and only has short-lived isotopes, it behaves similar to iodine and is often included in the halogen group. Because the halogen elements have seven valence electrons, they only require one additional electron to form a full octet. This characteristic makes them more reactive than other non-metal groups.", "Fluorine and chlorine are gases. Bromine is one of only two liquid elements. Iodine is a solid. Astatine is radioactive and is one of the rarest of the chemical elements. Fluorine is the most reactive of all known elements. Chemical reactivity decreases throughout this family of elements, with fluorine being the most reactive of all known elements, and chlorine, bromine, and iodine being relatively less reactive, respectively.", "The halogen elements show great resemblances to one another in their general chemical behaviour and in the properties of their compounds with other elements. There is, however, a progressive change in properties from fluorine through chlorine, bromine, and iodine to astatine—the difference between two successive elements being most pronounced with fluorine and chlorine. Fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens and, in fact, of all elements, and it has certain other properties that set it apart from the other halogens.", "The halogens are 5 chemically related elements that sit just to the left of the noble gases in the periodic table. Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At) make up G…", "(The other halogens - that is, members of the same group are Fluorine , Chlorine , Iodine and Astatine . These have some properties in common with bromine while there are also certain \"trends\" or patterns in the variation of other properties across this group of elements.)", "The next heaviest element in the halogen family is bromine, named from a Greek word for stink, because of its strong and disagreeable odor. It was first isolated as an element in 1826. Bromine is a reddish brown liquid that vaporizes easily. The vapors are irritating to the eyes and throat. Elemental bromine is made by oxidation, removal of electrons from bromide ions in brine. Brines in Arkansas …", "Group 7 of the periodic table of elements, including fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The halogens are diatomic, and tend to form salts; hence their name, which comes from two Greek terms meaning \"salt-forming.\"", "Fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2) are gases at room temperature. Bromine (Br2) is a reddish-brown liquid at room temperature and is—apart from mercury —the only element that is liquid at 20 °C (68 °F) and atmospheric pressure. Iodine (I2) forms dark violet crystals under these conditions. In the solid state the halogen elements form molecular lattices, and the sublimation energies rise with increasing size of the molecules.", "Fluorine (chemical symbol F; atomic number 9) is a halogen. The halogens are non-metallic elements that are highly reactive (bonding easily with other elements) because they are missing an electron in their atoms' outer shells (they have seven). Fluorine forms compounds with nearly all the other elements. Fluorine does not occur naturally in elemental form, but can be extracted from minerals, such as fluorite. The elements in the halogen group may be gases, solids or liquids at room temperature: fluorine is a pale yellow gas.", "Under standard conditions, the halogens exist in all three main phases of matter : Iodine and astatine are solids; bromine is a liquid; and fluorine and chlorine are gases. The only other element to be a liquid at room temperature is mercury.", "This section describes the chemistry of halogens with the main group elements such as the alkali metals , alkaline earth metals , and Groups 13 and 14 . The word halogen itself means \"salt former\" in Greek. Halogens such as chlorine, bromine and iodine have properties that enable them to react with other elements to form important salts such as sodium chloride, also known as table salt.", "5. In the periodic table what name is given to the group of elements named fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine ?", "atomic number 35 , Br , bromine - a nonmetallic heavy volatile corrosive dark brown liquid element belonging to the halogens; found in sea water", "790 The Halogens: Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and Astatine Ch. 17 Table 17.1 Early history of the halogens and their compounds -100 -900 - 1200 1529 - 1630 1648 1670 1678 1768 1771 1772 1774 1785 1787 1798 1801 1802 1810 1811 1811 1812 1814 1814 1819 1823 1825 1826 1835 - 1840 1840 1841 1851 1857 1858 1863 1886 1892-5 3000 BC -400 BC -200 -21 AD Archaeological evidence for the use of rock-salt Written records on salt (ascribed to Herodot) Use of salt as part payment for services (salary) Strabo described dyeworks for obtaining tyrian purple (dibromoindigo) in his Geogruphicu Use of salt to purify noble metals Dilute hvdrochloric acid DreDared bv Arabian alchemist Rhazes DeveloGment of aqua re& ‘(HCl/HNOs) to dissove gold - presumably Clz was also formed Georgius Agricola described use of fluorspar as a flux Chlorine recognized as a gas by Belgian physician J. B. van Helmont (see Scheele, 1774) Concentrated HCl prepared by J.L. Glauber (by heating hydrated ZnClp and sand) H. Schwanhard (Nurnberg) found that CaFz + strong acid gave acid vapours (HF) that etched glass (used J. S. Elsholtz described emission of bluish-white light when fluorspar was heated. Also described by First chemical study of fluorite undertaken by A. S. Marggraf Crude hydrofluoric acid prepared by C. W. Scheele Gaseous HCI prepared over mercury by J. Priestley C. W. Scheele prepared and studied gaseous chlorine (MnOZ", "Chlorine (from the Greek word '????o?' (khloros, meaning 'pale green')) is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb).", "Fluorine replaces any other halide ion from its compounds, as shown in the following equations. Chlorine, however, replaces only bromide, iodide, and astatide ions, and bromine only iodide and astatide ions. Free fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are expected to replace astatide ions.", "Fluorine's name comes from the Latin word fluere, meaning \"to flow\". Chlorine's name comes from the Greek word chloros, meaning \"greenish-yellow\". Bromine's name comes from the Greek word bromos, meaning \"stench\". Iodine's name comes from the Greek word iodes, meaning \"violet\". Astatine's name comes from the Greek word astatos, meaning \"unstable\".", "If you explore the graphs, you will find that fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature, bromine is a liquid and iodine a solid. Nothing very surprising there!", "The halogens are a group of elements in the periodic table. They are located to the right of the other nonmetals and to the left of the noble gases. Elements in the halogen group have seven electrons in their outer shells giving them many unique properties.", "As the atomic mass (and the size of the atom) of the Group 7 elements (halogens) increases the:", "As noted, the halogens form Group 7 of the periodic table of elements. They are listed below, along with chemical symbol and atomic number:", "Since a mass spectrometer separates and detects ions of slightly different masses, it easily distinguishes different isotopes of a given element. This is manifested most dramatically for compounds containing bromine and chlorine, as illustrated by the following examples. Since molecules of bromine have only two atoms, the spectrum on the left will come as a surprise if a single atomic mass of 80 amu is assumed for Br. The five peaks in this spectrum demonstrate clearly that natural bromine consists of a nearly 50:50 mixture of isotopes having atomic masses of 79 and 81 amu respectively. Thus, the bromine molecule may be composed of two 79Br atoms (mass 158 amu), two 81Br atoms (mass 162 amu) or the more probable combination of 79Br-81Br (mass 160 amu). Fragmentation of Br2 to a bromine cations then gives rise to equal sized ion peaks at 79 and 81 amu.", "Halogens. The halogen elements are a subset of the nonmetals. They comprise group 17 of the periodic table, from F through At. They generally very chemically reactive and are present in the environment as compounds rather than as pure elements." ]

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[ "A significant number of anti-infectives are based on natural products. The first antibiotic to be discovered, penicillin, was isolated from the mold Penicillium. Penicillin and related beta lactams work by inhibiting DD-transpeptidase enzyme that is required by bacteria to cross link peptidoglycan to form the cell wall. ", "Antibiotics, also known as antimicrobial drugs, are drugs that fight infections caused by bacteria. Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1927. After the first use of antibiotics in the 1940s, they transformed medical care and dramatically reduced illness and death from infectious diseases.", "The first antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes.", "Antibiotics: (first demonstration of antibiotic effect) Louis Pasteur, Jules-François Joubert, France, 1887; (discovery of penicillin, first modern antibiotic) Alexander Fleming, England, 1928; (penicillin’s infection-fighting properties) Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, England, 1940.", "Sir Alexander Fleming a Scottish Biologist is attributed as having discovered the first antibiotic and it was penicillin.  It was derived from the mold Penicillium chrysogenum which could be found on food and even waste.  His discovery happened in 1928.", "Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the common cold or influenza, and their inappropriate use allows the emergence of resistant organisms. In 1928, Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, the first chemical compound with antibiotic properties. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a little green mold (Penicillium chrysogenum), in one of his culture plates. He observed that the presence of the mold killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria.", "1928 Alexander Fleming , Scottish bacteriologist who discovered the first antibiotic drug, penicillin, in 1928. In 1922 he had discovered lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme present in saliva, nasal secretions, and tears. While studying this, he found an unusual mould growing on a neglected culture dish, which he isolated and grew into a pure culture; this led to his discovery of penicillin.", "Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases, no effective antibacterial treatments were available. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic, by changing dyes that selectively stained Treponema pallidum — the spirochaete that causes syphilis — into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen. Ehrlich had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on immunology, and pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria, with his work being the basis of the Gram stain and the Ziehl–Neelsen stain. ", "Penicillin The world's first antibiotic; it was discovered in 1929 Fleming discovered penicillin in a culture of staphylococcus bacteria", "People have used antibiotic substances such as moulds to treat skin infections for thousands of years. However, the first modern antibiotic drug named penicillin was first identified in1928 by a British scientist Sir Alexander Flemming (1881-1955). However the took some time to isolate penicillin and produce drug from it. This was first achieved in 1941.", "It was first isolated on October 19, 1943 by Albert Schatz, a graduate student, in the laboratory of Selman Abraham Waksman at Rutgers University. Waksman and his laboratory discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin, clavacin, streptothricin, streptomycin, grisein, neomycin, fradicin, candicidin and candidin. Of these, streptomycin and neomycin found extensive application in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases. Streptomycin was the first antibiotic that could be used to cure the disease tuberculosis; early production of the drug was dominated by Merck & Co. under George W. Merck. The first randomized controlled trial to be completed and, therefore, the first to be published, it was run by England's Medical Research Council and pitted streptomycin and bed rest against bed rest alone, which was then the standard TB therapy. It accrued its first patients in January 1947.", "==History== Streptomycin was first isolated on October 19, 1943, by Albert Schatz, a graduate student, in the laboratory of Selman Abraham Waksman at Rutgers University in a research project funded by Merck and Co. Waksman and his laboratory staff discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin, clavacin, streptothricin, streptomycin, grisein, neomycin, fradicin, candicidin, and candidin. Of these, streptomycin and neomycin found extensive application in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases. Streptomycin was the first antibiotic cure for tuberculosis (TB). In 1952 Waksman was the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition \"for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic active against tuberculosis\". Waksman was later accused of playing down the role of Schatz who did the work under his supervision.", "In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war.", "Antibiotics first arrived on the medical scene in 1932 thanks to Gerhard Domagk; and coined the \"wonder drugs\". The introduction of the sulfa drugs led to a decline in the U.S. mortality rate from pneumonia to drop from 0.2% each year to 0.05% by 1939. Antibiotics inhibit the growth or the metabolic activities of bacteria and other microorganisms by a chemical substance of microbial origin. Penicillin, introduced a few years later, provided a broader spectrum of activity compared to sulfa drugs and reduced side effects. Streptomycin, found in 1942, proved to be the first drug effective against the cause of tuberculosis and also came to be the best known of a long series of important antibiotics. A second generation of antibiotics was introduced in the 1940s: aureomycin and chloramphenicol. Aureomycin was the best known of the second generation.", "            1946-Thursday-  Dr Selman Abraham Waksman announced his discovery of the antibiotic streptomycin, the first specific antibiotic effective against tuberculosis. Waksman had been working on a treatment for TB since 1914.  In 1940, he and his team were able to isolate an effective anti-TB antibiotic, actinomycin.  However, this proved to be too toxic for use in humans or animals. Although being dead was a sure cure for the disease, the patient feedback tended to be negative.  Waksman’s team first isolated streptomycin on October 19, 1943 in some soil from the Andes in", "1943 - Streptomycin, the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis, is isolated by researchers at Rutgers University.", "In 1928, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming made a chance discovery from an already discarded, contaminated Petri dish. The mold that had contaminated the experiment turned out to contain a powerful antibiotic, penicillin. However, though Fleming was credited with the discovery, it was over a decade before someone else turned penicillin into the miracle drug that has helped save millions of lives.", "Green fluorescence in Nubian skeletons indicated tetracycline-labeled bone, the first clue that the ancients were producing the antibiotic. A chemical analysis of the bones of ancient Nubians shows that they were regularly consuming tetracycline, most likely in their beer. The finding is the strongest evidence yet that the art of making antibiotics, which officially dates to the discovery of penicillin in 1928, was common practice nearly 2,000 years ago.", "Waksman and his students, in their laboratory at Rutgers University, established the first screening protocols to detect antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms. This deliberate search for chemotherapeutic agents contrasts with the discovery of penicillin, which came through a chance observation by Alexander Fleming, who noted that a mold contaminant on a Petri dish culture had inhibited the growth of a bacterial pathogen. During the 1940s, Waksman and his students isolated more than fifteen antibiotics, the most famous of which was streptomycin, the first effective treatment for tuberculosis.", "The German bacteriologist Gerhard Domagk in 1932 found the first effective drug against infections caused by bacteria, which was called prontosil. He tested it on his daughter to save her life and received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939 for this magnificent breakthrough.", "Alexander Fleming is popular for his discovery of the antibiotic Penicillin from the fungus Penicillium rubens (the particular fungus is also thought to be P. notatum or P. chrysogenum) in the year 1928. He also discovered lysozymes in 1922.", "Cites Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1928. Observation of specks of mold that killed staphylococcus bacteria; Antibiotics produced by soil fungi.", "A dramatic episode in medical history occurred in 1928, when Alexander Fleming noticed the inhibitory action of a stray mold on a plate culture of staphylococcus bacteria in his laboratory at St. Mary’s Hospital, London. Many other bacteriologists must have made the observation, but none had realized the possible implications. The mold was a strain of Penicillium—P. notatum—which gave its name to the now-famous drug penicillin. In spite of his conviction that penicillin was a potent antibacterial agent, Fleming was unable to carry his work to fruition, mainly because biochemists at the time were unable to isolate it in sufficient quantities or in a sufficiently pure form to allow its use on patients.", "His research did not stop here, he continued until finally in 1944, he was able to discover the existence of streptomycin. This along with more than 20 new substances (that includes neomycin) were isolated. It was Waksman that coined the term \"antibiotics\" along the path of his research for inhibitors of natural growth.", "The discovery of penicillin and sulfonamide set off a wealth of investigations, not only to see what diseases these magic bullets cured, but to look for new magic bullets. However, neither wonder drug was effective against M. tuberculosis. Since 1914, Selman Waksman had been screening bacteria and fungi for antibiotic compounds. In 1939, he discovered that Actinomycetes fungi had a markedly inhibitory effect on bacterial growth. Actinomycin was isolated in 1940 and was effective against TB in vitro, but it proved to be too toxic for use in humans or animals.", "On his return to Waksman's lab in 1943, Schatz offered to take on the search for an antibiotic effective against tubercle bacillus (the bacterium that causes TB) and Gram-negative bacteria responsible for other penicillin-resistant diseases. Within three and a half months he had identified two related strains of bacteria in the phylum Actinomycetes which stopped the growth of tubercle bacillus and several Gram-negative bacteria. One strain came from a mouth swab from a healthy duck, the other from soil outside his lab. He named the antibiotic derived from these bacteria \"streptomycin.\"", "He is credited with the first empirical observation of the blood-brain barrier and the development of the first antibiotic drug in modern medicine.", "a group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium fungi, allowed for the treatment of bacterial infections, Alexander Fleming, led to the development of microbial sciences", "The discovery of Teixobactin could pave the way for a new generation of antibiotics because of the way it was discovered.", "Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single-lens microscope of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London. Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek's most remarkable microscopic discovery. They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and, in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science, no one else would see them again for over a century. Only then were his by-then-largely-forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous \"animalcules\" (spermatozoa) — taken seriously.", "Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, \"if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics\".", "helped us discover that certain bacteria cause certain diseases, which was the first step to discovering treat ability." ]

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[ "The boiling point of water is 373.15 degrees Kelvin (K). Using the Fahrenheit scale, water’s boiling point is 212 degrees. This is also equivalent to 100 degrees Celsius.", "Answer: The boiling point of water is 100°C or 212° F at 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level).", "However, the value is not a constant. The boiling point of water depends on the atmospheric pressure, which changes according to elevation. The boiling point of water is 100°C or 212° F at 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level), but water boils at a lower temperature as you gain altitude (e.g., on a mountain) and boils at a higher temperature if you increase atmospheric pressure (lived below sea level ).", "If the atmospheric pressure is exactly 1 atm, the boiling point of water is 100.0 degrees Celsius. This is because the vapor pressure of water is 1 atm at this temperature. If you increase the pressure, the boiling point will increase because more energy will be needed to raise the vapor pressure to the increased atmospheric pressure. Likewise, if you decrease the pressure, the boiling point will decrease.", "Clean fresh water boils at about 100 C at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. This is why cooking at high elevations requires adjustments to recipes. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.", "We are all familiar with the solid-liquid-gas behavior of water. We know that at sea level , water freezes at 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) and boils at 212 degrees F (100 degrees C). Water behaves differently as you change the pressure, however. As you lower the pressure, the boiling point falls. If you lower the pressure enough, water will boil at room temperature. If you plot out the solid-liquid-gas behavior of a substance like water on a graph showing both temperature and pressure, you create what's called a phase diagram for the substance. The phase diagram shows the temperatures and pressures at which a substance changes between solid, liquid and gas.", "The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid is converted to a gas, which is also when the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure. Basically at the boiling point all of the molecules, not just the surface molecules, have enough energy to vaporize. We've all seen a pot of water boil. \"Air bubbles\" seem to magically appear at the bottom of the pot and rise to the surface. These bubbles are actually gas molecules of water that vaporized at the bottom and escaped by rising to the surface. Can you believe someone has made a video on how to boil water ?", "While the typical treatment of temperature scales takes the freezing point of water to be 0C and the boiling point at standard pressure to be 100C, there are more precise treatments of standard points for defining temperatures. By international agreement, one standard point is the triple point of water which has been defined to be 273.16K. The freezing point of water at atmospheric pressure is .01K below this at 273.15K.", "Fahrenheit�s theoretical ultimate temperature was the boiling point of mercury, calculated at 600 degrees. It was work by others that showed that on Fahrenheit�s scale, the boiling point of water is about 179 degrees above its freezing point and this was standardised to 180 degrees, which is a nicely rounded (composite) number that is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10.", "High Altitude:  Water boils at less than 212 degrees F. (approximately 96 degrees F.).  Each 500 foot increase in altitude causes a drop of about 1 degree in the boiling point.", "The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar.", "The boiling point of water also depends on the purity of the water. Water which contains impurities (such as salted water ) boils at a higher temperature than pure water. This phenomenon is called boiling point elevation , which is one of the colligative properties of matter.", "Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. According to Josh Willis, of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the oceans can absorb one thousand times more heat than the atmosphere without changing their temperature much and are absorbing 80 to 90% of the heat global warming. ", "Water also expands significantly as the temperature increases. Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C.", "In Denver (1700 m above sea level), the boiling point of water is around 95 degrees Celsius", "As warned in some recipes, cooking times are longer at higher elevations, due to a shift in water’s boiling point. This is due to the effect of atmospheric pressure. At a lower pressure (higher altitude), water will boil at a lower temperature. On the other side of the scale, at higher pressures (such as in a pressure cooker), water will boil at a higher temperature 34. Atmospheric pressure does not affect the temperature of the water itself, but only its ability to become vapor, thus shifting the boiling to the left or right.", "At what temperature does water boil? What determines the boiling point of water? Here's the answer to this common question.", "The standard fixed point of the absolute temperature scale is known as the triple point of water. The significance of this point can be seen in Figure 13, which shows some of the conditions of temperature and pressure under which a fixed quantity of water will exist as a solid (ice), a liquid or a gas (water vapour). Notice that the graph shows low pressures, around 1% of normal atmospheric pressure. As you can see, at these low pressures the temperature at which water boils (i.e. the temperature on the line that separates liquid from vapour) is remarkably low; it’s about 15 °C at 1500 Pa and declines rapidly with falling pressure. But you can also see that the melting temperature, at which water makes the transition from solid (ice) to liquid, increases slightly as the pressure falls. As a consequence, the two lines meet at a temperature of 0.01 °C when the pressure is 600 Pa. Under these unique conditions water vapour, liquid water and solid ice can all coexist in equilibrium.", "The boiling point of water, or any liquid, varies according to the surrounding atmospheric pressure. A liquid boils, or begins turning to vapor, when its internal vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. For instance, when you heat your tea kettle on a stovetop, you’re creating more water vapor; when the water’s vapor pressure rises enough to exceed the surrounding air pressure, bubbles start to form and the water boils.", "If the liquid is in an open container and exposed to normal atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils when its saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to 1 atmosphere (or 101325 Pa or 101.325 kPa or 760 mmHg). This happens with water when the temperature reaches 100°C.", "Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid and occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, or the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid by the surrounding atmospheric gas (air).", "At high pressures the boiling point of water can be many degrees higher than the sea level", "By [http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/2-1-1/kelvin.html international agreement], the unit kelvin and its scale are defined by two points: absolute zero, and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (water with a specified blend of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes). Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The triple point of water is defined as being precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 °C. This definition does three things:", "One example of this is the boiling point of water. At higher elevations where the air pressure is lower, water will boil at a lower temperature.", "The following graph shows the boiling point for water as a function of the external pressure. The line on the graph shows the normal boiling point for water.", "In this table, the melting and boiling points for water are particular high for its small molecular mass. This is usually attributed to the formation of hydrogen bonds. The small electronegative atoms F, O and N are somewhat negatively charged when they are bonded to hydrogen atoms. The negative charges on F, O and N attract the slightly positive hydrogen atoms, forming a strong interaction called hydrogen bond.", "Boiling Point The temperature at which a substance boils, or changes from a liquid to avapour or gas, through the formation and rise to the surface of bubbles of vapour withinthe liquid. In a stricter sense, the boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which itsvapour pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure. Decreasing (or increasing)the pressure of the surrounding gases thus lowers (or raises) the boiling point of a liquid.The quantity of heat necessary to change 1 g of any substance from liquid to gas at itsboiling point is known as its latent heat of vaporization.", "The International System of Units (SI) defines a scale and unit for the kelvin or thermodynamic temperature by using the reliably reproducible temperature of the triple point of water as a second reference point (the first reference point being 0 K at absolute zero). The triple point is a singular state with its own unique and invariant temperature and pressure, along with, for a fixed mass of water in a vessel of fixed volume, an autonomically and stably self-determining partition into three mutually contacting phases, vapour, liquid, and solid, dynamically depending only on the total internal energy of the mass of water. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment.", "Q & A: Boiling and Freezing points of pure and salty water | Department of Physics | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign", "Boiling is a phase transition from the liquid phase to the gas phase that occurs at or above the boiling temperature.", "reaches its boiling point the most energetic molecules within the water are the first to undergo a", "But we can also raise the boiling point by dissolving something in the water that does not itself boil (it is non-volatile).  This works by diluting the water, so that fewer water molecules are at the surface, and thus fewer can escape.  This effect is called reducing the vapor pressure of the water." ]

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[ "Ascorbic acid is vitamin C . It is sold as vitamin C tablets in the pharmacy.", "Ascorbic acid is the chemical name for vitamin C, as found in many fruits and vegetables. ", "Ascorbic acid is a vitamin. It works by supplementing vitamin C, which is used in many functions in the body.", "The common name for ascorbic acid is vitamin C, yet ascorbic acid refers to a specific chemical structure. Ascorbic acid is actually a type of sugar, and when looked at on its own it has a white or light yellow appearance. Ascorbic acid crystals dissolve easily in water.", "Ascorbic acid is known for its antioxidant properties. It is a molecular bond of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most people are familiar with L-ascorbic acid, more commonly referred to as vitamin C.", "Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, which is needed by the body to form collagen in bones, cartilage, muscle, and blood vessels. Dietary sources of vitamin C include fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits such as oranges.", "A. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin. Unlike most mammals, humans do not have the ability to make their own vitamin C. Therefore, we must obtain vitamin C through our diet.", "Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid, or simply ascorbate (the anion of ascorbic acid), is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. Vitamin C describes several vitamers that have vitamin C activity in animals, including ascorbic acid and its salts, and some oxidized forms of the molecule like dehydroascorbic acid. Ascorbate and ascorbic acid are both naturally present in the body when either of these is introduced into cells, since the forms interconvert according to pH.", "Ascorbic and/or citric acid may be fractionates of the full-array vitamin C complex, according to some people. If you're taking them, you should add other of their companion products to try to balance the ascorbate and citrate. These companion products are the bioflavonoids that are made by plants and that some people say are part of what constitutes \"Vitamin C\", while others say they are \"Vitamin P\" and not necessary to get the full value of ascorbic acid vitamin C. I recommend taking minerals, ascorbic acid and plant  bioflavonoids together. Ascorbic acid makes the minerals more usable, the minerals prevent the ascorbic acid from depleting the body's mineral supply and the plant bioflavonoids are good for you whether they are part of the vitamin C complex or not.", "Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is an extremely essential nutrient for human beings and many different animals. It acts as an antioxidant and protects the body against oxidative stress. Vitamin C is likewise a co-factor in at least 8 enzymatic reactions consisting of various collagen synthesis reactions which cause the most severe signs of scurvy when they are not working properly. In animals, these enzyme reactions are really important in preventing bleeding from capillaries and wound-healing.", "Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is a very vital nutrient for human beings and many different animals. It acts as an antioxidant and protects the body against oxidative stress. Vitamin C is also a co-factor in at least 8 enzymatic reactions consisting of various collagen synthesis reactions which cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are not working correctly. In animals, these enzyme reactions are very important in preventing bleeding from capillaries and wound-healing.", "Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is available in many forms, but there is little scientific evidence that any one form is better absorbed or more effective than another. Most experimental and clinical research uses ascorbic acid or its sodium salt, called sodium ascorbate. Natural and synthetic L-ascorbic acid are chemically identical and there are no known differences in their biological activities or bioavailabilities (132) .", "Ascorbyl palmitate is a vitamin C ester (i.e., ascorbic acid linked to a fatty acid ). In this case, vitamin C is esterified to the saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, resulting in a fat-soluble form of vitamin C. Ascorbyl palmitate has been added to a number of skin creams due to interest in its antioxidant properties, as well as its importance in collagen synthesis (137) (see the separate article, Vitamin C and Skin Health ). Although ascorbyl palmitate is also available as an oral supplement, it is likely that most of it is hydrolyzed (broken apart) to ascorbic acid and palmitic acid in the digestive tract before it is absorbed (138) . Ascorbyl palmitate is also marketed as \"vitamin C ester,\" which should not be confused with Ester-C®.", "Because of ascorbic acidâs role in immunity, its antioxidant effect, the adrenal support it provides, and probably its ability to make tissues healthy through its formation and maintenance of collagen, vitamin C is used to treat a wide range of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections and inflammatory problems of all kinds. I have used vitamin C successfully in many viral conditions, including colds, flus, hepatitis, Herpes simplex infections, mononucleosis, measles, and shingles. Recently, vitamin C has been shown in some studies to enhance the production and activity of interferon, an antiviral substance produced by our bodies. To affect these conditions, the vitamin C dosage is usually fairly high, at least 5â10 grams per day, but it is possible that much smaller doses are as effective. Vitamin C is also used to treat problems due to general inflammation from microorganisms, irritants, and/or decreased resistance; these problems may include cystitis, bronchitis, prostatitis, bursitis, arthritis (both osteo- and rheumatoid), and some chronic skin problems (dermatitis). With arthritis, there is some suggestion that increased ascorbic acid may improve the integrity of membranes in joints. In gouty arthritis, vitamin C improves the elimination of uric acid (the irritant) through the kidneys. Ascorbic acid has also been helpful for relief of back pain and pain from inflamed vertebral discs, as well as the inflammatory pain that is sometimes associated with rigorous exercise. In asthma, vitamin C may relieve the bronchospasm caused by noxious stimuli or when this tight-chest feeling is experienced during exercise.", "Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement. [38] It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple anti-oxidant formulations, as chemically pure crystalline powder, time release versions, and also including bioflavonoids such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). In supplements, Vitamin C most often comes in the form of various mineral ascorbates , as they are easier to absorb, more easily tolerated and provide a source of several dietary minerals .", "Ascorbyl palmitate is a fat-soluble form of vitamin C and possesses all of the attributes of ascorbic acid. It is more easily absorbed by the body and can be stored in the membranes of the cells until needed. It is also a powerful antioxidant, the same as vitamin C, and is frequently used to prevent the oxidation of vegetables oils, such as on potato chips and other oily snacks. It also takes part in the biochemistry of the production of collagen and connective tissues.", "Foods highest in vitamin C include citrus fruits, potatoes, peppers, green leafy vegetables, tomatoes, and berries. Vitamin C is also available as a supplement in a wide range of forms such as pills, tablets, powders, wafers, and syrups. Generally doses range from 500 milligrams to 5000 milligrams depending upon the delivery system. Vitamin C activity is enhanced when taken with natural bioflavanoids such as hesperidn and rutin. Ascorbic acid works synergistically with vitamin E, meaning that both nutrients work more effectively together to extend their antioxidant effects. Ascorbyl palmitate is a fat soluble form of vitamin C that is available only in supplement form. It is a very powerful antioxidant that works to protect fats from peroxidation, and it can be stored in the body in small amounts. Ascorbyl palmitate works best when taken in combination with ascorbic acid.", "The active form of vitamin C is ascorbic acid itself. The main function of ascorbate is as a reducing agent in a number of different reactions. Ascorbate is the cofactor for Cu+–dependent monooxygenases and Fe2+–dependent dioxygenases. Several critical enzymes that require ascorbate as a cofactor include the collagen processing enzymes, the lysyl hydroxylases and the prolyl hydroxylases as well as the catecholamine synthesis enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase. Dietary ascorbate is also involved in non-heme iron absorption in the small intestine and in the overall regulation of iron homeostasis. In addition to its role in the regulation of the redox state of iron, ascorbate has the potential to reduce cytochromes a and c of the respiratory chain as well as molecular oxygen.", "\"Buffered\" vitamin C is also available if you find that regular ascorbic acid upsets your stomach. An esterified form of vitamin C is also available, which may be easier on the stomach for those who are prone to heartburn.", "In contrast to these dietary assessment studies, a strong inverse association between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality from all-causes, CVD, and ischemic heart disease (and cancer in men only) was observed in the EPIC-Norfolk multicenter, prospective cohort study (91) . After approximately four years of follow-up in 19,496 men and women (aged 45-79 years), a continuous relationship was observed such that each 20 μmol/L increase in plasma ascorbic acid was associated with an ~20% risk reduction in all-cause mortality. Similarly, higher serum vitamin C levels were associated with decreased risks of cancer- and all-cause mortality in 16,008 adults from NHANES III (1994-1998) (92) .", "Ascorbic acid is one of the most important vitamins required by the body for the maintenance of good health and vitality. It is needed for the growth and repair of worn-out and damaged tissues all over the body. It heals internal and external wounds and forms scar tissue by producing an essential protein which is used to make ligaments, blood vessels, tendons and skin. This vitamin also plays an important role in the repair and maintenance of bones, teeth and cartilages.", "Vitamin C is a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that, when dysfunctional, cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy. In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries. Ascorbate also acts as an antioxidant, protecting against oxidative stress. ", "A water-soluble vitamin essential for the formation of connective tissue. It also aids in fighting bacterial infections. Also known as ascorbic acid.", "Ascorbate (the anion of ascorbic acid) is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms; the main exceptions are most bats, all guinea pigs, capybaras, and the Haplorrhini (one of the two major primate suborders, consisting of tarsiers, monkeys, and humans and other apes). Ascorbate is also not synthesized by many species of birds and fish. All species that do not synthesize ascorbate require it in the diet. Deficiency in this vitamin causes the disease scurvy in humans. ", "Ascorbic acid is mostly derived from fruits and vegetables. Almost every known edible fruit and vegetable contains at least a small amount of ascorbic acid. Some of these fruits contain comparatively high amounts of the vitamin and they include citrus fruits such as orange and lemon, pineapple, mango, watermelon, strawberries. Vegetable sources of ascorbic acid are, among others, red and green peppers, tomatoes and tomato juice, cabbage, leafy greens and spinach.", "Mineral salts of ascorbic acid are buffered and, therefore, less acidic than ascorbic acid. Some people find them less irritating to the gastrointestinal tract than ascorbic acid. Sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate are the most common forms, although a number of other mineral ascorbates are available. Sodium ascorbate provides 111 mg of sodium (889 mg of ascorbic acid) per 1,000 mg of sodium ascorbate, and calcium ascorbate generally provides 90-110 mg of calcium (890-910 mg of ascorbic acid) per 1,000 mg of calcium ascorbate.", "Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The Redoxon brand, launched in 1934 by Hoffmann-La Roche , was the first mass-produce synthetic vitamin C.", "Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The Redoxon brand, launched in 1934 by Hoffmann-La Roche , was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin C.", "Being an antioxidant, ascorbic acid helps to prevent some of the damage done by free radicals that are created when the body is exposed to radiation, digests food, or inhales tobacco smoke. The build-up of radicals is known to cause cancer, arthritis, and heart disease, as well as accelerate the aging process.", "Simon JA, Murtaugh MA, Gross MD, Loria CM, Hulley SB, Jacobs DR Jr. Relation of ascorbic acid to coronary artery calcium: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(6):581-8.", "Ascorbic acid comes in extended-release (long-acting) capsules and tablets, lozenges, syrup, chewable tablets, and liquid drops to be given by mouth. It usually is taken once a day. Follow the directions on the package or on your prescription label carefully, and ask your doctor or pharmacist to explain any part you do not understand. Take ascorbic acid exactly as directed. Do not take more or less of it or take it more often than prescribed by your doctor.", "Any acid will deplete the body of minerals. If you take ascorbic acid, always take a good source of minerals along with it. If you read anywhere that ascorbic acid is bad for you for some reason (such as it causes copper deficiency or erodes tooth enamel), you can ignore such warning that are about loss of minerals as long as you take a good, natural supply of minerals with the ascorbic acid. It does not have to be the specific mineral that ascorbic acid is blamed for depleting -- any natural source of mixed minerals will bond with the acid and keep it from depleting other scarce minerals. Good sources of minerals are garden fertilizers, dirt, clay and sea salt." ]

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[ "computer hardware , hardware - (computer science) the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical components making up a computer system", "Computers. the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical devices comprising a computer system, as the CPU, disk drives, keyboard, or screen.", "SEE OUR SUPERSTORE webpages FOR: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS / ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS: Integrated Circuits (ICs), Transistors, Diodes, Rectifiers, LEDs, Capacitors, Resistors, Potentiometers (Pots), Varistors, Inductors, Coils, Transformers, Speakers, Relays, Switches, Actuators, Fuses, Circuit Breakers, Crystals, Oscillators, Connectors, Headers, Sockets, Pins, Wires, Cables, Displays, Photo, Video, Laser, Power, other Electronic Parts / Electronic Components. EQUIPMENT: Electronic Test Equipment, Electrical Equipment, Computers, Peripherals, Electric Tools, Hand Tools, Tool Chests, Vehicles (Cars, Trucks, Bikes). MORE TECH STUFF: Scientific/Industrial Valves, Fittings, Personal Security, Survival (Survivalists / Preppers), Radionics, Crafts, Hobbies, Strange & Unusual, Religious & Spiritual, Collectibles - Hardware, Devices, Parts, Special Materials, Books, Manuals, Software", "The system unit, sometimes called the chassis, is a box-like case housing the electronic components of a computer that are used to process data. System unit components include the processor, memory module, cards, ports, and connectors. Many of the system unit�s components reside on a circuit board called the motherboard. The motherboard contains many different types of chips, or small pieces of semiconducting material, on which one or more integrated circuits (IC) are etched. An integrated circuit is a microscopic pathway capable of carrying electronic current. Each IC can contain millions of transistors, which act as switches for electronic signals.", "A computer, its components, and its related equipment. Hardware includes disk drives, integrated circuits, display screens, cables, modems, speakers, and printers. Compare software .", "Motherboard - Also known as the Logic Board. The main circuit board of a computer which has all the components to make everything in the computer work together, such as the monitor, keyboard, mouse, DVD drive, etc.", "The main PC chassis contains the central component for all PCs, the Main Logic Board (MLB). This is sometimes referred to as the system board or motherboard.", "Electronics - Other computer components - Stereos - Misc. electronics Appliances - microwaves - blenders - toasters - vacuum cleaners - etc", "The main circuit board in the computer that houses the chips that control the processing functions. Chips may be soldered on the motherboard or plugged into the board. Chips, or cards, that are plugged into the motherboard may be upgraded. These include the microprocessor chip (CPU), as well as chips for memory (RAM) or that handle basic input and output (ROM). Circuits are etched into the motherboard and act like wires, providing a path so the computer can transport data from one chip to another as needed for processing.", "The main chassis or case is the box containing most PC components. Components may be connected to the main chassis using USB connections. The main chassis would then contain the PC's core components, and the ancillary subsystems would occupy desktop space.", "In the context of engineering and hardware design, the term architecture is used to describe the nature, configuration, and interconnection of the major logic organs of a computer (and is thus closer to the general meaning of the word). These devices would normally include the memory and its components, the control unit and the hardware components designed to implement the control strategy, the structure, range, and capability of the ALU, and the interconnection of the input/output – such as whether star or bus connected – and the nature and capabilities of any channel controllers. A detailed block diagram or schematic of the actual (as distinct from the virtual) machine would normally form part of, or even be central to, such a description.", "Printed Circuit Board (PCB): A thin ceramic plate on which electronic components are fixed by solder and connected via metal strips. PCs contain several PCBs, of which the most important is the Motherboard .", "An electronic pathway or circuit that connects the electronic components (mainly the processor and RAM) on a computer�s motherboard.", "One or more integrated circuits (i.e. chips) that contain (semi-) permanent instructions that the computer uses during the boot process.", "For more detailed descriptions of computer Hardware (including images) see Module 1.2 , Introduction to computer hardware and software.", "f) ______(3M) 3 points_A _______________ is the central or primary circuit board making up a complex electronic system, such as a modern computer. It is also known as a mainboard, baseboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, a logic board, and is sometimes abbreviated as mobo.", "As shown in FIGS. 1, 4, and 6, illustrated key 22 includes a keypad 124 and houses a CPU 126, RAM and ROM memories 128, 130, a primary battery 132, a calendar/clock circuit 134, a piezoelectric transducer 136 with associated modulator 138, and a communications interface 140. The illustrated communications interface employs two electrical contacts 142, exposed on top of the key, but other coupling arrangements (e.g. more than two contacts, inductive coupling, optoelectronic coupling, etc.) can alternatively be used. In other embodiments, key 22 can include a small alphanumeric display (e.g., LCD) and/or one or more indicator lights (e.g., LEDs).", "1.1 The quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer, which may be stored and transmitted in the form of electrical signals and recorded on magnetic, optical, or mechanical recording media.", "Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.", "Larger components such as power transformer, speaker, and antenna are mounted either on the PCB or cabinet with screws or metal spring tabs.", "The particular hardware elements and their interaction in a computer system for a particular period of operation.", "So that’s not limited to Central Processing Units (CPU) but can include any other transistorized device in the computer.", "Computer system 400 may implement the techniques described herein using customized hard-wired logic, one or more ASICs or FPGAs, firmware and/or program logic which in combination with the computer system causes or programs computer system 400 to be a special-purpose machine. According to one embodiment, the techniques herein are performed by computer system 400 in response to processor 404 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory 406. Such instructions may be read into main memory 406 from another storage medium, such as storage device 410. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory 406 causes processor 404 to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions.", "Computers contain a variety of recyclable material, including plastic, metal, and glass. In fact, nearly 100% of a computer is capable of being recycled.", "An electrical device that is used to protect electronic equipment, especially computer systems, from surges or spikes in electrical current or voltage", "1. Any hardware resource used by a computer that is external to a computer's enclosure case that is accessed by serial or parallel connections, or bus architectures such as SCSI, MIDI or VME. 2. Any hardware computing resource that can be accessed by a user.", "or mechanically by machines (such as placing chips and components at correct places on a circuit board to go inside your TV)", "The PC would be continuously on, the on-off switch working lights to replect the glow of the valves. The tricky bit was going to be to add a board adapting the push channel selectors so that one cycled forward through different series directories and another back, as well as pause and rewind/fast forward.", "A term used to describe electrical equipment that is specially designed to intake electricity and route it to output wiring device or devices.", "SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS - Electronic (integrated) circuits which utilize semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and silicon controlled rectifiers.", "Specialized devices such as built-in capacitors with metal conductive areas in different layers of a multi-layer printed circuit board and kludges such as twisting together two pieces of insulated wire also exist.", "The exemplary chassis 214, as shown in FIGS. 8b, 9 b, and 10, is made from durable material such as molded plastic. The chassis 214 provides a mounting surface for the main circuit board 212 and forms the battery compartment 226, the back support for acceleration detectors ACCEL1-ACCEL4 224 a-d, the attachment surface for the cover 210, the attachment surface for the cushion ring 216, and the mounting compartments 230, 228 for photo diode PD5 223 and small circuit board L1BOARD 225." ]

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[ "Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 1920 Notting Hill , London – 16 April 1958 Chelsea, London ) was an English biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer who made important contributions to the understanding of the fine molecular structures of DNA , viruses , coal and graphite . Franklin is still best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA . Her data, according to Francis Crick , were “the data we actually used” [1] to formulate Crick and Watson 's 1953 hypothesis regarding the structure of DNA . [2] However, when her work was published third, in the series of three DNA Nature articles, it appeared to only represent evidence in support of their hypothesis. [3] The possibility of Franklin having played a major role was not revealed until Watson wrote his personal account, The Double Helix , [4] which subsequently inspired several people to investigate DNA history and Franklin’s contribution. The first, Robert Olby ’s \"The Path to the Double Helix,\" supplied information about original source materials for those that followed. [5] After finishing her portion of the DNA work, Franklin led pioneering work on the tobacco mosaic and polio viruses. She died aged 37 of complications arising from ovarian cancer .", "1912 Physicist Sir William Henry Bragg, and his son, Sir William Lawrence Bragg, discover that they can deduce the atomic structure of crystals from their X-ray diffraction patterns. This scientific tool will be key in helping Watson and Crick determine DNA's structure.", "An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and her student Raymond Gosling. The controversy arose from the fact that some of the data were shown to them, without her knowledge, by Maurice Wilkins and Max Perutz. Her experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals, and these results were most consistent with the three sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Franklin personally told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside, whilst vehemently stating that her data did not force one to conclude that DNA has a helical structure. Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the DNA strands were antiparallel, which helped Watson and Crick decide to look for DNA models with two antiparallel polynucleotide strands. The X-ray diffraction images collected by Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA—but she failed to recognise this fact. However Franklin's experimental work proved important in Crick and Watson's development of the correct model.", "New Zealand–born British biologist who helped James Watson and Francis Crick deduce the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), for which the three men received a 1962 Nobel Prize . Wilkins secretly showed Watson an x-ray diffraction photo of DNA taken by researcher Rosalind Franklin. Watson and Crick later used Franklin's extensive unpublished data to build a model of DNA.", "Late in 1951, Crick started working with James Watson at Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge , England. Using “ Photo 51 ” (the X-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King’s College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin’s colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. [31] For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Wilkins. [32] [33]", "DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, whose model-building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Rosalind Franklin. ", "Late in 1951, Crick started working with James Watson at Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, England. Using \"Photo 51\" (the X-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Maurice Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Maurice Wilkins. ", "At that time Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, both working at King's College, London, were using X-ray diffraction to study DNA. Crick and Watson used their findings in their own research. In April 1953, they published the news of their discovery, a molecular structure of DNA based on all its known features - the double helix. Their model served to explain how DNA replicates and how hereditary information is coded on it. This set the stage for the rapid advances in molecular biology that continue to this day.", "3. Crick, Francis Harry Compton (Northampton, England, June 8, 1916 - ). British biophysicist and crystallographer. Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with James Watson and Maurice Wilkins, for their determination of the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Francis Crick's research originally concentrated on X - ray diffraction studies of proteins under the direction of William Lawrence Bragg (Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915). With three other scientists, Maurice Wilkins and the late Dr. Rosalyn Franklin at King's College, London, together with James Watson, he was responsible in 1953 for the discovery of the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the biological structure which makes possible the transmission of inherited characteristics. In the course of two years of enthusiastic collaboration, he and Crick showed that it was possible to describe genes in molecular terms. These results were largely due to the research led by Avery before 1950, which showed that the genetic material of phages was DNA, as well as to the work of Todd, which established that DNA was made up of a chain of deoxyribose sugars held together by phosphate bonds and linked to organic bases.", "Biophysicist Maurice Wilkins was born in New Zealand, but studied and worked in the UK. He had an intuition that the arrangement of molecules in DNA fibres might form a regular pattern. Wilkins and physical chemist Rosalind Franklin were both examining DNA using X-ray diffraction. Their results contributed to James Watson and Francis Crick’s double helix model of the DNA molecule, which won Crick, Watson and Wilkins the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "Watson and Crick used stick-and-ball models to test their ideas on the possible structure of DNA. Other scientists used experimental methods instead. Among them were Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, who were using X-ray diffraction to understand the physical structure of the DNA molecule.", "The celebrated partnership that resulted in the determination of the physical structure of DNA began soon after a 23-year-old American named James D. Watson journeyed to Cambridge University, where Englishman Francis Crick was studying protein structure with a technique called X-ray crystallography . While visiting the laboratory of Maurice Wilkins at King's College in London, Watson saw an X-ray crystallographic photograph of DNA, produced by Wilkins's colleague Rosalind Franklin. The photograph clearly revealed the basic shape of DNA to be a helix (spiral). On the basis of Watson's later recollection of the photo, he and Crick deduced that the diameter of the helix was uniform. The thickness of the helix suggested that it was made up of two polynucleotide strands-in other words, a double helix.", "Watson soon moved to the Cavendish Laboratory, where several important X-ray crystallographic projects were in progress. Under the leadership of William Lawrence Bragg, Max Perutz was investigating hemoglobin and John Kendrew was studying myoglobin, a protein in muscle tissue that stores oxygen. (Perutz and Kendrew received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work in the same year that the prize was awarded to the DNA researchers—1962.) Working under Perutz was Francis Crick, who had earned a bachelor’s degree in physics from University College London and had helped develop radar and magnetic mines during World War II. Crick, another physicist in biology, was supposed to be writing a dissertation on the X-ray crystallography of hemoglobin when Watson arrived, eager to recruit a colleague for work on DNA. Inspired by Pauling’s success in working with molecular models, Watson and Crick rapidly put together several models of DNA and attempted to incorporate all the evidence they could gather. Franklin’s excellent X-ray photographs, to which they had gained access without her permission, were critical to the correct solution. The four scientists announced the structure of DNA in articles that appeared together in the same issue of Nature.", "At King’s College London, Rosalind Franklin obtained images of DNA using X-ray crystallography, an idea first broached by Maurice Wilkins. Franklin’s images allowed James Watson and Francis Crick to create their famous two-strand, or double-helix, model.", "At the end of World War II, Bragg helped organise the International Union of Crystallography and served as its first president in 1949. In 1948, Acta Crystallographica started publication, providing the X-ray crystallographers with a journal of their own, with which they could be sure of keeping abreast of new developments by finding all the most important work. The Braggs led the field of X-ray crystallography for several decades, encouraging a new generation of researchers, including John Desmond Bernal and William Astbury, both pioneers of molecular biology. In 1934, Bernal was the first crystallographer to obtain clear images of X-ray diffraction by a protein and became the founder of protein crystallography. Among his students were Nobel laureate Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin; Rosalind Franklin, who played a major part in the discovery of the structure of DNA by J. D. Watson and Francis Crick; Aaron Klug, who developed crystallographic electron complexes and got the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1982; and Max Perutz.", "In early 1953 Watson visited King's College and Wilkins showed him a high quality image of the B-form X-ray diffraction pattern, now identified as photograph 51, that Franklin had produced in March 1952. With the knowledge that Pauling was working on DNA and had submitted a model of DNA for publication, Watson and Crick mounted one more concentrated effort to deduce the structure of DNA. Through Max Perutz, his thesis supervisor, Crick gained access to a progress report from King's College that included useful information from Franklin about the features of DNA she had deduced from her X-ray diffraction data. Watson and Crick published their proposed DNA double helical structure in a paper in the journal Nature in April 1953. In this paper Watson and Crick acknowledged that they had been \"stimulated by.... the unpublished results and ideas\" of Wilkins and Franklin.", "In the spring of 1951, he met Maurice Wilkins at a conference in Naples. Wilkins was showing the results of the first attempts to use X-ray diffraction to photograph DNA molecules. Watson, excited by Wilkins’ results, moved to England in the fall. He went to work at Cavendish Laboratory where he began working with Francis Crick .", "Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were using a technique called X-ray diffraction to look for the geometry of DNA. In this method, scientists treated the DNA in a certain way so when they shined X-rays on it, they bounced off the sample and created patterns on photographic film. These patterns helped scientists infer the crystal's structures.", "Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. During the period of Crick's study of X-ray diffraction , researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the α helix ). Linus Pauling was the first to identify the 3.6 amino acids per helix turn ratio of the α helix. Crick was witness to the kinds of errors that his co-workers made in their failed attempts to make a correct molecular model of the α helix; these turned out to be important lessons that could be applied, in the future, to the helical structure of DNA. For example, he learned the importance of the structural rigidity that double bonds confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to peptide bonds in proteins and the structure of nucleotides in DNA.", "It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results from the progress report actually were for the model-building done by Watson and Crick. After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, William Astbury had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angström (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only eight references in Franklin's first paper on DNA. Analysis of Astbury's published DNA results and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angströms [2.7 nm] in the compact A form, 34 angströms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson. Crick did not see Franklin's B form X-ray images (Photo 51) until after the DNA double helix model was published.", "Crick and Watson then published their model in Nature on 25 April 1953 in an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging \"having been stimulated by a general knowledge of\" Franklin and Wilkin's 'unpublished' contribution. [59] Actually, although it was the bare minimum, they had just enough specific knowledge of Franklin and Gosling's data upon which to base their model. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their x-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of Nature, seemingly only in supported of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B form of DNA. [60] [61] Franklin left King's College London in March 1953 to move to Birkbeck College in a move that had been planned for some time. [39]", "It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results from the progress report actually were for the model-building done by Watson and Crick. After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, William Astbury had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angström (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only eight references in Franklin's first paper on DNA.Franklin's citation to the earlier work of W. T. Astbury is in: Analysis of Astbury's published DNA results and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angströms [2.7 nm] in the compact A form, 34 angströms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson. Crick did not see Franklin's B form X-ray images (Photo 51) until after the DNA double helix model was published. ", "Crick and Watson then published their model in Nature on 25 April 1953 in an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging \"having been stimulated by a general knowledge of\" Franklin and Wilkins' \"unpublished\" contribution. Actually, although it was the bare minimum, they had just enough specific knowledge of Franklin and Gosling's data upon which to base their model. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of Nature, seemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B form of DNA. ", "In 1947, armed with this biology experience, Crick joined Max Perutz at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge . Sir Lawrence Bragg was directing a new unit of the Laboratory where they were using X-ray crystallography to study protein structure. Max Perutz was working on the structure of hemoglobin and Crick's thesis project was on X-ray diffraction of proteins.", "However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules. Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949), to join Max Perutz’s project at the University of Cambridge, and he began to work on the X-ray crystallography of proteins. X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.", "In 1954, at the age of 37, Crick completed his Ph.D. thesis: “X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins” and received his degree. Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute , where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on ribonuclease and the mechanisms of protein synthesis . David Harker, the American X-ray crystallographer, was described as “the John Wayne of crystallography” by Vittorio Luzzati, a crystallographer at the Centre for Molecular Genetics in Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris, who had worked with Rosalind Franklin.", "By November 1951 Watson had acquired—by his own admission—little training in X-ray crystallography, and therefore had not fully understood what Franklin was saying about the structural symmetry of the DNA molecule. Crick, however, knowing the Fourier transforms of Bessel functions that represent the X-ray diffraction patterns of helical structures of atoms, correctly interpreted further one of Franklin's experimental findings as indicating that DNA was most likely to be a double helix with the two polynucleotide chains running in opposite directions. Crick was thus in a unique position to make this interpretation because he had previously worked on the X-ray diffraction data for other large molecules that had helical symmetry similar to that of DNA. Franklin, on the other hand, rejected the first molecular model building approach proposed by Crick and Watson: the first DNA model, which in 1952 Watson presented to her and to Wilkins in London, had an obviously incorrect structure with hydrated charged groups on the inside of the model, rather than on the outside. Watson explicitly admitted this in his book The Double Helix.", "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid was the first article published to describe the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA, using X-ray diffraction and the mathematics of a helix transform. It was published by Francis Crick and James D. Watson in the scientific journal Nature on pages 737–738 of its 171st volume (dated 25 April 1953). ", "Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in May 1952. [37] As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the United States government and he did not visit the UK until later, at which point he met none of the DNA researchers in England. At any rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA. [37] [38] Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis; Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952, Watson performed X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were forbidden to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.", "1951-53 --Assembled an x-ray diffraction laboratory at King's College, London, to research the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); discovered that DNA can take two forms, \"A\" and \"B\"; produced diffraction photo of B form of DNA that confirmed Watson and Crick's theory of its double-helix structure", "Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in May 1952. As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the U. S. government and he did not visit the UK until later, at which point he met none of the DNA researchers in England. At any rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA. Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis; Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952, Watson performed X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were forbidden to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.", "Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in May 1952. As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the U. S. government and he did not visit the UK until later, at which point he met none of the DNA researchers in England. At any rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA. Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis; Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952, Watson performed X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were forbidden to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA." ]

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[ "Werner Karl Heisenberg (; 5 December 1901 – 1 February 1976) was a German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, during the same year, this matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy and for which he is best known. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 \"for the creation of quantum mechanics\". He also made important contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. Considerable controversy surrounds his work on atomic research during World War II.", "Werner Karl Heisenberg (December 5, 1901 – February 1, 1976). Heisenberg was the head of German nuclear energy project, though the nature of this project, and his work in this capacity, has been heavily debated. He is most well-known for discovering one of the central principles of modern physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. In 1937, he married Elisabeth Schumacher with whom he had seven children, including neurobiologist and geneticist Martin Heisenberg.", "Werner Heisenberg was a German theoretical physicist, best known for enunciating the uncertainty principle of quantum theory. He made important contributions to quantum mechanics, nuclear physics, quantum field theory, and particle physics.", "Werner Karl Heisenberg - German physicist; published the first theory of quantum mechanics (1925); postulated the \"uncertainty principle (1927); received Nobel Prize for physics (1932).", " Werner Heisenberg , with Max Born and Pascual Jordan , discovered matrix mechanics, the first version of quantum mechanics. The historical goal of understanding electron motion within atoms was abandoned in favor of a systematic method for organizing observable spectral lines.", "In 1925, after an extended visit to Bohr’s Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, Heisenberg tackled the problem of spectrum intensities of the electron taken as an anharmonic oscillator (a one-dimensional vibrating system). His position that the theory should be based only on observable quantities was central to his paper of July 1925, “Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen” (“Quantum-Theoretical Reinterpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations”). Heisenberg’s formalism rested upon noncommutative multiplication; Born, together with his new assistant Pascual Jordan , realized that this could be expressed using matrix algebra, which they used in a paper submitted for publication in September as “Zur Quantenmechanik” (“On Quantum Mechanics”). By November, Born, Heisenberg, and Jordan had completed “Zur Quantenmechanik II” (“On Quantum Mechanics II”), colloquially known as the “three-man paper,” which is regarded as the foundational document of a new quantum mechanics.", "Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his \"services to theoretical physics\", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. ", "From 1924 to 1927, Heisenberg was a Privatdozent at Göttingen. From 17 September 1924 to 1 May 1925, under an International Education Board Rockefeller Foundation fellowship, Heisenberg went to do research with Niels Bohr, director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen. His seminal paper, Über quantentheoretischer Umdeutung was published in September 1925. He returned to Göttingen and with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, over a period of about six months, developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. On 1 May 1926, Heisenberg began his appointment as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr in Copenhagen. It was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. On 23 February, Heisenberg wrote a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in which he first described his new principle. In his paper on the uncertainty principle, Heisenberg used the word \"Ungenauigkeit\" (imprecision). ", "From 1957 onwards Heisenberg was interested in work on problems of plasma physics and thermonuclear processes, and also much work in close collaboration with the International Institute of Atomic Physics at Geneva. He was for several years Chairman of the Scientific Policy Committee of this Institute and subsequently remained a member of this Committee.", "The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them. For example, the uncertainty principle, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the non-commutativity of the two corresponding operators. This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger. When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a self-adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric, Heisenberg replied \"Eh? What is the difference?\"", "Schrodinger was educated at the University of Vienna. He taught physics at the universities of Stuttgart, Germany; Breslau, Poland; Z�rich, Switzerland; Berlin, Germany; Oxford, England; and Graz, Austria. He was director of the school of theoretical physics of the Institute of Advanced Study in Dublin, Ireland, from 1940 until his retirement in 1955. Schr�dinger's most important contribution to the understanding of the atom was his development of an elegant and rigorous mathematical description of the discrete standing waves that electrons must follow in their orbits around atomic nuclei (Schr�dinger's equation). Schr�dinger proved that his theory, published in 1926, was mathematically equivalent to the theories of matrix mechanics advanced the previous year by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg. Together, their theories formed much of the foundation of quantum mechanics. Schr�dinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in physics with the British physicist Paul A. M. Dirac for his contribution to the development of quantum mechanics. His research included important work on atomic spectra, statistical thermodynamics, and wave mechanics. ", "Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus. Heisenberg approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics, an approach that was not at all obvious at the time. Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a \"major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system.\" Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons. He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i.e., nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers.", "While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Albert Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.", "Image: Heisenberg, Werner Karl Prof. 1901-1976; Physicist, Nobel Prize for Physics 1933, Germany. Courtesy of Wikipedia.", "In the postwar period Heisenberg continued his search for a comprehensive quantum field theory , utilizing the “scattering matrix” approach (first introduced in 1942) and returning to the notion of a minimum universal length as a key feature. In 1958 he proposed a unified field theory —newspaper stories referred to his “world formula”—which he saw as a symmetry -based approach to the proliferation of particles then under way. However, support from the physics community was limited, particularly with the appearance of the quark model in the 1960s. In 1958 Heisenberg also finally achieved the goal of an academic position in Munich, as the Max Planck Institute for Physics moved there in that year. Heisenberg retired from his institute directorship in 1970.", "Albert Einstein (1879–1955) is well known as the most prominent physicist of the twentieth century. Less well known, though of comparable importance, are his contributions to twentieth-century philosophy of science. Einstein's own philosophy of science is an original synthesis of elements drawn from sources as diverse as neo-Kantianism, conventionalism, and logical empiricism, its distinctive feature being its novel blending of realism with a holist, underdeterminationist form of conventionalism. Of special note is the manner in which Einstein's philosophical thinking was driven by and contributed to the solution of problems first encountered in his work in physics. Equally significant are Einstein's relations with and influence on other prominent twentieth-century philosophers of science, especially Moritz Schlick and Hans Reichenbach.", "Heisenberg drew a philosophically profound conclusion: absolute causal determinism was impossible, since it required exact knowledge of both position and momentum as initial conditions. Therefore, the use of probabilistic formulations in atomic theory resulted not from ignorance but from the necessarily indeterministic relationship between the variables. This viewpoint was central to the so-called “Copenhagen interpretation” of quantum theory, which got its name from the strong defense for the idea at Bohr’s institute in Copenhagen. Although this became a predominant viewpoint, several leading physicists, including Schrödinger and Albert Einstein , saw the renunciation of deterministic causality as physically incomplete.", "Even so, the two approaches differed greatly in interpretation and spirit. Whereas Heisenberg eschewed the use of visualizable pictures, and accepted discontinuous transitions as a primitive notion, Schrödinger claimed as an advantage of his theory that it was anschaulich. In Schrödinger’s vocabulary, this meant that the theory represented the observational data by means of continuously evolving causal processes in space and time. He considered this condition of Anschaulichkeit to be an essential requirement on any acceptable physical theory. Schrödinger was not alone in appreciating this aspect of his theory. Many other leading physicists were attracted to wave mechanics for the same reason. For a while, in 1926, before it emerged that wave mechanics had serious problems of its own, Schrödinger’s approach seemed to gather more support in the physics community than matrix mechanics.", "* Jochen Heisenberg, Professor Emeritus of Physics, son of famed German physicist and Nobel Laureate Werner Heisenberg", "In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.", "After Hitler came to power in 1933, Heisenberg was attacked in the press by elements of the deutsche Physik movement, and he came under investigation by the SS. This was embroiled with the attempt to appoint Heisenberg as successor to Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich; it became known as the Heisenberg Affair. The issue was resolved by Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, in 1938. While Heisenberg was not selected as Sommerfeld's successor, he was completely rehabilitated to the physics community relative to the Third Reich.", "Heisenberg studied physics and mathematics from 1920 to 1923 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen and the Georg-August-Universitt Gttingen. At Munich, he studied under Arnold Sommerfeld and Wilhelm Wien. At Gttingen, he studied physics with Max Born and James Franck, and he studied mathematics with David Hilbert. He received his doctorate in 1923, at Munich under Sommerfeld. He completed his Habilitation in 1924, at Gottingen under Born.", "In early 1929, Heisenberg and Pauli submitted the first of two papers laying the foundation for relativistic quantum field theory. Also in 1929, Heisenberg went on a lecture tour in China, Japan, India, and the United States.", "* Werner Heisenberg and F. S. C. Northrop Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science (Great Minds Series) (Prometheus, 1999)", "Introduced first in 1927, by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg, it states that the more precisely the position of some particle is determined, the less precisely its momentum can be known, and vice versa. The formal inequality relating the standard deviation of position σx and the standard deviation of momentum σp was derived by Earle Hesse Kennard later that year and by Hermann Weyl in 1928:", "Mathematician and Physicist. Contributed significantly to the study of electro-magnetism and prepared the way for quantum physics. Ranks along with Newton and Einstein as one of the World's greatest physicists.", "All attempts to represent the particle and wave features displayed in the phenomena of light and matter, by direct recourse to a space time model, have so far ended in failure. And Heisenberg has convincingly shown, from an empirical point of view, that any decision as to a rigorously deterministic structure of nature is definitely ruled out, because of the atomistic structure of our experimental apparatus. (Albert Einstein, 1954)", "Cassidy, David C. Uncertainty : the life and science of Werner Heisenberg. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY. 1992.", "Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle by a German scientist Werner Heisenberg states that \"velocity and position of an object cannot be measured exactly (precisely) at the same time.\"", "** History of quantum physics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.", "Physics and mathematics. Physics is a quantitative science, and its fundamental laws are formulated in mathematical language, chiefly through differential equations. On the other hand, new ideas and methods in mathematics often have arisen under the influence of physics. Infinitesimal analysis was devised by Newton (contemporaneously with G. W. von Leibniz) in his formulation of the fundamental laws of mechanics. The creation of the theory of the electromagnetic field led to the development of vector analysis. The development of such branches of mathematics as tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry, and group theory was stimulated by new physical theories, namely, the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. The development of quantum field theory has raised new problems in functional analysis. These are but a few examples of how physics has influenced mathematics.", "Other thinkers have seen similarities between aspects of quantum theory and Eastern religions, notably various strains of Buddhism and Daoism. Fritjof Capra (1939–), who is perhaps most famous in this regard, has drawn analogies between issues that arise from the measurement problem and quantum nonlocality and what he takes to be Eastern commitments to the \"connectedness\" of all things. Other thinkers have seen in the interpretive problems of quantum theory evidence of a limitation in science's ability to provide a comprehensive understanding of the world, thus making room for other, perhaps religious, modes of understanding. Still others, drawing on views such as Wigner's (according to which conscious observation plays a crucial role in making the world determinate), see in quantum theory a justification of what they take to be traditional religious views about the role of conscious beings in the world. Others, including Capra, see affinities between wave-particle duality, or more generally, the duality implicit in the Uncertainty Principle, and various purportedly Eastern views about duality (for example, the Taoist doctrine of yin and yang, or the Buddhist use of koans)." ]

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[ "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (; 21 September 1853 – 21 February 1926) was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate. He exploited the Hampson-Linde cycle to investigate how materials behave when cooled to nearly absolute zero and later to liquefy helium for the first time. His production of extreme cryogenic temperatures led to his discovery of superconductivity in 1911: for certain materials, electrical resistance abruptly vanishes at very low temperatures. ", "A Dutch physicist, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was the pioneer of refrigeration techniques and the one who studied how materials behave when they are cooled to almost absolute zero temperature. He was also the first person to liquefy helium, and because of his experiments concerning cryogenics as well as extremely low temperature, he was able to discover superconductivity. He also noted how the rate of electrical resistance can vanish at much lower temperatures for certain materials.", "On 8 April 1911, in this building, Professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and his collaborators, Cornelis Dorsman, Gerrit Jan Flim, and Gilles Holst, discovered superconductivity.   They observed that the resistance of mercury approached  \"practically zero\" as its temperature was lowered to 3 kelvins.  Today, superconductivity makes many electrical technologies possible,  including Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and high-energy particle accelerators.", "The discovery of the phenomena of superconductivity at the University of Leiden, The Netherlands, by Prof. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and his colleagues in 1911 was a totally unexpected result, which opened a completely new area of research in the science and technology of electrical conduction in  materials and in the development of energy efficient electrical and electronic devices and systems. Prof. H. Kamerlingh Onnes and his collaborators at the University of Leiden were in a unique position as helium had first been liquefied at the University of Leiden in 1908, forwhich Prof, Kamerlingh Onnes received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913. ", "An investigation of the low-temperature resistivity of metals was the motivation to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's experiments that led in 1911 to discovery of superconductivity. For details see History of superconductivity.", "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was a Dutch physicist who first observed the phenomenon of superconductivity while carrying out pioneering work in the field of cryogenics.", "HEIKE KAMERLINGH ONNES: Onnes (1853–1926) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913—not for discovering superconductivity but for liquefying helium. But it was his discovery of the former that made him famous. Onnes observed the phenomenon while trying to answer an open question about electrons. At the temperatures of liquid helium, ordinary thermometers would freeze. Physicists could still measure temperature by measuring the electrical resistance in metals, based on the empirical observation that electrical resistance was directly proportional to temperature. That idea, however, had never been tested close to absolute zero. Two competing theories existed for what would happen: Lord Kelvin had postulated that electrons in a metal would \"freeze,\" and thus stop moving. The conductor would therefore become an insulator. German theorist Paul Drude instead maintained that electrons inside a metal acted like a gas, so that resistance would gradually and linearly approach zero. As Onnes showed, neither theory was correct.", "abnormally high electrical conductivity of certain substances. The phenomenon was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who found that the resistance of mercury dropped suddenly to zero at a temperature of about 4.", "R. de Bruyn Oubuter, “Heike Kamerlingh Onnes’ Discovery of Superconductivity”, Scientific America. vol. 276, pp 96 (1997) This article describes the early research done at University of Leiden on the liquefaction of helium and the discovery of superconductivity.", "He next experimented with a high pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized through the Joule–Thomson effect, and the successful results he obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution a large refrigerating machine and using this machine in 1898, liquid hydrogen was collected for the first, solid hydrogen following in 1899. He tried to liquefy the last remaining gas, Helium, which condenses into a liquid at −272.2°C, but owing to a number of factors, including a lack of Helium with which to work, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes beat Dewar and was the first person to produce liquid helium, in 1908. Onnes would later be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his research into the properties of matter at low temperatures - Dewar was nominated several times but never successful in winning the Nobel Prize.", "In an effort to obtain liquid helium, Kamerlingh Onnes organized a specially equipped cryogenic laboratory at the University of Leiden, which became a world center for low-temperature physics and was subsequently named after him. Here he first achieved temperatures close to absolute zero and in 1908 obtained liquid helium. Kamerlingh Onnes studied the physical properties of various substances at low temperatures, especially those of mercury, lead, and tin. While investigating the electrical resistance of mercury in 1911, he observed that the resistance disappeared at a temperature of 4. 1°K. This phenomenon was called superconductivity. He also worked on thermodynamics, magneto-optics, and radioactivity. Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1913.", "D. van Delft and P. H. Kes, ‘The discovery of superconductivity”, Physics Today, vol. 63, no. 9, September 2011, pp. 38-43 This article recounts some unknown , until now, details about the discovery of superconductivity taken from Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes’s notebooks, which were only recently (2009) found in the Kamerlingh Onnes Archvie housed in the Boerhaarve Museum in Leiden, The Netherlands.", "*Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1913), \"for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium\"", "After his appointment to the Physics Chair at Leyden, Kamerlingh Onnes reorganized the Physical Laboratory (now known as the Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory) in a way to suit his own programme. His researches were mainly based on the theories of his two great compatriots J.D. van der Waals and H.A. Lorentz . In particular he had in mind the establishment of a cryogenic laboratory which would enable him to verify Van der Waals' law of corresponding states over a large range of temperatures. His efforts to reach extremely low temperatures culminated in the liquefaction of helium in 1908. Bringing the temperature of the helium down to 0,9°K, he reached the nearest approach to absolute zero then achieved, thus justifying the saying that the coldest spot on earth was situated at Leyden. It was on account of these low-temperature studies that he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Later, his pupils W.H. Keesom and W.J. de Haas ( Lorentz' son-in-law) conducted experiments in the same laboratory which led them still closer to absolute zero.", "The research of Kamerlingh Onnes and his collaborators followed two lines, one related to van der Waals’s theories (equation of state, viscosity, capillarity), and the other to the theoretical work of Lorentz (magnetorotation of the plane of polarization, Kerr effect, Hall effect). In a volume commemorating Kamerlingh Onnes’ forty years as a professor Lorentz referred to an earlier book (1904), similarly in his honor:", "The results of Kamerlingh Onnes' investigations were published in the Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Amsterdam and also in the Communications from the Physical Laboratory at Leyden. Many foreign scientists came to Leyden to work in his laboratory for shorter or longer periods. The laboratory gained additional fame throughout the world through the training school for instrument-makers and glass-blowers housed in it, founded by Kamerlingh Onnes in 1901.", "In 1870, Kamerlingh Onnes attended the University of Groningen. He studied under Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff at the University of Heidelberg from 1871 to 1873. Again at Groningen, he obtained his masters in 1878 and a doctorate in 1879. His thesis was \"Nieuwe bewijzen voor de aswenteling der aarde\" (tr. New proofs of the rotation of the earth). From 1878 to 1882 he was assistant to Johannes Bosscha, the director of the Delft Polytechnic, for whom he substituted as lecturer in 1881 and 1882.", "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes ' Laboratory in Leiden , Netherlands, 1926. Oppenheimer is in the second row, third from the left.", "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was born on September 21, 1853, at Groningen, The Netherlands. His father, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, was the owner of a brickworks near Groningen; his mother was Anna Gerdina Coers of Arnhem, the daughter of an architect.", "Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his \"services to theoretical physics\", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. ", "Adopting the study of Henri Becquerel's discovery of radiation in uranium as her thesis topic, Curie began the systematic study of other elements to see if there were others that also emitted this strange energy. Within days she discovered that thorium also emitted radiation, and further, that the amount of radiation depended upon the amount of element present in the compound. Thus, she deduced that radioactivity does not depend on how atoms are arranged into molecules, but rather that it originates within the atoms themselves. This discovery is perhaps her most important scientific contribution. For their joint research into radioactivity, Marie and Pierre Curie were awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics.", "and more powerful. As we will see in Chapter 4, the Westerbork telescope was very important in making astronomers realise that spiral galaxies consist mostly of dark matter, not stars. In short, Oort's influence in this field was very great. But we should return to the story of his earlier research.", "His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.", "German national Max Planck is known for bringing to the world the concept or theory of quantum physics. His work in the field of physics expanded the understanding of time and space.", "Hawkingâs research with black holes (first proposed by Robert Oppenheimer, after whom the Oppenheimer Lecture is named) and âspace-time singularitiesâ led to ground-breaking work on the theory of the universe. It also led to the publication of Hawkingâs best-selling book A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes in 1988. ", "In 1922, the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik gave a distance determination that supported the theory that the Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra-galactic object. Using the new 100 inch Mt. Wilson telescope, Edwin Hubble was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some Cepheid variables, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way. In 1936 Hubble produced a classification of galactic morphology that is used to this day. ", "In 1896, Henri Becquerel found that rays emanating from certain minerals penetrated black paper and caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate. His doctoral student Marie Curie discovered that only certain chemical elements gave off these rays of energy. She named this behavior radioactivity.", "Over the months following the publication of Ørsted’s discovery the scientific community was frantically trying to explain the phenomenon and over a hundred papers were published on the subject in the following seven years. The most authoritative on the subject was French physicist and professor of mathematics, André-Marie Ampère.", "Schrodinger was educated at the University of Vienna. He taught physics at the universities of Stuttgart, Germany; Breslau, Poland; Z�rich, Switzerland; Berlin, Germany; Oxford, England; and Graz, Austria. He was director of the school of theoretical physics of the Institute of Advanced Study in Dublin, Ireland, from 1940 until his retirement in 1955. Schr�dinger's most important contribution to the understanding of the atom was his development of an elegant and rigorous mathematical description of the discrete standing waves that electrons must follow in their orbits around atomic nuclei (Schr�dinger's equation). Schr�dinger proved that his theory, published in 1926, was mathematically equivalent to the theories of matrix mechanics advanced the previous year by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg. Together, their theories formed much of the foundation of quantum mechanics. Schr�dinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in physics with the British physicist Paul A. M. Dirac for his contribution to the development of quantum mechanics. His research included important work on atomic spectra, statistical thermodynamics, and wave mechanics. ", "In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked. He also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, \"I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France.\" ", "Kopenhagen is een stuk van de Engelse toneelschrijver Michael Frayn gebaseerd op een ontmoeting tussen de Deense natuurkundige Niels Bohr en de Duitse natuurkundige Werner Heisenberg in bezet Kopenhagen in 1941.Er is lange tijd veel onduidelijkheid en speculatie geweest over het precieze verloop van deze ontmoeting. Heisenberg stond aan het hoofd van Duits onderzoek naar atoomsplitsing, en Bohr was op de hoogte van het feit dat er aan geallieerde zijde interesse was in het ontwikkelen van een atoomsplijtingswapen.", "A fascinating profile of Peter Higgs, the theoretical physicist whose name has become associated with the most significant scientific finding of recent times." ]

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[ "the study of the movement and effects of projectiles, such as BULLETs, SHELLs, ROCKETs, and MISSILEs, which art and science encompasses the proper design of such projectiles; this discipline includes the study of the projectile before it departs its launcher (internal ballistics), the study of the projectile after it's launched (external ballistics), and the study of the effects produced by the projectile upon impact (terminal ballistics). [v: variable parameter, standard atmosphere (of pressure, temperature, and density)] [nb: the plethora of pseudoscience associated with ballistics is commonly known as \"bullistics\"] [v: Firearms Glossary ]", "Ballistics is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.", "** Astrodynamics – application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.", "ballistics science of the propulsion, flight, and impact of projectiles. It is divided into several disciplines. Internal and external ballistics, respectively, deal with the propulsion and the flight of projectiles. The transition between these two regimes is...", "Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun).", "In modern usage, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket (although these too can also be guided). Missiles have four system components: targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine, and warhead. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes: surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles (ballistic, cruise, anti-ship, anti-tank, etc.), surface-to-air missiles (and anti-ballistic), air-to-air missiles, and anti-satellite weapons. All known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are generally referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles.", "astrodynamics - the branch of astronomy that studies the motion of natural and artificial bodies in space", "In summary, satellites are projectiles that orbit around a central massive body instead of falling into it. Being projectiles, they are acted upon by the force of gravity - a universal force that acts over even large distances between any two masses. The motion of satellites, like any projectile, is governed by Newton's laws of motion. For this reason, the mathematics of these satellites emerges from an application of Newton's universal law of gravitation to the mathematics of circular motion. The mathematical equations governing the motion of satellites will be discussed in the next part of Lesson 4 .", "The general study of the forces on a rocket is part of the field of ballistics. Spacecraft are further studied in the subfield of astrodynamics.", "But because the missile is constantly changing position at high velocity, no human computation can keep up with the problem. The known factors (position of the target and launching site, and preset heading of the missile) and the measured factors (velocity of the missile, and its position relative to the launching site) are fed into an electronic computer, which produces a continuous solution for the instantaneous values of the problem. When the computer determines that the missile's course, position, and velocity will result in the proper ballistic trajectory, the missile propulsion", "Rockets and missiles can serve as weapons systems that deliver explosive warheads to targets by means of rocket propulsion. \"Rocket\" is a general term that describes any jet-propelled missile which is thrust forward from the rearward ejection of matter like hot gases.", "*Missiles are rockets which are guided to their target after launch. (Also a general term for projectile weapons).", "Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.", "in which the control surfaces are capable of correcting the trajectory throughout the flight. But preset guidance has features that make it useful in the initial control of ballistic missiles. One possible ballistic system combines features of both preset and command guidance. The problem has already been stated: from known factors, it is possible to calculate an initial velocity and direction that will produce a ballistic trajectory ending at the target. The target location is known; because of the great range, target location is determined from maps, rather than by observation. The location of the launching point is also known. (In the development of the Polaris missile system, a major part of the total effort was devoted to development of a Ship's Inertial Navigation System, by which the Polaris launching vessel can determine its own position with the required accuracy.)", "Karp, A., 1996. Ballistic Missile Proliferation: The Politics and Technics. Oxford: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) and Oxford University Press.", "a missile that travels to its target unpowered and unguided after being launched; see DOODLEBUG, ROCKET.", "The ballistic missile presents a more complex problem. Its range may be measured in thousands of miles, rather than thousands of yards, and its initial velocity is lower than that of a gun projectile. Thus the forces that would tend to influence its trajectory have a much longer time to act. But, at long ranges, ballistic missiles have several outstanding advantages. First, they leave the earth's atmosphere completely; a large part of their flight is in empty space, where they cannot be affected by wind or air pressure. Second, they dive on the target at a steep angle, at many times the speed of sound; this makes interception nearly impossible. Finally, a ballistic missile is invulnerable to electronic countermeasures during the major portion of its flight. Any guided missile is subject to jamming or deception by electronic countermeasures, although coded guidance systems may make this difficult to do. But a ballistic missile, because it is unguided during the terminal phase of its flight, is no more susceptible to electronic countermeasures than is a gun projectile or a rock.", "To strike the target on the first shot, the trajectory of the missile must be accurately controlled. This control is necessary because forces, natural or otherwise, can cause the missile to deviate from its predetermined course. Even though it functions perfectly, a missile without accurate guidance may miss a selected fixed target by several miles. Moving targets can take evasive action; without guidance, the missile would be unable to compensate for this action. Therefore, an accurate, fast-acting guidance system is of prime importance.", "In previous chapters, we have discussed guidance systems that are designed to place and hold a missile on a collision path with its target. As we have previously explained, missile guidance can be divided into three phases: launching, intermediate or midcourse guidance, and terminal guidance. The proper functioning of the guidance system during the terminal phase, when the missile is rapidly approaching its target, is of extreme importance. A great deal of work has been done to develop extremely accurate equipment for use in terminal-phase guidance.", "The Delta 183 program used a satellite known as Delta Star to test several sensor related technologies. Delta Star carried an infrared imager, a long-wave infrared imager, an ensemble of imagers and photometers covering several visible and ultraviolet bands as well as a laser detector and ranging device. The satellite observed several ballistic missile launches including some releasing liquid propellant as a countermeasure to detection. Data from the experiments led to advances in sensor technologies. [55]", "Beginning in 2002 through 2010, 22 of the 24 88 inches (2.2 m) diameter Trident missile tubes were modified to contain large vertical launch systems (VLS), one configuration of which may be a cluster of seven Tomahawk cruise missiles. In this configuration, the number of cruise missiles carried could be a maximum of 154, the equivalent of what is typically deployed in a surface battle group. Other payload possibilities include new generations of supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles, and Submarine Launched Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (SLIRBM), unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), the ADM-160 MALD, sensors for anti-submarine warfare or intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions, countermine warfare payloads such as the AN/BLQ-11 Long Term Mine Reconnaissance System (LMRS), and the broaching universal buoyant launcher (BUBL) and stealthy affordable capsule system(SACS) specialized payload canisters.", "According to the press release, the MDA plans to continue testing the tracking system against progressively more difficult targets before carrying out a complete demonstration later this year, when the ABL system will track and destroy a ballistic missile in boost phase. Current programs focus on better-understood technology, such as the AEGIS ballistic missile defense system, a sea-based system that targets missiles during the ascent and descent portions of the midcourse phase, and the land-based Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system, which can intercept missiles in their terminal phase as they re-enter the atmosphere.", "Programme of research and development of systems capable of intercepting and destroying nuclear weapons in flight and thus protecting the whole territory of the USA against a massive Soviet nuclear missile attack. The programme was pursued by the United States in the 1980s.", "There was one supersonic ramjet cruise missile that actually reached hypersonic speeds. I forgot the name. But during one test, the fuel feed got stuck on full throttle, and the cruise missile reached Mach 5.5 with no problem.", "Pentagon planners foresee a new generation of stealthy nuclear cruise missiles capable of surviving and penetrating advanced air defenses. Present US cruise missiles date back to the cold war. By the mid-2020s, the USAF will deploy the new cruisers aboard a new long range strike bomber.", "Testing SS-18 (\"Satan\") - Soviet strategic missile system of fourth generation with multi-purpose heavy intercontinental ballistic missile class. Photo: Wikipedia", "Proponents of the use of sliding rotating bands erroneously assume the existence of high aerodynamic drag forces during aerodynamic despinning of projectiles having full spin rate at launch. Firing tests have demonstrated that such induced drag is minimal at most which is not surprising considering that the rotational energy of typical subcaliber fin-stabilized projectiles is less than one percent of their translatory kinetic energy. In this connection it is also of interest that because of the precise and symmetric sabot separation of the fully spun up fin-stabilized projectile, the maximum projectile yaw measured at launch was found to be less than five degrees. This low level of initial yaw is highly desirable to minimize aerodynamic drag and projectile retardation.", "In addition, objects travelling upwards (i.e., out) or downwards (i.e., in) are deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect. However, in the case of large changes of momentum, such as a spacecraft being launched into orbit, the effect becomes significant. The fastest and most fuel-efficient path to orbit is a launch from the equator that curves to a directly eastward heading.", "In contrast to conventional spin-stabilized projectiles which derive their in-flight stability from the gyroscopic forces resulting from the high rate of spin, the finned projectiles are stabilized during flight by aerodynamic force acting on the projectile. Although projectile spin does not contribute to the stabilization of finned projectiles, a low rate of roll around the longitudinal axis is desired to minimize the adverse effects of mass and configurational asymmetries which may result from material imperfections and from manufacturing tolerances.", "If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial velocity, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing velocity is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually \"orbits\" in a technical sense – they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity – but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth.", "Britain, Germany, the Soviet Union, Japan, and the United States all developed airborne rockets for use against surface as well as aerial targets. These were almost invariably fin-stabilized because of the effective aerodynamic forces when launched at speeds of 250 miles per hour and more. Tube launchers were used at first, but later straight-rail or zero-length launchers, located under the wings of the airplane, were employed.", "At launch, the spacecraft carried 36 kg of liquid hydrazine monopropellant in a 42 cm diameter spherical tank. Orientation of the spacecraft was maintained with six 4.5 N, hydrazine thrusters mounted in three pairs. Pair one maintained a constant spin-rate of 4.8 rpm, pair two controlled the forward thrust, and pair three controlled the attitude. The attitude pair were used in conical scanning maneuvers to track Earth in its orbit. Orientation information was also provided by a star sensor able to reference Canopus, and two Sun sensors." ]

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[ "These are chemical elements that are found in nature in their native (uncombined) state. Most elements do not exist in nature as elements but instead are always found as compounds - each molecule being a combination of several elements. There are three groups of elements that are found in nature in their native state: 1) a few metals such as gold, silver, copper, platinum and iron; 2) a few semi-metals such as arsenic, antimony, and bismuth; and 3) a few non metals such as carbon, and sulphur.", "Pure samples of isolated elements are uncommon in nature. While the 98 naturally occurring elements have all been identified in mineral samples from the Earth's crust, only a small minority of them can be found as recognizable, relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such \"native elements\" are copper, silver , gold, and sulfur. Carbon is also commonly found in the form of coal, graphite, and diamonds . The noble gases (e.g., neon) and noble metals (e.g., mercury) can also be found in their pure, non-bonded forms in nature. Still, most of these elements are found in mixtures.", "Sulphur is a bright yellow crystalline solid. In nature, it can be found as the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals.", "Massive deposits of essentially pure NaCl and KCl are found in nature and are the major sources of sodium and potassium. The other alkali metals are found in low concentrations in a wide variety of minerals, but ores that contain high concentrations of these elements are relatively rare. No concentrated sources of rubidium are known, for example, even though it is the 16th most abundant element on Earth. Rubidium is obtained commercially by isolating the 2%–4% of Rb present as an impurity in micas, minerals that are composed of sheets of complex hydrated potassium–aluminum silicates.", "When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such \"native elements\" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.", "Assuming 98 elements can be found, however briefly, in nature, there are 10 found in extremely minute amounts:  technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; plutonium, number 94; americium, number 95; curium, number 96; berkelium, number 97; and californium, number 98.", "The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.", "This is a photograph of various forms of high-purity elemental iron. Iron is a blue-gray metal found in steel and many other alloys as well as in pure form.  Alchemist-hp, Creative Commons License", "Strontium is never found in the elemental state, occurring mainly as strontianite (SrCO3), and celestite (SrSO4). Strontium ranks about 15th among the elements in natural abundance in the earth's crust and is widely distributed in small quantities.", "Alkaline earth metals almost always form ions with a positive (+ 2) charge and are thus highly reactive as free elements and so they usually occur in nature only in compound form, frequently as carbonates or sulfates. Calcium is by far the most abundant, followed by magnesium, and then in much lesser amounts barium, strontium, and beryllium. Radium is radioactive and fairly rare; what exists in the Earth’s crust occurs almost exclusively in uranium deposits.", "An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other types of substances. Each element is made up of just one type of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element.", "A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e. the same atomic number, Z). There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the crust of Earth. ", "Remarkably, all life on Earth, all everything we see around us, consists of various combinations of those 92 elements. There are still heavier elements, ranging from neptunium (93) all the way up to the unofficially named ununoctium (118), though with the exception of trace amounts of neptunium and plutonium (94), these are not found naturally on Earth.", "In nature, inert gases are found primarily in the atmosphere. We are breathing them right now. The most prevalent of them is the inert gas Argon. Argon's high amount in the air runs to about .76%, or 7600 parts per million. The most rare of the inert gases is Xenon. It is found at an incredibly low level - less than 1 part per ten million in the atmosphere.", "Now, this is mostly true. It is the heaviest naturally occurring element on Earth. We don’t find any elements with 93 protons (Neptunium), 94 protons (Plutonium), or higher numbers except the ones we’ve made in laboratories. Here’s a version of the periodic table of naturally occurring elements for you:", "Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, as well as the simplest of all the elements on the periodic table. Oxygen is the third most abundant element and makes up approximately 21 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. Nitrogen is the fifth most abundant element in the universe and the primary molecule in all proteins. Carbon is the sixth most common element in the universe and forms the basis of almost every life form on Earth. These four elements combine together to create amino acids, the building blocks of all proteins.", "The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. While most elements are generally stable, a small amount of natural transformation of one element to another also occurs in the decay of radioactive elements as well as other natural nuclear processes.", "1. A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. An element is composed of atoms that have the same atomic number; that is, each atom has the same number of protons in its nucleus as all other atoms of that element. Today 112 elements are known, of which 92 are known to occur in nature, while the remaining 20 have only been made with particle accelerators.", "Composed of a single proton and a single electron , hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe . It is estimated that 90% of the visible universe is composed of hydrogen.", "Hydrogen is the simplest element known to man. Each atom of hydrogen has only one proton. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. Stars are made primarily of hydrogen.", "However, an old definition of an element is - it is a pure substance that cannot not be separated into simpler substances either by physical or by chemical means. But an element may consists of two or more isotopes which can be separated by techniques like mass spectrometry, diffusion etc.", "Some elements have been made by man, but do not exist naturally. Have you ever wondered how many elements are found in nature? Here is the answer to the question.", "a colorless naturally occurring, radioactive, inert gaseous element formed by radioactive decay of radium atoms in soil or rocks.", "Ytterbium (Yb, Z=70), is a soft, malleable, and ductile silvery metal. Its concentration in the upper continental crust is ~1.96 mg/kg. It is found in nature in the minerals euxenite, gadolinite, monazite and xenotime, but it is principally commercially extracted from monazite sand that contains ~0.03% Yb. Ytterbium has seven natural occurring isotopes and 23 radioisotopes.", "Actinium is a silvery-white, radioactive metal, which glows with blue light in the dark.  Its name comes from the Greek word aktinos, meaning \"ray.\"  It is found only in trace amounts in the Earth's crust, and is one of the 10 least abundant elements.  It is produced in the decay sequences of radioactive uranium-235.  The most stable isotope of actinium is actinium-227, which has a half-life of 22.6 years, decaying by beta emission to produce thorium-227.", "This article considers the origin of the elements and their abundances throughout the universe. The geochemical distribution of these elementary substances in the Earth’s crust and interior is treated in some detail, as is their occurrence in the hydrosphere and atmosphere. The article also discusses the periodic law and the tabular arrangement of the elements based on it. For detailed information about the compounds of the elements, see chemical compound .", "Rhenium ( ) is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. The free element has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling point of any element. Rhenium resembles manganese chemically and is obtained as a by-product of molybdenum and copper ore's extraction and refinement. Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.", "A bluish silver-white malleable ductile light trivalent metallic element that has good electrical and thermal conductivity, high reflectivity, and resistance to oxidation and is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust .", "\"Beryllium\" : \"Beryllium is a chemical element with symbol Be and atomic number 4. It is created through stellar nucleosynthesis and is a relatively rare element in the universe. It is a divalent element which occurs naturally only in combination with other elements in minerals.\",", "atomic number 54 , Xe , xenon - a colorless odorless inert gaseous element occurring in the earth's atmosphere in trace amounts", "atomic number 3 a soft silver-white univalent element of the alkali metal group; the lightest metal known; occurs in several minerals", "Uranium is a silvery-white radioactive metal that has 6 known isotopes It occurs naturally in low concentrations (a few parts per million) in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle." ]

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[ "Based on the measurement, the angles can be broadly classified as acute, right, obtuse and reflex.", "Angles are classified as acute, obtuse, right, straight, or reflex, according to their angle measure. Part 1 [3 points]: If measure of angle CBD is ninety degrees , what is the classification of angle ABC ? Part 2 [4 points]: Explain how you determined the classification.", "Another way to classify angles by their measures is to consider whether the angle's measure is greater or less than 90 degrees. If an angle measures less than 90 degrees, it is called an acute angle. If it measures more than 90 degrees, it is called an obtuse angle. Right angles are neither acute nor obtuse. They're just right.", "Angles that measure less than 90° are called acute angles. Angles that measure more than 90° are called obtuse angles. A special angle that the GRE test makers love is called a right angle. Right angles always measure exactly 90° and are indicated by a little square where the angle measure would normally be, like this:", "You can see from the definition of reflex angles that you do need to be aware of which angle it is that we are interested in, i.e. for a reflex angle it is the angle greater than 180 degrees as opposed to the obtuse (or acute) angle that would be measured from the 'other side'.", "Triangles can be classified according to the size of its angles. Some examples are right triangles , acute triangles and obtuse triangles .", "Types of Angle - Acute Angle, Obtuse Angle, Right Angle, Reflex Angle-Geometry Math Lesson1 - YouTube", "Top We all know that the measure of any angle is done in terms of degrees. When we need to find the measure of any angle, we use protector, which has a measure of angles marked on it. We classify angles in different ways. Here we are going to study about An Angle That Measures Less Than 90 Degrees. We classify angles according to the size of the angles measurement. If the measure of an angle is less than 90 degree, then we say that such angles are called acute angles. An Acute Angle is represented by the alphabets V, A, N etc. If two acute angles join together to form a Right Angle, we say that the two angles are complementary to each other. If we say that we need to find the measure of any acute angle, whose double is equal to a right angle. Then we proceed it as follows. For this we need to assume the value of the acute angle, which we want to calculate. Let us say that the acute angle be x degrees. Now we say that double of x = 2 * x.", "When measuring angles, you usually go counterclockwise, starting where the 3 would be on a clock. That would be called a zero angle because there is nothing in it - just a single ray going directly to the right. The next important type of angle is called the acute angle. An acute angle is an angle whose measure is in between 0 and 90 degrees. An example would be the 45 degree angle in the picture. The next important type of angle is the right angle. This is probably the most important type of angle there is because of all the things that you can do with one.  A right angle is an angle whose measure is exactly 90 degrees. ", "ANSWERS:1. 81, 2. 90°, 3. 10, 4. 367 or 369, 5. 9, 6. 52, 7. 7, 8. 10, 9. Acute,", "There are four key types of angles first one is a acute, so if I drew this angle and I said that's angle x if it is acute that means that is less than 90 degrees but also greater than 0 degrees. So it has to be somewhere in between them, it cannot be exactly 90 degrees it cannot be exactly 0 degrees.", "acute angle - an angle whose measure is greater than 0 but less than 90 degrees", "Acute Triangle: A triangle measuring all its angles less than 90o is called acute triangle.A three-sided polygon with all its angles less than 90o is called acute triangle.", "Triangle, hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle. Obtuse angle is greater than 90 and less than 180", "A right angle has 90 degrees. Angles are measured on a scale from 0 to 360 degrees. Right angles represent one-fourth of a full 360-degree revolution.", "Calculates the hypotenuse of a right triangle knowing that the minor cathetus length is 5 cm and that an acute angle is 60 � wide.", "Euclidean geometry has two fundamental types of measurements: angle and distance. The angle scale is absolute, and Euclid uses the right angle as his basic unit, so that, e.g., a 45-degree angle would be referred to as half of a right angle. The distance scale is relative; one arbitrarily picks a line segment with a certain nonzero length as the unit, and other distances are expressed in relation to it. Addition of distances is represented by a construction in which one line segment is copied onto the end of another line segment to extend its length, and similarly for subtraction.", "An angle with a measure of 90 degrees is called a right angle. A right angle is symbolized with a square drawn in the corner of the angle.", "A right triangle (like the one in the figure to the right) has one angle that is 90°. The other two angles are always less than 90 ° and together add up to 90°. Note that the triangle on the right has 3 angles a, b and c and 3 sides, A, B, and H, and 3 angles a, b, and c. The side \"opposite\" an angle (in this case) is labeled with a capital letter corresponding to the label on the angle. The side opposite the right angle, H, is always the longest side and is called the hypotenuse.", "a) For angle x: AB is the hypotenuse, AC is the adjacent side , and BC is the opposite side.", "In the modern era, the 360-degree system took hold. This system is still in use today for civilian navigators. The degree system spaces 360 equidistant points located clockwise around the compass dial. In the 19th century some European nations adopted the \"grad\" (also called grade or gon) system instead, where a right angle is 100 grads to give a circle of 400 grads. Dividing grads into tenths to give a circle of 4000 decigrades has also been used in armies.", "Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of movement they allow, into nonaxial (gliding, as between the proximal ends of the ulna and radius), monoaxial (uniaxial), biaxial and multiaxial. Another classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the articular surfaces: flat, concave and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces. ", "A brief elaboration: together, the distance from eye to outstretched fist, and the height of the fist, form two sides of a right triangle, and thus determine an angle. (say 58 cm and 9 cm, \"opposite over adjacent\" is 9/58, with arctan(9/58) = 9 degrees).", "Let's call the two sides of the triangle that form the right-angle, its legs and use the letters a and b. The hypotenuse is the longest side opposite the right-angle and we will often use h for it.", "AOD, Fig.48 ), formed by two secants ( AO and OD ), is measured by a semi-difference of arcs, concluded between its sides:  ( AnD пїЅ BmC ) / 2 . An angle (", "The angle is contained in a right angle, so this tells us that it is smaller than a right angle.", "The sign for degrees of arc or degrees of temperature, which started out as a superscripted zero, was chosen for consistency with use of the minute (′) and second marks (″) employed in geometry and geography; those symbols originally stood for the Latin numerals I and II. The degree sign appears in technical contexts, but in general-interest publications, the word degree is generally used.", "In 1957, Dr. Paul Nogier recorded a reflex map of points on the outer ear. His work has been expanded by Oleson and Flocco and is now being taught as part of an integrated approach to hand, ear and foot reflexology.", "a unit of measurement for angles and arcs and is indicated by a small circle ( °).", "A unit of angle measurement equal to 1/400 circle, 0.01 right angle, 0.9, or 54'. This unit was introduced in France, where it is called the grade, in the early years of the metric system.", "ass a standard reference point for directional terms regardless of the actual position of the body.", "The brachial artery's pulse can be felt on the elbow's front side. This is why blood pressure is measured in this area using either a sphygmomanometer (a blood pressure meter) or a stethoscope." ]

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[ "In geometry, a hypotenuse (alternate spelling: hypothenuse ) is the longest side of a right-angled triangle, the side opposite of the right angle. The length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem, which states that the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.", "The name hypotenuse is given to the longest edge in a right-angled triangle. (It is the edge opposite to the right angle and is c in this case.)", "Triangle, hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle. Obtuse angle is greater than 90 and less than 180", "The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, or defined as the longest side of a right-angled triangle, in this case h.", "The hypotenuse is the side which is opposite to the 900. This is the longest side of right triangle.", "The hypotenuse is the longest side of the triangle (which can be verified with a ruler).", "The hypotenuse is the largest side in a right triangle and is always opposite the right angle.", "52 What name is given to the side of a right angled triangle opposite the right angle?", "The Greek Pythagoras showed (about 500 BC) that if (a,b,c) are lengths of the sides of a right-angled triangle, with c the longest, then a2 + b2 = c2 In a right angles triangle, a = 12, b = 5. Can you guess c?", "It is perhaps surprising that there are some right-angled triangles where all three sides are whole numbers called Pythagorean Triangles. The three whole number side-lengths are called a Pythagorean triple or triad.", "A 30-60-90 right triangle (literally pronounced \"thirty sixty ninety\") is a special type of right triangle where the three angles measure 30 degrees, 60 degrees, and 90 degrees. The triangle is significant because the sides exist in an easy-to-remember ratio: 1:\\(\\sqrt{3}\\):2. That is to say, the hypotenuse is twice as long as the shorter leg, and the longer leg is the square root of 3 times the shorter leg. You might also remember it as \"X, 2X, and X roots of 3\", which is how I remember it, but then you have to remember that 2X is actually the longest side, not X roots of 3.", "Another interesting right triangle is the 30-60-90 degree triangle. The ratio of this triangle's longest side to its shortest side is \"two to one.\" That is, the longest side is twice as long as the shortest side. It too is manufactured in plastic and widely used in design, drawing, and building applications.", "According to the rule of proportion, the longest side of a triangle is opposite the largest angle, and the shortest side of a triangle is opposite the smallest angle. The question tells us that angle C < angle A < angle B. So, the largest angle in triangle ABC is angle B, which is opposite the side of length 8. We know too that the smallest angle is angle C, since angle C < angle A. This means that the third side, with a length of x, measures between 6 and 8 units in length. The only choice that fits this criterion is 7, choice C.", "Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side.", "4. The Rule of Proportion. In every triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle and the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle. Take a look at the following figure and try to guess which angle is largest.", "A triangle that has one angle that is a right angle is called a right triangle. In other words, if one angle of a triangle is 90°, then it is a right triangle.", "Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side. Within a given triangle, a longer common side is associated with a smaller inscribed square. If an inscribed square has side of length qa and the triangle has a side of length a, part of which side coincides with a side of the square, then qa, a, the altitude ha from the side a, and the triangle's area T are related according to ", "The third side, the longest, is found by adding together the squares of the inner two numbers (here 22=4 and 32=9 and their sum is 4+9=13). This is the third side, h, of the Pythagorean triangle.", "The other leg in the right triangle is then called the adjacent side. Adjacent means “next to,” and in the case of right triangles, the adjacent side helps form the acute angle along with the hypotenuse because it lies along one of the angle’s rays.", "If a triangle has one angle which is a right-angle (i.e. 90°) then there is a special relationship between the lengths of its three sides:", "The guy who named 30-60-90 triangles didn’t have much of an imagination— or maybe he just didn’t have a cool name like “Pythagoras.” The name derives from the fact that these triangles have angles of 30°, 60°, and 90°. So, what’s so special about that? This: The side lengths of 30-60-90 triangles always follow a specific pattern. If the short leg opposite the 30° angle has length x, then the hypotenuse has length 2x, and the long leg, opposite the 60° angle, has length", "If we know the lengths of two sides of a right angled triangle, we can find the length of the third side. (But remember it only works on right angled triangles!)", "The lengths of sides opposite to angles 30 - 60 - 90 in the special right triangle are in the ratio 1 : $\\sqrt{3}$ : 2.", "Right-angled triangles with whole number sides have fascinated mathematicians and number enthusiasts since well before 300 BC when Pythagoras wrote about his famous \"theorem\". The oldest mathematical document in the world, a little slab of clay that would fit in your hand, is a list of such triangles. So what is so fascinating about them? This page starts from scratch and has lots of facts and figures with several online calculators to help with your own investigations.", "For a right triangle with angles measuring 30, 60 and 90 degrees, the sides will have lengths in a ratio of 1:\\(\\sqrt{3}\\):2, as shown in this diagram:", "Obtuse Triangle: A triangle with one of its angle measuring more than 90o is called obtuse triangle.", "The perimeter of each is equal to the length of the longest leg in the next triangle.", "The largest equilateral triangle which can be inscribed (right figure) is oriented at an angle of", "At each vertex of a triangle, an exterior angle of the triangle may be formed by extending ONE SIDE of the triangle. See picture below.", "Equilateral triangle: An equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides have the same length.", "In an equilateral polygon, each side has the same length. In triangle ABC below, all sides are 12 feet making triangle ABC equilateral.", "What is special about the hypotenuse of the largest triangle (the vertical strut of the kite)?" ]

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[ "Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer, physicist and mathematician who proposed the Celsius temperature scale and founded the Uppsala Observatory. Born in Sweden, he was raised in the shadow of his father, an astronomy professor. Anders showed an extraordinary talent in mathematics from childhood and after completing his education, decided to become an astronomer. He made earlier observations concerning aurora borealis (northern lights) and is regarded as the first astronomer to suggest a connection between aurora borealis and changes in the Earth's magnetic field. He also assessed the brightness of stars with measuring tools. Later, he participated in an expedition which proved the Newtonâs theory that the Earth has the shape of an ellipsoid, flattened at the poles. After succeeding in the expedition, he laid the foundation of Uppsala Astronomical Observatory, the oldest astronomical observatory in Sweden. However, he is most famous for the temperature scale he proposed based on the boiling and freezing points of water. Later on, a reversed form of his original design was adopted as the standard and used in almost all the scientific works. He started many other research projects but died unexpectedly before he could complete most of them. He was an extraordinary astronomer, and as a tribute to his accomplishments, the standard unit on the temperature scale, âCelsiusâ, is named after him.", "The Celsius temperature scale is named after a Swedish scientist Anders Celsius who first came up with the idea of a scale of 100 units (degrees) between the boiling point and freezing point of water. However Celsius's scale had 0 at the boiling point and 100 at the freezing point and it was another famous Swedish scientist Carolus Linaeus who swapped the scale around to the one we recognise today.", "Celsius (also known as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as serve as a unit increment to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty).", "Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a scale and unit of measurement for temperature. As an SI derived unit, it is used by most countries in the world. It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval, a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty. Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps.", "Anders Celsius  (27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but travelled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France. He founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 proposed the Celsius temperature scale, which bears his name. Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process that has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However, he wrongly posed the notion that the water of Earth was evaporating.", "During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ' and '. ' was a strictly botanical book, while ' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius' scale was inverted compared to today, the boiling point at 0 °C and freezing point at 100 °C. In 1745, Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard. ", "The Celsius temperature scale is still sometimes referred to as the \"centigrade\" scale. Centigrade means \"consisting of or divided into 100 degrees.\" The Swedish Astronomer Andres Celsius (1701-1744) developed the centigrade scales for scientific purposes. It has 100 degrees between the freezing point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of pure water at sea-level air pressure. An international conference on weights and measures voted to name the centigrade scale after its inventor in 1948.", "The Celsius temperature scale is also referred to as the \"centigrade\" scale. Centigrade means \"consisting of or divided into 100 degrees\". In 1742, the Celsius scale was invented by Swedish Astronomer Anders Celsius . The Celsius scale has 100 degrees between the freezing point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of pure water at sea level air pressure. The term \"Celsius\" was adopted in 1948 by an international conference on weights and measures.", "In 1743, the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius devised the aptly-named centigrade scale that places exactly 100 degrees between the two reference points defined by the freezing- and boiling points of water.", "This temperature scale was developed by Swedish astronomer Andres Celsius in 1742. Celsius is credited with being the first astronomer to analyze the changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, and he developed measuring tools to assess the brightness of stars .", "Celsius – A scale of measurement for temperature devised by Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it represents degrees from 0 (freezing) to 100 (boiling).", "Various temperature scales have been proposed since his time; in the centigrade, or Celsius, scale, devised by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius and used in most of the world, the freezing point is 0°C, the boiling point is 100°C", "The year Fahrenheit published his original scale, young Anders Celsius (1701 � 1744) was a budding physicist, astronomer and mathematician. He went on to found Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in his native Sweden and a year later, in 1742, proposed his own temperature scale.", "Anders Celsius var en begåvad svensk astronom. Han grundade Sveriges första astronomiska observatorium i Uppsala 1741 men är mest känd för Celsius-temperaturskalan som används i termometrar i hela världen.", "In 1441, King Sejong ‘s son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge . These were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer’s potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer , and was known as the first anemometer. [15] In 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope . In 1611, Johannes Kepler wrote the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: “Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year’s Gift of Hexagonal Snow)”. [16] In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer . [15] In 1662, Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer. [17] In 1742, Anders Celsius , a Swedish astronomer, proposed the “centigrade” temperature scale, the predecessor of the current Celsius scale. [18] In 1783, the first hair hygrometer was demonstrated by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure . In 1802–1803, Luke Howard wrote On the Modification of Clouds, in which he assigns cloud types Latin names. [19] In 1806, Francis Beaufort introduced his system for classifying wind speeds . [20] Near the end of the 19th century the first cloud atlases were published, including the International Cloud Atlas , which has remained in print ever since. The April 1960 launch of the first successful weather satellite , TIROS-1 , marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally.", "Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden in 1701, where he succeeded his father as professor of astronomy in 1730. It was there that he built Sweden's first observatory in 1741, the Uppsala Observatory, where he was appointed director. He devised the centigrade scale or \"Celsius scale\" of temperature in 1742. He was also noted for his promotion of the Gregorian calendar, and his observations of the aurora borealis.", "The work for which Celsius is best known is his creation of a hundred-point scale for temperature, although he was not the first to have done so since several hundred-point scales existed at that time. Celsius' unique and lasting contribution was the modification of assigning the freezing and boiling points of water as the constant temperatures at either end of the scale. When the Celsius scale debuted in 1747 it was the reverse of today's scale, with zero degrees being the boiling point of water and one hundred degrees being the freezing point. A year later the two constants were exchanged, creating the temperature scale we use today. Celsius originally called his scale centigrade (from the Latin for \"hundred steps\"), and for years it was simply referred to as the Swedish thermometer. In 1948 most of the world adopted the hundred-point scale, calling it the Celsius scale.", "Celsius is a familiar name to much of the world since it represents the most widely accepted scale of temperature. It is ironic that its inventor, Anders Celsius, the inventor of the Celsius scale, was primarily an astronomer and did not conceive of his temperature scale until shortly before his death.", "Anders Celsius was not only an inventor and astronomer, but also a physicist. He and an assistant discovered that the aurora borealis had an influence on compass needles. However, the thing that made him famous is his temperature scale, which he based on the boiling and melting points of water. This scale, an inverted form of Celsius' original design, was adopted as the standard and is used in almost all scientific work.", "When Celsius introduced his scale in 1747, it was the reverse of today's scale, with the boiling point of water being zero degrees and the freezing point being one hundred degrees. A year later the two constants were switched, creating the temperature scale used today. Celsius originally called his scale centigrade (from the Latin for \"hundred steps\"). For years it was simply referred to as the Swedish thermometer. In 1948 most of the world adopted the hundred-point scale, calling it the Celsius scale.", "* 1742: Anders Celsius (1701–1744) created a \"backwards\" version of the modern Celsius temperature scale. In Celsius's original scale, zero represented the boiling point of water and 100 represented the melting point of ice. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that ice's melting point was effectively unaffected by pressure. He also determined with remarkable precision how water's boiling point varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that zero on his temperature scale (water's boiling point) would be calibrated at the mean barometric pressure at mean sea level.", "Scientist, Astronomer. Born in Uppsala, Sweden, he was a astronomer, physicist and mathematician noted for developing the temperature scale used in almost all scientific work. Celsius' fixed scale for measuring temperature defines zero degrees as the temperature at which water freezes and 100 degrees as the temperature at which water boils. In 1741, he built Sweden's first observatory. (Bio by: John \"J-Cat\" Griffith )", "The idea of measuring temperature exists a long time. One of the first who wanted to make a temperature scale was Galen (ca. 170). He had a scale of 4 degrees warmth and 4 degrees of cold. The earlier measurement instruments for temperature where called thermo scopes. In 1610 Galileo introduced wine in the thermo scopes instead of air. In 1724 Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced the medium mercury in the thermo scopes. The reason that mercury was used is that the thermal expansion of mercury is large, mostly homogeneous and it does not stick on the glass. Mercury also stays in the liquid phase for a great range of temperature. It is also easy to read.", "In the 1700s, G. Daniel Fahrenheit developed a scale used by meteorologists for measuring surface temperature. The scale was named for the developer, and the unit of measure has become known as degree Fahrenheit (F�). Also in the eighteenth century, a second scale was developed for measuring surface temperature; it became known as the Celsius scale. The unit of measure in the Celsius scale is the degree Celsius (C�). A third scale later developed for use by scientists became known as the Kelvin scale. This scale begins at absolute zero and is sometimes more convenient to use because it does not involve negative temperatures. (The word degree is not used in Kevin measure.)", "He proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, the oldest Swedish scientific society, founded in 1710. His thermometer was calibrated with a value of 100° for the freezing point of water and 0° for the boiling point.", "Celsius was not only an inventor and astronomer, but also a physicist. He and an assistant discovered that the aurora borealis had an influence on compass needles. However, the thing that made him famous is his temperature scale, which he based on the boiling and melting points of water. This scale, an inverted form of Celsius' original design, was adopted as the standard and is used in almost all scientific work.", "He was the first to perform and publish careful experiments seeking to define an international temperature scale based on scientific grounds. In 1742, he proposed a temperature scale based on the boiling and freezing points of water, which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name âCelsiusâ.", "For his meteorological observations he constructed his world famous Celsius thermometer, with 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. After his death in 1744 the scale was reversed to its present form.", "He developed precise thermometers. The Fahrenheit scale was widely used in Europe until a switch to the Celsius scale. It is still used by the general population for everyday temperature measurement in the United States.", "French scientist. He developed breakthroughs in areas as differing as the study of insects and geometry. His lasting legacy was the creation of a new temperature scale, based on the freezing point of water at 0 degrees. Considered more accurate than Fahrenheit, its use quickly became widespread.", "Celsius did not live to see his scale develop into a standard, as he died in 1744. His death prompted a move to officially invert the scale, and by 1747 the scale was already changed on some thermometers.", "Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process which has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However, he wrongly posed the notion that the water was evaporating." ]

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[ "The combination of all the colors of visible light makes white color which can be divided into seven colors with the help of prism and split the white light in the visible color spectrum which we can observe in rainbow.", "The combination of all the colors of visible light makes white color which can be divided into seven colors with the help of a prism and split the white light in the visible color spectrum which we can observe in rainbow.", "Dispersion is the breaking up of white light into its six component colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.", "These are the seven colours on the visible spectrum. Beyond violet are the ultraviolet rays and before red are the infrared rays.", "Sunlight contains many different colors. Normally, we see all the colors mixed together as white light. We see a rainbow when sunlight separates into bands of different colors. These bands of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light are also known as the visible spectrum. ", "White light, or nearly white light from the Sun , contains a continuous distribution of wavelengths. The light from the Sun is essentially that of a blackbody radiator at 5780 K . The wavelengths (spectral colors) of white light can be separated by a dispersive medium like a prism . Even more effective separation can be achieved with a diffraction grating .", "When all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum strike your eye at the same time, white is perceived. The sensation of white is not the result of a single color of light. Rather, the sensation of white is the result of a mixture of two or more colors of light. Thus, visible light - the mix of ROYGBIV - is sometimes referred to as white light. Technically speaking, white is not a color at all - at least not in the sense that there is a light wave with a wavelength that is characteristic of white. Rather, white is the combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum. If all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum give the appearance of white, then none of the wavelengths would lead to the appearance of black. Once more, black is not actually a color. Technically speaking, black is merely the absence of the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum. So when you are in a room with no lights and everything around you appears black, it means that there are no wavelengths of visible light striking your eye as you sight at the surroundings.", "The human eye is sensitive to a narrow band of electromagnetic radiation that lies in the wavelength range between 400 and 700 nanometers, commonly known as the visible light spectrum, which is the only source of color. When combined, all of the wavelengths present in visible light, about a third of the total spectral distribution that successfully passes through the Earth's atmosphere, form colorless white light that can be refracted and dispersed into its component colors by means of a prism. The colors red, green, and blue are classically considered the primary colors because they are fundamental to human vision.", "A rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colours; the distinct bands (including the number of bands) are an artefact of human colour vision, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photo of a rainbow (only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maximum, then fading to a minimum at the other side of the arc). For colours seen by a normal human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence, in English, is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet (popularly memorized by mnemonics like Roy G. Biv). However, colour-blind persons will see fewer colours.", "The spheres diffract white light, breaking it up into the colours of the spectrum. This process is called 'opalescence'. Larger spheres provide all colours, smaller ones only blues and greens.", "As mentioned in the first section of Lesson 2 , our eyes are sensitive to a very narrow band of frequencies within the enormous range of frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. This narrow band of frequencies is referred to as the visible light spectrum. Visible light - that which is detectable by the human eye - consists of wavelengths ranging from approximately 780 nanometer (7.80 x 10-7 m) down to 390 nanometer (3.90 x 10-7 m). Specific wavelengths within the spectrum correspond to a specific color based upon how humans typically perceive light of that wavelength. The long wavelength end of the spectrum corresponds to light that is perceived by humans to be red and the short wavelength end of the spectrum corresponds to light that is perceived to be violet. Other colors within the spectrum include orange, yellow, green and blue. The graphic below depicts the approximate range of wavelengths that are associated with the various perceived colors within the spectrum.", "In addition to bending light as a whole, a prism separates white light into its component colors. Different colors of light have different frequencies, which causes them to travel at different speeds when they move through matter.", "The next step is to invert each of these separations. When a negative image of the red component is produced, the resulting image represents the cyan component of the image. Likewise, negatives are produced of the green and blue components to produce magenta and yellow separations, respectively. This is done because cyan, magenta, and yellow are subtractive primaries which each represent two of the three additive primaries (RGB) after one additive primary has been subtracted from white light.", "When white light passes through a prism, it gets dispersed into the colors of the optical spectrum.", "Two different light spectra that have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. They are metamers of that color. This is exemplified by the white light emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although reflected colors from objects can look different. (This is often exploited; for example, to make fruit or tomatoes look more intensely red.)", "Full-spectrum white light is a combination of all the colors of the rainbow. Shine complete white light on a prism or upon water droplets in the air and you will see a rainbow of all the colors.", "In a rainbow or the separation of colors by a prism we see the continuous range of spectral colors (the visible spectrum ). A spectral color is composed of a single wavelength and can be correlated with wavelength as shown in the chart below (a general guide and not a precise statement about color). It is safe enough to say that monochromatic light like the helium-neon laser is red (632 nm) or that the 3-2 transition from the hydrogen spectrum is red (656 nm) because they fall in the appropriate wavelength range. But most colored objects give off a range of wavelengths and the characterization of color is much more than the statement of wavelength. Perceived colors can be mapped on a chromaticity diagram .", "Modern conceptions of color formation generally derive from the basic experiment of Sir Isaac Newton where he closed himself into a dark room and allowed in only the tiniest slit of light. This slit of light was directed to pass through a prism and onto a white surface. The result was the spectrum of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Newton concluded from this single experiment that the colors of this spectrum are \"hidden\" or \"contained\" in light and can be extracted with the prism. Newton declared that as a result of his experiments he discovered that \"white\" light contains all colors and black is the absence of all colors. Certain pigment mixing experiments may mislead one to consider this viewpoint, but a full analysis of prismatic experiments will quash this error in thinking.", "The word \"color\" actually refers to the light of a particular color, such as red light, yellow light, or blue light. The color of a light beam depends on just one factor: the wavelength of the light. Wavelength is defined as the distance between two exactly identical parts of a given wave. Red light consists of light waves with a wavelength of about 700 nanometers (billionths of a meter), yellow light has wavelengths of about 550 nanometers, and blue light has wavelengths of about 450 nanometers. But the wavelengths of colored light are not limited to specific ranges. For example, waves that have wavelengths of 600, 625, 650, and 675 nanometers would have orange, orangish-red, reddish-orange, and, finally, red colors.", "The visible spectrum. The colors that the human eye can experience are expressed in this gradient graphic. Reds have the longest wavelengths, violets the shortest. Contained in a ray of light but invisible to the human eye are infrareds (below red in the visible spectrum) and ultraviolets (above violet in the visible spectrum). In addition in the visible spectrum, the eye perceives black and white. White contains all colors of the spectrum and is sometimes described as an achromatic color. Black is the absence of all colorâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;no visible light reaches the eye. Alternatively, an exhaustive combination of multiple pigments can reďŹ&#x201A;ect so little light that the eye perceives black.", "This visible spectrum shows all the possible colors that can be made out of monochromatic light. Some light sources, such as lasers and Natrium lights, send out monochromatic light, but in general, light is multichromatic. For example, the sun sends out white light, which is light that contains ALL frequencies! That means the sum of red, yellow, green, blue and violet light looks like white! Physically speaking, it's not white at all, it's the sum of a lot of sine curves, but the human brain makes it look white. Color is thus something psychologically, and not something physical.", "\"A white light source is created by the combination of red light, blue light, and green light.\" [64]", "Light coming from the sun is a combination of all colors, but we are the light of ordinary white. But when the sun on the mirror or the edge of right-angled glass prism, or a soap bubble surface, we see different colors in the light. What happens is that white light is refracted into different wavelengths of light invisible to our eyes as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.", "Visible light is made up of the colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. This rainbow of colors is called the spectrum.", "The very small visible light portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum is received by the human eye on Earth as a composite beam of yellow light which contains many different wavelengths of light.� The human eye distinguishes each different wavelength of visible light as a different �color,� from the longer wavelengths of red to the shorter wavelengths of blue or violet.� When the composite beam of yellow light is passed through a glass prism the individual wavelengths of light are bent or refracted at different angles.� The colors are then spread out in an ordered rainbow-like sequence called a �visible light spectrum.�� Please see Figure 2A .", "Spectrum of white light by a diffraction grating. With a prism, the red end of the spectrum is more …", "The spectrum of white light is as follows (the height of the curve doesn't really matter):", "certain colours or wavelengths of light. How many such pigments do humans need to see the vast", "Let us take for example two objects, one red, the other green. Why this difference in color since both enlightened consequently white light ?", "wavelengths of visible light that are separated when a beam of light passes through a prism; range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. result of refraction.", "D. Photopigments in rods are broken down by the narrowest bandwidth of light. This answer is INCORRECT.", "A class of pigments which, when exposed to visible light, emit light of a different wave length producing a bright appearance." ]

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[ "According to tradition, Archimedes discovered this first law of hydrostatics while trying to determine if a crown fabricated for King Hiero of Syracuse was solid gold or an alloy of gold and silver. While lowering himself into his bath, Archimedes observed that the water level rose. It struck him that the amount of water displaced equaled the immersed portion of his body. He was so over-come by this discovery that he immediately ran from his bath through the streets toward the royal palace shouting \"Eureka!\" (I have found it!).", "According to legend , nothing could get between him [Archimedes] and his work, and sometimes he would even forget to eat.  Ideas would come to him at any moment, and he would scribble them on any available surface.  Famously, he was in the bath when he discovered the laws of buoyancy, leading him to run naked through the streets shouting \" Eureka !\"  …  Eureka means \"I have found it,\" and it could be argued that Archimedes found out more than anyone else before or since.", "He is credited with the invention of Archimedes screw or screw pump, which is a device used to raise the level of water from a lower area to a higher elevation. He is known for the formulation of Archimedes' principle, a hydrostatic principle stating that an object in any liquid is buoyed by force equal to the weight of fluid it displaces. Legend has it that he discovered the principle of buoyancy while taking bath and following the discovery, he ran naked shouting \"Eureka, Eureka,\" meaning I have found it.", "Archimedes was in his bath when he realized that displacement of water (hydrostatic weighing) was the answer to this riddle. The revelation resulted in Archimedes running through the streets shouting, \"Eureka,\" which means, \"I have found it.\"", "The exclamation 'Eureka!' is famously attributed to the ancient Greek scholar Archimedes. He reportedly proclaimed \"Eureka! Eureka!\" (i.e. twice) after he had stepped into a bath and noticed that the water level rose, whereupon he suddenly understood that the volume of water displaced must be equal to the volume of the part of his body he had submerged. (This relation is not what is known as Archimedes' principle—that deals with the upthrust experienced by a body immersed in a fluid. ) He then realized that the volume of irregular objects could be measured with precision, a previously intractable problem. He is said to have been so eager to share his discovery that he leapt out of his bathtub and ran through the streets of Syracuse naked.", "The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush.[63]", "Archimedes is supposed to have had the idea of how to solve King Hiero’s problem when he was taking a bath, noticing the water level moving as he lowered and raised himself. He was so excited that he leaped up and ran naked through the streets of Syracuse shouting ‘Eureka,’ meaning, ‘I’ve found it.’ It seems that even thousands of years ago, scientists had a reputation for being a little crazy!", "Archimedes is said to have been so elated by this discovery that he left his house, racing naked through the streets of Syracuse shouting, “Eureka!” This Greek word means “I have found it,” and is still used in modern times to denote a moment of enlightenment or discovery. The popular legend of Archimedes’ principle illustrates, and may have helped to establish, the common perception of the absent-minded scientist who values knowledge and theory over social niceties such as clothing.", "In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field. He described this phenomenon in what is known as Faraday's law of induction. Later, Franz Ernst Neumann proved that, for a moving conductor in a magnetic field, induction is a consequence of Ampère's force law. In the process he introduced the magnetic vector potential, which was later shown to be equivalent to the underlying mechanism proposed by Faraday.", "In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1905 Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons. This discovery led to the quantum revolution. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially.", "In physics , in particular in the theory of electromagnetism , Faraday's law of induction states that a change in magnetic flux generates an electromotive force (EMF, voltage difference). The law is named after the English scientist Michael Faraday , who discovered in 1831 on basis of observations that a change in a magnetic field induces an electric current. This is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.", "Albert Einstein arriving at his theory of relativity and Isaak Newton getting hit on the head with an apple are both examples of eureka moments.", "exclaimed \"At Last Shout of 'Eureka!' in Age-Old Math Mystery,\" but unknown to them, and to you, there was an error in your proof. What was the error?", "1813  -  Karl Friedrich Gauss rediscovers the divergence theorem of Lagrange. It will later become known as Gauss's law.", "In 1831, Micheal Faraday formulated two laws on the bases of experiments. These laws are called Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction.", "Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, which correctly predicts the magnetic field around any current-carrying wire.", "Professor Robinson didn’t stand still either. He was the first person to publish an inverse-square law for electric forces, and he invented the siren.", "Ohm's law was probably the most important of the early quantitative descriptions of the physics of electricity. We consider it almost obvious today. When Ohm first published his work, this was not the case; critics reacted to his treatment of the subject with hostility. They called his work a \"web of naked fancies\" and the German Minister of Education proclaimed that \"a professor who preached such heresies was unworthy to teach science.\" The prevailing scientific philosophy in Germany at the time asserted that experiments need not be performed to develop an understanding of nature because nature is so well ordered, and that scientific truths may be deduced through reasoning alone. Also, Ohm's brother Martin, a mathematician, was battling the German educational system. These factors hindered the acceptance of Ohm's work, and his work did not become widely accepted until the 1840s. Fortunately, Ohm received recognition for his contributions to science well before he died.", "There is a famous story that Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the principle of gravity when an apple fell on his head. The tale, an exaggerated version of real events, has become so much a part of popular culture that it has been parodied in television commercials. Almost equally well known is the legend of how Archimedes discovered the concept of buoyancy.", "In the ensuing decade following this discovery, Faraday's opportunity for doing original research was severely circumscribed by his lecturing activiites, although he was able to liquefy chlorine in 1823 and discover bicarbuet of hydrogen, later renamed benzene by Eilhard Mitscherlich, in 1825. It was not until nearly ten years to the day after his discovery of electro-magnetic rotations that Faraday was able to resume his work on electro-magnetism, when he discovered on 29 August 1831, electro-magnetic induction. This is the principle behind the electric transformer and generator. It was this discovery, more than any other, that allowed electricity to be turned, during the nineteenth century, from a scientific curiosity into a powerful technology.", "Joseph Henry discovers phenomenon of electrical self inductance. The unit of inductance known as the 'henry' is named after him", "To express his appreciation of Davy's invention of the safety lamp, Joseph Banks, the President of the Royal Society, had written to Davy declaring that his work would place the Royal Society higher in popular opinion than all other abstruse discoveries (beyond the understanding of ordinary people). For his safety lamp, Davy was accorded the Rumford Prize of the Society; and in 1818, he was made a Baronet, the first scientist to be awarded such an honour. (A referee of this paper has drawn to my attention that someone made the comment that if you were responsible for saving the lives of thousands, the reward was a baronetcy, whereas if you were, like Wellington, responsible for the deaths of thousands, the reward was a dukedom.)", "Thomas Alva Edison ( February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman who developed many devices which greatly influenced life in the 20th century . Dubbed \"The Wizard of Menlo Park\" by a newspaper reporter, he was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of mass production to the process of invention, and can therefore be credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory. Some of the inventions attributed to him were not completely original but amounted to improvements of earlier inventions or were actually created by numerous employees working under his direction. Nevertheless, Edison is considered one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding 1,097 U.S. patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom , France , and Germany .", "The Englishman Michael Faraday and the American Joseph Henry independently discover the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. (However, Henry discovered the properties of mutual- and self-induction) In independent experiments, Faraday and Henry observe that an electric current is induced in a closed coil of wire when a magnet is passed through it.", "In 1831, an English scientist, Michael Faraday discovered that when a magnetic field is changed in a circuit, a current is induced in a nearby circuit. Joseph Henry made this discovery at about the same time although Faraday was the first to publish. The phenomenon of generating electromotive force and current by changing magnetic field is known as electromagnetic induction.", "In 1880, Thomas Edison discovered that electrons boiling off of a heated filament and filed a patent on the effect, which is called the \"Edison effect.\"", "By 1839 Faraday was able to bring forth a new and general theory of electrical action. Electricity, whatever it was, caused tensions to be created in matter. When these tensions were rapidly relieved (i.e., when bodies could not take much strain before “snapping” back), then what occurred was a rapid repetition of a cyclical buildup, breakdown, and buildup of tension that, like a wave, was passed along the substance.", "What was so shocking about this discovery in Galileo's time? Why did he rush to publish his discovery?", "Edison became an overnight celebrity. He had been known to the scientific community for some time; now, the public at large knew his name. The New York Daily Graphic christened him \"the Wizard of Menlo Park.\"", "The need was to be solved in a somewhat oblique fashion, for which we need to step back to the early 1600's. It was during that period that a German scientist by the name of Otto von Guericke began experimenting with pressure, or more correctly, the lack of pressure. Guericke had discovered the presence of the third form of matter: gas. To further his experiments, he invented the first air pump. Guericke took the idea for household water pumps, the cylinder and piston, and created it in a form precise enough to have an airtight seal. With this, Guericke could evacutate air from a glass globe and discovering peculiar facts about the vacuum. You could ring a bell in a vacuum and not hear it. Candles went out in it. Small animals died in it. This discovery could have gone any number of ways, but Guericke was also to discover a way to create static electricity, with a spinning ball of sulfur. And so enamored with the newly discovered electric generator (of sorts), Guericke put aside his work with air pumps and vacuums.", "In Britain, William Watson describes watching rays of electricity in a tube. Watson is a contemporary of Benjamin Franklin. Together they originate the principle of conservation of charge: the total quantity of electricity in an insulated system is constant.", "On February 11, 2011, on Thomas Edison's 164th birthday,  Google 's homepage featured an animated  Google Doodle  commemorating his many inventions. When the cursor was hovered over the doodle, a series of mechanisms seemed to move, causing a lightbulb to glow. [87]" ]

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[ "What name is given to the study and use of frequencies above the limits of human hearing?", "S2. What name is given to the study and use of frequencies above the limits of human hearing? Ans. Ultrasonics", "Hertz is used commonly used to measure wave frequencies, such as sound waves, light waves, and radio waves. For example, the average human ear can detect sound waves between 20 and 20,000 Hz. Sound waves close to 20 Hz have a low pitch and are called \"bass\" frequencies. Sound waves above 5,000 Hz have a high pitch and are called \"treble\" frequencies.", "The generally accepted standard range of audible frequencies is 20 to 20,000 Hz, although the range of frequencies individuals hear is greatly influenced by environmental factors. Frequencies below 20 Hz are generally felt rather than heard, assuming the amplitude of the vibration is great enough. Frequencies above 20,000 Hz can sometimes be sensed by young people. High frequencies are the first to be affected by hearing loss due to age and/or prolonged exposure to very loud noises.", "Ultrasonic Sound waves too high in frequency to be heard by the human ear; frequencies above 20,000Hz", "The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies. Humans normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), The upper limit decreases with age. Sometimes sound refers to only those vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for humans or sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz, but are deaf below 40 Hz.", "Infrasonic. Pertaining to frequencies below the audible range, i.e., sub-20 Hz. Note: Sound in the 2-5Hz range played at 100-125dB may produce difficulty in swallowing and slight post-exposure headache. Sound in the 2-5Hz range played at 125-137dB may produce chest wall vibration; difficulty in speaking and voice modulation; swaying sensations; lethargy and drowsiness; and post-exposure fatigue and headaches. Sound in the 5-15Hz range played at 125-137dB may produce middle-ear pain; difficulty in speaking and voice modulation; severe chest wall vibration; severe abdomen vibration and associated feelings of nausea; a falling sensation; lack of concentration and drowsiness; tinnitus; and severe post-exposure fatigue and headaches. According to some researchers, 7Hz is possibly the most disturbing frequency, being close to the natural resonance frequency of many of the internal body organs and being the same frequency as the alpha brainwaves. Sound in the 15-20Hz range played at 125-137dB may produce severe middle ear pain; respiratory difficulties (gagging sensations); nasal cavity vibration; persistent eye watering; tinnitus; sensation of fear; excessive perspiration and shivering; and severe post-exposure fatigue and headaches. [3]", "Example: Many ultrasonic welders have a fundamental operating frequency of 20 kHz, a sound that is at the upper frequency of audibility of the human ear. However, a good deal of noise may be present at 10 kHz, the first subharmonic frequency of the 20-kHz operating frequency, which is audible to most people.", "Spectrum: A band or range of frequencies; the audible spectrum runs from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz).", "Infrasound, sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, is sound that is lower in frequency than 20 Hz (Hertz) or cycles per second, the \"normal\" limit of human hearing.", "Sound that is detectable by group has oftenness from around 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air at standard frigidness and pressure", "A factor of ten. In frequency, humans can hear a range of about 3 decades: 20-200, 200-2000,2000-20,000 Hz", "In hearing perception, it is a band, or range, of frequencies over which the ears tend to combine sounds for purposes of detection or loudness perception. It is not the frequency resolution of hearing, as it relates to the perception of timbre, which is much higher", "Very High Frequency (30-300 MHz ). This includes television channels (2-13 in the US) and the standard commercial FM audio broadcast band right around 100 MHz, as you know if you look at your radio dial or display.", "Ultra high frequency (UHF) is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range between 300 MHz and 3 GHz, also known as the decimetre band as the wavelengths range from one meter to one decimetre. Radio waves with frequencies above the UHF band fall into the SHF (super-high frequency) or microwave frequency range. Lower frequency signals fall into the VHF (very high frequency) or lower bands. UHF radio waves propagate mainly by line of sight; they are blocked by hills and large buildings although the transmission through building walls is strong enough for indoor reception. They are used for television broadcasting, cell phones, satellite communication including GPS, personal radio services including Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, walkie-talkies, cordless phones, and numerous other applications.", "An audio frequency (abbreviation: AF) or audible frequency is characterized as a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the average human. The SI unit of audio frequency is the hertz (Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch. ", "very high frequency (VHF) man-portable radio used at the sharp end for most variety of communications; commonly called 25 set", "The hertz (symbol Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide conclusive proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves.", "ultrahigh frequency (UHL): Limited-range wave bands for television channels (14 to 82) that transmit from 470 to 890 megahertz (MHz), with lower power and over a smaller area than low-band (channels 2 to 6) or high-band (7 to 13) very high frequency (VHF) stations.", "frequency – the rate of oscillation (vibration). Audio and radio wave frequencies are measured in Hertz. (cycles per second)         ", "... One way to study the relationship between sound frequency and ... were asked to perform", "Scientific pioneers in the investigation of perceived loudness as a function of frequency and sound level. See: Loudness Contours’,’Glossary’,775,400,’right’)” class=”link”>Equal Loudness Contours", "Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) . For sound, this means the number of pressure waves per second that would move past a fixed point. It is also the same as the number of vibrations per second the particles are making as they transmit the sound.", "Decibels are still the commonly used units to express ratios in a number of fields, even when the original meaning of the term is obscured. Decibels are the traditional way of expressing gain or margin in such diverse disciplines as control theory, antenna and radio frequency transmission theory, and even assessment of nuclear hardness.", "The difference between the upper and lower usable frequency limits of a circuit, a device, or a communications (radio, TV or digital data transmission) channel", "I would have to see the words in context, but the description \"apparent frequency\" seems strange to me. The frequency your ear detects is exactly what the most sophisticated scientific instrument would measure. The Doppler shift is real in that the frequency your ear detects is really the sound frequency in your frame.", "Overcrowding on the Medium wave band is a serious problem in parts of Europe contributing to the early adoption of VHF FM broadcasting by many stations (particularly in Germany). However, in recent years several European countries (Including Ireland, Poland and, to a lesser extent Switzerland) have started moving away from Medium wave altogether with most/all services moving exclusively to other bands (usually VHF).", "As of 1999, there are also seven radio stations, the most popular being 24-hour VBC (612 kHz, 101.7 MHz) and Europa+ (738 kHz, 104.2 MHz). Europa+ normally broadcasts popular modern British-American music, while the ratio of Russian and foreign songs over VBC is fifty-fifty. Every hour one can hear local news over these radio stations. Radio Vladivostok (1098 kHz) operates from 06:00 till 01:00. It broadcasts several special programs which are devoted to the music of the 1950s-1980s as well as new-age.", "1. In technical terms, vibrations that travel through the air at some 1,087 feet (331 metres) per second at sea level and are heard through their stimulation of organs in the ear.", "1887 Heinrich Hertz experments with parbolic dishes - produces waves at about 30cm - 1 GHz!!!", "The formula that provides the relationship between the frequency emitted by the source and the frequency measured by the listener is:", "What's all this talk about high frequency and low frequency radio waves? What types of things fall in each range?" ]

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[ "When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as all the forces acting on the system cancel each other out.", "One might ask, “If the two forces are equal and opposite, why do they not cancel each other out?” Actually, in some cases they do. Consider a book resting on a table. The weight of the book pushes down on the table with a force mg, while the table pushes up on the book with an equal and opposite force. In this case, the forces cancel each other because the book does not accelerate. The reason for this is that both forces are acting on the same body, while  Newton’s Third Law  describes two different bodies acting on each other. ", "When forces act in the same direction, they combine to make a bigger force. When they act in opposite directions, they can cancel one another out. If the forces acting on an object balance, the object does not move, but may change shape. If the forces combine to make an overall force in one direction, the object moves in that direction.", "The more telling balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of \\scriptstyle f_\\mathrm{la} must exactly cancel the force, \\scriptstyle f_\\mathrm{ls}.", "The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass is sometimes called the invariable plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences, are considered. One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System.", "Examples: 1. when you play tug of war. As one side pulls on the other, there is sometimes no motion at all. But there are forces are work. Those forces are balanced a and so though there is force, there is no motion. 2. a moving car will stop if it hits another moving car, but not if you step on the floorboard because stepping on the floorboard is an internal force. 15 3. You may push a piano and it may not move. That is because the force of gravity uses the weight of the piano as a type of force that keeps balance unless an outside force or external force creates an imbalance. The harder you push, the more of a chance you have of creating an unbalanced force. If you push hard enough you will create an unbalanced force and the piano", "In 1675, Huygens proposed a spiral spring and balance to regulate oscillations. The balance is a wheel with a solid metal (usually brass) rim, secured on a steel spindle; one end of the thin spiral spring (hairspring) is secured to the spindle of the balance wheel, and the other is attached to a fixed support. When set in motion, the system oscillates about its axis; the balance wheel’s moment of inertia and the rigidity of the hairspring determine the system’s period of oscillation. Such an oscillatory system has a natural period of oscillation; it is sufficiently reliable for operation when a watch is worn or a clock is moved.", "If an object is moving at a constant velocity (in equilibrium) then either no forces are exerted on it, or all forces (in a given line) add to zero. Here's an example.", "A pattern of oscillations in space in which the regions of maximum displacement and of zero displacement (the nodes) remain fixed in position. [H76] Standstill", "Statics is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or \"moment\") acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration (a=0), but rather, are in static equilibrium with their environment. When in static equilibrium, the acceleration of the system is zero and the system is either at rest, or its center of mass moves at constant velocity. The application of Newton's second law to a system gives:", "Propositions 43–45 are demonstration that in an eccentric orbit under centripetal force where the apse may move, a steady non-moving orientation of the line of apses is an indicator of an inverse-square law of force.", "The branch of physics that deals with objects that are not in motion and with forces that are offset or counterbalanced by each other.", "Figure 1 Forces are applied perpendicular to the two ends of a rod: the net force on the rod is zero because the applied forces have equal magnitudes, but opposite directions.", "As stated above, it is possible to have two forces acting on an object with no resulting force. The arrows representing the forces are equal in length and opposite in direction. Or there are no forces acting (in a direction) at all! We represent this by the symbols:", "When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the point at which the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered.", "A pattern of oscillations in space in which the regions of maximum displacement and of zero displacement (the nodes) remain fixed in position.", "A force in virtue of which every body persists in its state of motion or rest except so far as it is acted on by some force.", "Scenario A: A force acts rightward upon an object as it is displaced rightward. In such an instance, the force vector and the displacement vector are in the same direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is 0 degrees.", "... objects in motion tend to stay in motion with the same speed and the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.", "In the position shown in (b) for the mass-spring system above, the mass is at its equilibrium position. In this position:", "Consider a flat plane. The center of mass of a flat plane is in its center (more or less – if you want to be more accurate, feel free to do the entire [shriek] integration [shriek] process), and the force of gravity will pull a person toward the middle of the plain. That means that if you stand on the edge of the plane, gravity will be pulling you toward the middle, not straight down like you usually experience.", "n a neutral positioning of a joint by which maximum equilibrium exists between the surfaces and the tension or length relationships of antagonist muscles are stabilized.", "The tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest or an object in motion to remain in motion, unless pushed or pulled by an unbalanced force", "Answer: (c) must not be accelerating. If the forces are balanced, the object will remain in its present state i.e. if it is moving, it will keep on moving with uniform speed. If it is at rest, it will remain at rest.", "The property of a body that resists any change to its uniform straight motion; equivalent to its mass", "Principle of superposition:  displacement due to two or more forces is equal to vector sum of forces.", "placed on such a point on a horizontal surface, the body will roll away, always in", "An object in motion will maintain its state of motion. The presence of an unbalanced force changes the velocity of the object.", "If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since", "There would be nothing authentically stationary involved in its placement effects, since all is relative, so to what absolutely fixed yet overlooked point could it be connected?", "A mechanical system for which two or more coordinates are required to define completely the position of the system at any instant.", "for it deals generally with the stability and movement of bodies about their centres of gravity, and their motions in space, inquiring not only into the causes of those that move in virtue of their nature, but forcibly transferring others from their own places in a motion contrary to their nature; and it contrives to do this by using theorems appropriate to the subject matter." ]

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[ "At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of molecules. This is Avogadro's law.", "Avogadro's Law tells us that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.", "At equal temperatures and equal pressures, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules. This statement is called Avogadro's principle, after Amadeo Avogadro.", "Avogadro's Law (Avogadro's theory; Avogadro's hypothesis) is a principle stated in 1811 by the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) that \"equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules regardless of their chemical nature and physical properties\". This number (Avogadro's number) is 6.022 X 1023. It is the number of molecules of any gas present in a volume of 22.41 L and is the same for the lightest gas (hydrogen) as for a heavy gas such as carbon dioxide or bromine.", "1. Avogadro's principle: At equal temperatures and pressures, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules.", "Volume is related between all gases by Avogadro's hypothesis, which states: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. From this, we derive the molar volume of a gas (volume/moles of gas). This value, at 1 atm, and 0° C is shown below.", "Italian lawyer, chemist, physicist, best known for the “Avogadro’s principle” and “Avogadro’s number”. The Avogadro’s principle states that “equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.” The concepts of", "The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies). Avogadro's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.", "He therefore concluded that equal volumes of gases must contain equal numbers of molecules, Avogadro's principle has been verified so often that it is sometimes called a law.", "There are two parts to Einstein's theory: the first part consists in the formulation of a diffusion equation for Brownian particles, in which the diffusion coefficient is related to the mean squared displacement of a Brownian particle, while the second part consists in relating the diffusion coefficient to measurable physical quantities. In this way Einstein was able to determine the size of atoms, and how many atoms there are in a mole, or the molecular weight in grams, of a gas. In accordance to Avogadro's law this volume is the same for all ideal gases, which is 22.414 liters at standard temperature and pressure. The number of atoms contained in this volume is referred to as Avogadro's number, and the determination of this number is tantamount to the knowledge of the mass of an atom since the latter is obtained by dividing the mass of a mole of the gas by Avogadro's number.", "The relationship between the volume and temperature of a given amount of gas at constant pressure is known as Charles’s law in recognition of the French scientist and balloon flight pioneer Jacques Alexandre César Charles. Charles’s law states that the volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the kelvin scale when the pressure is held constant.", "Gas Laws describing the behavior of a gas (see States Of Matter) under variousconditions of volume (V), pressure (P), and absolute, or Kelvin, Temperature(T). Boyle’s,or Mariotte’s, gas law states that under constant temperature PV = k1. Charles’, or Gay-Lussac’s, law states that under constant pressure V = k2T. A third law states that underconstant volume P = k3T. The constants k1, k2 , and k3 are dependent on the amount ofgas present and, respectively, on the temperature, pressure, and volume of the gas.These three laws can be combined into a single law, or equation of state: PV = kT or Pv= RT, in which v is the specific volume equal to V/n, n is the number of moles of the gas,k is a proportionality constant, and R is the universal gas constant, equal to 8.3149 +103 joules/kg-mole-degree in mks units. These laws are formulated for so-called ideal orperfect gases. Real gases are described more accurately by the van der Waals equation:(P + a/v2) (v - b) = RT , in which ( a ) and ( b ) are specific constants for each gas.", "At a given pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature. This is Charles' law.", "Around 1787 Charles did an experiment where he filled 5 balloons to the same volume with different gases. He then raised the temperature of the balloons to 80 °C and noticed that they all increased in volume by the same amount. This experiment was referenced by Gay-Lussac in 1802 when he published a paper on the precise relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas. Charles' Law states that under constant pressure, an ideal gas' volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of a gas at constant pressure increases linearly with the absolute temperature of the gas. The formula he created was V1/T1 V2/T2.", "3. Whose law describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature ?", "Boyle's Law – A law of physics stating that when gas is subject to compression and kept at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume is a constant quantity, i.e., the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure.", "Boyle's law states that at constant temperature for a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely proportional. The law can also be stated in a slightly different manner, that the product of absolute pressure and volume is always constant.", "* Avogadro's law, in chemistry and physics, is one of the gas laws, relating to the volume and molarity of a gas.", "Robert Boyle (1627–1691): formulated Boyle's law, which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas (if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system), wrote The Sceptical Chymist (seen as cornerstone book in the field of chemistry), regarded as the first modern chemist, one of the founders of modern chemistry", "* Dalton's law, in chemistry and physics, states that the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in a gas mixture. Also called Dalton's law of partial pressure, and related to the ideal gas laws, this empirical law was observed by John Dalton in 1801.", "Or to put it another way \"the principle that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. Thus, the molar volume of all ideal gases at 0� C and a pressure of 1 atm. is 22.4 liters\"", "Here the first equality follows from the first part of Einstein's theory, the third equality follows from the definition of Boltzmann's constant as kB = R / N, and the fourth equality follows from Stokes' formula for the mobility. By measuring the mean squared displacement over a time interval along with the universal gas constant R, the temperature T, the viscosity η, and the particle radius r, Avogadro's number N can be determined.", "Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury, thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an inverse relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the product was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field.", "In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. According to the ideal gas law, pressure varies linearly with temperature and quantity, and inversely with volume. ", "In 1877, Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy. Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics , i.e. according to Erwin Schrödinger , has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy E over N identical systems.", "In 1877, thermodynamicist Ludwig Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy. Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics, i.e. according to Erwin Schrödinger, has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy E over N identical systems.", "7/ Who discovered the law that the volume of a given mass of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure?", "The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of condition, the law can be usefully expressed as", "The gas laws are a set of intuitively obvious statements to most everyone in the Western world today. It's hard to believe that there was ever a time when they weren't understood. And yet someone had to notice these relationships and write them down. For this reason, many students are taught the three most important gas laws by the names of their discoverers. However, since the laws are known by different names in different countries and (more importantly) since I can never remember who gets credit for which law without referring to notes, I will not follow this convention.", "From the kinetic theory of gases, a gas is composed of a large number of molecules that are very small relative to the distance between molecules. The molecules of a gas are in constant, random motion and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container. The molecules possess the physical properties of mass, momentum, and energy. The momentum of a single molecule is the product of its mass and velocity, while the kinetic energy is one half the mass times the square of the velocity. As the gas molecules collide with the walls of a container, as shown on the left of the figure, the molecules impart momentum to the walls, producing a force perpendicular to the wall. The sum of the forces of all the molecules striking the wall divided by the area of the wall is defined to be the pressure. The pressure of a gas is then a measure of the average linear momentum of the moving molecules of a gas. The pressure acts perpendicular (normal) to the wall; the tangential (shear) component of the force is related to the viscosity of the gas.", "(General Physics) the principle that the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume at constant temperature", "The properties of a gas are markedly different from those of a solid or a liquid. For instance, the volume of a given solid or liquid is a quantity that can be measured and that remains essentially fixed provided the temperature doesn’t change. But what is the volume of a gas? The answer, of course, is that the volume of the gas is the same as the volume of its container – change the volume of the container and the volume of the gas changes too. The gas expands to fill the space available. If we confine a quantity of gas in a cubical vessel then, ignoring the effects of gravity, the gas will exert outward forces of equal magnitude on each of the vessel’s walls. This is explained by saying that the gas exerts a pressure on each of the surfaces with which it is in contact. To be precise, the pressure on any one of the surfaces is given by the strength of the force perpendicular to that surface, divided by the area of that surface. In other words, the pressure is a measure of the magnitude of the perpendicular force per unit area, and can be calculated from the equation:" ]

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[ "resistance of a fluid to flow. This resistance acts against the motion of any solid object through the fluid and also against motion of the fluid itself past stationary obstacles.", "This definition does not address the issue of how fast the deformation occurs and as we shall see later this rate is dependent on many factors including the properties of the fluid itself. The inability of fluids to resist shearing stress gives them their characteristic ability to change shape or to flow; their inability to support tension stress is an engineering assumption, but it is a well-justified assumption because such stresses, which depend on intermolecular cohesion, are usually extremely small.....", "This definition does not address the issue of how fast the deformation occurs and as we shall see later this rate is dependent on many factors including the properties of the fluid itself. The inability of fluids to resist shearing stress gives them their characteristic ability to change shape or to flow; their inability to support tension stress is an engineering assumption, but it is a well-justified assumption because such stresses, which depend on intermolecular cohesion, are usually extremely small..... Because fluids cannot support shearing stresses, it does not follow that such stresses are nonexistent in fluids. During the flow of real fluids, the shearing stresses assume an important role, and their prediction is a vital part of engineering work. Without flow, however, shearing stresses cannot exist, and compression stress or pressure is the only stress to be considered (Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 7th edition, by R.L. Street, G.Z. Watters and J.K. Vennard, John Wiley \\& Sons, 1996).", "Viscosity is a property of a fluid which is used to characterize its resistance to flow under applied forces. If we consider the difference between water and treacle, and note that treacle is more viscous, then the concept is quite familiar. Viscosity can be thought of as internal friction in a fluid, which acts both between a fluid and a bounding solid surface and between internal elements of the fluid itself. In order to define viscosity more precisely, we need to examine a fluid under shear stress.", "Viscosity: Resistance of a liquid to flow. Thick liquids have high viscosity, thin liquids have low viscosity.", "Viscosity -- A measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. For liquids, viscosity increases with decreasing temperature.", "Viscosity: A measure of the resistance to the flow of a liquid. Viscous liquids flow very slowly; less viscous fluids flow more quickly. For example, water has a low viscosity, while oil has a higher viscosity.", "A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called \"Stokes' drag\" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:", "* the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).This also means that all liquids have the property of fluidity.", "The ability of additives in the fluid to resist changes in their performance during storage or use.", "Fluidity:  The ability of a material to flow.  The ease of flow of a material.  As opposed to viscosity, the greater the viscosity the less fluidity.", "Measurement of the flow properties of a material expressed as its resistance to flow. Unit of measurement and temperature are included.", "Reynolds publishes An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water in parallel channels shall be direct or sinuous and of the law of resistance in parallel channels. The \"Reynolds number\" (as it is now called) used in modelling fluid flow appears in this work.", "Fluids Matter that has the ability to flow or be poured; the individual molecules of a fluid are able to move, rolling over or by one another", "Because fluids cannot support shearing stresses, it does not follow that such stresses are nonexistent in fluids. During the flow of real fluids, the shearing stresses assume an important role, and their prediction is a vital part of engineering work. Without flow, however, shearing stresses cannot exist, and compression stress or pressure is the only stress to be considered (A Physical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, by A. J. Smits, John Wiley & Sons, 2000).", "1)Viscosity is the friction of fluid flow. The small-scale fluid friction that is due to the random motion of the molecules is called molecular viscosity. The larger scale internal friction produced by turbulent flow is called eddy viscosity. 2) Mechanical turbulence is created by twisting eddies that form as the wind blows past obstructions. Thermal turbulence results as rising and sinking air forms when the earth's surface is heated unevenly by the sun", "Frictional force overcome in sliding one \"layer\" of fluid along another, as in any fluid flow.", "Fluid friction occurs between the molecules of a gas or liquid in motion, and is expressed as shear stress .", "Form (pressure) resistance is the result of the hull pushing water out of its way, and the water returning to form a turbulent wake (eddies). It is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the underwater portion of the hull, and affected by the shape of the bow and stern. For ships with easy curves at bow and stern, eddymaking resistance is about 8% of the frictional resistance (White 449).", "For heat conduction from one fluid to another through a barrier, it is sometimes important to consider the conductance of the thin film of fluid that remains stationary next to the barrier. This thin film of fluid is difficult to quantify because its characteristics depend upon complex conditions of turbulence and viscosity—but when dealing with thin high-conductance barriers it can sometimes be quite significant.", "Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, and speed of the object. One way to express this is by means of the drag equation:", "Fluid mechanics is a subject with almost endless ramifications, and the account that follows is necessarily incomplete. Some knowledge of the basic properties of fluids will be needed; a survey of the most relevant properties is given in the next section. For further details, see thermodynamics and liquid .", "The concept of compressibility goes a long way to explain the thin design of leading edges of high-speed wings and fuselage designs, and aeronautical engineers attempt to reduce as much as possible the effects of compressibility.  Essentially, compressibility inhibits laminar flow, and instead of the air particles accelerating smoothly, the speed of airflow decreases dramatically.", "Fluid, such as a grease or a polymer-containing oil (e.g., multi-grade oil), in which shear stress is not proportional to shear rate.", "Introduction Pressure Streamline flow Bernoulliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s principle Viscosity Reynolds number Surface tension Summary Points to ponder Exercises Additional exercises Appendix", "A characteristic of multi-component liquids that have a variable ratio of shear stress over shear rate (variable viscosity depending on conditions).", "Gates (U.S. Pat. No. 3,649,426) describes the use of a dilatant dispersion consisting of small rigid particulates suspended in an environmentally stable liquid, such as glycerin. In this case, the solid-liquid dispersion is dilatant, and remains flowable in the armor material. The dilatant dispersion is confined in flexible cellular compartments which could be placed behind conventional protective armors. However, the necessity of a cellular containment structure results in a material system which is bulky, heavy, and relatively inflexible.", "Similar arguments could be used to describe the effects of pressure on viscosity, where it may be assumed that the viscosity is chiefly a function of the volume for liquids with a finite compressibility. An increasing viscosity with rise of pressure is therefore expected. In addition, if the volume is expanded by heat but reduced again by pressure, the viscosity remains the same.", "an opening through which a fluid can pass; a restriction placed in a pipe to provide a means of measuring flow.", "A characteristic of one-component liquids which have a constant ratio of shear stress over shear rate (constant viscosity)", "Hello, Hey, you really have a great web page on viscosity! One of the challenges I have as an oil well drilling engineer is trying to explain viscosity and its effects on the friction pressure. When you have long well-bores, and you try to pump fluids in (or out), the friction pressures can be in 100’s or 1000’s of psi. If the friction pressure gets too high, subsurface formations may break down, and the fluid may go where you don’t want it to. Lisa Denke Diatomite Drilling Engineer", "⎡⎛ A ⎞2 ⎤ ρv1 ⎢⎜ a ⎟ – 1⎥ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ So that the speed of fluid at wide neck is" ]

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[ "Q: What is described as an ionized gas with approximately equal numbers of positive and negative charges? A: Plasma.", "in physics, fully ionized gas of low density, containing approximately equal numbers of positive and negative ions (see electron and ion). It is electrically conductive and is affected by magnetic fields.", "in physics, fully ionized gas of low density, containing approximately equal numbers of positive and negative ions (see electron electron,", "An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion). Monatomic ions are formed from single atoms, while polyatomic ions are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge.", "Atoms are normally neutral, that is there are the same number of protons (positive charges) in an atom, as there are electrons (negative charges). If an atom has too many or too few electrons, it is called an ion. If there are too many electrons it is a negative ion (since electrons have a negative charge.) If it has too few electrons it is a positive ion. Dissolve table salt in water and the NaCl molecule becomes Na+and Cl- in solution. In the Earth's atmosphere, N2 (nitrogen molecule) and O2 (oxygen molecule) may lose an electron when struck by a cosmic ray and become the ions N2+ and O2+. Sunlight and starlight can ionize elements and compounds. In interstellar gas, neutral H atoms may become H+, a bare proton with no electron.", "The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal (\"quasineutrality\"). A plasma with a significant excess of charge density, or, in the extreme case, is composed of a single species, is called a non-neutral plasma. In such a plasma, electric fields play a dominant role. Examples are charged particle beams, an electron cloud in a Penning trap and positron plasmas. ", "is concerned with the study of highly ionized gases- that is, gases that have been separated into positively and negatively charged particles.", "Ionic Gas. Also known as ionized gas. Gas whose atoms have lost or gained electrons, causing them to be electrically charged. In astronomy, this term is most often used to describe the gas around hot stars where the high temperature causes atoms to lose electrons.", "Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nuclei of atoms by the attraction between opposite electric charges. In a neutral atom the number of electrons is identical to the number of positive charges on the nucleus. Any atom, however, may have more or fewer electrons than positive charges and thus be negatively or positively charged as a whole; these charged atoms are known as ions. Not all electrons are associated with atoms. Some occur in a free state with ions in the form of matter known as plasma.", "Ionized gas – Gas heated to a state where it contains ions and free-floating electrons. Also referred to as plasma.", "Subjecting a gas to these conditions is known as ionization. There are different ways for a gas to undergo this process. One way to ionize gas is photoionization in the upper layers of the Earth’s atmosphere, which occurs as UV or X-radiation photons interact with neutral molecules. As a result the molecule turns into a positively charged ion. On the other hand, if a free electron joins a neutral molecule, this molecule becomes a negatively charged ion. A different kind of ionization, known as impact ionization occurs in the lower levels of the Earth’s atmosphere. It happens as a result of collisions between molecules of gas and particles emitted by solar radiation and cosmic rays.", "PLASMA Plasma is loosely described as an electrically neutral medium of positive and negative particles (i.e. the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). It is important to note that although they are unbound, these particles are not ‘free’. When the charges move they generate electrical currents with magnetic fields, and as a result, they are affected by each other’s fields. This governs their collective behavior with many degrees of freedom. A definition can have three criteria", "A gas that is ionized sufficiently to be a good electrical conductor and be affected by magnetic fields.", "Negative ion Atom or particle that has a surplus, or imbalance, of electrons and, thus, a negative charge", "where ee and ei are the charges of the electrons and ions, ne and n, are the electron and ion densities, and k is the Boltz-mann constant (the Gaussian system of units is used here and below). Consequently, only when this condition is satisfied may we speak of a plasma as such. The electric field of an individual particle in a plasma is “shielded” by particles of the opposite sign —that is, it practically vanishes—at distances of the order of D from the particle. The value of D determines also the penetration depth of an external electrostatic field into the plasma; shielding of this field is also caused by the appearance in the plasma of compensating fields of space charges. Quasi-neutrality may be violated near the plasma surface, where the faster electrons can fly out to a distance of ~ D because of momentum stemming from their thermal motion (Figure 1).", "Term applied to an atom or molecule in which the charges are aligned so that one side has a slight excess of positive charge and the other side a slight excess of negative charge.", "matter consisting of particles with charges opposite that of ordinary matter. In antimatter, protons have a negative charge while electrons have a positive charge.", "An electrical conductive gas comprised of neutral particles, ionized particles, and free electrons but which, taken as a whole, is electrically neutral.", "First, if an atom is electrically neutral overall, then the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Because these particles have the same but opposite charges, equal numbers cancel out, producing a neutral atom.", "electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in", "4. Physics An electrically neutral, highly ionized phase of matter composed of ions, electrons, and neutral particles. It is distinct from solids, liquids, and gases.", "are the carriers of positive electric charge in the nucleus; the proton charge is exactly the same as the electron charge, but of opposite sign. This means that in any [electrically neutral] atom, the number of protons in the nucleus (often referred to as the nuclear charge) is balanced by the same number of electrons outside the nucleus.", "Ions form from elements when they gain or lose an electron causing the number of protons to be unequal to the number of electrons, resulting in a net charge.", "The positive ion that results when an atom or group of atoms loses one or more electrons.", "The ionisation occurs as a result of radiation, mainly from the sun, striking molecules of air with sufficient energy to release electrons and leave positive ions.", "Albert Einstein - context of quote �Why is the electron negative?� - Large image (800 x 600 px)", "The sign of the electric discharge associated with a given object, as an electrode or an ion .", "In contrast to a gas, the pressure and the density are provided by separate species, the pressure by the electrons and the density by the ions. The two are coupled through a fluctuating electric field.", "- is a charged particle which has two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.", "one of the electrically charged particles formed in a gas by electric discharge or the like.", "In the hopes of confounding scientific minds, would you consider it possible that a positively charged ion actually has positrons in place of electrons?", "Geissler tube : An experimental discharge tube with two electrodes at opposite ends, used to demonstrate and study the luminous effects of electric discharges through various gases at low pressures." ]

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[ "A core damage accident is caused by the loss of sufficient cooling for the nuclear fuel within the reactor core. The reason may be one of several factors, including a loss-of-pressure-control accident, a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA), an uncontrolled power excursion or, in reactors without a pressure vessel, a fire within the reactor core. Failures in control systems may cause a series of events resulting in loss of cooling. Contemporary safety principles of defense in depth ensure that multiple layers of safety systems are always present to make such accidents unlikely.", "A core damage accident is caused by the loss of sufficient cooling for the nuclear fuel within the reactor core. The reason may be one of several factors, including a loss-of-pressure-control accident, a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA), an uncontrolled power excursion or, in reactors without a pressure vessel, a fire within the reactor core. Failures in control systems may cause a series of events resulting in loss of cooling. Contemporary safety principles of ", "The 1957 Kyshtym disaster occurred when the failure of the cooling system for a tank storing tens of thousands of tons of dissolved nuclear waste resulted in a non-nuclear explosion having a force estimated at about 75 tons of TNT (310 gigajoules), which released some 20 MCi (740 petabecquerels) of radiation. [13] Subsequently, at least 200 people died of radiation sickness, 10,000 people were evacuated from their homes, and 470,000 people were exposed to radiation.", "Since cooling pumps require electricity to cool a reactor after a SCRAM, in the event of a power grid failure, Chernobyl's reactors had three backup ; these could start up in 15 seconds, but took 60–75 seconds", "The world's most serious nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986 when the plant at Chernobyl, Russia exploded. The Chernobyl reactor is an RMBK type reactor, which uses water as the coolant and graphite as the moderator with natural uranium. As a result of a poorly conducted test, the coolant ended up at a low level in the reactor vessel, which prompted the removal of some control rods. When the power increased back to normal levels, there was not enough time to replace them. Thus, the coolant was at a very low level and began to boil. Due to the reactor design, the graphite moderator was still intact, and the chain reaction continued. The high temperature and heat built up and caused two chemical explosions (like dynamite), not nuclear ones, which blew off part of the top of the reactor building. Note that there was not a sophisticated containment structure surrounding the reactor vessel like those in the United States. As a result, a large amount of the radioactivity that was once in the reactor core was dispersed to the surrounding areas as radioactive dust. The fires were eventually put out by dropping sand onto the reactor by helicopter.", "After almost 80 minutes of slow temperature rise, the primary loop's four main reactor coolant pumps began to cavitate as a steam bubble/water mixture, rather than water, passed through them. The pumps were shut down, and it was believed that natural circulation would continue the water movement. Steam in the system prevented flow through the core, and as the water stopped circulating it was converted to steam in increasing amounts. About 130 minutes after the first malfunction, the top of the reactor core was exposed and the intense heat caused a reaction to occur between the steam forming in the reactor core and the Zircaloy nuclear fuel rod cladding, yielding zirconium dioxide, hydrogen, and additional heat. This reaction melted the nuclear fuel rod cladding and damaged the fuel pellets, which released radioactive isotopes to the reactor coolant, and produced hydrogen gas that is believed to have caused a small explosion in the containment building later that afternoon. ", "In both the Three Mile Island (TMI) and Fukushima accidents the problems started after the reactors were shut down – immediately at TMI and after an hour at Fukushima, when the tsunami arrived. The need to remove decay heat from the fuel was not met in each case, so core melting started to occur within a few hours. Cooling requires water circulation and an external heat sink. If pumps cannot run due to lack of power, gravity must be relied upon, but this will not get water into a pressurised system – either reactor pressure vessel or containment. Hence there is provision for relieving pressure, sometimes with a vent system, but this must work and be controlled without power. There is a question of filters or scrubbers in the vent system: these need to be such that they do not block due to solids being carried. Ideally any vent system should deal with any large amounts of hydrogen, as at Fukushima, and have minimum potential to spread radioactivity outside the plant. Filtered containment ventilation systems (FCVSs) are being retrofitted to some reactors which did not already have them, or any of sufficient capacity, following the Fukushima accident. The basic premise of a FCVS is that, independent of the state of the reactor itself, the catastrophic failure of the containment structure can be avoided by discharging steam, air and incondensable gases like hydrogen to the atmosphere.", "Whatever had jammed the control-rod assemblies seemed to be affecting the primary cooling loops, which carried 600 degree, 2155-psi water through the reactor vessel. Pressure in the loops was decreasing, allowing the water to boil in this superheated chamber. Finally there was a rupture, spraying water and debris throughout the vessel. Fuel rods bent against one another, magnifying the rate of fission. Then a series of violent steam explosions far exceeding design limits breached the reactor's containment capacity and allowed immediate release of radiation with no warning.", "\"Nuclear meltdown\" is an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating. The term is not officially defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency or by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. However, it has been defined to mean the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and is in common usage a reference to the core's either complete or partial collapse. \"Core melt accident\" and \"partial core melt\" are the analogous technical terms for a meltdown.", "The Three Mile Island accident in 1979 demonstrated the importance of the inherent safety features. Despite the fact that about half of the reactor core melted, radionuclides released from the melted fuel mostly plated out on the inside of the plant or dissolved in condensing steam. The containment building which housed the reactor further prevented any significant release of radioactivity. The accident was attributed to mechanical failure and operator confusion. The reactor's other protection systems also functioned as designed. The emergency core cooling system would have prevented any damage to the reactor but for the intervention of the operators.", "At this time people started talking about the possibility of core meltdown, because if cooling cannot be restored, the core will eventually melt (after several days), and will likely be contained in the containment. Note that the term “meltdown” has a vague definition. “Fuel failure” is a better term to describe the failure of the fuel rod barrier (Zircaloy).  This will occur before the fuel melts, and results from mechanical, chemical, or thermal failures (too much pressure, too much oxidation, or too hot).", "A series of operator actions, including the disabling of automatic shutdown mechanisms, preceded the attempted test early on 26 April. By the time that the operator moved to shut down the reactor, the reactor was in an extremely unstable condition. A peculiarity of the design of the control rods caused a dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor (see Chernobyl Accident Appendix 1: Sequence of Events ).", "There have been cases where one of the lines of defense has failed in nuclear power plants. Utilities have been heavily fined by the NRC for such things as leaving a valve closed and thereby compromising the effectiveness of one of the emergency systems. These incidents are often given publicity as failures that could lead to a meltdown. But the media coverage rarely bothers to point out that there are several lines of defense remaining unbreached between these events and a meltdown not to mention that there is still a major line of defense, the containment, remaining even if a meltdown occurs.", "There have been a number of accidents in experimental reactors and in one military plutonium-producing reactor, including a number of core melts, but none of these has resulted in loss of life outside the actual plant, or long-term environmental contamination. Elsewhere (Safety of Nuclear Power info paper appendix) we tabulate these, along with the most serious commercial plant accidents. The list of ten probably corresponds to incidents rating 4 or higher on today’s International Nuclear Event Scale (Table 4). All except Browns Ferry and Vandellos involved damage to or malfunction of the reactor core. At Browns Ferry a fire damaged control cables and resulted in an 18-month shutdown for repairs; at Vandellos a turbine fire made the 17-year old plant uneconomic to repair.", "The Three Mile Island accident was a compounded group of emergencies that led to core damage. What led to this was an erroneous decision by operators to shut down the ECCS during an emergency condition due to gauge readings that were either incorrect or misinterpreted; this caused another emergency condition that, several hours after the fact, led to core exposure and a core damage incident. If the ECCS had been allowed to function, it would have prevented both exposure and core damage. During the Fukushima incident the emergency cooling system had also been manually shut down several minutes after it started.", "Also, before a possible meltdown occurs, pressure can already be rising in the reactor, and to prevent a meltdown by restoring the cooling of the core, operators are allowed to reduce the pressure in the reactor by releasing (radioactive) steam into the environment. This enables them to inject additional cooling water into the reactor again.", "It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo a nuclear chain reaction that results in an explosion of power comparable with a nuclear weapon, but even low-powered explosions due to uncontrolled chain reactions, that would be considered \"fizzles\" in a bomb, may still cause considerable damage and meltdown in a reactor. For example, the Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air. Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.", "The accident began about 4 a.m. on Wednesday, March 28, 1979, when the plant experienced a failure in the secondary, non-nuclear section of the plant (one of two reactors on the site). Either a mechanical or electrical failure prevented the main feedwater pumps from sending water to the steam generators that remove heat from the reactor core. This caused the plant's turbine-generator and then the reactor itself to automatically shut down. Immediately, the pressure in the primary system (the nuclear portion of the plant) began to increase. In order to control that pressure, the pilot-operated relief valve (a valve located at the top of the pressurizer) opened. The valve should have closed when the pressure fell to proper levels, but it became stuck open. Instruments in the control room, however, indicated to the plant staff that the valve was closed. As a result, the plant staff was unaware that cooling water was pouring out of the stuck-open valve.", "* In the most serious example, the Chernobyl disaster, design flaws and operator negligence led to a power excursion that subsequently caused a meltdown. According to a report released by the Chernobyl Forum (consisting of numerous United Nations agencies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency and the World Health Organization; the World Bank; and the Governments of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia) the disaster killed twenty-eight people due to acute radiation syndrome, could possibly result in up to four thousand fatal cancers at an unknown time in the future and required the permanent evacuation of an exclusion zone around the reactor.", "When the experiment was started, coolant flow into the core decreased dramatically and caused a rapid rise in the reactor power and heat output, converting most of the water to steam. It was at this point that the control rods were lowered to stop the rapid core power increase. However, the design of the Soviet control rods has a graphite tip which when inserted into the reactor, displaces coolant and temporarily increases the nuclear reaction. This caused a massive power spike and led to an explosion that all but destroyed the core. Shortly thereafter a second more powerful explosion occurred that destroyed the plant, killed most of the people inside, and caused a massive release of radiation.", "In the most serious example, the Chernobyl disaster, design flaws and operator negligence led to a power excursion that subsequently caused a meltdown. According to a report released by the Chernobyl Forum (consisting of numerous United Nations agencies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency and the World Health Organization; the World Bank; and the Governments of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia) the disaster killed twenty-eight people due to acute radiation syndrome, could possibly result in up to four thousand fatal cancers at an unknown time in the future and required the permanent evacuation of an exclusion zone around the reactor.", "Contrary to safety regulations, a combustible material ( bitumen ) had been used in the construction of the roof of the reactor building and the turbine hall. Ejected material had ignited at least five fires on the roof of the (still operating) adjacent reactor 3. It was imperative to put those fires out and protect the cooling systems of reactor 3. [26] Inside reactor 3, the chief of the night shift, Yuri Bagdasarov, wanted to shut down the reactor immediately, but chief engineer Nikolai Fomin would not allow this. The operators were given respirators and potassium iodide tablets and told to continue working. At 05:00, however, Bagdasarov made his own decision to stop the reactor, leaving only those operators there who had to work the emergency cooling systems. [27]", "A second, more powerful explosion occurred about two or three seconds after the first; this explosion dispersed the damaged core and effectively terminated the nuclear chain reaction . However, this explosion also compromised more of the reactor containment vessel and ejected superheated lumps of graphite moderator. The ejected graphite and the demolished channels still in the remains of the reactor vessel caught fire on exposure to air, greatly contributing to the spread of radioactive fallout and the contamination of outlying areas. [31]", "To prevent meltdown, the operators reinserted all the 200-some control rods into the reactor at once. The control rods were meant to reduce the reaction but had a design flaw: graphite tips. So, before the control rod’s five meters of absorbent material could penetrate the core, 200 graphite tips simultaneously entered, thus facilitating the reaction and causing an explosion that blew off the heavy steel and concrete lid of the reactor. It was not a nuclear explosion, as nuclear power plants are incapable of producing such a reaction, but was chemical, driven by the ignition of gases and steam that were generated by the runaway reaction. In the explosion and ensuing fire, more than 50 tons of radioactive material were released into the atmosphere, where it was carried by air currents.", "At 1:23:40, as recorded by the SKALA centralized control system, an emergency shutdown (SCRAM) of the reactor was initiated. The SCRAM was started when the EPS-5 button (also known as the AZ-5 button) of the reactor emergency protection system was pressed: this engaged the drive mechanism on all control rods to fully insert them, including the manual control rods that had been incautiously withdrawn earlier. The reason why the EPS-5 button was pressed is not known, whether it was done as an emergency measure in response to rising temperatures, or simply as a routine method of shutting down the reactor upon completion of the experiment.", "Aleksandr Kudryavtsev and Viktor Proskuryakov, the SIUR trainees from other shifts, were present to watch Toptunov and learn. After the explosion they were sent by Dyatlov or Akimov to the central hall to turn the handles of the system for manually lowering of the presumably seized control rods. They ran through the deaerator gallery to the right to the VRSO unit elevator, found it destroyed, so climbed up the staircase instead, towards Level 36; they missed Kurguz and Genrikh, who used another stairwell. Level 36 was destroyed, covered with rubble. They went through a narrow corridor towards the central hall, entered the reactor hall, and found it blocked with rubble and fragments; dangling fire hoses were pouring water into the remains of the reactor core, the firemen not there anymore. The Upper Biological Shield was slanted, jammed into the reactor shaft; a blue and red fire raged in the hole. The minute the two stood above the reactor was enough to darken their bodies with “nuclear tan” and give them a fatal radiation dose. They returned to Level 10 and to the control room, reporting the situation; Dyatlov insisted they were wrong, the explosion had been caused by hydrogen-oxygen mixture in the 110m³ emergency tank and the reactor itself was intact.", "The head of the night shift, Alexander Akinhov, and the engi-neer responsible for industrial management, Anatoly Diatlov, do not believe that an accident has taken place. When some-body claims the core has exploded, they send out operators to examine the core. These people are killed by radiation. On hearing the report that the reactor has been destroyed Aki-mov cries out, \"The reactor is OK, we have no problems.\" Akimov and Diatlov, assisted by manager Bryukhanov and engineer N.Fomin, keep ordering the operators to add more cooling water. They remain convinced that there is nothing wrong. Akimov and Toptunov, who was responsible for the control rods, both died of radiation illness. Diatlov and Fomin were both sentenced to ten years imprisonment for infringe-ment of the safety regulations. However, at the end of 1990 they were both released. ", "A similar situation occurred during the Chernobyl disaster: after the reactor was destroyed and began to burn, a liquid corium mass from the melting core began to breach the concrete floor of the reactor vessel, which was situated above the bubbler pool (a large water reservoir for emergency pumps, also designed to safely contain steam pipe ruptures). The RBMK had no allowance or planning for core meltdowns, and the imminent interaction of the core mass with the bubbler pool would have produced a massive steam explosion, likely destroying the entire plant (vastly increasing the spread and magnitude of the radioactive plume). It was therefore necessary to drain the bubbler pool before the corium reached it. However, the initial explosion had broken the control circuitry which allowed the pool to be emptied. Three volunteer divers gave their lives to manually operate the valves necessary to drain this pool, and later images of the corium mass in the pipes of the bubbler pool's basement reinforced the heroic necessity of their actions. This story is based on a TASS release (in Russian) [http://www.myslenedrevo.com.ua/uk/Sci/HistSources/Chornobyl/1986/05/16/ChernobylAdresMuzhestva.html Чернобыль: адрес мужества].", "A similar situation occurred during the Chernobyl disaster: after the reactor was destroyed and began to burn, a liquid corium mass from the melting core began to breach the concrete floor of the reactor vessel, which was situated above the bubbler pool (a large water reservoir for emergency pumps, also designed to safely contain steam pipe ruptures). The RBMK had no allowance or planning for core meltdowns, and the imminent interaction of the core mass with the bubbler pool would have produced a massive steam explosion, likely destroying the entire plant (vastly increasing the spread and magnitude of the radioactive plume). It was therefore necessary to drain the bubbler pool before the corium reached it. However, the initial explosion had broken the control circuitry which allowed the pool to be emptied. Three volunteer divers gave their lives to manually operate the valves necessary to drain this pool, and later images of the corium mass in the pipes of the bubbler pool's basement reinforced the heroic necessity of their actions.", "An expression of the likelihood that, given the way a reactor is designed and operated, an accident could cause the fuel in the reactor to be damaged.", "However, the nuclear plant, while ideologically perfect, was imperfectly designed . Also, it was run with management from a coal-fired [energy] background, so they didn't understand nuclear physics, but they very much understood Soviet ideological pressure. So when something went wrong— as happened on the 26th of April 1986 —it went wrong in a very big way. ", "Aleksandr Akimov  dies having received radiation burns to 100% of his body. A senior reactor operator, at the controls in the control room at the time of the explosion; received fatal dose during attempts to restart the feed water flow into the reactor; posthumously awarded the Order “For Courage” of third degree." ]

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[ "A device which takes in a weak electric signal and sends out a stronger one. Amplifiers are used to boost electrical signals in many electronic devices, including radios, televisions, and telephones. Both vacuum tubes and transistors can be amplifiers, though today vacuum tubes are rarely used for this purpose.", "In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. Because the controlled output power can be much larger than the controlling input power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer, and other electronic systems. From November 17, 1947 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeenand Walter Brattain at AT&T Bell Labs, underwent experimentations and finally observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal was produced whereby the output power was larger than the input. The American physicist and 1956 Nobel Prize winner, William Shockley, saw the potential in this and worked over the next few months greatly expanding the knowledge of semiconductors in order to construct the first point-contact transistor. Shockley is considered by many to be the “father” of the transistor. Hence, in recognition of his work, the transistor is widely, yet not universally acknowledged as the most important invention of the entire 20th century since it forms today’s building blocks of processors found and used in almost every modern computing and electronics device.", "In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. Because the controlled output power can be much larger than the controlling input power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer, and other electronic systems. On November 17, 1947 John Bardeen and Walter Brattain , at AT&T Bell Labs, observed that when electrical contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, the output power was larger than the input. The American physicist and Nobel Prize winner, William Shockley , saw the potential in this and worked over the next few months greatly expanding the knowledge of semiconductors in order to construct the first transistor. Shockley is considered by many to be the \"father\" of the transistor. Hence, in recognition of his work, the transistor is widely, yet not universally acknowledged as the most important invention of the entire 20th century since it forms today’s building blocks of processors found and used in almost every modern computing and electronics device.", "Amplifier: A device which increases or boosts the level of an input signal by increasing its amplitude.", "This allows a more intense signal to reach the brain. This is similar to the way a microphone amplifies our own voices.", "*Repeater: an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. ", "Combined with an amplifier that would increase this signal's amplitude to line voltage and power levels, one can see that this is a powerful tool for measuring the effects of power line noise. Other scripts could be used to generate other types of noise and build a library of distorted power line voltages.", "goggle box - an electronic device that receives television signals and displays them on a screen; \"the British call a tv set a telly\"", "A device which enables an input signal to control a source of power, and thus is capable of delivering at its output an enlarged reproduction of the essential characteristics of the signal.", "The femtowatt is equal to one quadrillionth (10−15) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference(s) to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise require that the RF energy applied to the antenna input be specified. These input levels are often stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load; the specification takes into account the RF input impedance of the tuner.", "(2) Note. The testing or measurement of the device frequently requires thedevice to be placed in an electrical circuit. A complete search for such a circuit would require investigation of the various electrical classes providing for similar circuits based or the proximate function of the circuit, e.g., Classes 329, Demodulators and Detectors; 330, Amplifiers; 331, Oscillators, etc.", "Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) – The comparison of the strength of a signal level to the amount of noise emitted by the device, expressed in dB.", "At the home signal, a similar device had been set up, this time with a red light. The green light was covered.", "Philips/Magnavox used to have a very nice on-line introduction to a variety of consumer electronics technologies. Although their site has disappeared - and even people who work for them have no clue - I have now recovered several of the articles including those on TVs, VCRs, camcorders, satellite reception, and connections. See the Introductory Consumer Electronics Technology Series . These as well as most or all of the other articles, as well a glossary and much more, can be also be accessed via the Internet Archive Wayback Machine . Copy and paste the following URL into the search box:", "A device that reduces the level of a signal when it falls below a specified threshold to exaggerate its dynamic range.", "What occurs when a signal is so loud that it exceeds the capabilities of the device through which it's passing.", "any device that receives a signal or stimulus (as heat or pressure or light or motion etc.) and responds to it in a distinctive manner", "The rapid development of semiconductor physics has revolutionized radio engineering and electronics. Semiconductor devices have supplanted electric vacuum devices. Electronic devices and computers have grown markedly smaller and more reliable, and their power consumption has been reduced significantly. Integrated circuits, which combine thousands of electronic elements on a single small crystal measuring only a few square millimeters in area, have appeared. The ever-greater miniaturization of radio-electronic instruments and devices has led to the creation of microprocessors on several crystals, which perform the operational functions of computers. Tiny computers are fabricated on a single crystal.", "A device capable of intensifying light from a faint source so that it may be more easily detected.", "the earlier Philips EL3400 of 1963. However 5 years later, this is a much more advanced and \"compact\"", "Electronic device using high frequency radio waves to detect objects and display their positions on a monitor.", "An electronic device used for data acquisition, composed of many tiny pixels, each of which records a buildup of charge to measure the amount of light striking it.", "A radio interferometer system utilizing a number of small aerials to achieve the effect of an impossibly large single one.", "‘The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may even have a lens to focus the light into the fiber.’", "A device that converts digital information to analogue information and analogue information to digital information when transferring data over a normal phone line. Modulate / Demodulate", ", 55B, and 55C are schematic illustrations of a digital circuit card that may be used in wireless measuring apparatuses of the invention, and may be used to process data and/or information procured from one or a plurality of measurements or other activities and transmit them to one or a plurality of computers and/or data collection devices for recording, storage, manipulation and/or some other type of a use.", "The use of one or more sensors to obtain imagery from different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum .", "Excellent \"diffraction\" and \"penetrate\" ability can be suitable for real-time wireless image transmission in urban, suburban, building, installation immediately realized immediately.", "Ans. It is a device which forms a photograph, like image of a bright object on a screen.", "It is often said that the human eye has the ability to detect a single photon. This is true in a limited sense not usually understood.", "A low-frequency form of radiation used to control the workings of a machine from a device held at a distance", "Dispersion of electromagnetic radiation characterized by a decrease in refractive index with increase in frequency ." ]

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[ "Q: What was the name of the unit of heat now replaced by the joule? A: Calorie.", "unit of heat energy, now replaced in SI notation by the joule (1 joule = 0.24 calories)", "a unit of heat, equal to 4.1868 joules (International Table calorie): formerly defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C under standard conditions. It has now largely been replaced by the joule for scientific purposes cal Also called gram calorie, small calorie Compare Calorie", "Joule is best known for his determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, for which he received honours, and, more recently, the honour of having his surname adopted as the Système International d'Unités (SI) unit of energy. The SI is the modern form of the metric system, finally agreed in 1960 by the supreme international authority on units of measurement, the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM). Thus the SI supplementary unit of energy, work and quantity of heat is the joule, unit symbol J, this being the equivalent of one Newton metre (N m).", "The International Electrical Congress in 1881 at Paris established the new standards by international agreement, and gave the units the names volt, ohm, ampere and coulomb for potential, resistance, current and charge, respectively. In 1889, 107 ergs, the emu of energy, was named the joule, and joules per second the watt, so that power in watts was volts times amperes. In 1893 the henry replaced the quadrant as the unit of inductance, and the names of the units that we now know were established. Before these agreements, they would not have been widely known and used.", "The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the energy transferred (or work done) to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or N·m). It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889). ", "English physicist who studied the heat, mechanical work and energy.  Discovered the relation between current through a resistance and heat dissipated, now called Joule's law. SI unit of work, the joule is named after him", "Joule was the first scientist to identify this property in 1842 during an experiment with a sample of nickel. He established the relationship between the flow of current through a resistance and the heat dissipated, which was later termed as Joule’s law. He is also credited with the first-ever calculation the velocity of a gas molecule. The derived unit of energy or work, the Joule, is named after him.", "The SI unit of energy is called the joule. Although you may not have heard of joules before, they are simply related to other units of energy with which you probably are familiar. For example, 1 food Calorie (which actually is 1000 \"normal'' calories) is 4,186 joules. House furnaces are rated in btus (British thermal units), indicating how much heat energy they can produce: 1 btu = 1,054 joules. Thus, a single potato chip (having an energy content of about 9 Calories) could also be said to possess 37,674 joules or 35.7 btu's of energy.", "A bust of him, by John Cassidy, can be found in Worthington Park, Sale. Fur James Prescott Joule FRS (/dʒuːl/; (24 December 1818 – 11 October 1889) was an English physicist and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work (see energy). This led to the Law of conservation of energy, and this led to the development of the First law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named for James Joule. He worked with Lord Kelvin to develop the absolute scale of temperature. Joule also made observations of magnetostriction, and he found the relationship between the current through a resistor and the heat dissipated, which is now called Joule's first law.", "a commercial unit of heat energy. The therm is equal to 100 000 Btu . Because there have been several definitions of the Btu, there are two official definitions of the therm. In the U.S., the legal definition (made in 1968) is that the therm equals 105.4804 mega joules . The European Union's definition, made in 1979 using the more current IT Btu, is 105.5060 megajoules. Either way the therm is equal to about 25 200 (large) calories or about 29.3 kilowatt hours of electrical energy. One therm can also be provided by about 96.7 cubic feet of natural gas. The therm has sometimes been confused with the thermie (see below). The names of both units come from the Greek word for heat, therme.", "A unit of heat energy equal to 4.184 joules; used in thermochemistry. Also known as thermochemical calorie.", "Joule     The basic unit of electrical, mechanical, and thermal energy. As a unit of electrical energy it is equal to the energy carried by 1 coulomb of charge being propelled by an electromotive force of 1 volt.  Named for James Joule, the British physicist who established the mechanical theory of heat and discovered the first law of thermodynamics.", "a unit of heat energy equal to the energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1°C at standard atmospheric pressure. 1 Chu is equal to exactly 1.8 Btu , approximately 453.59 IT calories (see above), or 1.8991 kilo joules . The unit is also called the centigrade heat unit.", "This relationship is known as Joule's First Law. The SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and given the symbol J. The commonly known unit of power, the watt, is equivalent to one joule per second.", "The calorie (also called the small calorie or gram calorie) is the CGS unit of heat energy. This calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.� One calorie equals 4.1868 joules or 0.00396832 British thermal units (Btu). There are other definitions that vary slightly from this one, with very slightly differing numbers of joules per calorie. A calculator for various energy-related units can be found here .", "Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor releases heat. It was first studied by James Prescott Joule in 1841. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured the temperature rise due to a known current through the wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the electrical resistance of the wire.", "1841 James Prescott Joule showed that energy is conserved in electrical circuits involving current flow, thermal heating, and chemical transformations. A unit of thermal energy, the Joule , was named after him.", "James Prescott Joule FRS was an English physicist and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work. This led to the theory of conservation of energy, which led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after him.…  Read More", "the SI base unit of temperature, previously called the degree Kelvin (°K). One kelvin represents the same temperature difference as one degree Celsius . In 1967 the General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the temperature of the triple point of water (the temperature at which water exists simultaneously in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states) to be exactly 273.16 kelvins. Since this temperature is also equal to 0.01 °C, the temperature in kelvins is always equal to 273.15 plus the temperature in degrees Celsius. The kelvin equals exactly 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit . The unit is named for the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson (1824-1907), later known as Lord Kelvin after he was named Baron Kelvin of Largs. He is best remembered for his pioneering work on the physics of heat, but he was also a strong advocate of the metric system; his support helped establish the now-familiar electrical units such as the ohm , volt , and farad .", "Joule passed away in 1889 at his home not far from his birthplace. An epitaph for another gentleman-scientist, Benjamin Franklin, said “He seized the lightning from the sky and the scepter from tyrants.” When James Prescott Joule bypassed the caloric theory and determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, it could be said that “He seized the heat from darkness and the work from isolation.”", "Joule in the course of his investigations of the heat emitted in an electrical circuit, formulated the law, now known as Joule's law, of electric heating, which states that the amount of heat produced each second in a conductor by a current of electricity is proportional to the resistance of the conductor and to the square of the current. Joule experimentally verified the law of conservation of energy in his study of the transfer of mechanical energy into heat energy. Using many independent methods, Joule determined the numerical relation between heat and mechanical energy, or the mechanical equivalent of heat. Together with the physicist Lord Kelvin, Joule found that the temperature of a gas falls when it expands without doing any work. This principle, which became known as the Joule-Thomson effect, underlies the operation of common refrigeration and air conditioning systems. His Scientific Papers were published in two volumes in 1885 and 1887.", "In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s. In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments (including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s. The relation between heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published. Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion of the efficiency of an idealized engine. Sadi Carnot's work provided a basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law.", "* Joule's laws are heat laws related to electricity and to gasses, named for James Prescott Joule.", "Joule had discovered the mechanical equivalent of heat, but the scientific community was not ready to accept it.  Though the phlogiston theory of heat had been discredited by the late 1700s, heat was still considered a property of a body, not a form of energy released by work in converting one form of energy to another.  In 1843, he journeyed to Cork and read a paper describing his experiments to the Chemical Section of the British Association, but he says, “the paper did not excite much attention,” except for two who “were interested.”  Polite disdain, perhaps, but in retrospect, J. G. Crowther, author of British scientists of the 19th Century, thinks more highly of it:", "By 1824, the word calorie was being used as a unit of heat ( 1 , 3 , 4 , 12 ). In 1819, Nicholas Clément began giving lectures on the theory of heat and steam engines at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris ( 21 ). Clément was regarded as an industrial chemist or chemical engineer. Among the students was Sadi Carnot ( 3 ) and class notes are available that were taken by L.B. Francoeur and J.M. Baudot ( 2 ). Both Clément and Carnot subscribed to the caloric hypothesis, which stated that heat behaved as a material substance and that its total amount was always conserved ( 2 ). The notes show that Clément defined a large (grande) and small (petite) calorie by 1823–4. A definition is written in Baudot's notes of 23 December 1824:", "a symbol for 1000 British thermal units . This unit of energy equals about 1.055 mega joules (MJ) or 0.2931 kilowatt hour (kWh).", "The calorie was not a unit of heat in the original metric system. Some histories state that a defined Calorie (modern kcal) originated with Favre and Silbermann in 1852 or Mayer in 1848. However, Nicholas Clément introduced Calories in lectures on heat engines that were given in Paris between 1819 and 1824. The Calorie was already defined in Bescherelle's 1845 Dictionnaire National. In 1863, the word entered the English language through translation of Ganot's popular French physics text, which defined a Calorie as the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 to 1°C. Berthelot distinguished between g- and kg-calories by 1879, and Raymond used the kcal in a discussion of human energy needs in an 1894 medical physiology text. The capitalized Calorie as used to indicate 1 kcal on U.S. food labels derives from Atwater's 1887 article on food energy in Century magazine and Farmers' Bulletin 23 in 1894. Formal recognition began in 1896 when the g-calorie was defined as a secondary unit of energy in the cm-g-s measurement system. The thermal calorie was not fully defined until the 20th century, by which time the nutritional Calorie was embedded in U.S. popular culture and nutritional policy.", "..... Click the link for more information.  energy in the metric system. The measurement of heat is called calorimetry calorimetry", "Prior histories of the Calorie in nutrition do not discuss the origin of the calorie or kcal as units of heat ( 9 , 10 ). This article will show that use of the Calorie as a defined unit of heat developed concurrently with the metric system but not as a recognized metric unit and dates to work in chemistry or engineering no later than 1819–1824. A timeline of some key events is shown in Figure 1 .", "the SI unit of work is the joule named after _ _ _, a 19th century _ physicist ", "A historical note: it was James Prescott Joule, not Georg Simon Ohm, who first discovered the mathematical relationship between power dissipation and current through a resistance. This discovery, published in 1841, followed the form of the last equation (P = I2R), and is properly known as Joule's Law. However, these power equations are so commonly associated with the Ohm's Law equations relating voltage, current, and resistance (E=IR ; I=E/R ; and R=E/I) that they are frequently credited to Ohm." ]

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