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[ "Once light has passed through the lens, it continues through the vitreous humor and passes through the retina. Photoreceptor cells in the retina are specialized to detect light and produce nerve signals in response to light. Rods are the more numerous and sensitive of the photoreceptors and are specialized for seeing in low-light situations. They produce grayscale images in low light, but are overwhelmed by light during the day or in a normally lit room at night. Cones, on the other hand, are specialized for detecting light in brighter conditions and are able to differentiate colors. The three types of cone cells – red, green, and blue – are able to detect specific colors, or wavelengths, of light. The combination of the three types of cone cells produces all of the colors that the human eye can detect. Once the photoreceptors have detected light, the cells produce an action potential that is conducted to bipolar cells and ganglion cells in the retina. These cells transmit the signal into the optic nerve, where it travels to the brain to be processed.", "The normal human retina contains two kinds of light sensitive cells: the rod cells (active in low light) and the cone cells (active in normal daylight). Normally, there are three kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment. The cones are activated when the pigments absorb light. The absorption spectra of the pigments differ; one is maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the third to long wavelengths (their peak sensitivities are in the blue, yellowish-green, and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively). It is important to realize that the absorption spectra of all three systems cover much of the visible spectrum, so it is incorrect to refer to them as \"blue\", \"green\" and \"red\" receptors, especially because the \"red\" receptor actually has its peak sensitivity in the yellow. The sensitivity of normal color vision actually depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems: different colors are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to different extents. For example, red light stimulates the long wavelength cones much more than either of the others, but the gradual change in hue seen as wavelength reduces is the result of the other two cone systems being increasingly stimulated as well.", "The normal human retina contains two kinds of light sensitive cells: the rod cells (active in low light) and the cone cells (active in normal daylight). Normally, there are three kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment. The cones are activated when the pigments absorb light. The absorption spectra of the pigments differ; one is maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the third to long wavelengths (their peak sensitivities are in the blue, yellowish-green, and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively). It is important to realize that the absorption spectra of all three systems cover much of the visible spectrum, so it is incorrect to refer to them as \" blue \", \" green \" and \" red \" receptors, especially because the \"red\" receptor actually has its peak sensitivity in the yellow . The sensitivity of normal color vision actually depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems: different colors are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to different extents. For example, red light stimulates the long wavelength cones much more than either of the others, but the gradual change in hue seen as wavelength reduces is the result of the other two cone systems being increasingly stimulated as well.", "are less abundant; however, they are highly concentrated in the macula and fovea, the area on our retina responsible for the most acute vision and color discrimination. There are three types of cones, each with a different sensitivity to light wavelengths. One type of cone perceives blue light, another perceives green and the third perceives red. All three cones work together allowing you to see the whole spectrum of colors. When light enters the eye, the cones become stimulated, and send signals to the brain which are interpreted into the colors you see.", "Here we address these questions by computational modelling and experimental imaging methods. As a first step, we use a computational optical model to analyse light-guiding properties of Müller cells in the human parafoveal retina, and show that human Müller cells separate white light according to its wavelengths; medium- and long-wavelength light is concentrated onto cones and short-wavelength light leaks to illuminate nearby rods. Next, we show similar theoretical calculations for the guinea pig Müller cells and describe imaging experiments in the isolated guinea pig retina, to find remarkable agreement between the experimental results and the computational model. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the wave guiding properties of Müller cells are wavelength-dependent in a manner that improves cone-mediated vision while minimally impeding rod-mediated vision.", "The spatial arrangement of rod and cone cells and their connection to neurons within the retina is presented in Figure 5. Rod cells, containing only the photopigment rhodopsin, have a peak sensitivity to blue-green light (wavelength of about 500 nanometers), although they display a broad range of response throughout the visible spectrum. They are the most common visual receptor cells, with each eye containing about 125-130 million rod cells. The light sensitivity of rod cells is about 1,000 times that of cone cells. However, the images generated by rod stimulation alone are relatively unsharp and confined to shades of gray, similar to those found in a black and white soft-focus photographic image. Rod vision is commonly referred to as scotopic or twilight vision because in low light conditions, shapes and the relative brightness of objects can be distinguished, but not their colors. This mechanism of dark adaptation enables the detection of potential prey and predators via shape and motion in a wide spectrum of vertebrates.", "Our conclusion that retinal Müller cells, via their wavelength-dependent light guiding properties, improve photon absorption by cones, and only slightly reduce photon absorption by rods, is consistent with psychophysical tests in human observers, which are based upon rates of photon absorptions by different types of photoreceptors.", "We showed here, using optical computational analysis, that white light incident upon the parafoveal retina of humans and upon the guinea pig retina, splits according to its spectral components by retinal Müller cells ( Figs 2 and 4 respectively). This was strongly supported by imaging experiments in the isolated guinea pig retina ( Fig. 4 ). The Müller cell, acting as a wavelength-dependent optical fibre, concentrates the red–green part of the spectrum inside the cells, to reach the cones, while allowing blue–violet light to leak towards the surrounding tissue, to illuminate rods. The spectrum of light transmitted through the Müller cells, derived from theoretical calculations based upon data for the human parafoveal retina, matches almost perfectly the absorption spectra of the medium- and long-wavelength human cone photoreceptors. At the same time the spectrum of light leaking outside the Müller cells matches the absorption spectrum of human rod photoreceptors. This leads to a significant gain, by a factor of ~7.5, in photon absorption by human M- and L-cones, and by a factor of ~4 for the human S-cones. This light concentration into cones is not impeding significantly light absorption in human rods' outer segments, since most of the relevant light (wavelength between 400 nm and 500 nm) leaks out from the Müller cells towards the surrounding rods ( Fig. 6 ).", "The back wall of your eye, or retina, is lined with light-sensitive cells that send information into your brain about what you're seeing. The two main types of cells in the retina are called rods and cones. Rods aren't color sensitive, but they help us see when there's not much light, like in a dark room or at night. Cones are color sensitive cells, but they need much more light to work. There are three different kinds of cones. Each kind senses a different color of light - you guessed it! The three colors are Red, Blue and Green!", "The retina contains two major types of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells used for vision: the rods and the cones.", "The retina is a layered structure with several layers of neurons interconnected by synapses. The only neurons that are directly sensitive to light are the photoreceptor cells. For vision, these are of two types: the rods and cones. Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-and-white vision while cones support the perception of colour. A third type of photoreceptor, the photosensitive ganglion cells, is important for entrainment and reflexive responses to the brightness of light.", "The human eye's detection system in the retina consists primarily of two types of light detectors, rod cells that capture light, dark, and shapes/figures, and the cone cells that detect color. A typical retina contains 120 million rods and 4.5 million to 6 million cones, which are divided among three groups that are sensitive to red, green, and blue light. This means that the eye has far more resolution in brightness, or \"luminance\", than in color. However, post-processing in the optic nerve and other portions of the human visual system combine the information from the rods and cones to re-create what appears to be a high-resolution color image.", "Vision starts with the absorption of light by the retinal photoreceptors—cones and rods. However, due to the ‘inverted’ structure of the retina, the incident light must propagate through reflecting and scattering cellular layers before reaching the photoreceptors. It has been recently suggested that Müller cells function as optical fibres in the retina, transferring light illuminating the retinal surface onto the cone photoreceptors. Here we show that Müller cells are wavelength-dependent wave-guides, concentrating the green-red part of the visible spectrum onto cones and allowing the blue-purple part to leak onto nearby rods. This phenomenon is observed in the isolated retina and explained by a computational model, for the guinea pig and the human parafoveal retina. Therefore, light propagation by Müller cells through the retina can be considered as an integral part of the first step in the visual process, increasing photon absorption by cones while minimally affecting rod-mediated vision.", "cone cell Photoreceptor of the retina which connects with a bipolar cell and is involved in colour vision and high visual acuity and which functions in photopic vision. The outer segment of the cell is conical in shape, except in the fovea centralis where it is rod-like. In the outer segment (i.e. the part closest to the pigment epithelium) are contained hollow discs (or lamellae), the membranes of which are joined together and are also continuous with the boundary membrane of the cone cell. The visual pigments are contained in these discs. There are three types of cones, each containing a different pigment sensitive to a different part of the light spectrum. They are referred to as long-wave-sensitive (or L-cones), medium-wave-sensitive (or M-cones) and short-wave-sensitive (or S-cones). There are about six million cones in the retina, with the greatest concentration in the macular area (Fig. C4). See  cone pedicle ; Stiles-Crawford effect ; ellipsoid ; foveola ; macula ; visual pigment ; duplicity theory; photopic vision .", "The process of phototransduction occurs in the retina. The retina has many layers of various cell types. The best-known photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) form the outermost layer, closest to the sclera, and furthest from the pupil. They are the photoreceptors responsible for sight. The middle layer contains bipolar cells, which collect neural signals from the rods and the cones and then transmit them to the innermost layer of the retina, where the neurons called retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), a small percentage of which are themselves photosensitive, organize the signals and send them to the brain. The bundled RGC axons form the optic nerve, which leaves the eye through a hole in the retina creating the blind spot.", "Sight or vision is the capability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of visible light on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical nerve impulses for varying colors, hues, and brightness. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light, but do not distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors, but are less sensitive to dim light. There is some disagreement as to whether this constitutes one, two or three senses. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue[citation needed] that stereopsis, the perception of depth using both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in images are recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information. This is called visual memory.", "A photoreceptor, or photoreceptor cell, is a specialized type of neuron found in the eye's retina that is capable of phototransduction. More specifically, the photoreceptor sends signals to other neurons by a change in its membrane potential when it absorbs photons. Eventually, this information will be used by the visual system to form a complete representation of the visual world. There are 2 types of photoreceptors: rods are responsible for scotopic, or night vision, whereas cones are responsible for photopic, or daytime vision as well as color perception.", "Sight or vision (ophthalmoception; adjectival form: visual/optical) is the capability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of visible light on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical nerve impulses for varying colors, hues, and brightness. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light, but do not distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors, but are less sensitive to dim light. There is some disagreement as to whether this constitutes one, two or three senses. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue that stereopsis, the perception of depth using both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in images are recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information. This is called visual memory.", "two kinds of cells which form a layer of the retina and act as a light-receiving media. Cones are concentrated at the macula, and decreasing toward the periphery. Cones are concerned with visual acuity and color discrimination; rods, concentrated at the periphery and decreasing toward the macula are concerned, with motion and vision at low degrees of illumination (night vision).", "The retina is a relatively smooth curved multi-layered structure containing the photosensitive rod and cone cells with the associated neurons and blood vessels. The density of the photoreceptors is critical in determining the maximum attainable visual acuity. Humans have about 200,000 receptors per mm2, but the house sparrow has 400,000 and the common buzzard 1,000,000. The photoreceptors are not all individually connected to the optic nerve, and the ratio of nerve ganglia to receptors is important in determining resolution. This is very high for birds; the white wagtail has 100,000 ganglion cells to 120,000 photoreceptors.", "There are currently three known types of photoreceptor cells in mammalian eyes: rods, cones, and photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. The two classic photoreceptor cells are rods and cones, each contributing information used by the visual system to form a representation of the visual world, sight. The rods are narrower than the cones and distributed differently across the retina, but the chemical process in each that supports phototransduction is similar. A third class of mammalian photoreceptor cell was discovered during the 1990s: the photosensitive ganglion cells. These cells do not contribute to sight directly, but are thought to support circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex.", "In the retina, the photo-receptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which will then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion. ", "The photoreceptors in the retina convert the image into electrical signals, which are carried to the brain by the optic nerve. There are two main types of photoreceptors: cones and rods.", "The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve. In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all. On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response. (Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light in the \"red\" range.) In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone. These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, that describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as function of temperature and intensity.", "There are two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones. These cells contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments. The daylight (photopic) vision and colour vision are functions of cones and the twilight (scotopic) vision is the function of the rods. The rods contain a purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or visual purple, which contains a derivative of Vitamin A.", "The process of seeing begins with light-sensitive cells at the back of the eye called photoreceptors. People have two main types of photoreceptors, called rods and cones because of the shapes of the light-sensitive parts of the cells. Rod photoreceptors are more sensitive and respond faster than cones. They are used in dim-light conditions. Cone photoreceptors are essential for color vision. They are used in bright-light conditions.", "The light-sensitive cells of the eye determine what colors an eye can detect. The ability to see color is rare in insects and vertebrates, and the human eye is one of the most sophisticated in its ability to see different hues, vividness and shadings. While an insect compound eye has the capability to see color if it contains corresponding sensor cells, most insects can only see light and dark. A few, like bees, see more colors than humans, but they don't have the additional qualities of vividness and shading,", "Two or three types of cone photoreceptor and a single type of rod photoreceptor are present in the normal mammalian retina. Some non-mammalian retinas have even more cone types (see later).", "Light passes through receptors > horizontal cells > bipolar cells > amacrine cells > ganglion cells, which make up optic nerve", "The human has two types of photoreceptors: the rods and cones ( Figure 14.20 ). They are distinguished structurally by the shapes of their outer segments. The photopigments of the rods and cones also differ. The rod outer segment disks contain the photopigment rhodopsin, which absorbs a wide bandwidth of light. The cones differ in the color of light their photopigments absorbs: one type of photopigment absorbs red light, another green light, and a third blue light. As each cone receptor contains only one of the three types of cone photopigment, there are three types of cones; red, green or blue. Each cone responds best to a specific color of light, whereas the rods respond best to white light 2 . The rod and cone photopigments also differ in illumination sensitivity; rhodopsin breaks down at lower light levels than that required to breakdown cone photopigments. Consequently, the rods are more sensitive - at least at low levels of illumination.", "Suggests that two types of color-sensitive cells exist: cones for blue-yellow colors and cones for red-green. When one color of the pair on a cone is stimulated, the other in inhibited. Explains why don't see reddish-green colors. Also why if look at something red, will see a green *afterimage*. Seems to be active in the lateral geniculate body.", "Which of the following account for the ability of rod bipolar cells to detect and signal light at lower illumination levels than cone bipolar cells?" ]

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[ "The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. In males, they are located in the scrotum. Male gonads, or testes, secrete hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones regulate body changes associated with sexual development, including enlargement of the penis, the growth spurt that happens during puberty, and the appearance of other male secondary sex characteristics such as deepening of the voice , growth of facial and pubic hair, and the increase in muscle growth and strength. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also supports the production of sperm by the testes.", "The male sex hormones are called androgens. The main androgen is the steroid hormone known as testosterone. Testosterone causes males to have larger muscle mass and to be more aggressive in behaviour.", "Testosterone, the male sex hormone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. Testosterone is primarily secreted in the testicles of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands in women. It is the principal male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In men, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle, bone mass, deep voice, and the growth of body hair. In addition, testosterone is essential for health and well-being as well as the prevention of osteoporosis (bone loss).", "Without hormones, normal physical and sexual development wouldn’t be possible. At the beginning of puberty, your brain releases a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) . GnRH triggers the pituitary gland — a small but significant gland that controls the production of several major hormones — to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) into your bloodstream. FSH and LH have different effects on males and females. In girls, FSH and LH instruct the ovaries to begin producing estrogen, one of the primary female sex hormones, and eggs. In boys, the same hormones tell the testes to begin producing testosterone, the male sex hormone, and sperm. At the same time, you’ll notice other significant changes:", "Male hormones, principally testosterone, are partially responsible for the tremendous developmental changes that occur during puberty and adolescence. Male hormones have androgenic and anabolic effects. Androgenic effects are changes in primary and secondary sexual characteristics. These include enlargement of the penis and testes, voice changes, hair growth on the face, axilla, and genital areas, and increased aggressiveness. The anabolic effects of androgens include accelerated growth of muscle, bone, and red blood cells, and enhanced neural conduction.", "Androgen is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that stimulates the activity of male sex organs, while also aiding the development of male secondary sex characteristics. The best known androgen is testosterone.", "Cells around the sperm producing ducts of the testis produce the hormone testosterone. This stimulates the development of the male reproductive system and the male sexual characteristics - generally larger body of male animals, mane in lions, tusks in boars, etc", "At puberty, high levels of androgens are responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics, including male patterns of hair growth, a low voice, and increased muscle mass and bone mass typical of males.", "the principal male sex hormone ( androgen ) that is produced by Leydig's cells of the testes in response to luteinizing hormone secreted by the pituitary gland . It is also produced by the adrenal cortex in both males and females. Its chief function is to stimulate the development of the male reproductive organs, including the prostate, and the secondary sex characters, such as the beard. It encourages growth of bone and muscle, and helps maintain muscle strength.", "In men, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle, bone mass, and the growth of body hair. In addition, testosterone is essential for health and well-being as well as the prevention of osteoporosis.", "LH is needed for the Leydig cells in the testes to make testosterone, the male sex hormone. Testosterone and FSH from the pituitary gland then act together on the seminiferous tubules (sperm-producing tubes) in the testes to make sperm.", "Glands and Hormones Testes Male reproductive glands located in the scrotum • testosterone - affects development of sexual organs in males and secondary sexual characteristics", "Androgens are responsible for many uniquely male features including: lower voice, male hair patterns and the male libido, or sexual drive. In addition, androgens are extremely important in building muscle mass, increasing bone formation and stimulating red blood cell production. In essence, androgens affect every major tissue in the male body.", "In males, the Müllerian duct-inhibiting hormone MIH causes this duct system to regress. Next, androgens cause the development of the Wolffian duct system, which develops into the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts. ", "The testes gland contained the testosterone hormone that performed the function of maturation of the male reproductive system that is it responsible for sperm production, secondary sex characteristic and the sex drive of the human.", "In guys the male gonads, or testes (pronounced: TES-teez), are located in the scrotum. They secrete hormones called androgens (pronounced: AN-druh-junz), the most important of which is testosterone (pronounced: tess-TOSS-tuh-rone). These hormones tell a guy's body when it's time to make the changes associated with puberty , like penis and height growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic hair. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also tells a guy's body when it's time to produce sperm in the testes.", "the father and the mother, helps the father recognize and bond to his baby, and makes him want to be part of the family, rather than alone. It has gained a reputation as the \"monogamy hormone.\" Dr. Theresa Crenshaw, author of The Alchemy of Love and Lust, says, \"Testosterone wants to prowl, vasopressin wants to stay home.\" She also describes vasopressin as tempering the man's sexual drive (not sexual functioning).", "sex hormone , steroid hormone , steroid - any hormone affecting the development and growth of sex organs", "Hormonal control is via the Leydig cells, outside the tubules (in the interstitium) with some input from the Sertoli cells. The main function of the Leydig cells is the production of testosterone, vital for the development and maintenance of spermatogenesis and male characteristics, and controlled by LH.", "a steroid ANDROGEN produced by the LEYDIG CELLS between the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES of the TESTIS . It causes the development and maintenance of accessory sex organs, the genitalia and the SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS .", "However, a significant portion of testosterone in adolescent boys is converted to estradiol. Estradiol mediates the growth spurt, bone maturation, and epiphyseal closure in boys just as in girls. Estradiol also induces at least modest development of breast tissue (gynecomastia) in a large proportion of boys. Boys who develop mild gynecomastia or even developing swellings under nipples during puberty are told the effects are temporary in some male teenagers due to high levels of estradiol.", "Another hormonal change in males takes place during the teenage years for most young men. At this point in a male's life the testosterone levels slowly rise, and most of the effects are mediated through the androgen receptors by way of conversion dihydrotestosterone in target organs (especially that of the bowels).", "A central, extrahypothalamic release of oxytocin by the paraventricular nuclei at ejaculation facilitates sexual behaviour in several experimental animal studies. Oxytocin-producing neurons project to several extrahypothalamic areas of the CNS and the spinal cord. 53 In rats, oxytocin concentration increases threefold in the cerebrospinal fluid 5 minutes after ejaculation and returns to the basal level within 20 minutes. 54 In a study of male rats free to mate with an amenable female, oxytocin (injected directly into the cerebral ventricle) shortened the ejaculation latency and postejaculatory refractory periods and, therefore, facilitated ejaculatory behaviour. 55 When administered via an intracerebroventricular route, oxytocin also increased the latencies of mount and intromission. 33 A selective oxytocin receptor antagonist (d(CH2)5–Tyr(Me)–[Orn8]vasotocin) delivered into the ventricular system of the brain of sexually energetic male rats curbed their sexual behaviour (including ejaculation) and reversed the prosexual effects of apomorphine, which is a nonselective dopamine-receptor agonist. 56 In an experimental rat model of premature ejaculation, rapid ejaculation was characterized by activation of an increased number of oxytocin-containing neurons (revealed by Fos immunoreactivity) in the supraoptic nuclei. 57 Injury of the paraventricular nucleus (specifically, the parvocellular neurons) in male rats reduced the number of oxytocin-immunoreactive fibres in the lumbosacral spinal cord, abolished the postejaculation increase of oxytocin levels in the cerebrospinal fluid, prolonged mount and intromission latencies and reduced the postejaculatory interval. 54 These observations further demonstrate the central role of oxytocin in mammalian sexual behaviour.", "the male gonad , the site of spermatogenesis, whence sperm are discharged via the vas deferens into the urethra at ejaculation. This and also testicular endocrine function (secretion of testosterone and related hormones) are under the control of gonadotrophic hormones from the anterior pituitary, and in turn of the hypothalamus.", "LH stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes to make testosterone and blood levels begin to rise. For much of puberty, nighttime levels of testosterone are higher than daytime. Regularity of frequency and amplitude of gonadotropin pulses seems to be less necessary for progression of male than female puberty.", "Testosterone   A hormone made by the testes that produces many of the changes in a boy’s body during puberty .", "The beard develops during puberty. Beard growth is linked to stimulation of hair follicles in the area by dihydrotestosterone, which continues to affect beard growth after puberty. Hair follicles from different areas vary in what hormones they are stimulated or inhibited by; dihydrotestostorone also promotes balding (so a bald guy with a beard is the epitome of testosterone?...I’m well on my way). Dihydrotestosterone is produced from testosterone, the levels of which vary with season; thus beards grow faster in summer. How fast the beard grows is also genetic.", "Inhibin: A peptide hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the ovary and the Sertoli cells of the testis that inhibits secretion of follicle stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary", "In males, most reported effects on the reproductive system have been observed at BLLs > 10 μg/dL and include decreased sperm count, morphological aberrations, and an increased risk of infertility (Alexander et al. 1996; Sallmen et al. 2000; Bonde et al. 2002). However, one study from the Russian Federation reported an association of BLLs as low as 3 μg/dL with decreased growth and differences in pubertal onset in periadolescent boys (Hauser et al. 2008).", "inhibin (in-hib´in) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the testes that is believed to specifically exert negative feedback inhibition of FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary.", "In boys, hypogonadism will most often be manifested as less than normal muscle development, very little or no facial hair and growth problems. After puberty, symptoms include:", "Muscle in spermatic cord which lines, raises and lowers scrotum (changes testi location) in response to temperature)." ]

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[ "If you exercise, your body tissues need more oxygen and will produce more carbon dioxide. This means your heart must speed up to meet those needs. How fast your heart beats (your heart rate) is controlled in a number of different ways. The brain controls the heart rate through the nervous system. A special part of the brain, called the medulla oblongata, receives information from many different systems of the body. The brain then co-ordinates the information and either sends signals to increase or decrease the heart rate depending on what is necessary.", "The brain stem controls breathing and heart rate as well as blood pressure and alertness. Found at the top of the spinal column, the brain stem consists of three main parts, including the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The medulla oblongata controls cardiac and respiratory rates.", "The vertebrate brain is divided into three main divisions: the fore-brain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The hindbrain connects the brain to the spinal cord, and a portion of it, called the medulla oblongata, controls important body functions such as the breathing rate and the heart rate. Also located in the hindbrain is the cerebellum, which controls balance.", "In particular, research has focused on changes in the amygdala, which is sometimes referred to as the \"fear center.\" This part of the brain regulates fear, memory, and emotion and coordinates these resources with heart rate, blood pressure, and other physical responses to stressful events. Some evidence suggests that the amygdala in people with anxiety disorders is highly sensitive to new or unfamiliar situations and reacts with a high stress response.", "The diencephalon lies above the brain stem and embodies the thalamus and hypothalamus . The thalamus is an important relay station for sensory information, interpreting sensations of sound, smell, taste , pain , pressure, temperature, and touch ; the thalamus also regulates some emotions and memory . The hypothalamus controls a number of body functions, such as heartbeat rate and digestion, and helps regulate the endocrine system and normal body temperature. The hypothalamus interprets hunger and thirst, and it helps regulate sleep , anger, and aggression .", "Medulla (in the brain) controls autonomic nervous system. (The medulla is part of the brain, is continuous with the spinal cord, and controls involuntary actions of the body). Sympathetic cardiac acceleratorconnects to spinal cord, uses norepinephrine to signal. Parasympathetic cardio-inhibitory center reaches heart through Vagus nerve, usesacetylcholine to signal. Hyperpolarizes membrane to inhibit heart contraction. (Autonomic nervous system: two parts working in contra to control from both sides.) Dominant effect here is inhibitory. If we cut Vagus nerve, heart rate promptly rises about 25 bpm.", "region of the brain that serves as a relay between the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord; responsible for breathing, heart rate, and body temperature; the three levels are the mesencephalon (midbrain), pons, and medulla oblongata", "The area of the brain responsible for respiration, heart rate, and smooth muscle control of our blood vessels is the:", "The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves originate in the brainstem.", "If the brainstem is severely affected, the brain's control of such vital functions as heart rate and blood pressure may be disturbed. This can lead to death .", "In the brainstem, the medulla oblongata contains the cardiovascular center that monitors the levels of dissolved carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood, along with blood pressure. The cardiovascular center adjusts the heart rate and blood vessel dilation to maintain healthy levels of dissolved gases in the blood and to maintain a healthy blood pressure. The medullary rhythmicity center of the medulla monitors oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood and adjusts the rate of breathing to keep these levels in balance.", "brain Mass of nerve tissue which regulates all physical and mental activity; it is continuous with the spinal cord. Weighing about 1.5kg (3.3lb) in the adult (about 2% of body weight), the human brain has three parts: the hindbrain, where basic physiological processes such as breathing and the heartbeat are coordinated; the midbrain links the hindbrain and the forebrain, which is the seat of all higher functions and attributes (personality, intellect, memory, emotion), as well as being involved in sensation and initiating voluntary movement. The forebrain includes the highly fissured cerebrum that is the brain's most highly developed part. See also central nervous system ; cerebrum", "The brain is the body’s control centre. It constantly receives and interprets nerve signals from the body and responds based on this information. Different parts of the brain control movement, speech, emotions, consciousness and internal body functions, such as heart rate, breathing and body temperature.", "Even when the break is very high in the spinal cord, a cranial nerve, the vagus nerve, maintains vital functions such as heart rate and respiration.", "Heart rate is controlled by a small patch of specialized heart cells located in the right atrium and referred to as the sino-atrial node. This natural pacemaker raises or lowers the heart rate based on information from nerves that respond to body temperature, joint movement, and the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. The female pacemaker, while programmed to function at a higher rate, responds in the same manner to nerve signals as the male heart pacemaker.", "-Amygdala- located within the basal ganglia; includes parts of temporal, frontal, and parietal lobes; \"heart of the lymbic system\"; regulates heart beat, visceral activity, emotional response, and mood; FEAR processor; initiates \"Flight or Flight\" response; controls automic nervous system; integrates cognitive and sensory input to decipher potential impact of event. Visual, auditory and somatosensory areas provide input to the amygdale.", "Autonomic nervous system:  Part of the nervous system that was once thought to be functionally independent of the brain. The autonomic nervous system regulates key functions of the body including the activity of the heart muscle (see below), the smooth muscles (e.g., the muscles of the intestinal tract), and the glands. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: (1) the sympathetic nervous system that accelerates the heart rate, constricts blood vessels, and raises blood pressure; and (2) the parasympathetic nervous system slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles.", "Houses the rest of the reticular formation (part not in the hindbrain), which controls alrtness, thirst, sleep, involuntary muscle movements like heart beating.", "The brainstem, specifically a portion of it known as the medulla oblongata, is responsible for the control of involuntary functions such as breathing, cardiovascular regulation, and swallowing. The medulla oblongata is absolutely essential for life and processes a great deal of information. The medulla also helps maintain alertness.", "A part of the nervous system that serves to accelerate the heart rate, constrict blood vessels, and raise blood pressure", "Our brain directly controls almost all movement in the body. A region of the cerebral cortex known as the motor area sends signals to the skeletal muscles to produce all voluntary movements. The basal nuclei of the cerebrum and gray matter in the brainstem help to control these movements subconsciously and prevent extraneous motions that are undesired. The cerebellum helps with the timing and coordination of these movements during complex motions. Finally, smooth muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glands are stimulated by motor outputs of the autonomic regions of the brain.", "In the upper part of the right atrium of the heart is a specialized bundle of neurons known as the sinoatrial node (SA node). Acting as the heart's natural pacemaker, the SA node \"fires\" at regular intervals to cause the heart of beat with a rhythmn of about 60 to 70 beats per minute for a healthy, resting heart. The electrical impulse from the SA node triggers a sequence of electrical events in the heart to control the orderly sequence of muscle contractions that pump the blood out of the heart.", "According to Grey's Anatomy, your brain controls and coordinates all function in the body. When functioning normally, the cerebellum, which is the back bottom part of your cranium, sends messages or \"fires\" to the brains right and left hemisphere which in turn \"fires\" to the brain stem (mesencephalon, pons and medulla). We refer to this as your \"Brain Loop\".", "Using a combination of autorhythmicity and innervation, the cardiovascular center is able to provide relatively precise control over the heart rate, but other factors can impact on this. These include hormones, notably epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones; levels of various ions including calcium, potassium, and sodium; body temperature; hypoxia; and pH balance.", "Tracts crossover in the medulla; right side of brain controls left side of body and vice versa", "Approximately 20% of the blood flowing from the heart is pumped to the brain. The brain needs constant blood flow in order to keep up with the heavy metabolic demands of the neurons.", "Located in the upper brain stem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.", "portion of the brain located below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum; responsible for control and coordination of skeletal muscles", "The part of the brain that is responsible for helping to regulate the level of consciousness.", "The extreme lateral part of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus is responsible for the control of food intake. Stimulation of this area causes increased food intake. Bilateral lesion of this area causes complete cessation of food intake. Medial parts of the nucleus have a controlling effect on the lateral part. Bilateral lesion of the medial part of the ventromedial nucleus causes hyperphagia and obesity of the animal. Further lesion of the lateral part of the ventromedial nucleus in the same animal produces complete cessation of food intake.", "contains centers for the control of vital processes, including respiration and cardiovascular functions. it also is involved in the coordination of eye movements and balance.", "Cardiovascular Control in Exercise, the contribution of Central Command and Muscle Afferents The human body has the ability to easily adapt when exercise..." ]

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[ "A keloid (pron.: /ˈkiːlɔɪd/; also keloidal scar)[1] is the formation that a type of scar which, depending on its maturity, is composed mainly of either type III (early) or type I (late) collagen. It is a result of an overgrowth of granulation tissue (collagen type 3) at the site of a healed skin injury which is then slowly replaced by collagen type", "Keloids are the aftereffect of an overgrowth of dense fibrous tissue that usually develops after healing of a skin injury. When a scar is formed, connective tissues or fibers are formed at the site to hold the wound closed. Keloids form when the cells continue to multiply after the wound is filled in. Symptoms may include pigmentation of the skin, discomfort, or an itchy or painful sensation. Scar treatment therapy options include silicone sheets for keloids, and pressure treatment. Keloids may often be prevented by using a pressure dressing like Epi-Net in conjunction with silicone scar strips over the injury site 24 hours each day. This treatment is most effective after healing of the wound or injury, usually within a month.", "The thick keloid scar is caused by an overgrowth of scar tissue and can occur after a burn.The keloid usually extends past the site of burn injury. Although doctors are unsure about the cause of keloids, these scars may be the result of the body producing too much collagen (fibrous tissue) after a burn or injury has healed.", "An area of raised pink or red fibrous scar tissue at the edges of a wound or incision (Greek khele, ‘crab claw’)", "a mark remaining after the healing of a wound, such as one caused by injury, illness, smallpox vaccination, or surgery. (See also healing and keloid .) Beneath the skin is a fibrous connective tissue known as subcutaneous tissue, composed of cells called fibroblasts, which after injury are stimulated to grow into granulation tissue, knitting the wound together. Scar tissue is formed by dense masses of granulation tissue. Called also cicatrix .", "cicatricial tissue the dense fibrous tissue forming a cicatrix , derived directly from granulation tissue ; called also scar tissue .", "A scar is the body's natural way of healing and replacing lost or damaged skin. A scar is usually composed of fibrous tissue. Scars may be formed for many different reasons, including as a result of infections, surgery, injuries, or inflammation of tissue. Scars may appear anywhere on the body, and the composition of a scar may vary - appearing flat, lumpy, sunken, or colored. It may be painful or itchy. The final look of a scar depends of many factors, including the skin type and location on the body, the direction of the wound, the type of injury, age of the person with the scar, and his/her nutritional status.", "A scar is the body's natural way of healing and replacing lost or damaged skin. A scar is usually composed of fibrous tissue. Scars may be formed for many different reasons, including as a result of infections, surgery, injuries, or inflammation of tissue. Scars may appear anywhere on the body, and the composition of a scar may vary - appearing flat, lumpy, sunken, or colored. It may be painful or itchy. The final look of a scar depends of many factors, including the skin type and location on the body, the direction of the wound, the type of injury, age of the person with the scar, and his/her nutritional status.", "cheloid , keloid - raised pinkish scar tissue at the site of an injury; results from excessive tissue repair", "Hypertrophic scars occur when the body overproduces collagen, which causes the scar to be raised above the surrounding skin. Hypertrophic scars take the form of a red raised lump on the skin. They usually occur within 4 to 8 weeks following wound infection or wound closure with excess tension and/or other traumatic skin injuries.", "The term fibrosis describes the development of fibrous connective tissue as a reparative response to injury or damage. Fibrosis may refer to the connective tissue deposition that occurs as part of normal healing or to the excess tissue deposition that occurs as a pathological process. When fibrosis occurs in response to injury, the term “scarring” is used. Some of the main types of fibrosis that occur in the body are described below.", "The scarring is created by fibroblast proliferation, a process that begins with a reaction to the clot.", "All scarring is composed of the same collagen as the tissue it has replaced, but the composition of the scar tissue, compared to the normal tissue, is different. Scars differ from other scars in the amounts of collagen overexpressed. Labels have been applied to the differences in overexpression. Two of the most common types are hypertrophic and keloid scarring, both of which experience excessive stiff collagen bundled growth overextending the tissue, blocking off regeneration of tissues. Another form is atrophic scarring (sunken scarring), which also has an overexpression of collagen blocking regeneration. This scar type is sunken, because the collagen bundles do not overextend the tissue. Stretch marks (striae) are regarded as scars by some.", "The process of fibroblast formation for connective tissues.  In tissues that were burned or scraped, epithelium and inflammatory cells form around the nucleus of new capillaries.  Regranulation will be initiated is tissue in injured again, causing the formation of new scar tissue.", "As the phase progresses, the tensile strength of the wound increases. Collagen will reach approximately 20% of its tensile strength after 3 weeks, increasing to 80% by 12th week. The maximum scar strength is 80% of that of unwounded skin. Since activity at the wound site is reduced, the scar loses its red appearance as blood vessels that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis.", "Skin scars occur when the dermis (the deep, thick layer of skin) is damaged. Most skin scars are flat and leave a trace of the original injury that caused them. ", "Monday, September 9, 2013 If skin is always renewing itself, why don't scars heal completely? Only the outer layer of skin, the epidermis, renews itself every 28 days: Skin cells on the surface brush off and are replaced by the new ones underneath. A scar, however, forms when an injury pierces through the epidermis and injures the dermis, the layer of skin beneath it. The dermis is much tougher, and its cells don't die and brush off. So when wounds to the dermis heal, they create tough scar tissue that never renews and never completely goes away. ", "This is usually encountered in patients with pulmonary fibrosis. Fibrotic changes in the lung or pleura inhibit expansion of the lungs. Alveoli get shut in by the scar, causing atelectasis.", "Growth of calcium deposits within soft tissue, usually at the site of a hematoma due to blunt trauma or in tissue atrophied due to central nervous system injury.", "An atrophic scar takes the form of a sunken recess in the skin, which has a pitted appearance. These are caused when underlying structures supporting the skin, such as fat or muscle, are lost. This type of scarring is often associated with acne, chickenpox, other diseases (especially Staphylococcus infection), surgery, or accidents.", "Scars may be formed for many different reasons, including infections, surgery, injuries, or inflammation of tissue. A scar is the body's natural way of healing and replacing lost or damaged skin. Scars may appear anywhere on the body. The composition of a scar may vary - the scar may be flat, lumpy, sunken, colored, painful, and/or itchy. Scars may be treated with a variety of different lasers, depending on the underlying cause of the scar. Lasers may be used to smooth a scar, remove the abnormal color of a scar, or flatten a scar. Most laser therapy for scars is performed in conjunction with other treatments such as injections of steroids, use of special dressings, and the use of bandages. Multiple treatments may be necessary.", "The Scar is fairly regular in shape, often with parallel sides and slightly pointed or rounded ends.", "A band of scar tissue that binds together two anatomical surfaces that are normally separate from each other is called", "An inflammation of blood or lymphatic vessels. This inflammation can lead to the formation of scar tissue.", "cicatrise , cicatrize - form a scar, after an injury; \"the skin will cicatrize and it will heal soon\"", "Previous Blade or Flake Scar A blade or flake scar seen on the face of a blade or flake resulting form the initial removal of a blade or a flake from a core or nodule.", "Excessive lymphatic or serous fluid permeation of the soft tissues, typically in response to tissue trauma or disease states. May persist up to 18 months following rhinoplasty in extreme cases. Chronic edema may lead to permanent fibrosis.", "Some scars can have a sunken or pitted appearance. This kind of scarring occurs when underlying structures supporting the skin (for example, fat or muscle) are lost. Some surgical scars have this appearance, as do some scars from acne .", "Hinge Fracture A scar left behind when the terminal end of a blade or flake, being struck", "This photo shows the same patient toward the end of surgery with the completed suture line closure. The incision wasy closed in several layers where the under the skin sutures dissolve over the course of a few months. The outer blue suture layer seen in the photo is removed in the office about 1 week after surgery. In the photo you can also see how Dr. Lamperti purposefully creates a somewhat raised area along the suture line. This is so that as the area heals the normal scar contracture process with then create a smooth incision line rather than a sunken or depressed one.", "___ is the most common type of fibrous tumor that develops in the SCM before or at birth", "a form of infectious kerato-conjunctivitis caused by a specific virus which in the chronic form produces severe scarring of the eyelids and cornea" ]

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[ "You can see from the diagram that there are two main arteries connected to the heart. The aorta carries oxygenated blood to the body. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs and it is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood. There are two veins associated with the heart. The vena cava, or great vein, carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart from the body. The pulmonary vein is the only vein to carry oxygenated blood which is on its way to the heart from the lungs.", "Freshly oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. Note that these are the only veins in the body that contain oxygenated blood; all other veins contain deoxygenated blood.", "The deoxygenated blood delivered to the heart along the veins is no use to body cells until it has been recharged with oxygen. To ensure reoxygenation, the circulation has a second \"loop.\" In this part of the system, blood rich in carbon dioxide travels from the heart along the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen breathed in. The pulmonary artery is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood. The newly oxygenated blood is carried back to the heart along the pulmonary vein, the only vein to transport oxygenated blood.", "Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood to the heart. Pulmonary veins are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart. This differentiates the pulmonary veins from other veins in the body, which are used to carry deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body back to the heart. Humans have four pulmonary veins in total, two from each lung. There are two right pulmonary veins, known as the right superior and right inferior veins. These carry blood from the right lung. Each pulmonary vein is linked to a network of capillaries (small blood vessels) in the alveoli of each lung. Alveoli are tiny air sacs within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged. These capillaries eventually join together to form a single blood vessel from each lobe of the lung. The right lung contains three lobes, while the left lung is slightly small and contains only two lobes. Initially there are three vessels for the right lung, but the veins from the middle and upper lobes of the right lung tend to fuse together to form two right pulmonary veins. The right pulmonary veins pass behind the right atrium and another large blood vessel known as the superior vena cava.", "While veins usually carry deoxygenated blood from tissues back to the heart, in this case, pulmonary veins are among the few veins that carry oxygenated blood instead. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is circulated back to the heart through the pulmonary veins that drain into the left atrium. Once blood is pumped from the left atrium through the mitral valve into the left ventricle , this oxygenated blood will then be pumped from the left ventricle through the aortic valve to the rest of the body’s organs and tissues through the aorta.", "Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart. The exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart, but the umbilical vein deteriorates shortly after birth.", "The pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood away from the lungs. They begin in the pulmonary capillaries, unite to form larger branches (e.g., the left and right superior and inferior pulmonary veins), and eventually lead into the left atrium of the heart. The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood out to the body via the aorta (the great artery arising from the left ventricle of the heart).", "Note: Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart is an exception.", "Veins can be broadly classified based on their depth within the body. Superficial veins are located close to the surface of the body and have no corresponding arteries, such as the great saphenous vein which runs the length of the leg. The deep veins lie deeper in the body and often run adjacent to corresponding arteries, such as the femoral vein which sits adjacent to the femoral artery in the thigh. Deep veins are often of larger caliber than superficial veins and carry the majority of the blood within the circulatory system. Communicating veins, or perforator veins if they pass through a large muscle mass, directly connect superficial and direct veins. The above veins form part of the systemic circulatory system. The pulmonary veins and venules that run from the lungs to the heart form part of the pulmonary circulatory system and are distinct from other veins in that they carry oxygenated blood.", "The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. Despite carrying oxygenated blood, this great vessel is still considered a vein because it carries blood towards the heart. Four pulmonary veins enter the left atrium. The right pulmonary veins pass behind the right atrium and superior vena cava while the left pass in front of the descending thoracic aorta. The pulmonary arteries and veins are both considered part of pulmonary circulation.", "Pulmonary vein - The blood vessel that carries newly oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.", "The superior vena cava carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper parts of your body, including your head, chest, arms, and neck. The inferior vena cava carries oxygen-poor blood from the lower parts of your body.", "Arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood that has received oxygen from the lungs) from the heart to the rest of the body.", "Veins carry blood toward the heart. After blood passes through the capillaries, it enters the smallest veins, called venules. From the venules, it flows into progressively larger and larger veins until it reaches the heart. In the pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. This blood has a high oxygen content because it has just been oxygenated in the lungs. Systemic veins transport blood from the body tissue to the right atrium of the heart. This blood has a reduced oxygen content because the oxygen has been used for metabolic activities in the tissue cells.", "Figure 28-5 The blood supply of the liver and the portal circulation, projected onto the visceral surface. In prenatal life, oxygenated blood from the placenta is carried by the left umbilical vein and ductus venosus to the inferior vena cava and right atrium. Postnatally, part of this pathway becomes the ligamentum teres and the ligamentum venosum. The alimentary canal is supplied by blood from the aorta (Ao.) and is drained by the portal vein (P.). The portal blood and that from the hepatic artery (H.) provide a double blood supply to the liver. The blood is distributed by sinusoids within the liver and is drained by the hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava.", "The inferior vena cava (or IVC) is a large vein that carries de-oxygenated blood from the lower half of the body into the heart. It is formed by the left and right common iliac veins and transports blood to the right atrium of the heart. It is posterior to the abdominal cavity, and runs along side of the vertebral column on its right side.", "Functioning at the end of the circulatory cycle, the veins of the upper torso carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues of the body back to the heart to be pumped through the body again. Blood returning to the heart from the lower torso and legs enters the upper torso in a large vein called the inferior vena cava. The inferior vena cava picks up deoxygenated blood from the hepatic and phrenic veins before entering the right atrium of the heart. Blood returning from the head enters the torso through the left and right jugular veins while blood returning from the arms enters through the left and right subclavian veins. The jugular and subclavian veins on each side merge to form the left and right brachiocephalic trunks, which go on to merge into the superior vena cava. Several smaller veins carrying blood from the organs, muscles, and skin of the upper torso also merge into the superior vena cava. The superior vena cava carries all of the blood from the arms and head into the right atrium of the heart.", "Vena cava   A large vein that carries blood low in oxygen from the body to the heart . The inferior vena cava carries blood from the lower body and the superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body.", "In human anatomy, the hepatic veins are the blood vessels that drain de-oxygenated blood from the liver and blood cleaned by the liver (from the stomach, pancreas, small intestine and colon) into the inferior vena cava. They arise from the substance of the liver, more specifically the central vein of the liver lobule. They can be differentiated into two groups, the upper group and lower group. The upper group of three typically arises from the posterior aspect of the liver and drain the quadrate lobe and left lobe. The lower group rise from the right lobe and caudate lobe, are variable in number, and are typically smaller than those in the upper group. None of the hepatic veins have valves.", "Veins carry blood toward the heart. The blood in veins is not pushed by pumping of the heart, so the blood pressure and forward momentum of the blood in veins is lower than in arteries. Blood in veins is largely pushed along by the contractions of the skeletal muscles as the organism moves around. To ensure that the blood in veins flows toward the heart, veins contain unidirectional valves. Venous blood has already provided nutrients to cells, so it is usually deoxygenated, giving it a characteristic blue color. The lone exception, once again, is the pulmonary veins. Since this blood is flowing back to the heart from the lungs, it is fully oxygenated and bright red.", "Upper vena cava: major vein that carries oxygen-poor blood from upper body to the right atrium", "Inferior Vena Cava (or IVC): a large vein that carries de-oxygenated blood from the lower half of the body into the heart", "Thus far we have spoken of the quantity of blood passing through the heart and the lungs in the centre of the body, and in like manner from the arteries into the veins in the peripheral parts and the body at large. We have yet to explain, however, in what manner the blood finds its way back to the heart from the extremities by the veins, and how and in what way these are the only vessels that convey the blood from the external to the central parts; which done, I conceive that the three fundamental propositions laid down for the circulation of the blood will be so plain, so well established, so obviously true, that they may claim general credence. Now the remaining position will be made sufficiently clear from the valves which are found in the cavities of the veins themselves, from the uses of these, and from experiments cognizable by the senses.", "Veins carry blood back to the heart. They're not as muscular as arteries, but they contain valves that prevent blood from flowing backward. Veins have the same three layers that arteries do, but are thinner and less flexible. The two largest veins are the superior and inferior vena cavae. The terms superior and inferior don't mean that one vein is better than the other, but that they're located above and below the heart.", "vein , vena , venous blood vessel - a blood vessel that carries blood from the capillaries toward the heart; \"all veins except the pulmonary vein carry unaerated blood\"", "  The highest intercostal vein (v. intercostalis suprema; superior intercostal veins) (right and left) drain the blood from the upper three or four intercostal spaces. The right vein (v. intercostalis suprema dextra) passes downward and opens into the vena azygos; the left vein (v. intercostalis suprema sinistra) runs across the arch of the aorta and the origins of the left subclavian and left common carotid arteries and opens into the left innominate vein. It usually receives the left bronchial vein, and sometimes the left superior phrenic vein, and communicates below with the accessory hemiazygos vein.", "One of the two largest veins in the body; carries blood from the lower extremities and the pelvic and the abdominal organs to the heart.", "One of the two largest veins in the body; carries blood from the upper extremities, head, neck, and chest into the heart.", "Inferior vena cava - The large vein returning blood from the legs and abdomen to the heart.", "blood vessel = a tube that carries blood from one part of your body to another", "mesenteric vein, inferior  a vein that follows the distribution of its homonymous artery and empties into the splenic vein.", "blood in the arteries and the veins is all of the same origin, not manufactured in different parts of the body" ]

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[ "The largest organ in the human body, the adult liver can weigh between 1.2 - 1.5 kg (2.64 - 3.3 lb) - about one thirty-sixth of the total body weight. Located behind the lower ribs and below the diaphragm, it performs over 100 separate bodily functions and can measure up to 22 cm (8.6 in) long and 10 cm (3.9 in) wide. The liver is also the largest gland in the body.", "The small and large intestines are about 8 metres (26¼ feet) long and weighs 2 kg (4½ pounds). The intestines include the duodenum, blank, ileum and colon (blind, Grimm and rectum.", "Each lung weighs 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb), therefore making the entire organ about 2.3 kilograms (5.1 lb).", "The liver normally weighs between 1.3—3.0 kilograms and is a soft, pinkish-brown organ. It is the second-largest organ in the body, and is located on the right side of the abdomen. ", "Its average weight in a normal human body is 1,560 gms (~1,5 kg; 5,.0 oz). Liver is the largest and multilobulated gland of the body. Liver acts as hemolytic organ. It also acts as erythropoietic organ in the embryo. In adults, this function is taken over by bone marrow.", "Some average weights of human organs include 1.5 ounces for the bladder, 9.6 ounces for the heart, 47 ounces for a brain and 55 ounces for the liver, according to Ohio State University's Department of Pathology. Weights of organs vary from males to females, and the weights of larger organs can differ among individuals by several ounces.", "The liver is a reddish brown wedge-shaped organ with four lobes of unequal size and shape. A human liver normally weighs . It is both the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body.", "Liver is the second largest organ in the body males or females. Its average weight in a normal human body is 1,560 gms. The liver receives blood full of digested food from the gut. It stores some foods and delivers the rest to the other cells through blood.", "Kidneys are the sixth largest organ in human body. There are two kidneys in every human being and the average weight of both the kidneys is about 290 grams. The major function of a kidney is to remove the waste products from the blood by regulating water fluid levels.", "The vital organs - the liver, kidneys, intestines, brain and lungs are almost fully formed and beginning to function, while the the head is almost half the length of the entire body. The fetus is only about 2 inches (50mm) long and weighs less than a half ounce but it is busy moving and kicking.", "The average total weight of the right and left lung in a normal human body is about 1,090 gms (~1 kg; 38,5 oz). Lungs are soft, pinkish and highly elastic structure lying in pleural cavities of the thorax. . The major function of lungs is to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide out of the red blood cells. The lungs can hold a total of up to 5 liters of air.", "Heart is the fifth largest and most important organ in humans that is essential for all living beings. The major function of the heart is to pump the blood and to ensure the provision of nutrients to every part in the body. In males the average weight of heart is 315 gms while in females this weight is about 265 gms.", "In humans, the heart is roughly the size of a large fist and weighs between about 10 to 12 ounces (280 to 340 grams) in men and 8 to 10 ounces (230 to 280 grams) in women, according to Henry Gray's \" Anatomy of the Human Body .\" ", "The average weight of skin in human body is about 10,886 grams (~10.1 kg; 384,0 oz) which varies according to the size and weight of human being. It is a major organ of the body, forming about 8% of its total mass and having an area between 1.2 to 2.2 meter square. Skin is most effective barrier against microbial invasion, mechanical, chemical, osmotic, thermal and phobic damage.", "The liver is the largest organ in the human body. Approximately the size of a football, it is located in the upper right part of the abdomen.", "“Skin is the largest organ in the human body. Skin has a surface area of 1.6 m2 and comprises 16% of the total body weight.”", "Each adult kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams in males and between 115 and 155 grams in females.", "SIZE: A woman’s heart weighs 118 grams on average, about as much as a green pepper. A man’s heart weighs about 60 grams more. Larger hearts can be easier for cardiologists to work with, so when a woman receives a transplant, for example, it’s usually a man’s heart. Dr. Marianne Legato of Columbia University explains that not only do women have smaller hearts and smaller arteries, but their hearts also beat faster, even during sleep.", "In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be on the left side and on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm3 on the left and 134 cm3 on the right. ", "The liver is the largest organ lying within the body cavity. Its two main lobes, the right and left lobes, extend from the pectoral girdle posteriorly most of the length of the cavity. A third lobe much shorter lobe is located medially and contains the green gall bladder along its right edge.", "The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline.", "Thyroid is the ninth biggest human organ.The average weight of thyroid gland in human body is 35 grams. It is the largest gland in the human body. The function of this gland is to produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones.", "Brain is only 2% of human body weight, it uses up to 25% of oxygen in the blood", "The spleen, in healthy adult humans, is approximately 7 cm to 14 cm in length. It usually weighs between 150 g and 200 g. An easy way to remember the anatomy of the spleen is the 1×3×5×7×9×11 rule. The spleen is 1\" by 3\" by 5\", weighs approximately 7 oz, and lies between the 9th and 11th ribs on the left hand side.", "the cardiovascular system polymorphonuclear HIV is one (plural) group of tissues working together substance found in blood and used to diagnose certain disease the product of the nephron encloses the brain the body defence system ...anaemia, thalassaemia major attacked by HIV they are made of aminoacids abbreviation for erythrocyte “No blood” in medical terms staphylococcus is one, here many platelett the main organs of human pulmonary system the blood pump the smallest vessell takes place mainly in stomach DNA functional units monocyte cell-free blood mulfunction , disease not local, not belonging here surrounds the nucleus glucose belongs to their category made up of vertebrae produces urine harbours the DNA long, thin bones that form the thorax granulocyte the main blood protein in homazygous form is called cooley’s any fluid turns in that after extensive heating", "Skin is one of the largest organs of the body, making up 6-8% of the total body weight. It consists of two distinct layers. The top layer is called the epidermis and under that is the dermis'", "Males generally weigh roughly 2,000 pounds (907 kilograms) while females typically weigh about 1,250 pounds (566 kilograms), but there is wide variation.", "person's head and feet is less than 0.01 g. If the person is 2 m tall, then", "Chemical composition of 1 kg fat-free body mass of an adult:720 g water, 210 g protein, 22.4 g Ca, 12 g P, 2.7 g K, 1.8 g Na, 1.8 g Cl, 0.47 g Mg", ">in use today. Which one should I use? The one where 2.2 pounds = 1kg or the", "An object with a weight on Earth of 2.2 pounds-force has a mass of 1 kg.", "A person who weighs 99.79 kilograms and is 1.905 meters (190.50 centimeters) tall has a BMI of 27.5. That's 99.79 divided by 190.5 times 190.5." ]

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[ "The heart contains 4 chambers: the right atrium , left atrium , right ventricle , and left ventricle . The atria are smaller than the ventricles and have thinner, less muscular walls than the ventricles. The atria act as receiving chambers for blood, so they are connected to the veins that carry blood to the heart. The ventricles are the larger, stronger pumping chambers that send blood out of the heart. The ventricles are connected to the arteries that carry blood away from the heart.", "The heart is generally thought of as having a right and left side. In reality, the heart is one organ and not divided into two separate organs. The heart is made up of four chambers, two on the right and two on the left. The chambers are known as atria and ventricles. Each side of the heart is composed of one atrium and one ventricle. The atria are the receiving chambers of the heart, receiving blood flowing back to the heart. The ventricles are the chambers of the heart that pump the blood out of the heart.", "The heart is basically two pumps: one circulates blood to the lungs for oxygenation and the other circulates blood to the body cells. Each side of the heart has an atrium (the anterior chamber that receives blood from a vein) and a ventricle (a thicker walled chamber whose contractions drive the blood into an artery) ( Figure 7 ).", "Figure B shows the inside of your heart and how it's divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers of your heart are called the atria. They receive and collect blood.", "The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to generate.", "Therefore, the right side of the heart is concerned with the deoxygenated blood and the left side of the heart is concerned with the oxygenated blood. Further, the auricles are the receiving chambers and the ventricles are the pumping chambers. When the ventricles pump blood into the blood vessels, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent the backflow into the auricles.", "One of two (right and left) lower chambers of the heart. The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium (upper chamber) and delivers blood to the aorta. The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary artery.", "Atrium - A bodily cavity or chamber, especially either of the upper chambers of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle. In this sense, also called auricle.", "The ventricle is a heart chamber which collects blood from an atrium and pumps it out of the heart. There are two ventricles: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation for the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta for systemic circulation to the rest of the body. Ventricles have thicker walls than the atria, and thus can create the higher blood pressure. Comparing the left and right ventricle, the left ventricle has thicker walls because it needs to pump blood to the whole body. This leads to the common misconception that the heart lies on the left side of the body.", "The heart is divided into four main areas, or chambers – two upper chambers (called the left and right atrium) and two lower chambers (called the left and right ventricle). There are four valves that control the flow of blood through your heart. They are called the aortic, mitral, pulmonary, and tricuspid valves, and each is made of flaps of tissue called leaflets.", "In the heart, a ventricle is one of two large chambers that collect and expel blood received from an atrium towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The atrium (an adjacent/upper heart chamber that is smaller than a ventricle) primes the pump. Interventricular means between the ventricles (for example the interventricular septum), while intraventricular means within one ventricle (for example an intraventricular block).", "The upper part of the heart is made up of the other two chambers of the heart, the right and left atria. The right and left atria receive the blood entering the heart. A wall called the interatrial septum divides the right and left atria, which are separated from the ventricles by the atrioventricular valves. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle, and the mitral valve separates the left atrium and the left ventricle.", "The chambers on the left side of the heart are the left atrium and left ventricle.  The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. ", "There are two atria on either side of the heart. On the right side is the atrium that contains blood which is poor in oxygen. The left atrium contains blood which has been oxygenated and is ready to be sent to the body. The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins. Atria facilitate circulation primarily by allowing uninterrupted venous flow to the heart, preventing the inertia of interrupted venous flow that would otherwise occur at each ventricular systole.", "The two lower chambers of your heart are called ventricles. The ventricles pump blood out of your heart to other parts of your body.", "The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a clenched fist. The structure and action of the heart are designed to serve the two loops of the circulation. Inside, the heart is divided vertically by a muscular wall. On each side of this wall is an upper chamber (atrium) and a thicker, lower chamber (ventricle). Blood moves through each side of the heart systematically. Deoxygenated blood is delivered into the right atrium. It then enters the right ventricle, from where it is pumped out into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs. Oxygenated blood returning in the pulmonary veins flows into the left atrium. This blood enters the left ventricle and is then pumped into the aorta for circulation.", "        The right side of the heart receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs for exchange, while the left side of the heart receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it around the body.  The heart is composed of mainly two ventricles and two atria (one on each side).  The right atrium receives blood from the superior and inferior vena cava.  The left atrium is supplied by a pair of pulmonary veins (one from each lung).  The left ventricle exports oxygen-rich blood along the aorta throughout the body.  The right ventricle carries oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to both lungs.", "The aorta supplies oxygenated blood from the heart's pumping chamber to the rest of the body.", "The left atrium is one of the four chambers of the heart, located on the left posterior side. Its primary roles are to act as a holding chamber for blood returning from the lungs and to act as a pump to transport blood to other areas of the heart. The walls of the left atrium are slightly thicker than the walls of the right atrium. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. The blood is then pumped into the left ventricle chamber of the heart through the mitral valve. From there, the blood is ready to be pumped into the body to deliver oxygen-rich blood to all bodily tissues. Mitral valve prolapse is a common affliction in which the mitral valve between the left atrium and left ventricle does not close properly. This condition does not typically require treatment; however, some patients with mitral valve prolapse can develop more serious conditions that require treatment. One such condition is mitral valve regurgitation, in which blood leaks back into the left atrium through the mitral valve.", "The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava (major veins). ", "   The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and coronary sinus.", "Heart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve. These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery. The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels, the left anterior descending and the left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies heart tissue and the front, outer side, and the septum of the left ventricle. It does this by smaller branching arteries - diagonal and septal branches. The left circumflex supplies the back and underneath of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, and lower posterior sections of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery also supplies blood to the atrioventricular node (in about 90% of people) and the sinoatrial node (in about 60% of people). The right coronary artery runs in a groove at the back of the heart and the left anterior descending artery runs in a groove at the front. There is significant variation between people in the anatomy of the arteries that supply the heart The arteries divide at their furtherst reaches into smaller branches that join together at the edges of each arterial distribution.", "Blood that has traveled through the body returns to the heart and enters the right atrium. This blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs, where it absorbs oxygen. Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs and enters the heart through the left atrium. Blood passes from the left atrium through the mitral valve and into the left ventricle.", "Right atrium: one of four chambers of the heart; pumps pumps oxygen-poor blood from the body in to the right ventricle", "The heart pumps blood through the body with the help of structures such as ventricles, atria, and valves.", "Deoxygenated blood returning from the body first enters the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava . The blood enters the right atrium and is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk .", "The heart acts as the central pump for the circulatory system . It can be thought of as having two halves. The right half includes the right atrium and right ventricle that are separated by the tricuspid valve. The left half includes the left atrium and left ventricle that are separated by the mitral valve.", "The Thebesian veins within the myocardium of the heart are valveless veins that drain directly into the chambers of the heart. The coronary veins all empty into the coronary sinus which empties into the right atrium.", "Many places in the body have serosa, including the body cavities surrounding the heart, lungs, and the abdomen and pelvic area. It's also found in the stomach, uterus , testicles, and vagina. Depending on where the membrane is located in the body, it may be called different things: for instance, the serous membrane around the heart is called the pericardium , while that around the lungs is called the pleura , and that surrounding the testes is called the tunica vaginalis .", "soft, purplish-red organ that lies under the diaphragm on the left side of the abdominal cavity. The spleen acts as a filter against foreign organisms that infect the bloodstream, and also filters out old red blood cells from the bloodstream and decomposes them.", "The body cavity contains the circulatory or haemal system. The vessels form three rings: one around the mouth (the hyponeural haemal ring), another around the digestive system (the gastric ring) and the third near the aboral surface (the genital ring). The heart beats about six times a minute and is at the apex of a vertical channel (the axial vessel) that connects the three rings. At the base of each arm are paired gonads; a lateral vessel extends from the genital ring past the gonads to the tip of the arm. This vessel has a blind end and there is no continuous circulation of the fluid within it. This liquid does not contain a pigment and has little or no respiratory function but is probably used to transport nutrients around the body.Ruppert et al., 2004. p. 886", "a chamber which is the greater part of the right atrium into which the great veins discharge." ]

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[ "The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint created by the femur and a part of the pelvis called the acetabulum. This joint and its ability to rotate in many angles is one of many pieces of anatomy that allows humans to walk.", "The hip is the body’s second largest weight-bearing joint (after the knee ). It is a ball and socket joint at the juncture of the leg and pelvis. The rounded head of the femur (thighbone) forms the ball, which fits into the acetabulum (a cup-shaped socket in the pelvis). Ligaments connect the ball to the socket and usually provide tremendous stability to the joint. The hip joint is normally very sturdy because of the fit between the femoral head and acetabulum as well as strong ligaments and muscles at the joint.", "Hip joint Of the 3 kinds of movable joints, the hip joints are ball and socket type", "The hip joint is also termed as a synovial joint. A synovial joint that can produce movement in more than one axis is called a multi-axial joint. The hip joint therefore is also termed as a multi-axial joint.", "The hip joint is the ball-and-socket joint. The head of the femur (thighbone) forms the ball, and the acetabulum (a part of the pelvis) forms the socket. Articular cartilage covers both. While the cartilage covers the entire head of the femur, the acetabulum cartilage is in the shape of a horseshoe with a depression (fossa) in the center of the socket. This fossa contains soft tissue and a ligament connecting the femoral head to the socket.", "The hip joint is a ball-and-socket synovial joint formed between the os coxa (hip bone) and the femur. A round, cup-shaped structure on the os coax, known as the acetabulum, forms the socket for the hip joint. The rounded head of the femur...", " The hip joint consists of the ball-shaped end of the thigh bone (femoral head) which fits into the hip socket (acetabular socket). The inside of this ball-and-socket joint is lined with smooth cartilage to help the joint move easily. If this smooth cartilage wears away, the remaining rough surfaces of the ball-and-socket grind against each other, causing pain. Over time, osteoarthritis can degenerate or permanently damage the joint.", "The ischium forms the lower and back part of the hip bone(os coxae). The word ischium dates back to c. 164o B.C.E., from Greek ἰσχίον iskhion meaning \"hip joint\", in plural, \"the hips\", and most likely comes from ισχύς iskhys \"loin\", which is of unknown origin.[1]", "Hip joint:  The articulation of the femur (leg bone) with the acetabulum, a deep hole in the pelvic girdle.  This large, strong joint accommodates three planes of motion of the leg-flexion/extension, lateral/medial rotation, and abduction/adduction.  ", "In vertebrate anatomy, hip (or \"coxa\" in medical terminology) refers to either an anatomical region or a joint.", "The two hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and together with the sacrum and coccyx (the pelvic part of the spine) comprise the skeletal component of the pelvis – the pelvic girdle which surrounds the pelvic cavity. They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton, at the sacroiliac joint. Each hip bone is connected to the corresponding femur (thigh bone) (forming the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton) through the large ball and socket joint of the hip.", "A pair of large, flat bones known as the os coxae, or hip bones, extend anteriorly and laterally from the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints to form the bulk of the pelvis. The left and right hip bones meet anteriorly at the body’s midline in a band of fibrocartilage known as the pubic symphysis (or symphysis pubis). The hip bones also form the ball-and-socket hip joints with the femurs. Many muscles that move the trunk and legs, such as our abdominal muscles, attach to the hip bones. In addition, the broad hip bones provide protection to the delicate internal organs of the pelvis, such as the intestines, urinary bladder, and uterus.", "The pelvic ring contains five joints. It has two sacroiliac joints, where the hip bones meet the sacrum. There are two hip joints, where the hip bones connect to the femurs, or leg bones. Lastly, there is the symphysis pubis, which connects the left and right pubic bones.", "Each hip bone contains three bones—the ilium, ischium, and pubis—that are separate during childhood but fuse together as we grow older. These three bones meet to form the acetabulum—the hollow cup that serves as the socket for the ball-and-socket hip joint.", "Acetabulum:  the cup-shaped socket of the hip joint. The head (upper end) of the femur (the thighbone) fits into the acetabulum and articulates with it, forming a ball-and-socket joint. The word ”acetabulum“ in Latin means \"cup.\"", "a synovial ball and socket joint; it is reinforced by capsular ligaments (iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, zona orbicularis); the fibers of the articular capsule become taut on hip extension and lax on hip flexion; dislocation injuries of the hip are most common when the hip is flexed (sitting in a car seat during an impact that causes the knees to strike the dash board, for example)", "The hip bones are three sets of bones—ilia, ischia, and pubes—that fuse together as we grow older. These form the majority of the pelvis at the base of the spine as well as the socket of the hip joint. The sacrum—five fused bones and at the bottom of the spine—and the coccyx, or tailbone, make the rest of the bones in the pelvic region.", "The hip bone, also known as the coxal or innominate bone, is an irregularly shaped bone found in the pelvic region.", "A joint is the point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints; Fibrous (immoveable), Cartilaginous (partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint.", "The inflammation of the bursae sacs that cushions the tendons with the lubricating fluid causes the hip joint pain. This can be treated by standing up, crossing your legs and touching your toes, holding for 20 to 30 seconds and switch legs.", "Connects with the pelvis at the hip joint and with the hind leg at the stifle joint.", "The pubis is the most anterior portion of the hip bone. It consists of a body and superior and inferior rami (branches).", "The hip bones (which have been named - they are no longer \"innominate\"!) meet anteriorly at the pubic symphysis. Together with the sacrum, they form a ring termed the bony pelvis. Each hip bone consists of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis, all three of which in the adult are fused at the acetabulum to form a single bone.", "The hip muscles act on three mutually perpendicular main axes, all of which pass through the center of the femoral head, resulting in three degrees of freedom and three pair of principal directions: Flexion and extension around a transverse axis (left-right); lateral rotation and medial rotation around a longitudinal axis (along the thigh); and abduction and adduction around a sagittal axis (forward-backward); and a combination of these movements (i.e. circumduction, a compound movement in which the leg describes the surface of an irregular cone).", "The two hip bones are joined anteriorly at the pubic symphysis by a fibrous cartilage covered by a hyaline cartilage, the interpubic disk, within which a non-synovial cavity might be present. Two ligaments, the superior and inferior pubic ligaments, reinforce the symphysis. ", "The higher the hip position the longer the stride, the lower the hip position the shorter the stride and the more the angular articulation that is required by the tibia and femur.", "Osteoarthritis of the hip (and other parts of the body) has been associated with the following:", "Joint contractures and coxa valga with mild flexion of the knees resulting in a wide gait and \"horse-riding\" stance as depicted in the image below", "Joint located between the cannon bone and the long pastern bone, also referred to as the \"ankle.\"", "The acetabulum is a concave area in the pelvis, into which the femoral head fits. The pelvis is a girdle of bones, connected at the front by cartilage pad, called the pubis, and at the back by the lowest four fused vertebrae (the sacrum). The sacro-iliac joints are located where the sacrum meets the pelvis.", "Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis. At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.", "The right and left os coxae form the pelvic girdle. Together, the pelvic girdle, sacrum, and coccyx (final 3-5 vertebrae) make up a ring of bones called the pelvis (bony pelvis)." ]

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[ "   The sinoatrial node is the cardiac pacemaker of the cardiac cycle. This node is located near the entrance of the superior vena cava in the wall of the right atrium.", "The sinoatrial node (often abbreviated SA node; also commonly called the sinus node and less commonly the sinuatrial node) is the normal natural pacemaker of the heart and is responsible for the initiation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat). It spontaneously generates an electrical impulse, which after conducting throughout the heart, causes the heart to contract. Although the electrical impulses are generated spontaneously, the rate of the impulses (and therefore the heart rate) is set by the nerves innervating the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node is located in the myocardial wall near where the sinus venarum joins the right atrium (upper chamber); hence sino- + atrial. ", "The sinoatrial (SA) node is located in the right atrium, next to the superior vena cava. This is a group of pacemaker cells which spontaneously depolarize to create an action potential. The cardiac action potential then spreads across both atria causing them to contract, forcing the blood they hold into their corresponding ventricles.", "The sinoatrial node is found in the upper part of the right atrium near to the junction with the superior vena cava. The electrical signal generated by the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium in a radial way that is not completely understood. It travels to the left atrium via Bachmann's bundle, such that both left and right atria contract together. The signal then travels to the atrioventricular node. This is found at the bottom of the right atrium in the atrioventricular septum—the boundary between the right atrium and the left ventricle. The septum is part of the cardiac skeleton, tissue within the heart that the electrical signal cannot pass through, which forces the signal to pass through the atrioventricular node only. The signal then travels along the bundle of His to left and right bundle branches through to the ventricles of the heart. In the ventricles the signal is carried by specialized tissue called the Purkinje fibers which then transmit the electric charge to the cardiac muscle. ", "The sinoatrial node (SA node) in the right atrium is like a tiny in-built 'timer'. It fires off an electrical impulse at regular intervals. (About 60-80 per minute when you are resting and faster when you exercise. This controls your heart rate.) Each impulse spreads across both atria, which causes them to contract. This pumps blood through one-way valves into the ventricles.", "A unique electrical conduction system in the heart causes it to beat in its regular rhythm. The sinoatrial or SA node, a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, sends out an electrical signal to start the contracting of the heart muscle. This node is called the pacemaker of the heart because it sets the rate of the heartbeat and causes the rest of the heart to contract in its rhythm.", "The conduction system starts with the pacemaker of the heart—a small bundle of cells known as the sinoatrial (SA) node. The SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium inferior to the superior vena cava . The SA node is responsible for setting the pace of the heart as a whole and directly signals the atria to contract. The signal from the SA node is picked up by another mass of conductive tissue known as the atrioventricular (AV) node.", "An electrical impulse travels through the heart and initiates contractions of the chambers. The heart's \"spark plug\" is an area of specialized heart tissue called the sinoatrial node (SA node), which is located in the right atrium. Each time the SA node \"fires,\" an electrical impulse is generated that travels through the right and left atria, signaling these chambers to contract and pump blood into the ventricles.", "When someone needs a pacemaker, it's usually because there's a problem with these electrical impulses, which weakens the heartbeat, causing all sorts of issues. If the heart can't get enough blood pumping through the body, the body -- and especially the brain -- suffers from lack of oxygen. An artificial pacemaker sends out electrical impulses to mimic the heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial node (SA node), located in the right atrium.", "Electrical impulses from your heart muscle (the myocardium) cause your heart to contract. This electrical signal begins in the sinoatrial (SA) node, located at the top of the right atrium. The SA node is sometimes called the heart's \"natural pacemaker.\" An electrical impulse from this natural pacemaker travels through the muscle fibers of the atria and ventricles, causing them to contract. Although the SA node sends electrical impulses at a certain rate, your heart rate may still change depending on physical demands, stress, or hormonal factors.", "Right Atrium: The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from the body through the superior vena cava (head and upper body) and inferior vena cava (legs and lower torso). The sinoatrial node sends an impulse that causes the cardiac muscle tissue of the atrium to contract in a coordinated, wave-like manner. The tricuspid valve, which separates the right atrium from the right ventricle, opens to allow the de-oxygenated blood collected in the right atrium to flow into the right ventricle.", "Schematic representation of the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular bundle of His. The location of the SA node is shown in blue. The bundle, represented in red, originates near the orifice of the coronary sinus, undergoes slight enlargement to form the AV node. The AV node tapers down into the bundle of HIS, which passes into the ventricular septum and divides into two bundle branches, the left and right bundles. The ultimate distribution cannot be completely shown in this diagram.", "While heart rhythm is regulated entirely by the sinoatrial node under normal conditions, heart rate is regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic input to the sinoatrial node. The accelerans nerve provides sympathetic input to the heart by releasing norepinephrine onto the cells of the sinoatrial node (SA node), and the vagus nerve provides parasympathetic input to the heart by releasing acetylcholine onto sinoatrial node cells. Therefore, stimulation of the accelerans nerve increases heart rate, while stimulation of the vagus nerve decreases it. ", "atrioventricular node (AV node) a collection of cardiac fibers at the base of the interatrial septum that transmits the cardiac impulse initiated by the sinoatrial node .", "The rhythmicity of mammalian heart relies on the sino-atrial (SA)node, or pacemaker. This is a phylogenic (based on evolutionary history) remnant of an early vertebrate heart that had one more chamber than modern hearts.", "Although some of the heart's cells have the ability to generate the electrical impulses (or action potentials) that trigger cardiac contraction, the sinoatrial node normally initiates it, simply because it generates impulses slightly faster than the other areas with pacemaker potential. Cardiomyocytes, like all muscle cells, have refractory periods following contraction during which additional contractions cannot be triggered; their pacemaker potential is overridden by the sinoatrial or atrioventricular nodes.", "Electrical impulses (action potentials) from both systems are sent to the sino-atrial (SA) node. The SA node, known as the hearts ‘pacemaker’, then sends out an impulse that stimulates both atria to contract and this stimulus is also sent to the atrioventricular (AV) node.  This is shown on the below image.", "• SA node (located in the right atrium near the entrance of the superior vena cava)", "; Premature atrial contractions (PACs or APCs) : Normal beats originate in the SA node and extra beats originating from the atria are called PACs. They can be found in normal hearts and be asymptomatic; symptomatic PACs can be treated with beta blockers. PACs, like PVCs, can pair up with normal beats in a pattern called bigeminy.", "The SA node is richly innervated by parasympathetic nervous system fibers (the tenth cranial nerve (CN X: vagus nerve)) and by sympathetic nervous system fibers (T1-4, spinal nerves). This unique anatomical arrangement makes the SA node susceptible to distinctly paired and opposed autonomic influences. At rest, the sinus rate is mostly influenced by vagal discharges or \"tone\" and on exercise mostly by adrenergic input.", "     The impulse that originates from the SA node travels to the atrioventricular (AV) node by way of internodal fibers that stimulate the myocardial cells of the atria to contract. The impulse passes more slowly through the AV node which is located in the interatrial septum near the opening of the coronary sinus.      The impulse slows as it goes through the AV node and travels through the interventricular septum by way of the AV bundle (bundle of His). The AV bundle divides into right and left bundles that go to the apex. Then branches at the apex radiate on inner surfaces of ventricles and Purkinje cells finally distribute the impulse to the myocardial cells of the ventricles.   Electrocardiogram  ECG (EKG)", "The electrical impulse gets to the atrioventricular node (AV node) at the lower right atrium. This acts like a 'junction box' and the impulse is delayed slightly. Most of the tissue between the atria and ventricles does not conduct the impulse. However, a thin band of conducting fibres called the atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) acts like 'wires' and carries the impulse from the AV node to the ventricles.", "coronary sinus  the terminal portion of the great cardiac vein, lying in the coronary sulcus between the left atrium and ventricle, and emptying into the right atrium.", "Internally, there are the rough pectinate muscles and crista terminalis of His, which act as a boundary inside the atrium and the smooth walled part of the right atrium, the sinus venarum derived from the sinus venosus. The sinus venarum is the adult remnant of the sinus venous and it surrounds the openings of the venae cavae and the coronary sinus.", "located at the top of the interventricular septum; carries electrical impulses from the atrioventricular node to Purkinje fibers", "the mass of specialized cardiac muscle fibers that normally acts as the \"pacemaker\" of the cardiac conduction system; it lies under the epicardium at the upper end of the sulcus terminalis.", "The median bundle of the conductive system of the heart leading to the atrioventricular node (Tawara's node).", "coronary sinus the dilated terminal portion of the great cardiac vein, receiving blood from other veins draining the heart muscle and emptying into the right atrium.", "The illustration shows a cross-section of a chest with a pacemaker. Figure A shows the location and general size of a double-lead, or dual-chamber, pacemaker in the upper chest. The wires with electrodes are inserted into the heart's right atrium and ventricle through a vein in the upper chest. Figure B shows the electrode electrically stimulating the heart muscle. Figure C shows the location and general size of a single-lead, or single-chamber, pacemaker in the upper chest. The wire with the electrode is inserted into the heart's right ventricle through a vein in the upper chest.", "H region the area of the bundle of His from its connection with the atrioventricular node to its branching portion.", "You've had an AV node ablation to treat an arrhythmia called atrial fibrillation. A pacemaker can help regulate your heartbeat after the procedure.", "SA node and AV Node: Setting the Pace - What determines the rhythm of your heart? | HowStuffWorks" ]

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[ "Allergy:  A mistaken reaction to foreign substances by the immune system. Mistaken in that these foreign substances are usually harmless. The substances that trigger allergy are called allergens. Examples include pollens, dust mite, molds, danders, and certain foods. People with allergies are said to be allergic or atopic. Allergens cause the over-production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), an antibody we all have in small amounts which is designed to protect us from parasites. During the sensitization period in allergy, IgE is overproduced. It coats mast cells which contain histamine. Histamine causes inflammation and the typical allergic symptoms when released in the presence of allergens.", "Allergy symptoms are the result of a chain reaction that starts in the immune system. Your immune system controls how your body defends itself. For instance, if you have an allergy to pollen, your immune system identifies pollen as an invader or allergen. Your immune system overreacts by producing antibodies called Immunoglobulin E (IgE). These antibodies travel to cells that release histamine and other chemicals, causing an allergic reaction with symptoms such as sneezing, stuffiness, a runny nose, itching and post-nasal drip.", "Histamine is the chemical in the body that causes allergic reactions. According to FamilyDoctor.org, when someone encounters an allergen, the body releases IgE antibodies to fight off the substance. This release causes a chain reaction in the body that causes the mast cells to over-produce histamine. Increased histamine causes irritation and inflammation in various parts of the body. The most common places histamine causes a reaction is in the skin, the nasal passages and the bronchial tubes. Talk with a doctor about any allergy-related symptoms for the most effective treatment options.", "Allergies are disorders of the immune system. Most allergic reactions are a result of an immune system that responds to a \"false alarm.\" When a harmless substance such as dust, mold, or pollen is encountered by a person who is allergic to that substance, the immune system may react dramatically, by producing antibodies that \"attack\" the allergen (substances that produce allergic reactions). The result of an allergen entering a susceptible person's body may include wheezing, itching, runny nose, and watery or itchy eyes, and other symptoms.", "Allergens can be inhaled, ingested, or enter through the skin. Common allergic reactions such as hay fever, certain types of asthma, and hives are linked to an antibody produced by the body called immunoglobulin E (IgE). Each IgE antibody can be very specific, reacting against certain pollens and other allergens. In other words, a person can be allergic to one type of pollen, but not another. When a susceptible person is exposed to an allergen, the body starts producing a large quantity of corresponding IgE antibodies. Subsequent exposure to the same allergen may result in an allergic reaction. Symptoms of an allergic reaction will vary depending on the type and amount of allergen encountered and the manner in which the body's immune system reacts to that allergen.", "Hay Fever or Allergic Rhinitis is a reaction of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and airways to seasonal pollens and other everyday allergens including dust, feathers, animal hairs and environmental pollutants. In winter, some people will have the same reaction to moulds. When this happens, the body releases large numbers of antibodies to fight the perceived allergen but these antibodies also produce histamine which causes swelling and irritation to the body’s own tissues triggering the typical symptoms including itchy, red eyes, a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, sneezing and tiredness. Although similar to cold symptoms, the key difference is that the nasal discharge caused by hay fever is clear and watery, while the discharge caused by a cold is usually thick and yellowy.", "For those with hay fever or perennial allergic rhinitis, however, the immune system gets overly sensitized to certain common substances, like pollen or pet dander, thinking they are harmful even though they really are not. This sensitization triggers an inflammatory response sparked by the release of IgE antibodies and other cell types, setting off a chain reaction that causes the symptoms of an allergic reaction.", "Allergen:  A substance that is foreign to the body and can cause an allergic reaction in a susceptible person. Examples are pollen, house dust, cat danders, and perfumes.", "Rhinorrhea can also occur when individuals with allergies to certain substances, such as pollen, dust, latex, soy, shellfish, or animal dander, are exposed to these allergens. In people with sensitized immune systems, the inhalation of one of these substances triggers the production of the antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE), which binds to mast cells and basophils. IgE bound to mast cells are stimulated by pollen and dust, causing the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. In turn, this causes, among other things, inflammation and swelling of the tissue of the nasal cavities as well as increased mucus production. Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents, which can normally be tolerated, can make the condition considerably worse.", "Nearly any substance is capable of causing allergies, provided the person is sensitive to it. Many people who have allergies are sensitive to more than one substance. The more common allergies that people have include those to mold spores, pollen, animal dander, dust, cockroach droppings, bee stings or dust mite droppings. Other possible allergies might include those to certain plants, certain foods, such as milk or eggs, certain medications, such as penicillin or aspirin, or to chemicals or other substances, such as latex.", "An allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system.  Allergic reactions occur when a person’s immune system reacts to normally harmless substances in the environment. A substance that causes a reaction is called an allergen. These reactions are acquired, predictable, and rapid. Allergy is one of four forms of hypersensitivity and is formally called type I (orimmediate) hypersensitivity. Allergic reactions are distinctive because of excessive activation of certain white blood cells called mast cells and basophils by a type of antibody called Immunoglobulin E (IgE). This reaction results in an inflammatory response which can range from uncomfortable to dangerous.", "An allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system. Allergic reactions occur when a person's immune system reacts to normally harmless substances in the environment. A substance that causes a reaction is called an allergen. These reactions are acquired, predictable, and rapid. Allergy is one of four forms of hypersensitivity and is formally called type I hypersensitivity. Allergic reactions are distinctive because of excessive activation of certain white blood cells called mast cells and basophils by a type of antibody called Immunoglobulin E. This reaction results in an inflammatory response which can range from uncomfortable to dangerous. Mild allergies like hay fever are very common in the human population and cause symptoms such as red eyes, itchiness, and runny nose, eczema, hives, or an asthma attack. Allergies can play a major role in conditions such as asthma. In some people, severe allergies to environmental or dietary allergens or to medication may result in life-threatening reactions called anaphylaxis. Food allergies, and reactions to the venom of stinging insects such as wasps and bees are often associated with these severe reactions.", "a regulating body substance released in excess during allergic reactions causing swelling and inflammation of tissue [e.g., in urticaria (hives), hay fever]. ", "Seasonal allergic rhinitis is sometimes called “hay fever.” But, people with seasonal allergic rhinitis do not have to have a fever and do not have to be exposed to hay to develop this condition. It is an allergic reaction to pollen from trees, grasses and weeds. This type of rhinitis occurs mainly in the spring and fall, when pollen from trees, grasses and weeds are in the air.", "Most allergies can be eliminated with the elimination of Candida overgrowth. The waste products of Candida flood the lymph system with more toxins than it can handle, and the body develops allergies. Candida overgrowth drastically reduces digestion, allowing undigested food into the blood stream. This undigested food causes an immune response, the making of an allergy.", "POLLEN:   Pollen is one of the common particulates in the air.  For people with allergies, pollen is one of the biggest triggers of allergic reactions.", "how allergies work When our eyes swell up and the snot starts flowing from our nostrils, most of us curse the pollen or pooch that caused it. But it’s our malfunctioning immune system that should take the blame. That’s because an allergy – from the Greek meaning ‘altered reactivity’ – is an overreaction by the frontline troops that make up", "Before an allergic reaction can occur, a person who is predisposed to form IgE to foods first has to be exposed to the food. As this food is digested, it triggers certain cells to produce specific IgE in large amounts. The IgE is then released and attaches to the surface of mast cells. The next time the person eats that food, it interacts with specific IgE on the surface of the mast cells and triggers the cells to release chemicals such as histamine. Depending upon the tissue in which they are released, these chemicals will cause a person to have various food allergy symptoms. If the mast cells release chemicals in the ears, nose, and throat, a person may feel an itching in the mouth and may have trouble breathing or swallowing. If the affected mast cells are in the gastrointestinal tract, the person may have abdominal pain, vomoting, or diarrhea. The chemicals released by skin mast cells, in contrast, can prompt hives.", "Allergy: A condition in which the body has an exaggerated response to a substance (e.g. food or drug). Also known as hypersensitivity.", "Birch pollen is well known to be a significant aeroallergen (an allergen dispersed bywind). This pollen is known to be a notable cause of hay-fever and pollen-related asthma.", "(IgE). The IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells in connective tissue that contain histamines and other chemicals. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached to the newly formed, Y-shaped IgE antibodies. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to release their histamines and other anti-allergen chemicals.", "Among North American plants, weeds are the most prolific producers of allergenic pollen. Ragweed is the major culprit, but other important sources are sagebrush, redroot pigweed, lamb's quarters, Russian thistle (tumbleweed), and English plantain.", "A damaging immune response by the body to a substance to which is has become hypersensitive", "These will search for common chemicals produced when different ailments are present. A common chemical produced during Asthma attacks is Immunoglobin E; thus, specialists will test to see if this chemical is present in the patient’s body.", "Allergic reaction: The hypersensitive response of the immune system of an allergic individual to a substance.", "Allergic rhinitis is by far the most prevalent type of allergy in the United States, affecting more than 60 million Americans. It affects people of all ages: as many as 40 percent of children and 30 percent of adults suffer from hay fever. There are two main types of allergic rhinitis: seasonal allergic rhinitis, more commonly known as “hay fever,” and perennial allergic rhinitis, which causes symptoms all year round (with some seasonal spikes). Hay fever is caused by outdoor allergens like pollens, grasses, weeds, and mold spores. Perennial allergic rhinitis is caused by indoor allergens such as animal dander, indoor mold, dust mites, and cockroaches.", "Asthma is marked by hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi with an inflammatory component, often in response to allergens.", "Although the exact mechanism isn't yet understood, allergy sufferers sometimes find that once they have become sensitized to certain allergens, they also exhibit allergic symptoms when exposed to related substances. For example, if you have an allergic reaction to honeybee venom, you might also test positive for hypersensitivity to all other types of bee venom.", "Schwartz, H. J., Jones, R. T., Rojas, A. R., Squillace, D. L., and Yunginger, J. W. Occupational allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma due to fennel seed. Ann.Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1997;78(1):37-40. View abstract.", "Pollen (pòl´en) noun    The fine, powderlike material consisting of pollen grains that is produced by the anthers of seed plants.", "is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system. Symptoms include red eyes, itchiness, and runny nose, eczema, hives, or an asthma attack", "Individual's with environmental allergies either commonly have the following conditions or they are at increased risk of developing the following conditions:" ]

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[ "The pancreas is an organ in the body that secretes several hormones, including insulin and glucagon, as well as digestive enzymes that help break down food. Insulin helps cells in the body take up glucose (sugar) from the blood to use for energy, which lowers blood glucose levels. Glucagon causes the liver to release stored glucose, which raises blood glucose levels.", "The body manufactures insulin in the pancreas, and the hormone is secreted by its beta cells, primarily in response to glucose.1", "The pancreas is an internal organ that has two main functions: the release of certain enzymes for digestion, and the release of various endocrine hormones. The digestive portion that produces digestive enzymes is called the \"exocrine pancreas\"; the hormone-producing portion is called the \"endocrine pancreas\". The hormones secreted by the endocrine pancreas are insulin , glucagon , and somatostatin . The cells that secrete insulin are called Islet of Langerhans cells, or more simply just \"islet cells\".", "Normally, the beta cells within the pancreas secrete insulin in response to rises in blood sugar after a person eats a meal and absorbs the carbohydrates within the meal. The role of insulin is to help the body use the carbohydrates to release energy and to keep blood sugar at normal levels.", "Insulin is secreted by the Islets of Langerhans which are special groups of cells in the pancreas. The Islets (little islands) are endocrine organs.", "Pancreas: The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated organ situated between the limbs of the ‘U’ shaped duodenum. The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.", "Most of the pancreas acts as an exocrine gland producing digestive enzymes that are secreted into the small intestine. The endocrine part of the organ consists of small clusters of cells (called Islets of Langerhans) that secrete the hormone insulin. This hormone regulates the amount of glucose in the blood by increasing the rate at which glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and the movement of glucose from the blood into cells.", "The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive system and endocrine system. It is both an endocrine gland—producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide—and a digestive organ—secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that help with the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.", "Hi edz! Insulin is produced by the pancreas. Why are you interested in knowing what organ produces insulin? Regards, Neil", "Irregular clusters of endocrine cells that are scattered throughout the tissue of the pancreas and secrete insulin.", "The pancreas is an organ in the abdomen. The pancreas makes several enzymes and hormones, including the hormone insulin. Insulin's job is to reduce the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood by helping it move into cells.", "The islets of Langerhans are the endocrine (endo= within) cells of the pancreas that produce and secrete hormones such as insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream. The pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon, work together to maintain the proper level of sugar (glucose) in the blood. Blood sugar is used by the body for energy.", "The beta cells within the pancreas, contain cells called the Islets of Langerhans - these are responsible for secreting the hormone, insulin.", "The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine organ. It releases certain enzymes to aid in digestion delivered to the gut via the pancreatic duct. The endocrine pancreas also releases hormones such as insulin and glucagon, which are hormones predominantly related to glucose metabolism, into the blood stream.", "Your pancreas is a very quiet little organ that sits behind the stomach and produces digestive enzymes and a couple of hormones, such as insulin and glucagon. Most people never think about their pancreas; it just does it's thing, pumping insulin into the blood when glucose is too high and glucagon when the glucose is too low.", "The pancreas is a large organ located behind the stomach. It serves two major functions. First, it is a digestive organ, releasing digestive enzymes into the small intestine by means of the pancreatic duct. But it also functions as an endocrine organ, releasing the hormones insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream from specialized cells known as the islets of Langerhans.", "13 Pancreas Found below the stomach surrounded by the intestine Secretes hormones used in the digestive process, particularly insulin and glucagon which lowers and elevates blood sugar levels.", "In our next issue, we'll move on down the body into the pancreas. In our previous newsletters on the digestive system, we explored the pancreas' production of digestive enzymes. But the pancreas has two distinct functions in the body. In addition to producing digestive juices, it also is part of the endocrine system and produces several key hormones, most notably insulin and ghrelin (the appetite hormone). We will explore those hormones in our next newsletter.", "The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. As an exocrine gland, small secretory cells that produce digestive enzymes merge to form pancreatic ducts, which secrete enzymes and digestive juices.� As an endocrine gland, clusters of cells called Islet of Langerhans secrete directly enter the blood stream.� The Islet of Langerhans contains alpha cells and beta cells. The beta cells secrete insulin and the alpha secretes glucagon. The actions of insulin and glucagon are antagonist to one another.", "The pancreas sits behind the stomach, nestled in the curve of the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), and contains clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. Islets are made up of beta cells, which produce and release insulin into the bloodstream.", "large gland lying behind the stomach, attached to the duodenum, and secreting digestive enzymes and hormones insulin and glucagon", "The pancreas (pronounced: PAN-kree-us) is also part of the body's hormone-secreting system, even though it is also associated with the digestive system because it produces and secretes digestive enzymes.", "The pancreas is an organ located within the abdomen, near the spleen and is responsible for secreting various hormones into the bloodstream, as well as pancreatic enzymes into the intestines to aid in digestion.", "It has a pear-shape to it and is approximately 6 inches long. It is located in the middle and back portion of the abdomen. The pancreas is connected to the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum, and lies behind the stomach. The pancreas is made up of glandular tissue: any substance secreted by the cells of the pancreas will be secreted outside of the organ.", "All other tissues in your body need insulin to help then respire glucose, so in a way they are also target organs.", "Pancreas   An organ that produces enzymes and releases them into the small intestine. The pancreas also releases two hormones that control glucose levels in the blood.", "The pancreas controls the level of glucose in the blood. It is often transplanted with a kidney, because diabetes affects both organs.", "His idea was aimed at isolating the internal secretion of the pancreas, a jelly-like gland behind the stomach. He recalled from his lectures at medical school that this secretion supposedly regulated sugar in the bloodstream. If he could isolate this secretion, it might hold the key in the treatment of diabetes.", "Dual-Functioning Glandular Organ: Located behind the stomach in the abdominal cavity, the pancreas is a glandular organ. Owing to its dual-functionality, it is the closely associated with both the digestive system and endocrine system. This six-inch large organ can be distinguished into body, tail, neck and head.", "In addition to its digestive functions, cells in the pancreas regulate the blood sugar that provides the body with energy.", "Any organ of the body that secretes substances, such as hormones or enzymes, that are used by other parts of the body.", "In addition to the regulation of glucose, insulin also plays a role in other areas of the body. It may be involved in all of the following functions to:" ]

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[ "The large intestine is the portion of the digestive system most responsible for absorption of water from the indigestible residue of food. The ileocecal valve of the ileum (small intestine) passes material into the large intestine at the cecum. Material passes through the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid portions of the colon, and finally into the rectum. From the rectum, the waste is expelled from the body.", "Most food products are absorbed in the small intestine. The large intestine is responsible for absorption of water and excretion of solid waste material.", "In the hindgut, absorption of water takes place and the undigested food is formed into almost dry pellets. These are excreted through the anus as faeces.", "The colon (large intestine) is a distal part of the gastrointestinal tract, extending from the cecum to the anal canal. It receives digested food from the  small intestine , from which it absorbs water and ions to form faeces", "The intestines are located between the stomach and the anus and are divided into two major sections: the small intestine and the large intestine. The function of the small intestine is to absorb most ingested food. The large intestine is responsible for absorption of water and excretion of solid waste material.", "But I think small intestine absorb water. My class note says most of water is actually absorbed in small intestine. What large intestine absorbs is basically left-over water that small intestine couldn't finish absorbing.", "explanation says \"The large intestine is primarily involved in water reabsorption\" and the answer is D.", "The largest part of the GI tract is the colon or large intestine. Water is absorbed here and remaining waste matter is stored prior to defecation. ", "The large intestine performs the vital functions of converting food into feces, absorbing essential vitamins produced by gut bacteria, and reclaiming water from feces. A slurry of digested food, known as chyme, enters the large intestine from the small intestine via the ileocecal sphincter. Chyme passes through the cecum where it is mixed with beneficial bacteria that have colonized the large intestine throughout a person’s lifetime. The chyme is then slowly moved from one haustra to the next through the four regions of the colon. Most of the movement of chyme is achieved by slow waves of peristalsis over a period of several hours, but the colon can also be emptied quickly by stronger waves of mass peristalsis following a large meal.", "The large intestine is about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5 feet long in a living body. It receives fecal matter from the small intestine through the ileocecal sphincter. The smooth walls of the large intestine absorb water from fecal matter. These intestinal walls also absorb vitamins released from the fermentation of feces by bacteria living in the large intestine.", "Large intestine: larger diameter, shorter length than small intestine. No villi. In mammals, forms large gentle loop, colon, empties into straight region, rectum, empties into outside world through anal sphincter. Colon: absorbs water left over, also absorbs vitamins released by bacteria which live there (vitamin K).", "The stomach is a muscular sac that lies between the esophagus and the small intestine in the upper abdomen. The stomach is not the only part of your digestive system that absorbs food but rather is a part of the digestive system and important for churning food into a consistency that is easier to digest for the rest of your intestines.", "Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejeunum (second third of the small intestine). The inner surface of the intestine has circular folds that more than triple the surface area for absorption. Villi covered with epithelial cells increase the surface area by another factor of 10. The epithelial cells are lined with microvilli that further increase the surface area; a 6 meter long tube has a surface area of 300 square meters.", "The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.", "of water. However, the absorptive capacity of the small intestine is far greater than this as much as several kilograms of carbohydrates per day, 500 to", "The human colon demonstrates the pouched structure peculiar to herbivores. The distensible large intestine is larger in cross-section than the small intestine, and is relatively long. Man's colon is responsible for water and electrolyte absorption and vitamin production and absorption. There is also extensive bacterial fermentation of fibrous plant materials, with the production and absorption of significant amounts of food energy (volatile short-chain fatty acids) depending upon the fiber content of the diet. The extent to which the fermentation and absorption of metabolites takes place in the human colon has only recently begun to be investigated.", "The human colon demonstrates the pouched structure peculiar to herbivores. The distensible large intestine is larger in cross-section than the small intestine, and is relatively long. Man's colon is responsible for water and electrolyte absorption and vitamin production and absorption. There is also extensive bacterial fermentation of fibrous plant materials, with the production and absorption of significant amounts of food energy (volatile short-chain fatty acids) depending upon the fiber content of the diet. The extent to which the fermentation and absorption of metabolites takes place in the human colon has only recently begun to be investigated.", "Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient. Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient and hence requires energy. Various nutrients like amino acids, monosacharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this mechanism. Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are first incorporated into small droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules called the chylomicrons which are transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed substances into the blood stream. Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.", "The small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract that follows the stomach, which is in turn followed by the large intestine. The small intestine is the site where almost all of the digestion and absorption of nutrients and minerals from food takes place.", "The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus, and Crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders.", "The digested food is absorbed through the stomach walls into the surrounding space which is called the haemocoel. The haemocoel consists of a large number of fat bodies which are fat cells having fat globules, protein granules and glycogen. They form storage structures. From here, it is transported to the different body parts.", "Your stomach is located at the end of your esophagus and is the terminus for swallowed food and drink. The stomach receives chewed food and continues to mechanically and chemically break it down into smaller pieces, creating more surface area for your small intestine to absorb nutrients.", "The small intestine is the major site for digestion and absorption of nutrients. The small intestine is up to 6 meters long and is 2-3 centimeters wide. The upper part, the duodenum , is the most active in digestion. Secretions from the liver and pancreas are used for digestion in the duodenum. Epithelial cells of the duodenum secrete a watery mucus. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and stomach acid-neutralizing bicarbonate. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder before entering the bile duct into the duodenum.", "Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. In the duodenum, pancreatic lipase is secreted together with a co-enzyme, colipase to further digest the fat content of the chyme. From this breakdown, smaller particles of emulsified fats called chylomicrons are produced. There are also digestive cells called enterocytes lining the intestines (the majority being in the small intestine). They are unusual cells in that they have villi on their surface which in turn have innumerable microvilli on their surface. All these villi make for a greater surface area, not only for the absorption of chyme but also for its further digestion by large numbers of digestive enzymes present on the microvilli.", "At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring or valve called a sphincter allows food to enter the stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus. The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller, digestible pieces. An acidic environment is needed for the digestion that takes place in the stomach. Glands in the stomach lining produce about 3 quarts (2.8 liters) of these digestive juices each day.", "The alimentary canal opens to the exterior by a small rounded aperture called anus. The ingested organic rich soil passes through the digestive tract where digestive enzymes breakdown complex food into smaller absorbable units. These simpler molecules are absorbed through intestinal membranes and are utilised.", "In most vertebrates, the stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.", "Some body fluids help break down food that is consumed so the body can absorb nutrients and gain energy. Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands found under the tongue. It contains enzymes that begin the digestive process by breaking down starches and fats in food while it is still in the mouth. After this partially digested food is swallowed, it enters the stomach, where the highly acidic gastric juice continues the process of digestion.", "Digestion of food begins in the (a) oral cavity. Food is masticated by teeth and moistened by saliva secreted from the (b) salivary glands. Enzymes in the saliva begin to digest starches and fats. With the help of the tongue, the resulting bolus is moved into the esophagus by swallowing.", "You have more than a hundred trillion bacteria in your intestines, more bacteria than you have cells in your body. They live in your intestines because every time you eat, you feed these bacteria. They eat the same foods that you do. In return, the bacteria feed you. You cannot absorb food. Before food can get into your bloodstream, it must first be separated into carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However you can not absorb these components either. Carbohydrates must be broken down into single sugars, fats into fatty acids and protein into single and chains of amino acids. If you can‘t break down food into single sugars, fatty acids and chains of amino acids, you can’t absorb them. Your intestines make many of the enzymes that break down foods, but some foods cannot be broken down in your intensities. The bacteria repay you for giving them a place to live by breaking down some of the unabsorbed foods so you can absorb and use them. If it were not for the bacteria in your intestines, much of the food that you eat would pass right out of your body without being absorbed.", "The digestive system takes in food and breaks it down so it can be used by the body.", "In the digestive system, the smooth muscles tighten up and relax, moving food through the body." ]

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[ "Islets of Langerhans: The islets of Langerhans are a specialized group of cells located in the pancreas, an endocrine organ located in the upper left area of the abdominal cavity. As a group, the islets of Langerhans produce pancreatic hormones including glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin.", "Islets of Langerhans, also called islands of Langerhans, irregularly shaped patches of endocrine tissue located within the pancreas of most vertebrates. They are named for the German physician Paul Langerhans, who first described them in 1869. The normal human pancreas contains about 1,000,000 islets. The islets consist of four distinct cell types, of which three (alpha, beta, and delta cells) produce important hormones ; the fourth component (C cells) has no known function.", "The islets of Langerhans are the regions of thepancreas that contain its endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells. Discovered in 1869 by Germanpathological anatomist Paul Langerhans at the age of 22,[1] the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas.", "The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain many hormone-producing endocrine cells.", "Pancreatic islets, also called the islets of Langerhans, are regions of the pancreas that contain its hormone-producing endocrine cells.", "Islets of Langerhans: Known as the insulin -producing tissue, the islets of Langerhans do more than that. They are groups of specialized cells in the pancreas that make and secrete hormones. Named after the German pathologist Paul Langerhans (1847-1888), who discovered them in 1869, these cells sit in groups that Langerhans likened to little islands in the pancreas. There are five types of cells in an islet: alpha cells that make glucagon , which raises the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood; beta cells that make insulin; delta cells that make somatostatin which inhibits the release of numerous other hormones in the body; and PP cells and D1 cells, about which little is known. Degeneration of the insulin-producing beta cells is the main cause of type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus.", "Clusters of endocrine cells, the islets of Langerhans, are scattered throughout the exocrine tissues of the pancreas.", "A small proportion (1-2 per cent) of the pancreas is made up of other types of cells called islets of Langerhans. These cells sit in tiny groups, like small islands, scattered throughout the tissue of the pancreas. The islets of Langerhans contain alpha cells which secrete glucagon and beta cells which secrete insulin.", "Islets of Langerhans: cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ; secrete insulin and other hormones.", "In mammals, insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the beta cells (β-cells) of the islets of Langerhans. One to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the endocrine part of the pancreas, which is primarily an exocrine gland. The endocrine portion only accounts for 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 60–80% of all the cells.", "Late in the nineteenth century, scientists had realized there was a connection between the pancreas and diabetes. The connection was further narrowed down to the islets of Langerhans, a part of the pancreas. From 1910 to 1920, Oscar Minkowski and others tried unsuccessfully to find and extract the active ingredient from the islets of Langerhans. While reading a paper on the subject in 1920, Banting had an inspiration. He realized that the pancreas' digestive juice was destroying the islets of Langerhans hormone before it could be isolated. If he could stop the pancreas from working, but keep the islets of Langerhans going, he should be able to find the stuff! He presented this idea to Macleod, who at first scoffed at it. Banting badgered him until finally Macleod gave him lab space, 10 experimental dogs, and a medical student assistant.", "The pancreatic Islets of Langerhans are the sites of production of insulin, glucagon and  somatostatin.  The figure below shows an immunofluorescence image in which antibodies specific for these hormones have been coupled to differing fluorescence markers.  We can therefore identify those cells that produce each of these three peptide hormones.", "Banting suspected a mysterious hormone was being produced in a section of the pancreas called the islets of Langerhans. He theorized that the hormone was getting destroyed by the pancreas’ digestive juices. If he could shut down the pancreas but keep the islets of Langerhans working, he might find the missing substance.", "Under a microscope, stained sections of the pancreas reveal two different types of parenchymal tissue. The light-stained clusters of cells are called islets of Langerhans, which produce hormones that underlie the endocrine functions of the pancreas. ", "The endocrine part of the pancreas, consists of isolated islands of lighter staining cells called islets of Langerhans", "Alpha cell, pancreatic:  A type of cell in the pancreas. Within the pancreas, the alpha cells are located in areas called the islets of Langerhans. Alpha cells make and release glucagon which raises the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Alongside are the beta cells which make insulin.", "In 1869, Paul Langerhans, a medical student in Berlin, was studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope when he identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas. The function of the \"little heaps of cells\", later known as the islets of Langerhans, was unknown, but Edouard Laguesse later suggested they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion. Paul Langerhans' son, Archibald, also helped to understand this regulatory role. The term \"insulin\" origins from insula, the Latin word for islet/island.", "The Islets of Langerhans are commonly referred to as \"islets\" (pronounced \"EYE-lets\"). Islets actually are clusters of cells, with each \"islet\" containing 3,000 to 4,000 cells.", "The islets were first described by Paul Langerhans (1847–1888), a German medical student, in his dissertation in 1869, but he could not suggest any function for them. They were named after Langerhans by E. Laguesse ( 3 ) in 1893. The importance of the pancreas in carbohydrate metabolism had been known since experiments by Joseph Freiherr von Mering (1849–1908) and Oscar Minkowski (1858–1931) in 1890 ( 4 ). They successfully removed the entire pancreas from a dog and observed all the symptoms of severe diabetes, namely, high blood sugar (hyperglycemia), glycosuria, and finally death involving ketosis and coma in 2 or 3 weeks. Their finding was the first experimental proof that diabetes may be of pancreatic origin.", "Clearly, something within the islets of Langerhans prevented diabetes. Over the next few years more than 400 researchers set to work trying to find that mysterious \"something.\" Diabetes researcher Lydia Dewitt estimated at the turn of the century: \"More thought and investigation was going into the islets of Langerhans than any other organ or tissue of the body.\" On June 20, 1906, a German internist named Georg Ludwig Zuelzer injected an extract of beef pancreas and adrenalin into a man in a diabetic coma. The man came out of the coma hungry, dying 12 days later when the extract ran out. Zuelzer later wrote: \"Whoever has seen how a patient lying in agony soon recovers from certain death and is restored to actual health will never forget it.\" Zuelzer's was just the first of many such accounts of the miraculous recovery the right extract could bring to diabetics on the brink of death. Unfortunately, the recovery never lasted and inevitably the patients had severe reactions, including vomiting, high fevers, and convulsions. In 1913, diabetologist Frederick Allen declared: \"All authorities are agreed upon the failure of pancreatic opotherapy (pancreatic juice therapy) in diabetes . . . injections of pancreatic preparations have proved both useless and harmful.\"", "If he could stop the pancreas from working, but keep the islets of Langerhans going, he should be able to find the stuff! experimental dogs, and a medical student assistant named Charles Best. By August of 1921, Banting and Best succeeded in extracting hormones from the islets of Langerhans—which they called insulin after the Latin word for island. When they injected the insulin into dogs with high blood sugar levels, those levels dropped quickly.", "alpha cells - endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas that produce the hormone glucagon.", "������� In addition, the pancreas produces the hormone called insulin. This hormone is produced in groups of cells called Islets of Langerhans.", "Barron M. The relation of the islets of Langerhans to diabetes with special reference to cases of pancreatic lithiasis. Surg Gynec Obstet 1920;31:437-448.", "Other names for insulinoma include: Islet Cell Tumours (named after the Islets of Langerhans), beta cell tumours, pancreatic tumours, insulinomas, or insulinoma tumours.", "Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans are sensitive to variations in blood glucose levels through the following mechanism (see figure to the right):", "Microscopic anatomy of the human islet of Langerhans / P. In't Veld and M. Marichal --", "These medical condition or symptom topics may be relevant to medical information for Islets of Langerhans:", "The pancreas is located in the abdomen behind the stomach. Islets within the pancreas contain beta cells, which produce insulin.", "RESULTS In small human islets (40–60 μm in diameter), β-cells had a core position, α-cells had a mantle position, and vessels laid at their periphery. In bigger islets, α-cells had a similar mantle position but were found also along vessels that penetrate and branch inside the islets. As a consequence of this organization, the ratio of β-cells to α-cells was constantly higher in the core than in the mantle part of the islets, and decreased with increasing islet diameter. This core-mantle segregation of islet cells was also observed in type 2 diabetic donors but not in cultured isolated islets. Three-dimensional analysis revealed that islet cells were in fact organized into trilaminar epithelial plates, folded with different degrees of complexity and bordered by vessels on both sides. In epithelial plates, most β-cells were located in a central position but frequently showed cytoplasmic extensions between outlying non–β-cells.", "CONCLUSIONS Human islets have a unique architecture allowing all endocrine cells to be adjacent to blood vessels and favoring heterologous contacts between β- and α-cells, while permitting homologous contacts between β-cells.", "Image  courtesy of Clinical Islet Transplantation (CIT) Consortium, sponsored by National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)" ]

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[ "The pupil appears to expand or contract automatically based on the intensity of the light entering the eye. In truth, this action is controlled by the iris – a ring of muscles within the colored portion of the eye that adjusts the pupil opening based on the intensity of light. (So when a pupil appears to expand or contract, it is actually the iris doing its job.)", "When you look at an eye, the iris is the colored part. The iris actually is a pigmented muscle that controls the size of the pupil, which dilates to allow more light into the eye or contracts to allow less light into the eye. The iris and pupil are covered by the cornea.", "The iris—the circular, colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupil—controls the amount of light that enters the eye. The iris allows more light into the eye (enlarging or dilating the pupil) when the environment is dark and allows less light into the eye (shrinking or constricting the pupil) when the environment is bright. Thus, the pupil dilates and constricts like the aperture of a camera lens as the amount of light in the immediate surroundings changes. The size of the pupil is controlled by the action of the pupillary sphincter muscle and dilator muscle.", "Iris   The coloured part of the eye , a ring of muscle that controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of the pupil.", "Light enters the eye through the cornea and is refracted through the AQUEOUS HUMOUR on to the lens. The shape of the lens can be altered (see ACCOMMODATION ) to focus the light through the VITREOUS HUMOUR on to the retina, where light-receptive ROD CELLS and CONE CELLS (see FOVEA ) convert light energy to nerve impulses which pass to the brain via the optic nerve (see BLIND SPOT ). An inherited dysfunction of cone cells in some individuals, more common in males than females, can lead to the inability to distinguish between different colours, a condition known as COLOUR BLINDNESS . The position of the eyes at the front of the head provides BINOCULAR VISION , and movement of the eyes within the ORBIT is controlled by extrinsic eye muscles. Several accessory structures, namely the eyelids, LACHRYMAL GLANDS and CONJUNCTIVA , protect the eye from external damage.", "The light response of the rods peaks sharply in the blue; they respond very little to red light. This leads to some interesting phenomena:", "muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil which in turn controls the amount of light that enters the eye; it forms the colored portion of the eye", "On the other hand, In dark environment where more light is needed, the muscles in the iris contract and increase the size of the pupil.", "Protanomaly(1% of males): Having a mutated form of the long-wavelength pigment, whose peak sensitivity is at a shorter wavelength than in the normal retina, protanomalous individuals are less sensitive to red light than normal. This means that they are less able to discriminate colors, and they do not see mixed lights as having the same colors as normal observers. They also suffer from a darkening of the red end of the spectrum. This causes reds to reduce in intensity to the point where they can be mistaken for black. Protanomaly is a fairly rare form of colour blindness, making up about 1% of the male population.", "In bright light, the iris closes (or constricts) and makes the pupil opening smaller to restrict the amount of light that enters your eye.", "The iris is a contractile structure, consisting mainly of smooth muscle, surrounding the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil, and the iris regulates the amount of light by controlling the size of the pupil. The iris contains two groups of smooth muscles; a circular group called the sphincter pupillae, and a radial group called the dilator pupillae. When the sphincter pupillae contract, the iris decreases or constricts the size of the pupil. The dilator pupillae, innervated by sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion, cause the pupil to dilate when they contract. These muscles are sometimes referred to as intrinsic eye muscles. The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers. This causes the effect in one eye to carry over to the other. If the drug pilocarpine is administered, the pupils will constrict and accommodation is increased due to the parasympathetic action on the circular muscle fibers, conversely, atropine will cause paralysis of accommodation (cycloplegia) and dilation of the pupil.", "Iris: a ring of muscles in the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil", "Pigmented tissue that lie behind the cornea that gives color to the eye (e.g., blue eyes) and controls the amount of light entering the eye by varying the size of the black pupillary opening.", "The white body (or coloured) which diffuses the totality (or a part) of the incidental light ;", "The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye. Contains rods and cones.", "Anatomy. one of the rodlike cells in the retina of the eye, sensitive to low intensities of light.", "Rhodopsins strongly absorb light, which gives them a characteristic dark, opaque color called visual purple. The photoisomerization causes a bleaching from purple to transparent yellow, which allows light to pass deeper into the outer segment and strike photopigment molecules below. After photoisomerization, the pigment is regenerated or reassembled from the bleached components. Less than 1% of the total amount of bleached photopigment in a cone is regenerated each second; yet even during daylight, only about 50% of the photopigment is bleached at any time.", "Rods contain a pigment called rhodopsin. When light falls on rhodopsin, it undergoes a series of conformational changes ultimately generating electrical signals which are carried to the brain via the optic nerve. In the absence of light, rhodopsin is regenerated. The body synthesizes rhodopsin from vitamin A, which is why a deficiency in vitamin A causes poor night vision.", "The light bands are known as I bands. The I bands are composed mainly of actin filaments. Each I band is bisected by a protein disc known as the Z-line. Actin filaments are anchored into the Z-line. During muscle contraction the actin filaments slide over the myosin filaments which results in a shortening of the I band.", "The Depressor Supercilii is an eye muscle of the human body. The nature of this muscle is in some dispute. Few printed anatomies include it (Netter, et al.) and many authorities consider it to be part of the orbicularis oculi muscle.", "During an eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle, the elbow starts the movement while bent and then straightens as the hand moves away from the shoulder. During an eccentric contraction of the triceps muscle, the elbow starts the movement straight and then bends as the hand moves towards the shoulder. Desmin, titin, and other z-line proteins are involved in eccentric contractions, but their mechanism is poorly understood in comparison to crossbridge cycling in concentric contractions.", "The iris, or colored part of the eye, is covered by this transparent outer layer of tissue", "contain photopigments that breakdown in the presence of a limited bandwidth of light (i.e., cone photopigments are chromatic).", "Until we have resolved the position of the yellow pigments in the optical pathway with respect to the short-wavelength photoreceptors we cannot be certain to what extent the pigments screen the receptors, even in those ommatidia where the former occur. Lampyrids have a three-tiered retina ( Hariyama et al., 1998 ; Horridge, 1969 ) in which a distal rhabdomere overlies the main bundle of rhabdomeres, with a single, small, basal rhabdomere close to the basement membrane. It is therefore conceivable that at least some rhabdomeres protrude through the filter pigment.", "\"Color vision is the faculty of the organism to distinguish lights of different spectral qualities.\" All organisms are restricted to a small range of electromagnetic spectrum; this varies from creature to creature, but is mainly between wavelengths of 400 and 700 nm.", "Heterophoria: Constant tendency of one eye to deviate in one or another direction due to imperfect balance of ocular muscles.", "People with light eye colors are more likely to experience this condition because they contain less of the pigment which protects the eyes from harsh lighting. Albinism is the lack of eye pigment and it can be accompanied with photophobia.", "There is another phenomenon about our vision that is fun to try. These are afterimages . All physical systems strive to stay in balance. (This is important to know!) And because of this, we shiver when we are cold to increase circulation. If we are hot, we sweat to cool down. If you stare at a colored object for a minute or more, the chemicals in the cones for the colors you are seeing will be partially used up. The chemicals for the colors you are not seeing are still intact. So the cone systems are not in balance. When you look away from the object and stare at a white piece of paper, you will see the image in opposite colors. This is an afterimage . Try doing this with the image that is attached to this document. You can either print the image out or stare at it on your computer screen. Stare at the image for at least a minute, staring at the bottom right star on the flag. After staring at the flag for a minute, quickly glance at a blank wall or plain white sheet of paper. For a few seconds, you ll see the American flag in red, white and blue!", "Damage to one eye or to the part of the brain that controls the muscles involved in eye movement", "During contraction, there is a spatial reorganization of the contractile machinery to optimize force development. part of this reorganization consists of vimentin being phosphorylated at Ser56 by a p21 activated kinase, resulting in some disassembly of vimentin polymers.", "An undifferentiated mass of (usually) unpigmented tissue adhering to the ventral surface of the eye (see Moser and Ahlstrom 1970)", "This insect cannot see red light at all well, which is typical of many insects. It can, however, see ultraviolet" ]

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[ "The mouth is the organ in which the process of digestion begins. It starts the process of mechanical digestion by grinding the food with teeth. Also in the mouth, an enzyme called salivary amylase begins to break down long starch molecules into maltose. Once the food is ready to be swallowed it is gathered into a ball called a bolus and sends to the part of the bolus called the pharynx.", "The extensive chemical process of digestion begins in the mouth. As food is chewed, saliva, produced by the salivary glands , mixes with the food. Saliva is a watery substance produced in the mouths of many animals. There are three major glands that secrete saliva: the parotid, the submandibular, and the sublingual. Saliva contains mucus that moistens food and buffers the pH of the food. Saliva also contains immunoglobulins and lysozymes, which have antibacterial action to reduce tooth decay by inhibiting growth of some bacteria. In addition, saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that begins the process of converting starches in the food into a disaccharide called maltose. Another enzyme, lipase , is produced by the cells in the tongue. It is a member of a class of enzymes that can break down triglycerides. Lingual lipase begins the breakdown of fat components in the food. The chewing and wetting action provided by the teeth and saliva shape the food into a mass called the bolus for swallowing. The tongue aids in swallowing by moving the bolus from the mouth into the pharynx. The pharynx opens to two passageways: the trachea, which leads to the lungs, and the esophagus, which leads to the stomach. The tracheal opening, the glottis, is covered by a cartilaginous flap, the epiglottis. When swallowing, the epiglottis closes the glottis, allowing food to pass into the esophagus, not into the trachea, preventing food from reaching the lungs.", "In the mouth, the food is digested physically by your teeth and also the salivary glands in your mouth produces saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase (ptyalin). Salivary amylase keeps the pH in the mouth basic. Salivary amylase will digest starch in your food to maltose, which will later get digested to glucose in the Duodenum.", "In humans, digestion begins in the Mouth, otherwise known as the \"Buccal Cavity\", where food is chewed. Saliva is secreted in large amounts (1-1.5 litres/day) by three pairs of exocrine salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the chewed food by the tongue. Saliva cleans the oral cavity, moistens the food, and contains digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical breakdown of polysaccharides such as starch into disaccharides such as maltose. It also contains mucus, a glycoprotein that helps soften the food and form it into a bolus. An additional enzyme, lingual lipase, hydrolyzes long-chain triglycerides into partial glycerides and free fatty acids.", "As the teeth tear and chop the food, saliva moistens it for easy swallowing. A digestive enzyme called amylase (pronounced: AH-meh-lace), which is found in saliva, starts to break down some of the carbohydrates (starches and sugars) in the food even before it leaves the mouth.", "The alimentary canal begins with the mouth, where teeth and the tongue pulverize food through mechanical digestion into what is called a bolus. The tongue also tastes the food, which helps to determine if it is fit to be ingested. Six salivary glands release saliva into the mouth cavity through ducts that open under the tongue and on the roof of the mouth. Saliva is composed mainly of water, but it includes mucus and an enzyme called salivary amylase. The water and mucus in the saliva help to dissolve and lubricate the food in preparation for swallowing. Salivary amylase starts the process of chemical digestion of starches by breaking down complex polysaccharides into the disaccharide maltose. When the food is sufficiently chewed, it is swallowed. The food moves through the pharynx, or throat, to the esophagus.", "Oral hygiene: The oral cavity is almost constantly flushed with saliva, which floats away food debris and keeps the mouth relatively clean. Flow of saliva diminishes considerably during sleep, allow populations of bacteria to build up in the mouth -- the result is dragon breath in the morning. Saliva also contains lysozyme, an enzyme that lyses many bacteria and prevents overgrowth of oral microbial populations.", "Within the oral mucosa (a mucous membrane) lining the mouth and also on the tongue and palates and mouth floor, are the minor salivary glands; their secretions are mainly mucous and are innervated by the facial nerve (the seventh cranial nerve). The glands also secrete amylase a first stage in the breakdown of food acting on the carbohydrate in the food to transform the starch content into maltose. There are other glands on the surface of the tongue that encircle taste buds on the back part of the tongue and these also produce lingual lipase. Lipase is a digestive enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids (fats). These glands are termed Von Ebner's glands which have also been shown to have another function in the secretion of histatins which offer an early defense (outside of the immune system) against microbes in food, when it makes contact with these glands on the tongue tissue. Sensory information can stimulate the secretion of saliva providing the necessary fluid for the tongue to work with and also to ease swallowing of the food.", "These pancreatic enzymes can be replaced, at least to a certain extent, by giving them in the form of a medicine by mouth so called pancreatic enzyme supplements. It is not usually necessary to replace the missing bicarbonate output.", "Saliva produced by salivary glands is mixed with food in the mouth. Saliva acts as a lubricant and contains ptyalin, an enzyme which helps break down starch in the diet. The dog has four pairs of salivary glands. The parotid, mandibular, sublingual, and zygomatic all produce saliva. Each gland has its own duct to carry saliva from the gland to the mouth cavity.", "Saliva is a watery substance located in the mouths of animals, secreted by the salivary glands. Human saliva is 99.5% water, while the other 0.5 onsists of electrolytes, mucus, glycoproteins, enzymes, antibacterial, and bacteria compounds such as secretory IgA and lysozyme. The enzymes found in saliva are essential in beginning the process of digestion of dietary starches and fats. These enzymes also play a role in breaking down food particles entrapped within dental crevices, protecting teeth from bacterial decay. Furthermore, saliva serves a lubricative function, wetting food and permitting the initiation of swallowing, and protecting the mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity from desiccation.", "Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine. Carbohydrase enzymes break down starch into sugars.", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.", "Bacteria in a person's mouth convert glucose, fructose, and most commonly sucrose (table sugar) into acids such as lactic acid through a glycolytic process called fermentation. If left in contact with the tooth, these acids may cause demineralization, which is the dissolution of its mineral content. The process is dynamic, however, as remineralization can also occur if the acid is neutralized by saliva or mouthwash. Fluoride toothpaste or dental varnish may aid remineralization. If demineralization continues over time, enough mineral content may be lost so that the soft organic material left behind disintegrates, forming a cavity or hole. The impact such sugars have on the progress of dental caries is called cariogenicity. Sucrose, although a bound glucose and fructose unit, is in fact more cariogenic than a mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose. This is due to the bacteria utilising the energy in the saccharide bond between the glucose and fructose subunits. S.mutans adheres to the biofilm on the tooth by converting sucrose into an extremely adhesive substance called dextran polysaccharide by the enzyme dextransucranase. ", "Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Villi Carbohydrates Salivary amylase Some digestion may Pancreatic amylase, breaks starches continue via maltase, lactase into monosacchar- salivary amylase sucrase continue to ides, disaccharides facilitate break- and dextrin down of sugars to monosaccharides: l) glucose 2) fructose 3) glactose Proteins Pepsin breaks Trypsin and chymo- Picked up by villi; proteins into trypsin degrades the then to capillaries peptones and proteins missed in then to hepatic proteses stomach. The pep- portal blood and tones and proteses finally to the liver are further broken down to amino acids Fats Bile and pancreatic Picked up by special- lipase break fats ized lymph vessels down into glycerol called lacteals and fatty acids", "carb digestion starts in the mouth; salivary glands secrete fluid to moisten the food; an enzyme splits starch into smaller polysaccharides and maltose; this digestion continues after the food is swallowed until stomach acid and enzymes start to digest the salivary enzymes", "Secrete saliva which contains lubricating mucus, amylase (Starch digesting enzyme) lysozyme (enzyme that kills bacteria) and bicarbonate ions. ", "Recurrent vomiting, such as observed in bulimia nervosa, may lead to destruction of the tooth enamel due to the acidity of the vomit. Digestive enzymes can also have a negative effect on oral health, by degrading the tissue of the gums.", "Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins the breakdown of starch into glucose. Mucus moistens food and lubricates the esophagus. Bicarbonate ions in saliva neutralize the acids in foods.", "Sugars from candies, soft drinks, and fruit juices play a significant role in tooth decay, and consequently in enamel destruction. The mouth contains a great number and variety of bacteria, and when sucrose, the most common of sugars, coats the surface of the mouth, some intraoral bacteria interact with it and form lactic acid, which decreases the pH in the mouth. Then, the hydroxyapatite crystals of enamel demineralize, allowing for greater bacterial invasion deeper into the tooth. The most important bacterium involved with tooth decay is Streptococcus mutans, but the number and type of bacteria varies with the progress of tooth destruction.", "Minor enzymes include salivary acid phosphatases A+B, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone), superoxide dismutase, glutathione transferase, class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, and tissue kallikrein (function unknown).", "Sugar-free gum sweetened with xylitol has been shown to reduce cavities and plaque. The sweetener sorbitol has the same benefit, but is only about one-third as effective as xylitol. Other sugar substitutes, such as maltitol, aspartame and acesulfam, have also been found to not cause tooth decay. Xylitol is specific in its inhibition of Streptococcus mutans, bacteria that are significant contributors to tooth decay. Xylitol inhibits Streptococcus mutans in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of fructose. Xylitol is a safe sweetener that benefits teeth and saliva production because it is not fermented to acid like most sugars. Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44 grams are ineffective and doses above 10.32 grams show no additional benefit. Other active ingredients in chewing gum include fluoride, which strengthens tooth enamel, and p-chlorbenzyl-4-methylbenzylpiperazine, which prevents travel sickness. Chewing gum also increases saliva production.", "Petruzzi, M., Lauritano, D., De Benedittis, M., Baldoni, M., and Serpico, R. Systemic capsaicin for burning mouth syndrome: short-term results of a pilot study. J.Oral Pathol.Med. 2004;33(2):111-114. View abstract.", "Synthetic dyes have long been recognized as irritants to the endothelium that line the mouth, and a few are known carcinogens in animals. Triclosan, an antifungal and antimicrobial agent widely used in many types of disinfectants, is now tied to disturbances in the endocrine system. Natural mouth washes are products that can be replicated at home, with the use of ingredients that are all-natural and at the same time devoid of identified irritants.", "Lindqvist, L., Bartfai, T., Berg, J. O., and Blomlof, L. In vivo and in vitro studies of inhibitory effects of restorative dental materials on salivary esterases. Scand.J Dent.Res. 1980;88(3):229-235. View abstract.", "Lindqvist, L., Bartfai, T., Berg, J. O., and Blomlof, L. In vivo and in vitro studies of inhibitory effects of restorative dental materials on salivary esterases. Scand.J Dent.Res. 1980;88:229-235. View abstract .", "1. a clear liquid secreted into the mouth by the salivary glands and mucous glands of the mouth; moistens the mouth and starts the digestion of starches", "Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long term solution.", "Kumar, S. Panmasala chewing induces deterioration in oral health and its implications in carcinogenesis. Toxicol.Mech.Methods 2008;18(9):665-677. View abstract.", "R. Touger-Decker, D. Sirois, and C. C. Mobley, Eds., Nutrition and Oral Medicine, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, USA, 2005.", "A 2014 study by a collaboration of seventeen scientists from nine Israeli research institutes presented experimental evidence that artificial sweeteners may exacerbate, rather than prevent or mitigate, metabolic disorders such as Type 2 diabetes. They reported that artificial sweeteners increase the blood sugar levels in both mice and humans by altering the composition and function of the gut flora. Mice given drinking water supplemented with artificial sweetener (commercial formulations of saccharin, sucralose or aspartame) developed greater glucose intolerance than mice drinking pure water, or water with only sugar added. The effect occurred both in mice fed standard food and those on a high-fat diet. Changes in the composition of the gut flora were observed by sequencing a ribosomal RNA gene. When antibiotics were then used to kill off gut bacteria, the degree of glucose intolerance in mice fed either diet was restored to normal levels present before artificial sweetener was introduced. Human subjects were also studied; the gut bacteria from 381 non-diabetics averaging age 43 were analyzed, revealing differences in the gut bacteria between those subjects who habitually consumed artificial sweeteners and those who did not, as well as \"markers\" for diabetes, such as raised blood sugar levels and glucose intolerance. In a journal commentary, two researchers opined that artificial sweeteners \"may contribute to, rather than alleviate, obesity-related metabolic conditions, by altering the composition and function of bacterial populations in the gut.\" ", "A. Jainkittivong, V. Aneksuk, and R. P. Langlais, “Oral mucosal conditions in elderly dental patients,” Oral Diseases, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 218–223, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus" ]

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[ "The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure that is attached by a stalk to the underside of the cerebrum of the brain (see diagram 16.2). It is often called the “master” endocrine gland because it controls many of the other endocrine glands in the body. However, we now know that the pituitary gland is itself controlled by the hypothalamus. This small but vital region of the brain lies just above the pituitary and provides the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. It controls the autonomic nervous system, produces a range of hormones and regulates the secretion of many others from the pituitary gland (see Chapter 7 for more information on the hypothalamus).", "The pituitary controls the function of most other endocrine glands and is therefore sometimes called the master gland. In turn, the pituitary is controlled in large part by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that lies just above the pituitary. By detecting the levels of hormones produced by glands under the pituitary's control (target glands), the hypothalamus or the pituitary can determine how much stimulation the target glands need.", "The pituitary gland is called the ‘master gland’ as the hormones it produces control so many different processes in the body. It senses the body’s needs and sends signals to different organs and glands throughout the body to regulate their function and maintain an appropriate environment. It secretes a variety of hormones into the bloodstream which act as messengers to transmit information from the pituitary gland to distant cells, regulating their activity. For example, the pituitary gland produces prolactin , which acts on the breasts to induce milk production. The pituitary gland also secretes hormones that act on the adrenal glands , thyroid gland , ovaries and testes , which in turn produce other hormones. Through production of its hormones, the pituitary gland controls metabolism , growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure and many other vital physical functions and processes.", "The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system to reduce sensitivity to pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.", "The pituitary gland is sometimes called the master gland because it controls several other hormone-releasing glands. Some of the glands the pituitary gland controls are the thyroid gland, the ovaries, the testicles (testes) and the adrenal glands.", "The pituitary also secretes endorphins (pronounced: en-DOR-fins), chemicals that act on the nervous system and reduce feelings of pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the reproductive organs to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.", "The pituitary gland has two lobes called the posterior and anterior lobes. Each lobe secretes peptide hormones that exert numerous effects on the body. Each of the pituitary hormones is described in detail in the following sections. It is the aim of this discussion to provide the background for understanding what pituitary hormones are released and what are the triggers for their release. The posterior pituitary excretes the two hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin. The anterior pituitary secretes six hormones: adrenocortiocotropic hormone (ACTH, also called corticotropin), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), and prolactin (PRL). The hormone ACTH is derived from a large precursor protein identified as pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) as describe below. The secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones is under control of the hypothalamus, hence the description of the system as the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. The secretion of the hormones ACTH, TSH, FSH , LH, and GH are stimulated by signals from the hypothalamus, whereas, PRL secretion is inhibited by hypothalamic signals.", "It controls the secretion of hormones from the hypophysis which is an important part of the brain and master secretory organ in your body. Pituitary is associated with the release of eight essential hormones in the body; two of which are synthesized by the hypothalamus, while the remaining six are produced locally. Some of the other endocrine and exocrine functions of hypothalamus include the control of autonomic nervous system, maintenance of homeostasis, balance of emotions, regulation of hunger & thirst and check over the thermostat of the body.", "The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized organ in the centre of the brain. It is attached to the hypothalamus and makes a number of different hormones that affect other glands of the body’s endocrine system endocrine systemThe group of glands and cells in the body that make and release hormones (which control many functions such as growth, reproduction, sleep, hunger and metabolism) into the blood.. It receives messages from the hypothalamus and releases hormones that control the thyroid and adrenal gland, as well as growth and physical and sexual development.", "The pituitary is divided into distinct sections: the anterior pituitary gland and the posterior pituitary gland . Each part contains unique cells and releases different hormones that are responsible for specific control duties. The anterior pituitary is formed from the same tissue as the pharynx. The posterior pituitary is formed from an out-pouching of the brain and is actually an extension of the hypothalamus , a region of the brain that is connected to the pituitary gland and controls its function. The hypothalamus and pituitary together comprise the neuroendocrine system .", "The pituitary is a small gland located at the base of the brain. Many refer to it as the master gland because it regulates the release of hormones from most other glands, much like the maestro of a symphony directs all the musicians to play together to produce harmonious music. Divided into two lobes, the anterior and posterior, the pituitary is a double gland. Some hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary. The hypothalamus also manufactures hormones that stimulate the release of other hormones from the anterior pituitary. These are called releasing, or tropic hormones.", "- Hypothalamic neurons secrete hormones that regulate the release of hormones from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Pituitary hormones, in turn, control activity of other endocrine glands.", "The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is the primary link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary.", "The hypothalamus contains neurons that control releases from the anterior pituitary. Seven hypothalamic hormones are released into a portal system connecting the hypothalamus and pituitary, and cause targets in the pituitary to release eight hormones.", "Once triggered by the hypothalamus, hormones released by the anterior pituitary flow into the general circulation for action in far parts of the body. Like the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary hormones are also controlled by negative feedback from the brain and the target organ. That is, when the target organ responds to the activating hormone from the pituitary, it will release its own hormone back into the blood, which will travel back to the brain through the circulatory system, which in turn triggers the hypothalamus to turn off production of the stimulating hormone in the anterior pituitary. For example, the pituitary stimulates the thyroid to release thyroid hormones, which travel throughout the bloodstream stimulating metabolism in select parts of the body as required. Through the negative feedback loop, the brain learns that the metabolism has been activated enough (in other words, that enough thyroid hormones have been released) and tells the hypothalamus/pituitary to stop stimulating the thyroid. This completes the negative feedback loop.", "Clearly, robust control systems must be in place to prevent over or under-secretion of hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones. A prominent mechanism for control of the releasing and inhibiting hormones is negative feedback . Details on the control of specific hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones is presented in the discussions of those hormones.", "The front part of the pituitary makes several kinds of hormones. These hormones control other glands all over the body:", "Most of these organs are controlled by hormones secreted from the pituitary gland, which in turn is directed by the hypothalamus.", "The hypothalamus gland contained the releasing hormones of the human body that control the anterior pituitary hormone secretion.", "A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary, also called the adenohypophysis, is the glandular, anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes including stress, growth, and reproduction. Its regulatory functions are achieved through the secretion of various peptide hormones that act on target organs including the adrenal gland, liver, bone, thyroid gland, and gonads. The anterior pituitary itself is regulated by the hypothalamus and by negative feedback from these target organs. Disorders of the anterior pituitary are generally classified by the presence of over- or underproduction of pituitary hormones. For example, a prolactinoma is a pituitary adenoma that overproduces prolactin. In Sheehan's syndrome of postpartum hypopituitarism, the anterior pituitary uniformly malfunctions and underproduces all hormones. Proper function of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels.", "The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and posterior to the optic chiasm . In humans, the hypothalamus is roughly the size of an almond. But within that small size, it contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus actually controls the pituitary gland; and it integrates many messages from parts of the brain based on feedback from all over the body and tells the pituitary what to do.", "The pituitary is a small gland inside the head, behind the bridge of the nose. Though small, it produces many important hormones that regulate basic body functions. The major pituitary hormones and their effects are:", "The secretion of hypothalamic, pituitary, and target tissue hormones is under tight regulatory control by a series of feedback and feed- forward loops. This complexity can be demonstrated using the growth hormone (GH) regulatory system as an example. The stimulatory substance growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and the inhibitory substance somatostatin (SS) both products of the hypothalamus, control pituitary GH secretion. Somatostatin is also called growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH). Under the influence of GHRH, growth hormone is released into the systemic circulation, causing the target tissue to secrete insulin-like growth factor-1, IGF-1. Growth hormone also has other more direct metabolic effects; it is both hyperglycemic and lipolytic. The principal source of systemic IGF-1 is the liver, although most other tissues secrete and contribute to systemic IGF-1. Liver IGF-1 is considered to be the principal regulator of tissue growth. In particular, the IGF-1 secreted by the liver is believed to synchronize growth throughout the body, resulting in a homeostatic balance of tissue size and mass. IGF-1 secreted by peripheral tissues is generally considered to be autocrine or paracrine in its biological action.", "Secretion of hormones in the endocrine system is controlled either by regulators in a particular gland that detect high or low levels of a biochemical and inhibit or stimulate secretion or by a complex mechanism involving the brain, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary.", "A small but influential brain structure that controls the pituitary gland and regulates hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, body temperature, and a vide variety of emotional behaviors", "In addition to regulating the release of pituitary hormones, the hypothalamus also influences caloric intake and weight regulation, establishing a stable “set point” for individual weight gain. The hypothalamus also regulates body heat in response to variations in external temperature, determines wakefulness and sleep , and regulates fluid intake and sensation of thirst.", "The anterior pituitary itself is regulated by tropic hormones produced by a set of neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.", "Structurally, it can be distinguished into three distinct parts, namely, anterior lobe, the intermediate lobe and posterior lobe. Each lobe has got a different set of functions based on the hormones it synthesizes. The regulation of growth, reproduction, lactation and stress falls under the domain of the anterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe is concerned with the synthesis and secretion of melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Turning to the posterior lobe, it is functionally connected with the hypothalamus.", "Systemic IGF-1 also has hypothalamic and pituitary regulatory targets. The negative feedback loops cause down-regulation of GH secretion directly at the pituitary. The longer positive feedback loop, involving IGF-1 regulation at the hypothalamus, stimulates the secretion of GHIH, which in turn inhibits the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary. The latter is a relatively unusual negative feed-forward regulatory process. In addition, a shorter negative feedback loop is shown that involves direct IGF-1 action on the pituitary, leading to down-regulation of GH secretion. Similar feedback loops exist for all the major endocrine hormones, and many subtle nuances modulate each regulatory loop.", "These hypothalamic neurohormones are known as releasing hormones because their major function is to stimulate the secretion of hormones originating in the anterior pituitary gland. For example, certain releasing hormones secreted from the hypothalamus trigger the release from the anterior pituitary of substances such as adrenocorticotropic hormone and luteinizing hormone . The hypothalamic neurohormones consist of simple peptides ranging in size from only 3 amino acids (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to 44 amino acids ( growth hormone-releasing hormone ). One hypothalamic hormone, somatostatin , has an inhibitory action, primarily inhibiting the secretion of growth hormone although it can also inhibit the secretion of other hormones. The neurotransmitter dopamine , produced in the hypothalamus, also has an inhibitory action, inhibiting the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormone prolactin . The cell bodies of the neurons that produce these neurohormones are not evenly distributed throughout the hypothalamus. Instead, they are grouped together in paired clusters of cell bodies known as nuclei.", "The hypothalamus is located in the brain. It produces hormones that control the other structures in the endocrine system. The amount of these regulating hormones stays about the same, but the response by the endocrine organs can change as we age.", "The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, [it] regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands." ]

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[ "Human skin color is controlled by the interaction of 3 pigments: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Melanin is a brown or black pigment produced by melanocytes to protect the skin from UV radiation. Melanin gives skin its tan or brown coloration and provides the color of brown or black hair. Melanin production increases as the skin is exposed to higher levels of UV light resulting in tanning of the skin. Carotene is another pigment present in the skin that produces a yellow or orange cast to the skin and is most noticeable in people with low levels of melanin. Hemoglobin is another pigment most noticeable in people with little melanin. Hemoglobin is the red pigment found in red blood cells, but can be seen through the layers of the skin as a light red or pink color. Hemoglobin is most noticeable in skin coloration during times of vasodilation when the capillaries of the dermis are open to carry more blood to the skin’s surface.", "Pigmentation means coloring. Skin pigmentation disorders affect the color of your skin. Your skin gets its color from a pigment called melanin. Special cells in the skin make melanin. When these cells become damaged or unhealthy, it affects melanin production. Some pigmentation disorders affect just patches of skin. Others affect your entire body.", "Melanocytes produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. All people have roughly the same number of melanocytes; the more melanin that is produced, the darker the skin. Exposure to sunlight increases the production of melanin, which is why people get suntanned or freckled.", "Pigments that contribute to skin color are called carotene, a yellowish hemoglobin, in blood vessels (pink-red), and melanin (black, brown, red). Darker skins are dominated by melanin, which is produced from the amino acid tyrosine, by pigment cells (melanocytes) in the skin. Melanocytes are characterized by long, fixed extensions of the outer cell membrane. In humans, other mammals, and birds, melanin is dispersed permantely throughout each melanocyte, including the extensions, and is also, transported to nearby skin cells. In other words, if you increase the amount of melanin in the skin you become darker and vice versa.", "Melanin — A pigment that creates hair, skin and eye color. Melanin also protects the body by absorbing ultraviolet light.", "In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of skin color. It is also found in hair, the pigmented tissue underlying the iris of the eye, and the stria vascularis of the inner ear. In the brain, tissues with melanin include the medulla and pigment-bearing neurons within areas of the brainstem, such as the locus coeruleus and the substantia nigra. It also occurs in the zona reticularis of the adrenal gland.", "the coloration of tissues and organs as a result of the formation and deposition of pigments. The pigmentation of skin, hair, and the iris, which depends on the quantity and distribution of the pigment melanin, is one of the main racial features that are considered in anthropology. Melanin is found in tissues in the form of granules or a solution in the cellular protoplasm. Skin color results from the presence of melanin in the epidermis and the translucence of capillaries in the derma. Melanin is formed by melanocytes, which are specialized cells in the basal layer of the epidermis. In light-skinned peoples the basal layer contains only a few melanin granules, while in dark-skinned peoples the layer is packed with granules.", "Melanin is a compound derived from the amino acid, tyrosine. It provides pigment to most animals, including humans. In people, melanin determines skin color. People with high amounts of melanin tend to have darker skin, whereas people with less melanin have lighter skin. Melanin is also important for many different aspects of human health and has a wide range of effects on your body.", "Melanin, the skin's brown pigment, is a natural sunscreen that protects tropical peoples from the many harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) rays. UV rays can, for example, strip away folic acid, a nutrient essential to the development of healthy fetuses. Yet when a certain amount of UV rays penetrates the skin, it helps the human body use vitamin D to absorb the calcium necessary for strong bones. This delicate balancing act explains why the peoples that migrated to colder geographic zones with less sunlight developed lighter skin color. As people moved to areas farther from the equator with lower UV levels, natural selection favored lighter skin which allowed UV rays to penetrate and produce essential vitamin D. The darker skin of peoples who lived closer to the equator was important in preventing folate deficiency. Measures of skin reflectance, a way to quantify skin color by measuring the amount of light it reflects, in people around the world support this idea. While UV rays can cause skin cancer, because skin cancer usually affects people after they have had children, it likely had little effect on the evolution of skin color because evolution favors changes that improve reproductive success.", "The epidermis also contains specialist cells called melanocytes. These produce the dark skin pigment melanin, which gives our skin some protection from burning. This production of melanin in response to trauma from UV radiation appears as a ‘tan’.", "Skin color is not uniform throughout the body. The extensor surfaces of the extremities are darker than the flexor surfaces, and the back is more pigmented than the chest or abdomen. Coloration is most intense around the nipples. Even in dark-skinned peoples, the palms and soles are light. The lips of light-skinned peoples are covered by a nonpigmented mucous membrane, and the red color of such lips is due to the translucence of labial capillaries. On the other hand, melanin in the mucous membrane imparts a bluish color to the lips of dark-skinned peoples. Exposure to the sun darkens the skin because solar rays intensify the formation of melanin, which is capable of absorbing the ultraviolet light that harms tissues. In this manner, dark skin protects an organism against sunlight. Skin color varies from pinkish, in light-skinned peoples of Europe, to chocolate, mostly in peoples that inhabit the tropics, for example, African Negroes, Papuans, Melanesians, and Australians. It is one of the most important inherited racial characteristics.", "The third way is a bit more complicated and has to do with the kind of pigment someone makes. There are two types of melanin. Eumelanin is black or brown pigment and pheomelanin is red or yellow pigment.", "Pigmentation is the coloring of a person's skin . When a person is healthy, his or her skin color will appear normal. In the case of illness or injury, the person's skin may change color, becoming darker (hyperpigmentation) or lighter (hypopigmentation).", "Uneven pigmentation of some sort affects most people, regardless of bioethnic background or skin color. Skin may either appear lighter, or darker than normal, or lack pigmentation at all; there may be blotchy, uneven areas, patches of brown to gray discoloration or freckling. Apart from blood-related conditions such as jaundice, carotenosis, or argyria, skin pigmentation disorders generally occur because the body produces either too much or too little melanin.", "The iris is usually strongly pigmented, with the color typically ranging between brown, hazel, green, gray, or blue. Occasionally, the color of the iris is due to a lack of pigmentation, as in the pinkish-white of oculo-cutaneous albinism, or to obscuration of its pigment by blood vessels, as in the red of an abnormally vascularised iris. Despite the wide range of colors, the only pigment that contributes substantially to normal human iris color is the dark pigment melanin. The quantity of melanin pigment in the iris is one factor in determining the phenotypic eye color of a person. Structurally, this huge molecule is only slightly different from its equivalent found in skin and hair. Iris color is due to variable amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and pheomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by melanocytes. More of the former is found in brown eyed people and of the latter in blue and green-eyed people.", "Melanin is a complex polymer derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Melanin is responsible for determining skin and hair colour and is present in the skin to varying degrees, depending on how much a population has been exposed to the sun historically.", "Besides giving skin, eyes, and hair their color, melanin helps protect our skin from the sun. It does this by causing skin to tan instead of burn — which is why people with darker skin (more melanin) are less likely to burn than people with lighter skin. So people with albinism can sunburn very easily.", "Most humans and many animals with albinism appear white or very pale; the multiple types of melanin pigment are responsible for brown, black, gray, and some yellow colorations. In some animals, especially albinistic birds and reptiles, ruddy and yellow hues or other colors may be present on the entire body or in patches (as is common among pigeons), due to the presence of other pigments unaffected by albinism such as porphyrins, pteridines and psittacins, as well as carotenoid pigments derived from the diet. Some animals are white or pale due to chromatophore (pigment cell) defects, do not lack melanin production, and have normal eyes; they are referred to as leucistic. The direct opposite of albinism, an unusually high level of melanin pigmentation (and sometimes absence of other types of pigment in species that have more than one), is known as melanism, and results in an appearance darker than non-melanistic specimens from the same genepool. Albinism-like conditions may affect other pigments or pigment-production mechanisms in some animals (e.g. \"whiteface\", a lack of psittacins that can affect some parrot species.). Another is common in reptiles and amphibians: axanthism, in which xanthophore metabolism, instead of synthesis of melanin, is affected, resuling in reduction or absence of red and yellow pteridine pigments. Of all these conditions, only albinism and melanism affect humans.", "A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength -selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence , phosphorescence , and other forms of luminescence , in which a material emits light.", "Human skin color ranges in variety from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. An individual's skin pigmentation is the result of genetics, being the product of both of the individual's biological parents' genetic makeup. In evolution, skin pigmentation in human beings evolved by a process of natural selection primarily to regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.", "Though algae may not be at the top of your family's grocery list, humans also eat foods rich in carotenoids. These pigments are responsible for many of the red, yellow, and orange fruits and vegetables that we love, including carrots , apricots, squash, mangoes, and sweet potatoes. Thanks to a varied and balanced diet , however, we can enjoy these carotenoid-filled foods without having to worry that our skin will change color overnight.", "A pigment is a substance that reflects only certain wavelengths of light. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a white pigment because such a substance would reflect all wavelengths of light. A red pigment is one that reflects light with a wavelength of about 700 nanometers; a blue pigment is one that reflects light with a wavelength of about 450 nanometers.", "On the other hand, gouache, or body color, is another form of watercolor. The pigments are mixed with zinc white and are opaque when applied to a surface. Alternatively, tempera involves combining the color with casein , a milk derivative, or with egg yolk as its binder. Another form of water-soluble pigment is the synthetic-polymer paint, widely known as acrylic. Even though acrylic can typically be used like oil paint, many artists have used it in a manner that echoes the watercolor tradition.", "Pigments are molecules that absorb specific colors of light and reflect other colors, depending on their chemical structure. The reflected colors are what give pigments their color. Chlorophyll pigments are green because they reflect green light. There are different types of chlorophyll (chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, chlorophyll-c1, chlorophyll-c2, chlorophyll-d, divinyl chlorophyll-a). These different types of chlorophyll are the same basic molecule with very slight differences in their chemical structures. Because the different chlorophylls have the same basic structure, they all reflect green light and so appear green, but their small structural differences cause them to be different shades of green (yellow-green, lime green, forest green, blue-green, etc.).", "Carotenoids (E160, E161, E164), chlorophyllin (E140, E141), anthocyanins (E163), and betanin (E162) comprise four main categories of plant pigments grown to color food products. Other colorants or specialized derivatives of these core groups include:", "Freckles and moles are formed where there is a localized concentration of melanin in the skin. They are highly associated with pale skin.", "Plant extracts and minerals used to give color to makeup.  The more pigment contained in the product the more intense the color will be.", "As the distribution map of skin color shows, skin color variation is not deter mined purely by distance from the equator. For example, people in snow-covered areas often have a dark skin tone. This may be because they are exposed to high levels of reflected UV radiation from the snow, or because their diet with its high proportion of fish is rich in vitamin D.", "Greul, A. K., Grundmann, J. U., Heinrich, F., Pfitzner, I., Bernhardt, J., Ambach, A., Biesalski, H. K., and Gollnick, H. Photoprotection of UV-irradiated human skin: an antioxidative combination of vitamins E and C, carotenoids, selenium and proanthocyanidins. Skin Pharmacol Appl.Skin Physiol 2002;15:307-315. View abstract .", "Spectral absorption curves of the short (S), medium (M) and long (L) wavelength pigments in human cone and rod (R) cells are shown. Credit: TAKASUGI Shinji .", "Pigment product that is responsible for the darkening of fruits and vegetables after exposure to air", "There is a striking correlation between geographic conditions, particularly exposure to sunlight, and skin tone. These differences have evolved to find the balance between the benefits and the dangers of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation we absorb from the sun." ]

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[ "Progesterone belongs to a group of steroid hormones called progestogens . It is mainly secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle.  It plays important roles in the menstrual cycle and in maintaining the early stages of pregnancy.", "About 2 weeks before the onset of the next menstrual period, the follicle ruptures and releases (ovulates) the egg. The cells lining the collapsed follicle begin to produce the hormone progesterone. The follicle is now known as a corpus luteum and secretes estrogen and large quantities of progesterone throughout the second half of the menstrual cycle, which is called the luteal phase.", "Progesterone. A female hormone usually secreted by the corpus luteum after ovulation during the second half of the menstrual cycle (luteal phase). It prepares the lining of the uterus (endometrium) for implantation of a fertilized egg and also allows for complete shedding of the endometrium at the time of menstruation. In the event of pregnancy, the progesterone level remains stable beginning a week or so after conception. ", "Luteal phase. The second half of the ovarian cycle when the corpus luteum produces large amounts of progesterone. This progesterone is important in preparing the endometrium to receive a fertilized egg (embryo) for implantation.", "Ovaries secrete both estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for the appearance ofsecondary sex characteristics for females at puberty and for the maturation and maintenance of the reproductive organs in their mature functional state. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy, and the mammary glanda for lactation. Progesterone functions with estrogen by promoting menstrual cyclechanges in the endometrium.", "Corpus luteum. Literally, a “yellow body.” A mass of yellow tissue formed in the ovary from a mature follicle that has collapsed after releasing its egg at ovulation. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and large quantities of progesterone, a hormone that prepares the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to support a pregnancy.", "Progesterone: a female hormone important during pregnancy and menstruation. It is secreted by the corpus luteum to prepare the endometrium for implantation and later by the placenta during pregnancy to prevent rejection of the developing baby.", "Progesterone is produced in high amounts in the ovaries (by the corpus luteum) from the onset of puberty to menopause, and is also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands after the onset of adrenarche in both males and females. To a lesser extent, progesterone is produced in nervous tissue, especially in the brain, and in adipose (fat) tissue, as well.", "Estradiol secreted by growing follicle in increasing amounts. Porgesterone and estradiol secreted by corpus luteum. Wehn estradiol levels are low, menstrual cycle occurs. Wehn LH surges proliferative phase occurs. When progestrone and estradiol promothe thickening of endometrium, secertory phase occurs. ", "Fig. 24. The luteal-follicular transition in women. Data are mean (±SEM) for daily inhibin A, inhibin B, FSH, estradiol, and progesterone levels in the luteal-follicular transition of normal cycling women ( n = 5). Data are centered to the day of menses in cycle 2.(From Welt CK, Martin KA, Taylor AE et al: Frequency modulation of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during the luteal-follicular transition: Evidence for FSH control of inhibin B in normal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:2645, 1997, with permission from The Endocrine Society.)", "Progesterone. The hormone produced by the corpus luteum, which helps to maintain pregnancy and control the estrus cycle.", "The corpus luteum that develops in the empty follicle after ovulation produces progesterone. This hormone further prepares the uterus for pregnancy and maintains the pregnancy.", "Progesterone helps prepare your body for conception and pregnancy and regulates the monthly menstrual cycle. Progesterone levels rise in the second half of the menstrual cycle.", "The corpus luteum (Latin for \"yellow body\") (plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female mammals that is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone and moderate levels ofestradiol and inhibin A. It is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen to inhibit further release ofGonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).", "During cycle days 1 and 2, synthesis of nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is near zero level in the secretory functional layer of the endometrium. These findings indicate that the cellular components of the functional layer undergo irreversible cell injury before being expelled during the menstrual period. On cycle days 2 and 3, the functional layer gradually becomes cleaved off from the underlying basal layer, resulting in a thin, denuded basal layer with a ragged surface onto which residual basal gland stumps open. Loss of the bulk of endometrial mucosa explains why scant tissue is obtained in endometrial biopsy or dilation and curettage (D & C) during the second part of the menstrual period. ", "progesterone: pregnancy hormone, one of the two sex hormones chiefly characteristic of the female. It is produced by the ovary in the corpus luteum, following ovulation, and also by the placenta during pregnancy. The metabolic pathway of hormone production in the body leads from progesterone to androgen to estrogen.", "In cases of clinical membranous dysmenorrhea, the endometrial biopsy should be taken on cycle days 5–10. In these instances, the histologic specimens contain large fragments (casts) of endometrium, often with focal Arias-Stella reaction, or star-shaped glands with dense stroma alternating with foci of normal menstrual endometrium. Such a condition, also called irregular shedding, is presumably associated with a persistent corpus luteum from a recent or remote intrauterine or ectopic pregnancy and with relatively increased blood progesterone levels. Because of the stabilizing effect of progesterone on lysosomal enzymes and prostaglandins, menstrual breakdown may be delayed, prolonged, and extensive.", "PGF2α, Ki-67, and other peptides are responsible for the predecidual transformation and growth of spindle-shaped stromal cells (Fig. 12A). Although decidualized cells have receptors for estradiol, its role in this process, if any, is not clear. This change consists of cytonuclear enlargement with tetraploid nuclei resulting in plump, liver-like epithelioid cells. Predecidualization (not pseudodecidualization) is accompanied by an increase in nuclear DNA synthesis, mitotic activity, and the formation of a pericellular laminin substance. 2 The latter is typical of epithelial cells and is believed to be related to the midsecretory phase peak of estradiol plasma levels. Although progesterone plasma levels are also elevated during this period of the cycle, progesterone-dependent 17β-hydroxydehydrogenase appears to be a specific enzyme only for the endometrial gland cells. Consequently, predecidual cells are relatively independent of the growth-inhibitory effect of progesterone.", "corpus luteum (plural, corpora lutea): \"yellow body\"; a yellow mass in the ovary formed from the graafian follicle after the egg is released. It produces progesterone, the pregnancy hormone, and grows and lasts for several months if the egg is fertilized and pregnancy occurs.", "*Estrogen and progesterone are made primarily in the ovary and the placenta during pregnancy, and testosterone in the testes.", "The different phases of the menstrual cycle correlate with women’s moods. In some cases, hormones released during the menstrual cycle can cause behavioral changes in females; mild to severe mood changes can occur. The menstrual cycle phase and ovarian hormones may contribute to increased empathy in women. The natural shift of hormone levels during the different phases of the menstrual cycle has been studied in conjunction with test scores. When completing empathy exercises, women in the follicular stage of their menstrual cycle performed better than women in their midluteal phase. A significant correlation between progesterone levels and the ability to accurately recognize emotion was found. Performances on emotion recognition tasks were better when women had lower progesterone levels. Women in the follicular stage showed higher emotion recognition accuracy than their midluteal phase counterparts. Women were found to react more to negative stimuli when in midluteal stage over the women in the follicular stage, perhaps indicating more reactivity to social stress during that menstrual cycle phase. Overall, it has been found that women in the follicular phase demonstrated better performance in tasks that contain empathetic traits.", "MENSTRUATION: a stage of the female reproductive cycle. An ovum (egg) matures and is released every month. Hormones prepare the uterus for possible implantation. If pregnancy does not occur, the uterine lining (blood and tissue) is shed and expelled (the menstrual period).", "Progesterone levels are relatively low in children and postmenopausal women. Adult males have levels similar to those in women during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.", "One of progesterone's most important functions is its role in thickening the lining of the uterus each month. The enriched endometrial lining is prepared to receive and nourish a fertilized egg.", "* Progesterone is also used in nonpregnant women with a delayed menstruation of one or more weeks, in order to allow the thickened endometrial lining to slough off. This process is termed a progesterone withdrawal bleed. The progesterone is taken orally for a short time (usually one week), after which the progesterone is discontinued and bleeding should occur.", "* Progesterone is used for luteal support in Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) cycles such as In-vitro Fertilization (IVF). ", "Hormone levels fluctuate during the menstrual cycle. During the days before menstrual bleeding, there will be a reduction in the levels of the hormone, progesterone , which may cause fluid retention .", "* Progesterone plays an important role in the signaling of insulin release and pancreatic function, and may affect the susceptibility to diabetes or gestational diabetes. ", "Primary organ in a female repro tract; produces eggs; produces hormones throughout different stages of estrus cycle", "The female reproductive cycle lasts an average of 36 days. As hormone levels change during their cycle, so does the size of the female’s anogenital swelling. There are four main phases to the cycle, including inflation, as the size of the swelling increases, maximal tumescence. when the sexual skin is fully distended, detumescence, when the previously swollen skin looses all turgidity, and flat, when there is no sign of swelling in the anogenital area. Menstruation occurs about nine days after detumescence begins, and lasts for about three days. Ovulation typically occurs on the last day of maximal tumescence. ( Goodall, 1986 ; Jones, et al., 1996 ; Nowak, 1999 )", "1. female reproductive gamete that will develop into the seed , 2. found in the ovary , which is part of the pistil or the female part of the flower", "Synthetic or plant versions of progesterone may be prescribed under a variety of conditions. They are also occasionally used as a diagnostic aid to measure the effect of estrogen on women who have stopped menstruating but who aren't in menopause yet." ]

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[ "The small, triangular adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) sit atop the kidneys . Each is divided into two distinct anatomic and functional organs. The adrenal cortex (the outer region which secretes corticosteroid hormones that affect metabolism (that is how food is stored and used), chemicals in the blood, and characteristics such as body shape and hairiness. The smaller, inner region—the adrenal medulla (which is part of the sympathetic nervous system)—is the body’s first line of defense against physical and emotional stress.", "Also called the suprarenal glands, small ENDOCRINE GLANDS situated just above the kidneys. The inner medulla secretes the HORMONES ADRENALINE and NORADRENALINE, while the outer cortex secretes STEROID hormones known as corticosteroids, including CORTISOL and ALDOSTERONE.", "The adrenal cortex is devoted to the synthesis of corticosteroid hormones. Corticosteroids are synthesized from cholesterol within the adrenal cortex. Specific cortical cells produce particular hormones including cortisol, corticosterone, androgens such as testosterone, and aldosterone. Under normal unstressed conditions, the human adrenal glands produce the equivalent of 35–40 mg of cortisone per day. In contrast to the direct innervation of the medulla, the cortex is regulated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus, as well as by the renin-angiotensin system.", "* corticosteroids (kor-tih-ko-STIR-oyds) are chemical substances made by the adrenal glands that have several functions in the body, including maintaining blood pressure during stress and controlling inflammation. They can also be given to people as medication to treat certain illnesses.", "CORTICOSTEROID: a steroid hormone (e.g., prednisone, cortisone) produced by the cortex of the adrenal gland or manufactured synthetically. Corticosteroids have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties, and are used to treat a variety of conditions.", "Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including stress response, immune response, and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior.", "Hormones that are either naturally produced by the adrenal gland or man-made. They function as anti-inflammatory hormones or hormones that regulate the chemical stability (homeostasis) of the body. One common misconception is that a horse which has received corticosteroids experiences an increase in its natural abilities and therefore has an unfair advantage. At the present time, there is no scientific evidence to support such a perception.", "Fifty percent of those also have high levels of homocysteine, and 90% are either hyperhomocystemic or hypercholesterolemic. The major regulator of adrenocortical growth and secretion activity is the pituitary hormone ACTH (adreno-cortico-tropic hormone). ACTH attaches to receptors on the surface of the adrenal cortical cell and activates an enzymatic action that ultimately produces cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP, in turn, serves as a co-factor in activating key enzymes in the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex is able to synthesize cholesterol and to also take it up from circulation. All steroid hormones produced by the adrenal glands are derived from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic actions, which are all stimulated initially by ACTH. Steroid biosynthesis involves the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone, which is then enzymatically transformed into the major biologically active corticosteroids. cAMP is produced from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the action of adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase activity in the brain is inhibited by micromolar concentrations of lead, mercury, and cadmium. One of the key biochemical steps in the conversion of adrenal pregnenolone to cortisol and aldosterone involves an enzyme identified as 21-hydroxylase.", "adrenal gland: an endocrine gland located immediately above the kidney. It consists of two portions: a cortex and a medulla. The cortex produces and secretes steroidal hormones, among them cortisol (a glucocorticoid), and weakly active sex hormones. The medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline), catecholamines augmenting sympathetic nervous system arousal.", ", endocrine gland (see endocrine system) about 2 in. (5.1 cm) long situated atop each kidney. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland secretes about 30 steroid hormones, the most important of which are aldosterone and", "Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol. Synthesis takes place in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. (The name cortisol is derived from cortex.) While the adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone (in the zona glomerulosa) and some sex hormones (in the zona reticularis), cortisol is its main secretion in humans and several other species. (However, in cattle, corticosterone levels may approach or exceed cortisol levels.). The medulla of the adrenal gland lies under the cortex, mainly secreting the catecholamines adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) under sympathetic stimulation.", "/cor·ti·co·ster·oid/ (-ster´oid) any of the steroids elaborated by the adrenal cortex (excluding the sex hormones) or any synthetic equivalents; divided into two major groups, the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids ; used clinically for hormonal replacement therapy, for suppression of ACTH secretion, as anti-inflammatory agents, and to suppress the immune response.", "The adrenal glands have an inner core known as the medulla and an outer shell known as the cortex. The inner medulla produces adrenaline, and the cortex  produces steroid hormones essential for life - cortisol and aldosterone. Cortisol mobilises nutrients, enables the body to fight inflammation, stimulates the liver and helps to control the amount of water in the body. Aldosterone regulates salt and water levels. ", "Cortisol is produced in the human body by the adrenal gland in the zona fasciculata, the second of three layers comprising the adrenal cortex. The cortex forms the outer \"bark\" of each adrenal gland, situated atop the kidneys. The release of cortisol is controlled by the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. The secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) by the hypothalamus triggers cells in the neighboring anterior pituitary to secrete another hormone, the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), into the vascular system, through which blood carries it to the adrenal cortex. ACTH stimulates the synthesis of cortisol, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).", "The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys in humans and in front of the kidneys in other animals. The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol.", "The synthesis of cortisol in the adrenal gland is stimulated by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); ACTH production is in turn stimulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by the hypothalamus. ACTH increases the concentration of cholesterol in the inner mitochondrial membrane, via regulation of the STAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory) protein. It also stimulates the main rate-limiting step in cortisol synthesis, in which cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone and catalyzed by Cytochrome P450SCC (side-chain cleavage enzyme). ", "Though IL-1 is useful in combating some diseases; however, endotoxic bacteria have gained an advantage by forcing the hypothalamus to increase cortisol levels (forcing the secretion of CRH hormone, thus antagonizing IL-1). The suppressor cells are not affected by glucosteroid response-modifying factor (GRMF), so the effective setpoint for the immune cells may be even higher than the setpoint for physiological processes (reflecting leukocyte redistribution to lymph nodes, bone marrow, and skin). Rapid administration of corticosterone (the endogenous Type I and Type II receptor agonist) or RU28362 (a specific Type II receptor agonist) to adrenalectomized animals induced changes in leukocyte distribution. Natural killer cells are affected by cortisol. ", "adrenal cortex (cortex of adrenal gland) the outer, firm layer comprising the larger part of the adrenal gland ; it secretes mineralocorticoids , androgens , and glucocorticoids .", "Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to stimulate the secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.", "The adrenals are two glands, each of which is perched on the upper part of the two kidneys. The outer part of the gland is known as the cortex; the inner part is known as the medulla. Each of these parts of the adrenal gland is responsible for producing different types of hormones. Regulation of hormone production and release from the adrenal cortex involves the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. After the hypothalamus (the part of the brain containing secretions important to metabolic activities) sends \"releasing hormones\" to the pituitary gland, the pituitary secretes a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The ACTH then travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it encourages the production and release of cortisol (sometimes called the \"stress\" hormone) and other adrenocortical hormones.", "adrenal cortex: the outer three layers of the adrenal gland, as contrasted with the innermost part, the medulla. The cortex produces steroidal hormones, among them the glucocorticoid cortisol, and nonpotent sex hormones. See also adrenal gland; cortex.", "- Cortisol secretions from the foetal adrenal cortex act upon the placenta to reduce progesterone and increase estrogen", "81. Walcott B, Moore L, Birzgalis A, et al: A model of fluid secretion by the acinar cells of the mouse lacrimal gland. Adv Exp Med Biol 506(Pt A):191, 2002", "The adrenal glands are small glands located on top of each kidney. They produce hormones that you can't live without, including sex hormones and cortisol. Cortisol helps you respond to stress and has many other important functions.", "a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), while help to arouse the body in times of stress.", "The following article, entered here 2/3/2006, is part of a web site called The Adrenal Glands :", "Glucocorticoids (GC) are a class of steroid hormones that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell. The name glucocorticoid (pertaining to glucose + cortex ) derives from its role in the regulation of the metabolism of glucose, its synthesis in the adrenal cortex, and its steroidal structure (see structure to the right).", "Some years before, in 1929, Philip S. Hench (1896-1965) had already observed that some arthritic patients could experience a temporary remission of their symptoms during pregnancy or coinciding with jaundice. Hench attributed this phenomenom to the existence of an adrenocortical hormone. Hench, like Kendall, worked in the Mayo Clinic and for this reason, in 1949, when cortisone became available to him in sufficient quantity he was the first who was able to prove its anti-inflammatory effects on rheumatoid arthritis. Fortunately, he used the correct dosage and the result was spectacular. A little later the effects of these substances and of corticotrophine on patients with LE were tested, with success. Soon the works of Hench 30 aroused a lively interest in the whole medical establishment. Proof of the high expectations created is the fact that only a year later Reichtein, Kendall and Hench were awarded the Nobel Prize (1950).", "Glucocorticoids also stimulate the lipocortin-1 escaping to the extracellular space, where it binds to the leukocyte membrane receptors and inhibits various inflammatory events: epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and the release of various inflammatory mediators (lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, tissue plasminogen activator, chemokines, etc.) from neutrophils, macrophages, and mastocytes.", "Glucocorticoid effects may be broadly classified into two major categories: immunological and metabolic. In addition, glucocorticoids play important roles in fetal development and body fluid homeostasis.", "Glucocorticoid effects may be broadly classified into two major categories: immunological and metabolic. In addition, glucocorticoids play important roles in fetal development and body fluid homeostasis.", "..... Click the link for more information.  (ACTH). Cortisone is classed as a glucocorticoid with cortisol cortisol" ]

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[ "Endorphins are produced in the brain and in the pituitary gland. What is their function*pain killers", "Endorphins and enkephalins are both examples of opioids and act within neuronal synapses to reduce the sensation of pain acting as natural pain killers. In humans, it has been shown that these neuropeptides also lead to a sense of euphoria. Both of these molecules belong to the same opioid category as morphine and heroin. They are produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus and they chemically resemble opiates in their ability to produce analgesia and a sense of well-being. Endorphin has also been shown to stimulate dopaminergic neurones. In addition to this, endorphin can act to inhibit the release of substance P and therefore decrease the conscious perception of pain.", "A number of morphine-like peptide substances naturally produced in the body and for which morphine receptors exist in the brain. Many of these active substances have been found, all with the same opioid core of five amino acids. They are neurotransmitters and have a wide range of functions. They help to regulate heart action, general hormone function, the mechanisms of shock from blood loss and the perception of pain, and are probably involved in controlling mood, emotion and motivation. They are thought to be produced under various circumstances in which acute relief of pain or mental distress is required. At least some of the endorphins are produced by the PITUITARY gland as part of the precursor of the ACTH molecule. Endorphins are fragments cleaved from the beta-lipotropin component of proopiomelanocortin ( POMC ). The term derives from the phrase ‘endogenous morphines’.", "- Endorphins: “endogenous morphine”; raise the pain threshold, produce sedation, and euphoria; produced naturally at neural synapses at points in the CNS pathway where they modulate the transmission of pain perception; ?-endorphin is found in the hypothalamus and hypophysis; dynorphin is a pain killer.", "The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system to reduce sensitivity to pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.", "Opioid peptides are small molecules that are produced in the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and in various glands throughout the body such as the pituitary and adrenal glands. These peptides can be divided into three categories (enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins), depending on the type of larger precursor molecule from which they are derived. Opioid peptides function both as hormones and as neuromodulators; the former are secreted in the blood system by glands and are delivered to a variety of target tissues where they induce a response, while the later are produced and secreted by nerve cells (or neurons) and act in the central nervous system to modulate the actions of other neurotransmitters.", "In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 5 grams (0.18 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem (Pituitary stalk). The pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis.", "Both melatonin and its precursor , serotonin , which are derived chemically from the alkaloid substance tryptamine, are synthesized in the pineal gland. Along with other brain sites, the pineal gland may also produce neurosteroids. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a hallucinogenic compound present in the Amazonian botanical drink ayahuasca, is chemically similar to melatonin and serotonin and is considered to be a trace substance in human blood and urine. Although alleged to be produced by the pineal gland, DMT has not been consistently detected in human pineal microdialysates (purified pineal extracts), and proof of its regulated biosynthesis in the mammalian pineal gland is lacking. Thus, though the conclusion by 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes that the pineal gland is the seat of the soul has endured as a historical curiosity, there is no evidence to support the notion that secretions from the pineal have a major role in cognition.", "The pituitary gland is a small organ that is located at the base of the brain just under the hypothalamus. This gland releases various hormones that play significant roles in regulating homeostasis.", "In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 5 grams (0.18 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem (Pituitary stalk). The pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis., is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 5 grams (0.18 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem (Pituitary stalk). The pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis.", "Many people consume lots of hot peppers in tropical climates as the heat will induce perspiration, which actually helps a person to cool off. Cayenne’s primary chemical constituents include capsaicin, capsanthine, beta carotene, flavonoids, and vitamin C. Cayenne causes the brain to secrete more endorphins. It is considered thermogenic, meaning it can “rev up” metabolism and aid in weight loss. Cayenne also improves circulation. Cayenne helps to relieve pain, not only due to its endorphin enhancing properties, but also when diluted and used topically it helps to block the transmission of substance P, which transports pain messages to the brain.", "The Human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These are the things that make up its constitution and cause its pains and health. Health is primarily that state in which these constituent substances are in the correct proportion to each other, both in strength and quantity, and are well mixed. Pain occurs when one of the substances presents either a deficiency or an excess, or is separated in the body and not mixed with others. ", "Cannabinoids have been shown to inhibit tumor growth in laboratory animals in multiple studies.47-52 In one study, injections of synthetic THC eradicated malignant brain tumors in one-third of treated rats, and prolonged life in another third by as long as six weeks.53 Other research on pituitary cancers suggests that cannabinoids may be the key to regulating human pituitary hormone secretion.54-57", "Chronic headache sufferers may soon have some new alternatives. The active ingredient in cayenne peppers, capsaicin, is believed to bring headache relief by depleting Substance P, a neurotransmitter that helps send pain signals.", "Psychoeuleptic ― are those substances, natural and/or artificial, from plants, animals, and minerals, as well as elemental chemical processes, which enhance the functioning of the mammalian brain and the nervous system", "The pituitary gland is a small endocrine system organ that controls a multitude of important functions in the body.  Credit: SEER Training Modules / U. S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute", "Calixto, J. B., Beirith, A., Ferreira, J., Santos, A. R., Filho, V. C., and Yunes, R. A. Naturally occurring antinociceptive substances from plants. Phytother.Res. 2000;14(6):401-418. View abstract.", "Analgesics, or pain relievers, are medicines that reduce or relieve headaches, sore muscles, arthritis, or other aches and pains. There are many different pain medicines, and each one has advantages and risks. Some types of pain respond better to certain medicines than others. Each person may also have a slightly different response to a pain reliever.", "Certain compound medicines were also called by this name, such as anodyne balsam, made of castile soap, camphor, saffron, and spirit of wine, and digested in a sand heat. It was recommended not only for easing extreme pain, but for assisting in discharging the peccant matter that occurred with the pain.", "a strong analgesic, anti inflammatory and antibiotic. it blocks the aciton of cytochrome, aflatoxin B and other pro-cancerous mutagenics. it's commonly found in small quantities in essential oils associated with anti-depressin, and well being. probably potentiates thc. probably allows more thc to enter into the brain.", "The pituitary and pineal glands are an absolute. Here are a couple of sites to look at...", "Wilhelmsen M, Amirian I, Reiter RJ, Rosenburg J, Gogenur I. Analgesic effects of melatonin: a review of current evidence from experimental and clinical studies. Pineal Res. 51(3):270-7.", "A clear fluid derived from plasma that forms protective cushion around CNS, provides nutrients, and collects wastes.", "Beyond initial first aid, antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may control skin irritation (pruritus). Ice or fresh water is not usually applied to stings, since they may cause nematocysts to continue to release toxin. Immunobased antivenins have been available since the 1970s; administration requires medical personnel and refrigeration and are used in extreme cases as with regard to the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri. ", "Skullcap is an ancient sleep aid remedy. It can greatly reduce anxiety and nervousness. It is often called nature’s tranquilizer. Besides its use as a sleep aid, many people take it to relieve muscle spasms and twitches, lower blood pressure and cholesterol. This herb also possesses anti-inflammatory properties and may be useful for treating arthritis and joint pain.", "This substance eases anxiety and tension as well as neuralgia and headaches associated with nerves.  It is especially useful to treat symptoms and related ailments from hypertension.  It is also a bitter.", "Peptide hormones have important influences upon the hypothalamus, and to do so they must pass through the blood–brain barrier. The hypothalamus is bounded in part by specialized brain regions that lack an effective blood–brain barrier; the capillary endothelium at these sites is fenestrated to allow free passage of even large proteins and other molecules. Some of these sites are the sites of neurosecretion - the neurohypophysis and the median eminence. However, others are sites at which the brain samples the composition of the blood. Two of these sites, the SFO (subfornical organ) and the OVLT (organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis) are so-called circumventricular organs, where neurons are in intimate contact with both blood and CSF. These structures are densely vascularized, and contain osmoreceptive and sodium-receptive neurons that control drinking, vasopressin release, sodium excretion, and sodium appetite. They also contain neurons with receptors for angiotensin, atrial natriuretic factor, endothelin and relaxin, each of which important in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. Neurons in the OVLT and SFO project to the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus, and also to preoptic hypothalamic areas. The circumventricular organs may also be the site of action of interleukins to elicit both fever and ACTH secretion, via effects on paraventricular neurons.", "Trolamine salicylate is an organic salt formed by the combination of triethanolamine and salicylic acid (aspirin), and is commonly used in analgesics and sunscreens. It has no odor, which patients prefer, compared to the strong odor of many other analgesics.", "Dopamine agonists both alleviated and exacerbated headache, which has previously been observed ( Ferrari et al., 1988 ; Massiou et al., 2002 ; Levy et al., 2003b ). This paradoxical observation may be related to a complex interplay of the physical effects on the tumour and the central actions of dopamine agonists. The reduction of tumour size in large prolactinomas may improve headache via structural changes, although there is little evidence for the size of the tumour being generally important ( Levy et al., 2004 ). Alternatively, or in addition, the effects of dopamine agonists on the trigeminovascular system may have deleterious effects on headache. Dopamine agonists share properties with ergot alkaloids ( Trabucchi et al., 1978 ), and ergot alkaloids are known to alter the activity of the trigeminovascular system ( Hoskin et al., 1996 ). It has also been suggested that the dopamine–prolactin axis plays an important role in some primary headaches notably migraine ( Peroutka, 1997 ; Peroutka et al., 1997 ; Peres et al., 2001 ) and cluster headache ( Goadsby, 2002 ). This may, in part, explain the unpredictable headache responses observed with dopamine agonists. The exacerbation of headache was dramatic in certain cases, an observation that has been previously observed in association with SUNCT ( Ferrari et al., 1988 ; Massiou et al., 2002 ; Levy et al., 2003b ).", "17. Chen HS , Lei J , He X , et al. Pivotal involvement of neurogenic mechanism in subcutaneous bee venom-induced inflammation and allodynia in unanesthetized conscious rats . Exp Neurol . 2006;200(2):386-391.", "LaValle JB, Krinsky DL, Hawkins EB, et al. Natural Therapeutics Pocket Guide. Hudson, OH: LexiComp; 2000:452-454.", "Wikipedia ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineal_gland ) contains a wealth of information on the Pineal Gland, as a summary the key bits are presented below:" ]

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[ "In May 1886, William Bates reported the discovery of a substance produced by the adrenal gland in the New York Medical Journal. Epinephrine was isolated and identified in 1895 by Napoleon Cybulski, a Polish physiologist. The discovery was repeated in 1897 by John Jacob Abel.[1]. Jokichi Takamine, a Japanese chemist, independently discovered the same hormone in 1900.[2][3]In 1901 he isolated and purified the hormone adrenaline from cow glands.It was first artificially synthesized in 1904 by Friedrich Stolz.", "Epinephrine was discovered in the late 1800s. English physiologists George Oliver and Sir Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer were among the first to describe the blood-pressure-raising effect of a substance from the adrenal medulla. By 1900 epinephrine had been isolated and identified by American physiological chemist John Jacob Abel and, independently, by Japanese American biochemist Jokichi Takamine . In 1904 German chemist Friedrich Stolz became the first to synthesize the hormone.", "Isolating a hormone for the first time in a laboratory, Ohio pharmacologist John J. Abel (b. 1818) extracts epinephrine (adrenalin) from the adrenal glands of a sheep.", "In 1926, John Jacob Abel (1857–1938) of Johns Hopkins University prepared the first crystalline insulin. In the mid-1950s the molecular structure of insulin was determined by Frederick Sanger (1918–1982), for which he received a Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1958. He received a second Nobel Prize in 1980 for determining base sequences of nucleic acids. With genetic engineering it is now possible not only to make insulin in unlimited quantities, but to make human insulin rather than use the slightly different insulin of other species.", "            1922-Saturday-  The use of insulin to treat diabetes in a dog was announced in the first paper published on the subject by the Canadian surgeon Frederick Banting and his assistant Charles Best. On July 10, 1921,(Sunday) they injected an extract from pancreatic tissue  into a diabetic dog. After an hour, the blood glucose had dropped from 0.2 to 0.1%. They continued their research, and improved the purity of what they named insulin, the hormone responsible for controlling blood sugar levels. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas. The discovery was one of the watershed moments in medicine. Diabetics now had hopes of living full and productive lives. Banting received a share of the Nobel Prize in 1923 for the work", "... parts\" of bill. Famed Doctor Dies BALTIMORE, May 27-(/P)-Dr. John Jacob Abel, whose researches brought relief to thousands previously do...", "\".... Baltimore Dr. John Jacob Abel, 81. professor emeritus ol pharmacology at the Johns Hop- kins hospital who as credited with isolatio...", "\"...here on a an official visit RESEARCHER DIES. John Jacob Abel, 81, professor emeritus of pharmacology at the Jchns Hop- iins Hospital ...", "Born near Cleveland, Ohio, he graduated with a Ph.D. 1883 from the University of Michigan. In 1891 he founded and chaired the first department of pharmacology in the United States at the University of Michigan. In 1893, he went on to chair the pharmacology department at Johns Hopkins University. In 1897, he was the second to isolate epinephrine, also known as adrenaline (the first was Napoleon Cybulski in 1895), although the extracts he produced have been shown to be mostly an inactive metabolite and the first pure extracts were produced by the japanese Jokichi Takamine (1854-1922) who patented the formulation under the name adrenalin. He later formulated the idea of the artificial kidney and in 1914 he isolated amino acids from the blood.", "1902 William Maddock Bayliss, English physiologist who discovered the digestive hormone secretin, the first hormone to be found, with Ernest Starling. During World War I, Bayliss introduced the use of saline (salt water) injections to help the injured recover from shock. He was Knighted in 1922.", "1921 John James Rickard Macleod, Scottish physiologist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Frederick Banting in 1923 for their part in the discovery of insulin, the hormone in the pancreas that reduces blood glucose (sugar) levels. Since its discovery, insulin has been used extensively as the main treatment for diabetes.", "Discovered in non-human animals around 1930 by Oscar Riddle and confirmed in humans in 1970 by Henry Friesen prolactin is a peptide hormone, encoded by the PRL gene. ", "du Vigneaud, Vincent American biochemist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1955 for the isolation and synthesis of two pituitary hormones: vasopressin, which acts on the muscles of the blood vessels to cause elevation of blood pressure; and oxytocin, the principal...", "* 1950 (Physiology or Medicine) Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein, and Philip Hench – Structure and biological effects of adrenal hormones ", "During the first two decades of the century, steady progress was made in the isolation, identification, and study of the active principles of the various endocrine glands, but the outstanding event of the early years was the discovery of insulin. In 1921 Romanian physiologist Nicolas C. Paulescu reported the discovery of a substance called pancrein, now thought to have been insulin, in pancreatic extracts from dogs. Paulescu found that diabetic dogs given an injection of unpurified pancrein experienced a temporary decrease in blood glucose levels. Also in 1921, working independently of Paulescu, Canadian physician Frederick Banting and American-born Canadian physician Charles H. Best isolated insulin. They then worked with Canadian chemist James B. Collip and Scottish physiologist J.J.R. Macleod to purify the substance. The following year a 14-year-old boy with severe diabetes was the first person to be treated successfully with the pancreatic extracts. Almost overnight the lot of the diabetic patient changed from a sentence of almost certain death to a prospect not only of survival but of a long and healthy life.", "the radioimmunoassay for insulin, as discovered by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson (gaining Yalow the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) [58]", "The scion of a Boston Brahmin family, the at-first unambitious Minot eventually became a pioneer in the field of hematology, the study of blood. While researching the deadly blood disease known as pernicious anemia, Minot himself was stricken by diabetes. It was the discovery of insulin in 1921 that allowed him to continue his research, which ultimately led to his own discovery of the cure for pernicious anemia.", "Kendall, Edward Calvin American chemist who, with Philip S. Hench and Tadeus Reichstein, won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for research on the structure and biological effects of adrenal cortex hormones. A graduate of Columbia University (Ph.D. 1910),...", "In 2005 scientists at Cornell and NC State, including my good colleague Coby Schal, identified the elusive hormone that attracts the male of Blattella germanica to the female. A news release of that discovery can be viewed at URL:", "Heinrich O. Wieland (1877-1957) laid the basis for the chemistry of sexual hormones (Fig. 173). For his studies on the structure of the bile acid and related substances he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1927.", "Frank B. Colton developed Enovid, the first oral contraceptive. Colton has made many important contributions to medicinal organic chemistry and particularly to steroid chemistry. His pioneering research on the relationship between structure and biological activity, particularly of 19-nor steroids, led to the development of Nilevar, the first orally active anabolic agent which had a distinct separation between protein building and masculinizing properties.", "In 1901, the first synthetic peptide glycyl-glycine (see picture) was discovered by Emil Fischer , in collaboration with Ernest Fourneau . The first polypeptide (oxytocin - nine amino acid sequence) was synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953.", "1933 - Insulin shock therapy for patients with some mental illnesses was discovered by Manfred Sakel (1900-1957), a Jewish Austrian neurophysiologist and psychiatrist who later became an Austrian-American.", "            1944-Sunday-  American obstetrician and gynecologist Dr John Rock, the developer of the birth control pill,  while working with Miriam F. Menkin, fertilized the first human egg in a test tube. The egg developed into one of actress Elizabeth Tayor’s husbands, probably the guy she met in rehab.", "Jonas Edward Salk (; October 28, 1914 - June 23, 1995) was an American medical researcher and virologist. He discovered and developed the first successful polio vaccine. Born in New York City, he attended New York University School of Medicine, later choosing to do medical research instead of becoming a practicing physician. In 1939, after earning his medical degree, Salk began an internship as a scientist physician at Mount Sinai Hospital. Two years later he was granted a fellowship at the University of Michigan, where he would study flu viruses with his mentor Thomas Francis, Jr.. ", "6 May - Paul Lauterbur, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "1900-1982 - Hudson Hoagland - Neuroendocrinologist. Helped form the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology in 1944.", "In 1863, a researcher from Switzerland named George Wander began trying to create a nutritional food supplement. His son Albert Wander continued the search until 1904, when Ovomaltine was born. The mixture of whole milk, fresh eggs, barley malt extract and cocoa was first used in hospitals as a tasty way to give patients vitamins.", "The German bacteriologist Gerhard Domagk in 1932 found the first effective drug against infections caused by bacteria, which was called prontosil. He tested it on his daughter to save her life and received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939 for this magnificent breakthrough.", "The proposal that proteins were linear chains of α-amino acids was made nearly simultaneously by two scientists at the same conference in 1902, the 74th meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, held in Karlsbad. Franz Hofmeister made the proposal in the morning, based on his observations of the biuret reaction in proteins. Hofmeister was followed a few hours later by Emil Fischer, who had amassed a wealth of chemical details supporting the peptide-bond model. For completeness, the proposal that proteins contained amide linkages was made as early as 1882 by the French chemist E. Grimaux.", "ISAAC BERENBLUM, M.D., M.Sc was born in France and settled in Israel. died in April 17, 2000. He was a Biologist . He was the Professor Emeritus and Head of Department of Experimental Biology at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel. And former staff of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University. His field is experimental cancer research with special reference to the mechanism of carcinogenesis.", "In 1916, Nicolae Paulescu, a Romanian professor of physiology at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest, developed an aqueous pancreatic extract which, when injected into a diabetic dog, had a normalizing effect on blood-sugar levels. He had to interrupt his experiments because of World War I, and in 1921 he wrote four papers about his work carried out in Bucharest and his tests on a diabetic dog. Later that year, he published \"Research on the Role of the Pancreas in Food Assimilation\". " ]

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[ "91. NAME THE SUBSTANCE PRODUCED IN THE BODY BY HARD EXERCISE WHICH CAUSES STIFFNESS IN MUSCLES?", "This analysis explains the course of fatigue during hard exercise. The first material to be exhausted is oxygen. After a few seconds of exercise the athlete is limited to the power that can be produced by the oxygen-collecting and oxygen-distributing capacity -- that is, by the heart and the lungs -- supplemented by the anaerobic processing of muscle glycogen, which produces a further but delayed demand upon the oxygen supply. No wonder cardiovascular (circulatory) fitness is the objective of so much athletic training; it is the critical limit in many sports.", "When muscles run out of energy during either aerobic or anaerobic respiration, the muscle quickly tires and loses its ability to contract. This condition is known as muscle fatigue. A fatigued muscle contains very little or no oxygen, glucose or ATP, but instead has many waste products from respiration, like lactic acid and ADP. The body must take in extra oxygen after exertion to replace the oxygen that was stored in myoglobin in the muscle fiber as well as to power the aerobic respiration that will rebuild the energy supplies inside of the cell. Oxygen debt (or recovery oxygen uptake) is the name for the extra oxygen that the body must take in to restore the muscle cells to their resting state. This explains why you feel out of breath for a few minutes after a strenuous activity—your body is trying to restore itself to its normal state.", "* Only a small percentage of lactic acid is transformed back into glycogen in the liver; the majority remains in the blood and the muscles. An individual’s body can accumulate and tolerate a limited amount of lactic acid. In all likelihood, it is the presence of lactic acid that causes excessive breathing while exercising, and causes feelings of fatigue and heaviness in the muscles, eventually forcing an individual to stop exercising.", "VERMA, G. M. et al. (2014) Oxygen Debt and Rise of Blood Lactate During Submaximal Exercise in Relation to Physical Fitness and Endurance. Defence Science Journal, 19 (2), p. 115-120", "Approximately twelve hours after death a stiffening of the muscles occurs, caused by a loss of ATP and the accumulation of certain salts in the muscle fibre. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) allows energy to flow to the muscles, in this case to control calcium pumps inside the membrane of the muscle cells. This leads to a build-up of calcium ions, ultimately leading to muscle contractions and stiffness. The stiffness will naturally cease when the calcium ions have been expelled. Though rigor mortis lasts for around twelve hours, it can be mechanically ‘broken’ by moving the rigid muscles by force. The presence and state of rigor mortis can on occasion be used to determine time since death.", "If pyruvate is being formed faster than it is being utilized, three-carbon molecules accumulate in the form of lactic acid (lactate). A buildup of lactic acid due to \"excessive\" glucose breakdown is thought by some to impair exercise performance. In addition, a lack of glycogen (the storage form of glucose) is also thought to cause fatigue under some circumstances. Thus, many athletes have what might be termed a \"love-hate relationship\" with glucose: they need it to fuel their muscles during exercise, yet burning it at high rates can get them into trouble. This song probes the nature of this relationship and includes a cameo appearance by the lactate molecule itself, which sings the line, \"I'm gonna make your muscles ache,\" shown in italics. (This line is an allusion to the now-discredited hypothesis that lactic acid causes muscle soreness.)", "When not enough oxygen is available, the anaerobic fibers can operate without it. Because resting muscles have a low blood flow, they do not have sufficient oxygen and glucose for intense activity. Even muscles that are in use may be asked to produce more power than the blood flow can support. Therefore, for emergency starts and intense efforts, the muscles use a fuel that is stored in the muscle itself: the storable form of glucose called glycogen. This process uses the first few steps of the normal glucose aerobic process, but cannot go further because there is not enough oxygen. Hence it is fuel inefficient: the amount of glycogen equivalent to a molecule of glucose makes only 2 molecules of ATP, instead of 36 for the full process. If a moderate level of exercise continues to use the same muscles, some of the partially processed glucose is usefully consumed as increased blood flow brings more oxygen. The rest is dumped into the bloodstream to be removed later by the liver.", "soreness and stiffness in a muscle due to overexertion or contusion, especially in muscles that have not been conditioned for hard use; some of the muscle fibers may actually tear.", "rigor mortis (rig´or mor´tis) The stiffening of a dead body due to the depletion of ATP and the production of rigor complexes between actin and myosin in muscles.", "Aids endurance by sparing glycogen reserves—Generally, as the duration or time spent exercising increases, intensity decreases (and more oxygen is available to cells), and fat is the more important fuel source. Stored carbohydrate (muscle and liver glycogen) are subsequently used at a slower rate, thereby delaying the onset of fatigue and prolonging the activity.", "Causes active hyperemia. Muscles use up oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. Tends to dilate the arterioles. Dilation of the arterioles to the muscles drops the total peripheral resistance of the body.", "* The faster anaerobic system supplies increasing amounts of energy as the exercise becomes more intense. The intensity of the muscle contractions causes a compression of the small arteries and, in effect, prevents oxygen, glucose or fat from entering the muscle cell. Thus, the majority of the carbohydrate needed comes from that which is already stored within the muscle itself.", "Myoglobin is a protein in heart and skeletal muscles. When a muscle is exercised, it uses up available oxygen. Myoglobin has oxygen bound to it, thus providing an extra reserve of oxygen so that the muscle can maintain a high level of activity for a longer period of time. When muscle is damaged, the myoglobin is released into the bloodstream. It is filtered out of the bloodstream by the kidneys, and eliminated in urine. In large quantities, myoglobin can damage the kidney and break down into toxic compounds, causing kidney failure.", "McClean, C. M., Clegg, M., Shafat, A., Murphy, M. H., Trinick, T., Duly, E., McLaughlin, J., Fogarty, M., and Davison, G. W. The impact of acute moderate intensity exercise on arterial regional stiffness, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant status in healthy males. Res.Sports Med. 2011;19:1-13. View abstract .", "Heart failure is caused by any condition which reduces the efficiency of the heart muscle, through damage or overloading. As such, it can be caused by a wide number of conditions, including myocardial infarction (in which the heart muscle is starved of oxygen and dies), hypertension (which increases the force of contraction needed to pump blood) and amyloidosis (in which misfolded proteins are deposited in the heart muscle, causing it to stiffen). Over time these increases in workload will produce changes to the heart itself:", "VITAMIN E AND ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE: Vitamin E researchers Mohsen and Simin Nikbin Meydani, working at Tufts University’s Department of Agriculture’s Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, have shown that vitamin E may be able to reduce the damage to muscles caused by rigorous excercise. (1, 2) Certain athletes and especially long-distance runners have the need to inhibit and limit the kind of muscle damage that would cause them to fall and (perhaps) not to rise to the occasion of their next sporting event. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 21 males, representing two ranges of age (22-29 and 55-74 yr), took 800 IU/day of vitamin E supplements and, for 48 days, ran downhill on an inclined treadmill to accentuate damaging eccentric muscular contractions .", "Increase in CO2 binding, Drop in pH and Muscle contraction. All effect conformation of hemoglobin protein thereby causing a less affinity for O2.", "Muscular stiffening following death, resulting from the unavailability of energy needed to interrupt contraction of the muscle fibers.", "Claudication - A tiredness or pain in the arms and legs caused by an inadequate supply of oxygen to the muscles, usually due to narrowed arteries or peripheral arterial disease (PAD).", "In the human body Isoleucine is concentrated in the muscle tissues. Isoleucine is necessary for hemoglobin formation and in stabilizing and regulating blood sugar and energy levels. A deficiency of isoleucine can produce symptoms similar to those of hypoglycemia. It has been identified as one of a group of amino acids deficient in amino acid profiles run on mentally and physically ill patients. Isoleucine is frequently deficient in the elderly, and may contribute to muscle wasting, twitching and tremors.", "Prolonged muscular action causes sudden, powerful, and painful contractions of muscle groups, which is called \"tetany\". These episodes can cause fractures and muscle tears. Other symptoms include drooling, excessive sweating, fever, hand or foot spasms, irritability, difficulty swallowing, suffocation, heart attack, breathing problems, irregular heartbeat, and uncontrolled urination or defecation.", "Stiffening of the muscles of the body that occurs after death. Rigor mortis is Latin for “stiffness of death.”", "Muscles/Connective Tissue: The muscle fibers of the hands, forearms and jaw become concentrated and take on the consistency of nylon rope when contracted. Ligaments and tendons thicken in response to the added stress.", "Carbohydrate compounds provide essential body fuel. Their structural forms include monosaccharides such as glucose, disaccharides such as lactose, and polysaccharides, including starches (polymers of glucose), glycogen (the storage form of glucose), and fiber. All body cells can use glucose for fuel. It is converted via an oxidation-reduction reaction to ATP.", "The energy needed for muscular contraction is derived from the breakdown of the muscle proteins themselves.", "A myocardial infarction (MI) is another name for a heart attack. Your heart is always working to pump blood to your entire body. Blood carries oxygen and other nutrients that your body needs to do its work. Your heart needs a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood for itself as well. The blood vessels that supply blood to your heart muscle are called coronary arteries. Sometimes one or more of the coronary arteries becomes too narrowed or completely blocked, or it spasms (tightens). This causes part of the heart muscle to not get enough of the oxygen-rich blood it needs. If the muscle goes too long without oxygen, it starts to die. This is known as a myocardial infarction.", "Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline. These are found in the protein collagen. Collagen is a fibrous protein made up of three polypeptides that form a stable assembly, but only if the proline and lysine residues are hydroxylated. (requires vitamin C for reduction of these amino acids to hydroxy form)", "28 - K. Kubo, H. Akima, J. Ushiyama, I. Tabata, H. Fukuoka, H. Kanehisa, T. Fukunaga, 2004. Effects of 20 days of bed rest on the viscoelastic properties of tendon structures in lower limb muscles. Br J Sports Med 38: 324-330,", "Relieves muscle fatigue and pain Improves flexibility Aids injury recovery Increases the flow of oxygen and nutrients to cells and tissues", "Thick, elastic muscle layer that can handle high pressure of the blood flowing through the arteries.", "It is an atypical connective tissue since it does not bind, connect, or network with any body cells. It is made up of blood cells and is surrounded by a nonliving fluid called plasma." ]

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[ "The carotid arteries are the main arteries on either side of your neck that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood. You have two carotid arteries, one on the left side of your neck and one on the right side. If you put your fingertips on the side of your neck, you will feel a pulse. That is your carotid artery.", "The common carotid artery is found bilaterally, with one on each side of the anterior neck. Each common carotid artery is divided into an external and internal carotid artery. These arteries transfer blood to the structures inside and outside of the skull.", "The common carotid arteries are present on the left and right sides of the body. These arteries originate from different arteries, but follow symmetrical sources. The right common carotid originates in the neck from the brachiocephalic trunk; the left from the aortic arch in the thorax. These split into the external and internal carotid arteries at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, at around the level of the fourth cervical vertebra.", "The common carotid arteries lie on either side of the trachea. The common carotid artery, the internal jugular vein, and the vagus nerve are enclosed in a fibrous sheath called the carotid sheath, which is part of the deep cervical fascia. Within this sheath, the vein lies lateral to the artery and nerve between and behind the vessels.", "To understand carotid stenosis, it is helpful to understand the circulatory system of the head and neck (see Anatomy of the Brain ). The carotid artery begins at the aorta in the chest as the common carotid and courses up through the neck to the head. Place your hands on either side of your neck, and you can feel your pulse in your carotid arteries. Near the larynx, the common carotid divides into the external and internal carotid arteries. The external carotid arteries supply blood to the face and scalp. The internal carotid arteries supply blood to the brain. The most common location of atherosclerotic plaque buildup is the carotid bifurcation (Fig. 1), where the common carotid divides into the internal and external carotid arteries.", "The carotid arteries provide the brain with most of its blood supply and are located in the neck on either side of the windpipe.", "The carotid artery is a major artery that carries blood from the heart to the head. There is a carotid artery on each side of the neck, and each one splits into two branches. The interior branch carries blood to the brain and eyes, and the exterior branch carries blood to the face, tongue, and outside parts of the head.", "Carotid artery - A major artery (right and left) in the neck supplying blood to the brain.", "Carotid ultrasound usually is done in a doctor’s office or hospital. You will lie on your back on an exam table for your test. The ultrasound technician will put gel on your neck where your carotid arteries are located. The gel helps the sound waves reach your arteries. The technician will move the transducer against different areas on your neck. The transducer will detect the sound waves after they have bounced off your artery walls and blood cells. A computer will use the sound waves to create and record pictures of the inside of your carotid arteries and to show how blood is flowing in your carotid arteries.", "The common carotid arteries have two divisions. The external carotid arteries supply the face and scalp with blood. The internal carotid arteries supply blood to most of the anterior portion of the cerebrum. The vertebrobasilar arteries supply the posterior two-fifths of the cerebrum, part of the cerebellum, and the brain stem.", "A carotid artery on each side of the neck supplies blood to the brain. Carotid artery disease occurs when a substance called plaque builds up in either or both arteries. The buildup can narrow the artery and reduce the blood flow to your brain. This can raise your chance of a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA).", "Symptoms From Blockage in the Carotid Arteries. The carotid arteries stem off of the aorta (the primary artery leading from the heart) and lead up through the neck, around the windpipe, and into the brain. When TIAs or strokes result from clots that form on blockages in the carotid artery, symptoms may occur in either the retina of the eye or the cerebral hemisphere (the large top part of the brain).", "The common carotid artery bifurcates in the neck as it travels superiorly. This is an area of turbulence where an atherosclerotic plaque can develop and create audible turbulence. On yourself, palpate the lateral horn of the hyoid bone and the superiolateral aspect of the thyroid cartilage. From here push the sternocleidomastoid muscle laterally (we'll add this muscle only on the right side ), and feel for a pulse. Gradually rotate the image 90 degrees to the right.", "At approximately the level of the fourth cervical vertebra, the common carotid artery splits (\"bifurcates\" in literature) into an internal carotid artery (ICA) and an external carotid artery (ECA). While both branches travel upward, the internal carotid takes a deeper (more internal) path, eventually travelling up into the skull to supply the brain. The external carotid artery travels more closely to the surface, and sends off numerous branches that supply the neck and face.", "The left common carotid artery can be thought of as having two parts: a thoracic (chest) part and a cervical (neck) part. The right common carotid originates in or close to the neck, so contains only a small thoracic portion. There are studies in the bioengineering literature that have looked into characterizing the geometric structure of the common carotid artery from both qualitative and mathematical (quantitative) standpoints.", "The external carotid artery begins at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, and taking a slightly curved course, it passes upward and forward and then inclines backward to the space behind the neck of the mandible, where it divides into the superficial temporal and maxillary arteries. It rapidly diminishes in size in its course up the neck, owing to the number and large size of the branches given off from it — namely, the superior thyroid, lingual, facial, occipital, posterior auricular, ascending pharyngeal, superficial temporal, and maxillary.", "  Behind the angle of bifurcation of the common carotid artery is a reddish-brown oval body, known as the glomus caroticum (carotid body). It is similar in structure to the glomus coccygeum (coccygeal body) which is situated on the middle sacral artery.", "carotid — carotidal, adj. /keuh rot id/, Anat. n. 1. Also called carotid artery. either of the two large arteries, one on each side of the head, that carry blood to the head and that divide into an external branch supplying the neck, face, and other… …   Universalium", "key artery located in the front of the neck that carries blood from the heart to the brain; cholesterol plaques on the inner wall of the carotid artery can lead to stroke.", "Home > Cardiovascular System > Cardiovascular System of the Head and Neck > Internal Carotid Artery", "This feature is in line with the second and third thoracic vertebra where the left common carotid artery is issued from the aorta", "Fig 1.0 – Origin of the blood vessels of the upper limb. Note how the left common carotid and subclavian arteries arise directly from the arch of aorta.", "These images are a real-time random sampling from a Google search on the term \"Carotid Artery.\" Click on the image (or right click) to open the source website in a new browser window. Search Google for all related images", "During the thoracic part of its course, the left common carotid artery is related to the following structures:", "The small dilation at the base of the internal carotid artery with baroreceptors in its wall. These receptors respond to changes in arterial blood pressure, and their signals are carried to the hindbrain by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).", "detect atherosclerotic (plaque) disease in the carotid artery of the neck, which may limit blood flow to the brain and cause a stroke.", "The brachial artery is the largest artery serving the shoulder and arm. It travels down the upper arm and through the elbow before dividing into the radial and ulnar arteries below the elbow. In the shoulder, branches of the brachial artery provide oxygenated blood to the muscles and bones.", "Topics | Heart and Circulatory System | Carotid Artery Disease | How does CT angiography diagnose carotid artery disease?", "The axillary artery is a large blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood to various parts of the upper body. These parts of the body include the thorax, upper limb, and axilla (more commonly known as the armpit). The thorax of the human body ranges from the neck to the abdomen. The upper limb refers to the arm from the shoulder to the hand. The axillary artery is a continuation of the subclavian artery and begins when it crosses the first rib. As it moves downward it becomes the brachial artery. The axillary artery can be subdivided into three segments. These parts are identified by their location relative to the pectoralis minor muscle, which is located in front of the axillary artery. The first part of the artery is located medial (near the middle) to the pectoralis minor muscle. The second part of the artery is behind the pectoralis minor muscle. The third part of the artery is lateral (to the side of, or farther away from the middle) to the pectoralis minor muscle. The three parts of the axillary artery work together to supply oxygenated blood to the thorax, upper limb, and axillary regions. The axillary vein runs alongside the axillary artery and brings blood back to the heart.", "Oxygenated blood enters the shoulder area through the subclavian artery below the collarbone. This same vessel evolves into the axillary artery in the armpit region. Its branches serve the outer surface of the chest and the upper arm. Farther down the arm, the axillary artery is known as the brachial artery.", "A descriptive reference for locating arteries and veins by means of anatomical structures which are known.", "Points of origin and points of termination in relation to adjacent structures; used to designate the boundaries of arteries." ]

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[ "Keratin is a fibrous protein that also composes hair and fingernails. It is strong yet somewhat elastic. Like our hair and fingernails, it grows throughout a whale's lifetime, and the ends continually wear off.", "Keratin (/ˈkɛrətən/[1][2]) is a family of fibrous structural proteins. Keratin is the key structural material making up the outer layer of human skin. It is also the key structural component of hair and nails.", "Nails and hair are made of the same types of cells that make up skin. Hair and nails contain the tough protein keratin.", "Some proteins provide structure. The protein collagen gives structure to bones, teeth and skin. Hair and nails depend on keratin.", "Proteins also serve as a major structural component of the body. Like lipids, proteins are an important constituent of the cell membrane. In addition, such extracellular materials as hair and nails are composed of protein. So also is collagen, the fibrous, elastic material that makes up much of the body’s skin, bones, tendons, and ligaments. Proteins also perform numerous functional roles in the body. Particularly important are those cellular proteins called enzymes, which catalyze the chemical reactions necessary for life.", "The KRT81, KRT83, and KRT86 genes provide instructions for making proteins known as keratins . Keratins are a group of tough, fibrous proteins that form the structural framework of cells that make up the hair, skin, and nails. The KRT81 gene provides instructions for making the type II hair keratin K81 protein (K81); the KRT83 gene provides instruction for making the type II hair keratin K83 protein (K83); and the KRT86 gene provides instructions for making the type II hair keratin K86 protein (K86). The K81, K83, and K86 proteins are found in cells of the inner compartment of the hair shaft known as the cortex. These proteins give hair its strength and elasticity.", "Keratins are a family of fibrous structural proteins ; which are extremely strong and are a major component in skin, hair, nails and teeth. The amino acids which combine to form keratin have several unique properties, and depending on the levels of the various amino acids, keratin can be inflexible and hard, like nails, or soft, as is the case with skin.", "Sulfur is an important component of amino acids and proteins. It's present in keratin, which forms skin, hair, and nails. It's also needed for cellular respiration, allowing cells to use oxygen. More »", "Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called keratin. This protein is also found in the hooves and horns of different animals. The nail consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it, and the grooves surrounding it.", "/ker·a·tin/ (ker´ah-tin) any of a family of scleroproteins that are the main constituents of epidermis, hair, nails, and horny tissues. The high-sulfur keratin polypeptides of ectodermally derived structures, e.g., hair and nails, are also called hard k's.", "A protein molecule called hemoglobin is found in red blood cells. Hemoglobin transports oxygen and iron to cells throughout the body. Iron is crucial in sustaining cells that make up healthy skin, fingernails, toenails, and hair.", "a tough, insoluble protein that is the main constituent of hair, nails, horn, hoofs, etc., and of the outermost layer of skin.", "One of the fibrous structural proteins, and is a constituent of hair , nails , skin , feathers , hooves, horns , etc.", "Keratin refers not to one particular substance but to a family of tough, fibrous proteins found in the animal kingdom. Keratin is present in hair, horn, hooves, beaks, shells, fingernails, toenails, and claws. All proteins contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O). One of the proteins found in keratin is cysteine. Cysteine contains the fifth element, sulfur (S).", "a fibrous sulfur-containing protein that is the primary component of the epidermis, hair, nails, enamel of the teeth, and horny tissue of animals. The protein is insoluble in most solvents, including gastric juice. For this reason, it is often used as a coating for pills that must pass through the stomach unchanged to be dissolved in the intestines.", "The nail plate (corpus unguis) is the hard part of the nail, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong but flexible. Its (transverse) shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word nail often refers to this part only.", "Your muscles, hair, nails, skin, and eyes are made of protein. So are the cells that make up the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, nerves, brain, and your sex glands. The body's most active protein users are the hormones secreted from the various glands -- thyroxin from the thyroid, insulin from the pancreas, and a variety of hormones from the pituitary -- as well as the soft tissues, hard-working major organs and muscles. They all require the richest stores of protein.", "12 Macromolecules Macromolecule #3: 3.Proteins provide structure (skin, nails, hair, etc) and function (enzymes) –Proteins are made up of monomers (legos) called amino acids. –Chain of amino acids for one protein", "sulphur-containing, insoluble scleroprotein, forming stratum corneum, nail plate and hair shaft, from enzymic conversion of epidermal cells", "proteins form vital parts of most body structures (skin, nails, hair, membranes, muscles, teeth, bones, organs, ligaments, and tendons)", "A natural protein found in animal horns, nails, hair, and the upper skin layers.  It is also a major component of the cells of the stratum corneum (the protective, outermost layer of skin of the epidermis)  It moisturizes and protects the surface by forming a film.", "Cats claws are made of keratin, which is a protein. A cat's claws are covered by an outer layer called the sheath, which consists of dead keratin cells. Running through the center of each claw is the quick. The quick contains blood vessels, nerves, and new keratin cells responsible for nail growth. The quick is pink in color because it contains the blood supply.", "•              Proteins come in many forms: enzymes, antibodies, hormones, transport vehicles, oxygen carriers, tendons and ligaments, scars, the cores of bones and teeth, the filaments of hair, materials of nails, and more", "Deep to the distal or free border of the nail, the horny zone of the fingertip is thickened and is frequently termed the hyponychium. The horny zone of the nail is attached to the underlying nail bed. The matrix, or proximal part of the bed, produces hard-keratin. Further distally, however, the bed may also generate nail substance. Moreover, the most superficiallayer of the nail may be produced by the epithelium immediately dorsal to the root and proximal to the eponychium. The growth of the nail is affected by nutrition, hormones, and disease. Nail growth involves considerable protein synthesis, as a result of which nonspecific changes occur in the nails in response to various local and systemic disturbances. White spots indicate incomplete keratinization.", "Feathers are among the most complex integumentary appendages found in vertebrates and are formed in tiny follicles in the epidermis, or outer skin layer, that produce keratin proteins. The β-keratins in feathers, beaks and claws — and the claws, scales and shells of reptiles — are composed of protein strands hydrogen-bonded into β-pleated sheets, which are then further twisted and crosslinked by disulfide bridges into structures even tougher than the α-keratins of mammalian hair, horns and hoof. The exact signals that induce the growth of feathers on the skin are not known, but it has been found that the transcription factor cDermo-1 induces the growth of feathers on skin and scales on the leg. ", "Wittig M. Protein patterns of keratins--the probable role in forensic hair examination. J Forensic Sci Soc. 1982 Oct;22(4):387-9.", "Amino Acids: The building blocks of protein. A deficiency of amino acids may adversely affect hair growth.", "Elleman TC. Protein Amino-acid sequence of a high-sulphur protein from wool. Nat New Biol. 1971 Dec 1;234(48):148.", "To determine the functional effects of the missense polymorphism in KRT75 on enamel, we conducted structural analysis of human enamel from individuals carrying the rs2232387 polymorphism. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of polished and etched tooth samples sectioned in the plane transecting the enamel rods revealed that the distribution and characteristic keyhole shape of the rods were altered in individuals carrying the variant A allele (Figure 2 A). Tufts and rod sheaths isolated from patients with the KRT75GA or KRT75AA genotype appeared disorganized (Figure 2 B), and the distribution pattern of KRT75 was highly disrupted (Figure 2 C). This was further corroborated by transmission electron microscopy analysis (Figure 2 D). These results suggest that epithelial hair keratins stabilize enamel tufts and rod sheaths to support enamel rods during their formation, which is similar to their function in supporting the hair shaft ( 23 , 28 , 29 ). The functional role of KRT75 in teeth was further supported by a mouse model (Krt75tm1Der) carrying a Krt75 mutation leading to hair defects ( 30 ) as well as defects in the assembly of enamel rods (Supplemental Figure 2, B–E).", "90355 According to one illustrative embodiment, the coat protein I (COPI) assembly process is carried out by preparing Coatomer subunits from cytosolic preparations, including methods, but are not limited to, as essentially described in Spang, et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1998 September 15; 95 (19): 11199-11204. Coatomer, a nanoscale element comprised of seven distinct subunits (alpha, beta, beta', gamma, delta, epsilon and zeta subunits, respectively) and ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF, an", "During the anagen phase, the hair is actively growing, and materials are deposited in the hair shaft by cells found in the follicle. Metabolically active and dividing cells above and around the dermal papilla of the follicle grow upward during this phase, to form the major components of the hair—the medulla, cortex, cuticle, and accompanying root sheath. In the telogen phase, the follicle is dormant or resting. The transition period between the anagen and telogen phases is referred to as the catagen phase.", "Boskey AL. Noncollagenous matrix proteins and their role in mineralization. Bone Miner. 1989 May. 6(2):111-23. [Medline]." ]

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[ "The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO) (for example, from tobacco smoking, car exhaust, and incomplete combustion in furnaces). CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site. Hemoglobin binding affinity for CO is 250 times greater than its affinity for oxygen, meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduce hemoglobin's ability to transport oxygen. Since carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, and poses a potentially fatal threat, detectors have become commercially available to warn of dangerous levels in residences. When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright red compound called carboxyhemoglobin, which may cause the skin of CO poisoning victims to appear pink in death, instead of white or blue. When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02%, headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow. In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO.", "Carbon monoxide (a carbon atom plus one oxygen atom) is an odorless gas produced from the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon monoxide kills by binding to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying compound in the blood. Carbon monoxide bonds to hemoglobin 210 times more strongly than oxygen binds to hemoglobin, effectively crowding out oxygen and suffocating the tissues, according to a 2001 paper in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine .   ", "To obtain more reliable data about the effects of a higher CO content in exhaust than those extrapolated here, one can consult accident and suicide statistics. Accident or suicide victims who died from carbon monoxide are frequently tested for the carboxy-hemoglobin (Hb� CO) [30] concentration in their blood.", "When red cells reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are removed from the circulation by the phagocytic activity of macrophages in the spleen or the liver or hemolyze within the circulation. Free hemoglobin is then cleared from the circulation via the hemoglobin transporter CD163, which is exclusively expressed on monocytes or macrophages. Within these cells the hemoglobin molecule is broken up, and the iron gets recycled. This process also produces one molecule of carbon monoxide for every molecule of heme degraded. Heme degradation is one of the few natural sources of carbon monoxide in the human body, and is responsible for the normal blood levels of carbon monoxide even in people breathing pure air. The other major final product of heme degradation is bilirubin. Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual. Improperly degraded hemoglobin protein or hemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells too rapidly can clog small blood vessels, especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the kidneys, causing kidney damage.", "Exhaust gases are produced by the combustion of gasoline and diesel in the internal combustion engine of cars and other vehicles. These gases are released through an exhaust pipe, generally found at the rear of cars.", "1. AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST GAS: Carbon monoxide is both indoor and outdoor air pollutant. Vehicle exhausts are the most important CO sources in outdoors.  When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it has harmful effects particularly on those working in crossroads and parking areas, which have dense traffic, and closed and poorly ventilated working environments such as car workshops. Outer CO causing poisoning results from exhaust fumes of automobiles, poorly functioning heating systems and inhaling fumes.  One cause of the headache experienced in people working in depots and warehouses arises from cranes operated with propane.  Rate of death due CO arising from automobiles is higher in cold regions and reaches its peak in winter.  Some deaths are related to poor ventilation of oil operated generators.  It is known that although 'cleaner' fuels such as propane and methane burn almost completely, they can still cause carbon monoxide poisoning.", "When released into the atmosphere, NO rapidly combines with O2 to form NO2. Nitrogen dioxide and other gases emitted by an automobile, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and various unburned hydrocarbons, make automobile exhaust a major source of air pollution. Most new cars are equipped with catalytic converters (Figure 14.23). An efficient catalytic converter serves two purposes: It oxidizes CO and unburned hydrocarbons to CO2 and H2O, and it reduces NO and NO2 to N2 and O2. Hot exhaust gases into which air has been injected are passed through the first chamber of one converter to accelerate the complete burning of hydrocarbons and to decrease CO emission. (A cross section of the catalytic converter, containing Pt or Pd or a transition metal oxide such as CuO or Cr2O3, is shown in Figure 14.24.) However, because high temperatures increase NO production, a second chamber containing a different catalyst (a transition metal or a transition metal oxide) and operating at a lower temperature is required to dissociate NO into N2 and O2 before the exhaust is discharged through the tailpipe.", "Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin. Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2. Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2. Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other factors which can interfere with this binding. A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the pO2. This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with haemoglobin.", "Red blood cells are red only because they contain a protein chemical called haemoglobin , which is bright red in colour. Haemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the haemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the haemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty haemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.", "Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue—a symptom called cyanosis. If the heme is oxidized, methaemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.", "Carbon monoxide (CO) is a chemical created when some fuels, such as coal and gas, are burned. CO is toxic because it reduces the amount of oxygen received by the body’s cells. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin that carries oxygen to the body’s cells. Because CO binds much more easily and tightly to hemoglobin than does oxygen, CO will replace oxygen in the bloodstream when inhaled. When that happens, the cells that need lots of oxygen, such as those of the heart, skeletal muscles, and central nervous system, cannot function properly.", "The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues.", "Hemoglobin —An iron-containing pigment of red blood cells composed of four amino acid chains (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) that delivers oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and carries carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.", "The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin (see [a] in ) The principal job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell. Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of oxygen at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more room for the hemoglobin molecules. The lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the oxygen for metabolic respiration . Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells; however, some mammals (camels, for instance) have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis . Anucleated red blood cells metabolize anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport.", "In similar fashion, hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for cyanide (CN−), sulfur monoxide (SO), nitric oxide (NO), and sulfide (S2−), including hydrogen sulfide (H2S). All of these bind to iron in heme without changing its oxidation state, but they nevertheless inhibit oxygen-binding, causing grave toxicity.", "Carbon monoxide (CO) in hookah smoke binds to hemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces the amount of oxygen that can be transported to organs including the brain. There are several case reports in the medical literature of hookah smokers needing treatment in hospital emergency rooms for symptoms of CO poisoning including headache, nausea, lethargy, and fainting. This is sometimes called “hookah sickness.” Hookah smoking can damage the cardiovascular system in several ways. Its use elevates heart rate and blood pressure. It also impairs baroreflex control (which helps to control blood pressure) and cardiac autonomic functioning (which has many purposes, including control of heart rate) Hookah use also acutely harms vascular functioning, increases inflammation, and harms lung function and reduces the ability to exercise.", "Hb can bind protons and carbon dioxide which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen. Protons bind at various places on the protein, while carbon dioxide binds at the α-amino group.", "In general, hemoglobin can be saturated with oxygen molecules (oxyhemoglobin), or desaturated with oxygen molecules (deoxyhemoglobin). ", "Hemoglobin holds less O2 and releases 2/3 of their O2 molecules. Reduces binidng affinity at lower pH and increases amount of Oxygen released in active tissue. ", "Methemoglobin is an indicator of Hb oxidation and is essential for accurate measurement of Hbo2, So2, and oxygenation status. No evidence exists to show the AV MetHb difference, although this difference was elucidated with the potential changes of MetHb with different O2 levels.  Methemoglobin can be increased with nitric oxide (NO) therapy, used in respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) to reduce pulmonary hypertension and during heart surgery. Nitric oxide, in vitro, is an oxidant of Hb, with increased O2 during ischemia reperfusion. In hypoxemic conditions in vivo, nitrohemoglobin is a product generated by vessel responsiveness to nitrovasodilators. Nitro-hemoglobin can be spontaneously reversible in vivo, requiring no chemical agents or reductase. However, when O2 levels were increased experimentally in vitro following acidic conditions (pH 6.5) to simulate reperfusion conditions, MetHb levels were increased for the hemolysates (broken red cells). Nitrite-induced oxidation of Hb was associated with an increase in red blood cell membrane rigidity, thus contributing to Hb breakdown. A newer in vitro study of whole blood cells, however, concluded that MetHb formation is not dependent on increased O2 levels. Additional studies are needed to examine in vivo reperfusion of O2 and MetHb effects.", "Free hemoglobin does not have these properties; its oxygen affinity is like that of myoglobin. Within an erythrocyte, it is provided with BPG, 2,3 biphosphoglycerate, which lowers the partial pressure of oxygen at which half the hemoglobin is oxyhemoglobin from 1 torr to 26 torr. This means that a lowering of the oxygen partial pressure to 26 torr will release half the oxygen from oxyhemoglobin, so the cells will not have to gasp for air. The effect of BPG was discovered by Reinhold and Ruth Benesch in 1967. Fetal hemoglobin, hemoglobin F, has a higher oxygen affinity than hemoglobin A. This enables the fetus to receive oxygen across the placenta. At birth, it is replaced by hemoglobin A for normal respiration through the lungs. Hemoglobin F has less affinity for BPG, and so more affinity for oxygen, than hemoglobin A.", "Hydrogen sulfide is produced in small amounts by some cells of the mammalian body and has a number of biological signaling functions. (Only two other such gases are currently known: nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO).)", "Methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome is the condition that limits the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells. The condition occurs when bacteria in the digestive tract convert nitrate to nitrite. Nitrite reacts with hemoglobin in the blood, producing methemoglobin which cannot carry oxygen. The resulting oxygen starvation causes a bluish discoloration of the body. The condition is largely confined to infants less than 9 months old. Excessive amounts of nitrates may be ingested with water or food. Often foods, such as fresh vegetables, are a major source of nitrates. ", "As mentioned above, hydrogen sulfide binds to cytochrome oxidase and thereby prevents oxygen from binding, which leads to the dramatic slowdown of metabolism. Animals and humans naturally produce some hydrogen sulfide in their body; researchers have proposed that the gas is used to regulate metabolic activity and body temperature, which would explain the above findings. ", "Haemoglobin must not only pickup oxygen at the lungs (as we have seen so far) but to drop it off at the appropriate tissues. This is known as dissociation, and it is possible to measure haemoglobins dissociation and produce a graph, known as a dissociation curve.", "# Halimeter: a portable sulfide monitor used to test for levels of sulfur emissions (to be specific, hydrogen sulfide) in the mouth air. When used properly, this device can be very effective at determining levels of certain VSC-producing bacteria. However, it has drawbacks in clinical applications. For example, other common sulfides (such as mercaptan) are not recorded as easily and can be misrepresented in test results. Certain foods such as garlic and onions produce sulfur in the breath for as long as 48 hours and can result in false readings. The Halimeter is also very sensitive to alcohol, so one should avoid drinking alcohol or using alcohol-containing mouthwashes for at least 12 hours prior to being tested. This analog machine loses sensitivity over time and requires periodic recalibration to remain accurate. ", "The person exposed to this gas remains conscious for a period of time, in some cases for several minutes, again depending on the rate and volume of the gas that is inhaled. During this time, the person is unquestionably experiencing pain and extreme anxiety. The pain begins immediately, and is felt in the arms, shoulders, back, and chest. The sensation is similar to the pain felt by a person during a heart attack, where essentially, the heart is being deprived of oxygen. The severity of the pain varies directly with the diminishing oxygen reaching the tissues.", "Some natural and volatile interfering compounds do exist, however. For example, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has found that dieters and diabetics may have acetone levels hundreds or even thousands of times higher than those in others. Acetone is one of the many substances that can be falsely identified as ethyl alcohol by some breath machines. However, fuel cell based systems are non-responsive to substances like acetone.", "Hemoglobin concentration measurement is among the most commonly performed blood tests, usually as part of a complete blood count. For example, it is typically tested before or after blood donation. Results are reported in g/L, g/dL or mol/L. 1 g/dL equals about 0.6206 mmol/L, although the latter units are not used as often due to uncertainty regarding the polymeric state of the molecule. This conversion factor, using the single globin unit molecular weight of 16,000 Da, is more common for hemoglobin concentration in blood. For MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration) the conversion factor 0.155, which uses the tetramer weight of 64,500 Da, is more common. Normal levels are:", "Zyklon B is a cyanide-based poisonous gas that interferes with cellular respiration . Specifically, it prevents the cell from producing ATP by binding to one of the proteins involved in the electron transport chain . This protein, cytochrome c oxidase , contains several subunits and has ligands containing iron groups. At one of these iron groups, heme a3, the cyanide component of Zyklon B can bind, forming a more stabilized compound through metal-to-ligand pi bonding . As a result of this new iron-cyanide complex, the electrons which would situate themselves on the heme a3 group can no longer do so. Instead, because of the new bond formed between the iron and the cyanide, these electrons would actually destabilize the compound (based on molecular orbital theory ); thus, the heme group will no longer accept them. Consequently, electron transport is halted, and the cell can no longer produce the energy needed to synthesize ATP.", "According to a research done by a team of researchers from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, inhaling heavy amounts of traffic fumes can trigger a heart attack. They also found that the chance of suffering an attack increased by 1.3% in six hours after coming in contact with high levels of vehicle-related pollutants.", "the gas emitted during organic decomposition that smells like rotten eggs. It is also a byproduct of oil refining and burning and can cause illness in heavy concentrations." ]

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[ "An emissions control device, incorporated into an automobile's exhaust system, containing catalysts - such as platinum, palladium, or rhodium - that reduce the levels of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted to the air. In the catalytic converter, HC and CO are oxidized to form carbon dioxide (CO2), and NOx are reduced to nitrogen and oxygen.", "· All American cars now come with catalytic converters in the exhaust system in an effort to cut air polluting emissions.", "Catalytic Converter - An air pollution abatement device that removes pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust, either by oxidizing them into carbon dioxide and water or reducing them to nitrogen.", "Additionally, the introduction of pollution control technologies, such as catalytic converters to reduce exhaust pollutants from passenger cars, can also reduce emissions of N2O.", "Exhaust silencers, or mufflers, are placed in engines' exhaust systems to moderate the level of sound produced by altering the direction and speed of the exhaust gas flow. This has the effect of reducing noise, but can also depress the performance of a vehicle. Exhausts that have fewer silencers, or silencers that do not impede the flow of gas as much as others, will be louder, but can improve vehicle performance. Changing the exhaust silencing system that came with a car to a performance exhaust can increase your car's power.", "As with any fossil fuel, environmental considerations such as pollution and harmful emissions arise with the use of petroleum products. Smog is primarily created by hydrocarbons along with carbon monoxide (CO) and other complex toxic molecules from oil processing, all of which are emitted from the exhaust pipes of cars. As the problem with emissions has increased with the growth of automobile use, government regulations of the acceptable amount of emissions have multiplied accordingly. Auto engineers have endeavored to design cars which burn gasoline more cleanly and efficiently and incorporate more advanced filter systems. Car manufacturers have developed automobiles which are capable of reducing hydrocarbon emission by 97 to 99%. They are also making strides to develop \"pollution-free\" cars, which have modified pollution control devices. Manufacturers are also experimenting with cleaner burning fuels like methanol and natural gas. Other engineers have designed solar and electric cars. However, each fuel source presents a unique set of problems.", "in automobiles, a component of emission control systems used to reduce the discharge of noxious and polluting gases from the internal-combustion engine. The catalytic converter consists of an insulated chamber containing a honeycomb structure or pellets coated with catalyst through which the exhaust gases are passed. Hydrocarbon s and carbon monoxide...", "The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.", "Since the widespread introduction almost a decade ago of catalytic converters, which reduce harmful emissions from petrol cars by an average of 75%, vehicle pollution has decreased dramatically. The effectiveness of 'cats', combined with vast improvements in the quality of fuels, means that today it would take up to 100 new cars to produce the same emissions as just one made 20 years ago", "Keep the workplace well ventilated. Connect an exhaust gas scavenger system to the vehicle tailpipe when static running, particularly when working in a vehicle inspection pit. It should ventilate to a safe place in the open air – where fume will not be drawn back into the workshop or affect other premises or people nearby. Maintain couplings and flexible connections in good condition to prevent leaks. You should not rely on vehicle access doors being left open to provide ventilation as in winter these will be kept closed. Use the e-COSHH Essentials guidance sheets to reduce exposure.", "In most production engines, the manifold is an assembly designed to collect the exhaust gas from two or more cylinders into one pipe. Manifolds are often made of cast iron in stock production cars, and may have material-saving design features such as to use the least metal, to occupy the least space necessary, or have the lowest production cost. These design restrictions often result in a design that is cost effective but that does not do the most efficient job of venting the gases from the engine. Inefficiencies generally occur due to the nature of the combustion engine and its cylinders. Since cylinders fire at different times, exhaust leaves them at different times, and pressure waves from gas emerging from one cylinder might not be completely vacated through the exhaust system when another comes. This creates a back pressure and restriction in the engine's exhaust system that can restrict the engine's true performance possibilities. In Australia, the pipe of the exhaust system which attaches to the exhaust manifold is called the 'engine pipe' and the pipe emitting gases to ambient air called the 'tail pipe'.", "The electric car, scheduled for mass production in the mid 1990's, offers many advantages over traditional gas powered autos of today. The most obvious advantage is exhaust free operation. As smog levels continue to increase at an alarming rate, the need to lower emission levels becomes more and more important. With the advent of electric cars, a dramatic reduction in the nitrogen oxides (NOx), and nonmethane organic gases such as carbon monoxide and hyrocarbons is possible. These gases are major contributors to the deterioration of the ozone layer. Also, the reduction of particulates (tiny particles of dust, soot, smoke, and other matter floating in the air) would be cut to almost zero.", "an air pollution control device that removes particles from a gas stream (smoke) after combustion occurs. The ESP imparts an electrical charge to the particles, causing them to adhere to metal plates inside the precipitator. Rapping on the plates causes the particles to fall into a hopper for disposal.", "The thermostatic air cleaner is designed to improve fuel vaporization at low ambient temperatures. It is used on virtually all engines equipped with throttle body injection, and provides the same benefits as the Early Fuel Evaporation system. There are three main components used in the TAC system including a heat stove, hot air supply hose (or pipe), and thermostatic air cleaner assembly. The thermostatic air cleaner incorporates a damper to establish the source of incoming air. The heat stove is a sheet metal enclosure surrounding the exhaust manifold, while the hot air supply hose serves as the link between the stove and air cleaner. There are two types of thermostatic air cleaner systems in use.", "When the flow of exhaust gases from the engine to the atmosphere is obstructed to any degree, back pressure arises and the engine's efficiency, and therefore power, is reduced. Performance-oriented mufflers and exhaust systems thus strive to minimize back pressure by employing numerous technologies and methods to attenuate the sound. For the majority of such systems, however, the general rule of “more power, more noise” applies.", "Exhaust gases are produced by the combustion of gasoline and diesel in the internal combustion engine of cars and other vehicles. These gases are released through an exhaust pipe, generally found at the rear of cars.", "an air pollution abatement device that removes organic contaminants by oxidizing them into carbon dioxide and water.", "Mufflers (also called silencers) can be used on noisy, pressurized air equipment to reduce noise at the source. A muffler is a device that reduces the noise level from a moving air or gas stream, such as one found in a pneumatic tool (Figure 29). Like the muffler on an automobile, it absorbs some noise before it can reach the receiver (in this case, the ears of the worker who is exposed to the noise). Mufflers come in several configurations, some more sensitive to dust and moisture than others. In general, mufflers must be cleaned on a regular basis to be effective at reducing noise; if they are not cleaned, they actually can increase noise levels. Consult the muffler manufacturer for recommended cleaning procedures and frequency.", "Airdam: A modesty panel under a car’s front bumper that controls the flow of air under the car. The main purpose of the airdam is to force air to flow around the car rather than under it in the interests of reducing aerodynamic drag and lift. On many modern cars, the airdam also channels air into the radiator, the engine’s air intake, and sometimes the front brakes.", "An air pollutant control device used to trap particles by filtering gas streams through large cloth or fiberglass bags.", "Figs. 19 and 20 depict two types of silencer which are very largely used. Fig. 19 shows a sectional view of a silencer composed of three concentric cylinders, A, B, and C. A is composed of a tube or inverted cylinder of sheet steel; B is the second tube similarly constructed; while C is an extension of the exhaust pipe from the engine. Two chambers, D and E, are thus formed. The exhaust gases from the engine enter C, and passing ", "Electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, especially in cities, as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit may only be local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions may be shifted to the location of the generation plants. This is referred to as the long tailpipe of electric vehicles.", "In November 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro, A7 Quattro, A8, A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software installed. Thus, these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment. ", "Contrary to popular belief, the air inlet above the driver's head is not part of the cooling system but instead provided the engine's cylinders with air to be mixed with fuel for combustion. It is commonly thought that the purpose of this is to 'ram' air into the engine like a supercharger, but the airbox does the opposite. The carbon fibre duct (1) gradually widens out as it approaches the engine, effectively creating a venturi and a suction effect on the small air inlet. The shape of this ducts and inlet however must be carefully designed to both fill all cylinders equally and not harm the exterior aerodynamics of the engine cover, all to optimize the volumetric efficiency.", "After replacing the ALS with the ERP system, traffic levels have decreased a further 15 percent. In addition, 65% of commuters now use public transport, an increase of nearly 20%. Reduced traffic in the charging zone led to a 176,400 pound reduction in CO2 emissions and a 22 pound reduction in particulate matter (soot). The system has curbed traffic demand and managed road space for highest productive capacity, cutting congestion, pollution, emissions, and fuel use.", "* new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke", "The emissions produced by the engine flow into the catalytic converter via a lambda sensor, which measures the air/fuel mix and provides feedback to the engine control unit to ensure efficient combustion", "Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fuel combustion, so reducing mobile fuel consumption in motor vehicles can reduce transportation emissions.", "The standards sought to control emissions of so-called \"greenhouse gases\" (such as carbon dioxide) from cars and light trucks that contribute to global warming, or the gradual increase in the temperature of the earth's atmosphere. Automakers have historically resisted increases in these standards, as stricter standards usually require an overhaul of their production methods to make cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicles.", "Scoop: A device mounted on the hood to force air into the engine at higher speeds.", "It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and from stationary internal combustion engines), which can also include:", "[2] F. Schafer and R. van Basshuyen. Reduced Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Automobile Engines. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993." ]

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[ "Echidnas are one of only two Australian mammals that lay eggs (the other is the Platypus). The puggle hatches after 10 days and is carried around by its mother in a pouch-like skin fold for up to two months. Once the puggle starts to develop spines it is deposited in a specially-constructed nursery burrow and the mother returns to feed it every 3-6 days.", "The platypus , specifically the Duck-Billed Platypus , is indigenous to eastern Australia and Tasmania, with the platypus being one of the only mammals that lays eggs (the only other mammal that does lay eggs is the echidna) as mammals generally give birth to live young.", "The platypus, found only in Australia is one of the five mammal species of that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young. The other egg-laying mammals are four species of echidna.", "The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), also known as the duck-billed platypus, is a semiaquatic egg-laying mammal endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Together with the four species of echidna, it is one of the five extant species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth. The animal is the sole living representative of its family (Ornithorhynchidae) and genus (Ornithorhynchus), though a number of related species have been found in the fossil record.", "The Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is a semi-aquatic mammal endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Together with the four species of echidna, it is one of the five extant species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young.", "\"Monotremes\" are mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials and placental mammals . The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea, although there is evidence that they were once more widespread. The existing monotreme species are the platypus and four species of echidnas . There is currently some debate regarding monotreme taxonomy.", "The platypus and echidna are the only mammals that hatch from eggs. Both live in Australia.", "Echidna is a long-snouted, spiny, insectivorous egg-laying mammal of the family Tachyglossidae. It is present in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea.", "Echidnas, sometimes known as spiny anteaters, belong to the family Tachyglossidae in the monotreme order of egg-laying mammals. The four extant species, together with the platypus, are the only surviving members of that order and are the only extant mammals that lay eggs. Although their diet consists largely of ants and termites, they are no more closely related to the true anteaters of the Americas than to any other placental mammal. They live in Australia and New Guinea. The echidnas are named after a monster in ancient Greek mythology.", "The emu is a large, brown, soft-feathered, flightless bird. Emus grow up to two metres tall and have three toes and long legs that allow them to run very fast, up to 50km per hour. The female emu is larger than the male and lays up to 20 large, dark green eggs. The emu appears on the Australian 50 cent coin and alongside the red kangaroo on the Australian Coat of Arms. It is also a recurring figure in Aboriginal mythology. The emu avoids populated areas and feeds on grass, leaves and small insects. You'll see emus in grasslands, sclerophyll forests and savannah woodlands all over Australia. You can see them in Tower Hill on the Great Ocean Road , outback Victoria and New South Wales as well as Southern Queensland.", "The emu is a large, brown, soft-feathered, flightless bird. Emus grow up to two metres tall and have three toes and long legs that allow them to run very fast, up to 50km per hour. The female emu is larger than the male and lays up to 20 large, dark green eggs. The emu appears on the Australian 50 cent coin and alongside the red kangaroo on the Australian Coat of Arms. It is also a recurring figure in Aboriginal mythology. The emu avoids populated areas and feeds on grass, leaves and small insects. You'll see emus in grasslands, sclerophyll forests and savannah woodlands all over Australia. You can see them in Tower Hill on the Great Ocean Road, outback Victoria and New South Wales as well as Southern Queensland.", "Echidnas sometimes known as spiny anteaters, belong to the family Tachyglossidae in the monotreme order of egg-laying mammals & live in Australia. The four extant species, together with the platypus, are the only surviving members of that order and are the only extant mammals that lay eggs.Although their diet consists largely of ants and termites, they are no more closely related to the true anteaters of the Americas than to any other placental mammal", "A semiaquatic egg-laying mammal that frequents lakes and streams in eastern Australia. It has a sensitive pliable bill shaped like that of a duck, webbed feet with venomous spurs, and dense fur", "Echidnas are one of only two mammals they lay eggs. Females also have a pouch to carry their babies, just like kangaroos.", "Two whole eggs have been found in dune deposits in southern Western Australia, one in the 1930s (the Scott River egg) and one in 1992 (the Cervantes egg); both have been identified as Aepyornis maximus rather than Genyornis. It is hypothesized that the eggs floated from Madagascar to Australia on the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Evidence supporting this is the finding of two fresh penguin eggs that washed ashore on Western Australia but originated in the Kerguelen Islands, and an ostrich (Struthio camelus) egg found floating in the Timor Sea in the early 1990s.", "As a rule, mammals bear live young. (Two primitive mammals are exceptions to this rule: the duckbilled platypus and the spiny anteater/echidna both lay eggs).", "����������� Marsupials are the so-called pouched mammals, including kangaroos and koalas. These mammals have a brief gestation and give birth to tiny, embryonic offspring that complete development while attached to the mother's nipples. The nursing young are usually housed in an external pouch, called the marsupium, on the mother's abdomen (Figure 17.38b ). Nearly all marsupials live in Australia, New Zealand, and Central and South America. Australia has been a marsupial sanctuary for much of the past 60 million years. Australian marsupials have diversified extensively, filling terrestrial habitats that on other continents are occupied by eutherian mammals.", "Mostly three to four eggs (range 1-5) are laid in the scrape. The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings. They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female. The male also helps with the incubation of the eggs over day, but at night only the female incubates. The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere, and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere (the Australian subspecies macropus may breed as late as November and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December). The female generally lays another clutch if the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, though this is extremely rare in the Arctic owing to the short summer season. As a result of some infertile eggs and natural losses of nestlings, the average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledges is about 1.5.", "The cassowary breeding season starts in May to June. Females lay three to eight large, bright green or pale green-blue eggs in each clutch into a prepared heap of leaf litter. The eggs measure about 9 by — only ostrich and emu eggs are larger. The male incubates the eggs for 50–52 days, removing or adding litter to regulate the temperature, then protects the chicks, who stay in the nest for about nine months, defending them fiercely against all potential predators, including humans. The young males then go off to find a territory of their own. The female does not care for the eggs or the chicks but moves on to lay eggs in the nests of several other males.", "leipoa ; Leipoa ocellata ; lowan ; mallee fowl (Australian mound bird; incubates eggs naturally in sandy mounds)", "Malleefowl have the most complex nesting habits of all the Megapodes. A male will commence constructing an incubation mound months before the breeding season. He first scrapes a hole in the ground (Megapodes = big feed) about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) deep. On top of this he piles all the vegetation he can find, as well as nearby topsoil. The resulting mound will be about 5 m (16 ft) across and 1m (3 ft) high. Similar, but slightly less complex nesting rituals are shown by the Scrubfowl whose ancient nests may be 12 m (36 ft) across and 5 m (16 ft) high. Also similar are Brush Turkeys, Alectura lathami, whose nests are similar in size to a Malleefowl. Less evolved species such as the Moluccan Megapode, Eulipoa wallacei, simply dig a hole in the soil, lay the eggs and then cover them up. No further control is exercised.", "The main breeding period is from late winter to summer. Nests may be in hollow logs, under tree roots, in natural holes or in burrows excavated mainly by the male. Most clutches contain one or two eggs. Eggs are smooth, and coloured ivory or greenish-white. Kiwi eggs are proportionately larger compared to the size of the adult female than the eggs of any other bird. An egg may reach one-quarter of its mothers weight. After the first egg is laid, the male takes over incubation and nest maintenance. Incubation takes about eleven weeks but if the female returns to lay another egg, the male has to sit on the clutch for a much longer time. Leaving the nest only occasionally, the males weight can decrease by up to one third.", "As cavity nesters with a long incubation period that requires the mother to stay on the nest for at least 90 days, kākā are particularly vulnerable to predation. Stoats were the main cause of death of nesting adult females, nestlings and fledglings, but possums were also important predators of adult females, eggs and nestlings. There is strong evidence that predation of chicks and females has led to a serious age and sex imbalance, even amongst ostensibly healthy populations. ", "As courtship begins, the female emu's plumage becomes slightly darker. When she finds a partner, the two of them will build a nest of trampled grass in open or lightly-covered country. A clutch of dark green eggs (usually between 5 and 20) is laid in May or June. The female then leaves the nest area, after which she shows no more interest in her eggs or partner. She may simply wander off to join a group of non-breeding birds, or she may find another mate and lay again.", "Holes in tree trunks or cavities in dead and rotten wood make ideal kookaburra nest sites. It also takes over vacant nests of tree termites or occupies holes in the walls of buildings. After mating, the female lays two or three white eggs on the bare floor of the nest chamber.", "Mating occurs anytime from March to December, but peaks from July to October. This is springtime in Australia, when conditions for incubating eggs are optimal; the rainy season is approaching so the eggs won’t dry out, and food for hatchlings will be more abundant.", "Cassowary eggs are laid around the month of June, in a \"nest\" made by scratching the ground and lining the shallow depression with grasses, leaves and ferns. Usually three to five eggs are laid. The eggs weigh around 500 grams and are pale green. Soon after laying, the female leaves, free to mate again. He turns and moves the eggs constantly in this time, to ensure that all the eggs are incubated evenly.", "Another noteworthy trait of monotremes involves their developmental characteristics, such as the zygotic development of platypuses: Most mammal zygotes go through holoblastic cleavage, meaning that following fertilization, the ovum is split due to cell divisions into multiple, divisible daughter cells. The zygotes of monotremes, however, undergo meroplastic division (as in birds and reptiles), which causes the ovum to split but not completely. This means the cells at the edge of the yolk are cytoplasmically continuous with the egg's cytoplasm, thereby allowing the yolk, which contains the embryo, to exchange waste and nutrients with the cytoplasm. ", "The gestation period lasts for 61–69 days and the size of the litter can range from one to 10 (usually five) pups, with the number of males born tending to be higher than that of females. Pups of subordinate females usually get killed by the alpha female, which causes the population increase to be low even in good times. This behaviour possibly developed as an adaptation to the fluctuating environmental conditions in Australia. Pups are usually born between May and August (the winter period), but in tropical regions, breeding can occur at any time of the year.", "They are located throughout Australia but are one of the more solitary of the Australian native animals. Keep your eye out for them when bush walking. They like to shelter against rocks when it is raining or windy.", "Australia: In Southern Australia, they breed from September - October; in northern Australia from April - July.", "The nest is a grassy cup on the ground made from grass and hair. The smooth, glossy eggs are greyish-white with heavy brown and olive spots, there are between three and five eggs which are about 23 mm by 17 mm." ]

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[ "A term, usually applied to waste materials, meaning that they will be naturally broken down by natural means so as not to leave a potential pollutant.", "Biodegradation, the breaking down of organic substances by natural means, happens all the time in nature. All plant-based, animal-based, or natural mineral-based substances will over time biodegrade. In its natural state raw crude oil will biodegrade, but man-made petrochemical compounds made from oil, such as plastic, will not. Why not? Because plastic is a combination of elements extracted from crude oil then re-mixed up by men in white coats. Because these combinations are man made they are unknown to nature. Consequently, it has been thought that there is no natural system to break them down. The enzymes and the micro organisms responsible for breaking down organic materials that occur naturally such as plants, dead animals, rocks and minerals, don’t recognize them. This means that plastic products are said indestructible, in a biodegradable sense at least.", "8 If an item can decompose naturally, it is said to be this. a.Organic b.Biodegradable c.Renewable d.Environmentally friendly", "Catabolism: The energy releasing process in which a chemical or food is used (broken down) by degradation or decomposition, into smaller pieces.", "- cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules such as kerogens or heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors.", "One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition (biodegradation). The former means \"degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes, e.g., hydrolysis. The latter means \"the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms\", typically by microorganisms.", "The process of breaking down organic material; reduction of the net energy level and change in physical and chemical composition of organic material.", "destroy and destruction - To break up, ruin, spoil, wreck, or demolish. The opposite of creating, destruction may not seem to be an artistic act, however creation is impossible without a simultaneous destruction, as a painter destroys a tube or jar of paint, a sculptor destroys a rock or a tree, and a jeweler destroys an ingot of gold. Willful or malicious destruction is antithetical to art however, and is often called vandalism.", "The chemical breakdown of a compound into simpler compounds or elements. One of the most common examples is the dissociation of ammonia (NH3) into nitrogen and hydrogen.", "A portion of an object or of material, produced by cutting, tearing, or breaking the whole", "A portion of an object or of material, produced by cutting, tearing, or breaking the whole", "The process whereby large molecules are broken down by the application of heat and pressure to form smaller molecules.", "Mineralization: decomposition of organic matter into its inorganic (mineral) components (e.g., petrified wood). In archeology, the replacement of fossil bone with water-borne minerals.", "Brittleness, in technical usage, is the tendency of a material to fracture with very little or no detectable plastic deformation beforehand. Thus in technical terms, a material can be both brittle and strong. In everyday usage \"brittleness\" usually refers to the tendency to fracture under a small amount of force, which exhibits both brittleness and a lack of strength (in the technical sense). For perfectly brittle materials, yield strength and ultimate strength are the same, because they do not experience detectable plastic deformation. The opposite of brittleness is ductility.", "The process of physical and chemical decomposition which changes earth and rock materials in color, texture, composition, firmness or form. These changes are accomplished by the effects of energy and exposure to water, other fluids and the atmosphere.", "decay , dilapidate , crumble - fall into decay or ruin; \"The unoccupied house started to decay\"", "The tendency for bonds between atoms or molecules to be made or broken in such a way that materials aretransformed.", "Corrosion is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals ) by chemical reaction with its environment.", ", comprising one or more elements with one or more properties, aspects and compositions that deteriorate and or dissipate in a given environment over one or more desired times.", "· destruction of enzymes (a complex organic substance which in solution produces fermentation and chemical changes in other substances apparently without undergoing any change itself) in the raw material and contaminating micro-organisms by heat (sterilization) during processing;", "the way that bacteria and microorganisms feed on and decompose complex organic materials. Used in self-purification of water bodies and activated sludge wastewater treatment.", "Organic: any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic processes. Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and teeth. These bits of calcium can pile up on the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough layer to form an \"organic\" sedimentary rock.", "The state or process that occurs when no more of something can be absorbed, combined with, or added.", "Rock Weathering : A form of erosion which slowly loosens material so that streams, gravity, and other instruments carry it to the oceans.", "DISMANTLEMENT is typed by alternating the use of both hands. Other such words are ANTIENDOWMENT, ANTIFORMANT, ANTISKEPTICISM, ANTISOCIAL, ANTISUDORIFIC, ANTIVISITOR, AUTHENTICITY, AUTOTOXICOSIS, CHAIRMAN, ENCHANTMENT, ENFLAMEMENT, LEPTOTHRICOSIS, LEUCOCYTOZOANS, NEUROTOXICITY, PRODUCIBLE, PROFICIENCY, PROFICIENT, RHAPSODIAL, RIFLEMAN, SHENANDOAH, SKEPTICISMS, SUBPROBLEMS, SUSPENSORIAL [Patrick Coston, Stuart Kidd].", "(verb) (of the body or an organ) To waste away due to nerve damage or defective nutrition.", "A compound (usually organic) that retards or stops a chemical reaction such as corrosion, oxidation or polymerization.", "Cure: a process whereby a material is caused to form permanent molecular linkages by exposure to chemicals, heat, pressure, and/or weathering.", "plastic - n. a material made from chemicals that can be formed and made into things", "a natural law stating that high quality, concentrated energy is increasingly degraded as it passes through the food chain ", "Metal in a porous, brittle form, as after the removal of other metals in processing, used as a raw material in manufacturing.", "American expression referring to something in a state of rapid transition to a very bad state." ]

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[ "Nitrogen and oxygen are the most common gases in today's atmosphere. Others are present in small concentrations. The other more common gases are shown in the table below. There is a remarkable difference between the original, reducing atmosphere and the current oxidizing atmosphere.", "Air is made almost entirely of two gases. The most common gas is nitrogen, and the second most common gas is oxygen (O2). Nitrogen and oxygen together make up 99% of the planet's atmosphere. All other gases together make up the remaining 1%. Although each of these trace gases are only found in tiny quantities, many such as ozone, serve important roles for the planet and its life. One very important minor gas is carbon dioxide, CO2, which is essential for photosynthesis and is also a very important greenhouse gas (Table (15.1).", "Earth's atmosphere at sea level is approximately 78 percent nitrogen gas by volume. The second most common gas is oxygen, which makes up 20 to 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume. Other gases are present in much lower proportions, with argon making up around 1 percent and carbon dioxide around 0.5 percent. Trace amounts of hydrogen, ozone, water vapor and noble gases such as helium and neon are also present.", "Answer: By far, the most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen , which accounts for about 78% of the mass of dry air. Oxygen is the next most abundant gas, present at levels of 20-21%. Although humid air seems like it contains a lot of water, the maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold is only about 4%.", "The most common gas people breathe from clean air is nitrogen. Air is a mixture of gases, and the air on Earth contains about 78 percent nitrogen and about 21 percent oxygen. Argon, carbon dioxide neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon are in much smaller amounts.", "Most of our atmosphere is made up of nitrogen (78% by volume) and oxygen (21% by volume). The remaining 1% of the atmospheric gases are known as trace gases because they are present in such small concentrations. The most abundant of the trace gases is the noble gas argon (approximately 1% by volume). Noble gases, which also include neon, helium, krypton and xenon, are very inert and do not generally engage in any chemical transformation within the atmosphere. Hydrogen is also present in trace quantities in the atmosphere, but because it is so light, over time much of it has escaped Earth's gravitational pull to space.", "This protective bubble consists of several gases (listed in the table to the right) with the top four making up 99.998% of all gases. Of the dry composition of the atmosphere nitrogen, by far, is the most common. Nitrogen dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the Earth's surface. Living things need it to make proteins. Oxygen is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.", "In dry air that does not contain pollution, the predominant gas is nitrogen, which makes up 78 percent of the atmosphere. The next two most voluminous gases are oxygen (21 percent) and argon (1 percent). Other gases appearing in trace amounts include carbon dioxide.", "Despite their relative scarcity, the most important trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere are the greenhouse gases. Most abundant in the troposphere , these gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour and ozone, so-called because they are involved in the Earth natural greenhouse effect which keeps the planet warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. Apart from water vapour, the most abundant greenhouse gas (by volume) is carbon dioxide. Despite being present in only 370 parts per million by volume of air, carbon dioxide and the other greenhouse gases help to keep the Earth 33�C warmer than it would otherwise be without an atmosphere. Through emissions of greenhouse gases however, mankind has enhanced with natural greenhouse effect which may now be leading to a warming of the Earth climate.", "The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.", "Earth's atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen (77%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), and carbon dioxide (0.03%).", "Earth's atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.08 percent), oxygen (20.95 percent), and argon (0.93 percent). A fourth major component, carbon dioxide, which is essential to all plant life, is present only to the extent of about 0.032 percent. The gases are most dense near sea level and thin rapidly at higher altitudes. At a distance of 5000 km there is still a trace of an atmosphere, but it is extremely tenuous. The very outer realm of the atmosphere is represented by the magnetosphere, a zone of magnetically trapped particles. This part of the atmosphere is a powerful shield from damaging radiation that comes from outer space.", "Today, just two elements--nitrogen and oxygen--comprise 99 percent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen alone accounts for 78 percent. Other trace gases include argon, at 0.93 percent, and carbon dioxide, at about 0.04 percent.", "The major greenhouse gases are listed in the figure below, along with their chemical formula. Although some of the gases listed have a larger global warming potential, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important greenhouse gas because of its abundance in the atmosphere. Today, atmospheric CO2 concentrations measure over 380 parts per million (ppm), mostly due to fossil fuel use in the energy and transportation sectors.", "The thin envelope of air that surrounds our planet is a mixture of gases, each with its own physical properties. The mixture is far from evenly divided. Two elements, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of air. The other 1% is composed of \"trace\" gases, the most prevalent of which is the inert gaseous element argon. The rest of the trace gases, although present in only minute amounts, are very important to life on earth. Two in particular, carbon dioxide and ozone, can have a large impact on atmospheric processes.", "Not all the gases in the atmosphere are equally active in keeping Earth warm. In fact, the atmosphere�s most abundant gas, molecular nitrogen, does very little in this regard, and the same is true for the second most abundant gas, molecular oxygen. The most important ingredient of the air for producing the greenhouse effect is water vapor. However, its abundance depends on the air's temperature. The warmer the air, the more water vapor it can hold. (As air cools, the vapor condenses into rain or snow.) It is carbon dioxide that moves the air toward higher temperature, so that water vapor can take over and warm it some more. Carbon dioxide molecules intercept infrared radiation, warming the air and increasing water vapor through evaporation from the sea surface and from plants and soil moisture. Water vapor then increases the temperature even more. The process is checked by a rise in infrared radiation to space and by formation of clouds . Unfortunately, the role of clouds in the radiation balance is as yet poorly understood. Different types of clouds have different effects, and this makes the calculations complicated and the results uncertain.", "Solar heat penetrates the troposphere easily. This layer also absorbs heat that is reflected back from the ground in a process called the greenhouse effect . The greenhouse effect is necessary for life on Earth. The atmosphere’s most abundant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane .", "You have already learned that Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. These gases are transparent to incoming solar radiation. They are also transparent to outgoing infrared radiation, which means that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared radiation. However, there are other gases in Earth's atmosphere that do absorb infrared radiation. These gases are known as greenhouse gases. Below are the most important greenhouse gases that influence Earth's climate system.", "On Earth, the noble gases are fairly rare with the exception of argon. Argon makes up just under 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, making it the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere after nitrogen and oxygen.", "The atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen. It does have some helium and small amounts of other gases in it as well.", "The name of Group 18, the noble gases, has changed several times. These elements have been known as the rare gases, but some of them are not especially rare. In fact, argon is the third most prevalent gas in the atmosphere, making up nearly 1% of it. Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe—only hydrogen is more abundant. Another name used for the Group 18 family is the inert gases. However, Neil Bartlett, while at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada , showed over 30 years ago that several of these gases could form well-defined compounds. The members of Group 18 are now known as noble gases. They do not generally react with the common elements but do on occasion, especially if the common element is as reactive as fluorine.", "By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.", "The main natural greenhouse gas is water vapour. Water vapour is always present throughout the lower atmosphere, even if sometimes at a very low level. Water is constantly transferred between the oceans, atmosphere and land in the global hydrological cycle, or the water cycle. When condensed as liquid or ice droplets, water is the main constituent of clouds.", "The odd 1% in dry air is largely argon, 0.93%. For practical purposes, it can be lumped with the nitrogen to make 79% by volume of dry air. Most of this argon probably came from the radioactive decay of K40, since it is heavy enough (M = 39.9) not to have been lost, and is 99.6% A40. Next in abundance is the heavy gas CO2 (M = 44), about 0.03%, the object of a great deal of current worry. Helium is about 10 times more abundant than hydrogen, but both are very scarce, since they are easily lost gravitationally. The helium comes from the alpha particles emitted in radioactivity. A cubic metre of air contains only 5.24 cc of He. It is easier to get it from natural gas that has collected He from nearby granite over millions of years, where it can be present up to 6%. Neon is actually about twice as abundant as helium. Krypton is present at 1.14 ppm, and xenon at 0.86 ppb. Methane is at 1.4 ppm, slightly more abundant than krypton, while nitrous oxide is 0.5 ppm. Ne, Kr and Xe are probably original ingredients, while methane and nitrous oxide are unreactive enough to have permanent residence.", "The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics describes the atmosphere as 78.084% N2, 20.946% O2, 0.934% Ar, and 0.033% CO2 by volume when the water vapor has been removed. What image does this description evoke in your mind? Do you believe that only 20.463% of the room in which you are sitting contains O2? Or do you believe that the atmosphere in your room is a more or less homogeneous mixture of these gases?", "atmosphere—The gaseous mass or envelope surrounding a celestial body (including the one surrounding the Earth), and retained by the celestial body's gravitational field. The Earth's atmosphere is subdivided into levels: the troposphere is the lowest portion (up to about 6-8 miles) where all weather takes place and contains about 80% of the air's mass and 99% of water vapor. The overlying stratosphere contains an abundance of ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on land and in the shallow ocean extends up to about 31 miles. The upper atmosphere extends upward to the transition into space above about 60 miles where the charged atomic particles of the solar wind begins to interact with atmospheric gases.", "Though the rare gases are found in minerals and meteorites on Earth, their greatest presence is in the planet's atmosphere. It is believed that they were released into the air long ago as a by-product of decay on the part of radioactive materials in the Earth's crust. Within the atmosphere, argon is the most \"abundant\"—in comparative terms, given the fact that the \"rare gases\" are, by definition, rare.", "The two main gases are both elements and account for about 99 percent of the gases in the atmosphere. They are:", "The Earth's atmosphere or air is composed of several gases. One gas is much more abundant than any other. Can you guess which one it is?", "The earth’s atmosphere, or air shell, is the name given to the gaseous medium that surrounds the “solid” earth and rotates together with it. The mass of the atmosphere is ~ 5.15 x 1018 kg. The average atmospheric pressure on the earth’s surface at sea level is equal to 101, 325 newtons/nr. (This corresponds to 1 atmosphere or 760 mm Hg.) The density and pressure of the atmosphere decrease rapidly with altitude. At the surface of the earth the mean density of the air is p = 1.22 kg/m3 (number of molecules in 1 cu m is n= 2.5 x 1025), while at an altitude of 10 km p = 0.41 kg/m3(n= 8.6 x 1024), and at an altitude of 100 km p - 8.8 x 10−7 kg/m3 (n = 1.8 x 1018). The atmosphere has a layered structure, and the layers differ in physical and chemical properties (temperature, chemical composition, ionization of molecules, and other factors).", "What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere? | The Classroom | Synonym", "What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation?" ]

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[ "Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels.", "Fuels formed in the ground from the remains of dead plants and animals. It takes millions of years to form fossil fuels. Oil, natural gas, and coal are fossil fuels.", "Oil, gas, coal and other fuels that were formed under the Earth's surface from the fossilized remains of plants and tiny animals that lived millions of years ago.", "Fossil fuels are essentially the remains of plants of animals. They provide us with a source of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels can either come in the form of an oil, coal, or natural gas. They are the result of the decomposition of dead plant and animal matter buried deep in the Earth's crust. These fossil fuels are then pumped from underground and used in a variety of ways.", "fossil fuel formed from the remains of marine plants and animals. Also known as petroleum or crude oil.", "In addition to the aesthetic value of the planet’s flora, biomass represents a useful and valuable resource to man. For millennia humans have exploited the solar energy stored in the chemical bonds by burning biomass as fuel and eating plants for the nutritional energy of their sugar and starch content. More recently, in the last few hundred years, humans have exploited fossilized biomass in the form of coal. This fossil fuel is the result of very slow chemical transformations that convert the sugar polymer fraction into a chemical composition that resembles the lignin fraction. Thus, the additional chemical bonds in coal represent a more concentrated source of energy as fuel. All of the fossil fuels we consume - coal, oil and natural gas - are simply ancient biomass. Over millions of years, the earth has buried ages-old plant material and converted it into these valuable fuels. But while fossil fuels contain the same constituents - hydrogen and carbon - as those found in fresh biomass, they are not considered renewable because they take such a long time to create. Environmental impacts pose another significant distinction between biomass and fossil fuels. When a plant decays, it releases most of its chemical matter back into the atmosphere. In contrast, fossil fuels are locked away deep in the ground and do not affect the earth’s atmosphere unless they are burned.", "Fossil energy sources, including oil , coal and natural gas , are non-renewable resources that formed when prehistoric plants and animals died and were gradually buried by layers of rock. Over millions of years, different types of fossil fuels formed -- depending on what combination of organic matter was present, how long it was buried and what temperature and pressure conditions existed as time passed.", "Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons such as coal, oil and natural gas, sourced from the organic remains of prehistoric organisms.", "Fossil fuel – Any naturally occurring fuel of an organic nature, such as coal, crude oil and natural gas.", "Coal is a fossil fuel and is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated in swamps and peat bogs. The energy we get from coal today comes from the energy that plants absorbed from the sun millions of years ago.", "Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae. Vast quantities of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under anoxic conditions. As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure build up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a variety of mainly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure. ", "Many people think that fossil fuels—oil, coal, and natural gas—come from the bodies of dinosaurs that ruled the earth during the mid to late Mesozoic era, 213 to 65 million years ago. Not so. The origin of oil is still a matter of scientific controversy. However, it is generally believed that the world's great oil deposits were formed from diatoms. These tiny, mostly single-celled, photosynthetic organisms were, and still are, extremely important components of phytoplankton, the basis of the food chain for all marine and freshwater animals. When viewed with a microscope, they look like little jewels in a splendid variety of forms—round, triangular, fan- and barrel-shaped, twisted like rotini pasta—and in brilliant shades of emerald and peridot. Ancient diatoms eventually became not only petroleum but also diatomaceous earth, the nontoxic pest control so popular with modern-day organic gardeners.", "Ans: Coal is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon that consists of the fossilised remains of buried plant debris that have undergone progressive physical and chemical alteration, called coalification, in the course of geologic time.", "Which fossil fuel, oil or natural gas, is formed at greater depths within Earth, and why?", "Another very important factor needed to burn the fossil fuels is external heat. The ignition temperature needs to be produced from the surrounding. For instance, the fire produced by lighting a match stick is used to ignite the fossil fuel like coal or petroleum. This heat converts the latent heat energy of the fossil fuels to produce heat and thermal energy. And with this energy, it performs its function. The basic reason of the fossil fuel to produce so much of energy is because of the reaction between hydrogen and carbon molecules.", "Coal - Coal is an organic rock made from organic carbon that is the remains of fossil plant matter. It accumulates in lush tropical wetland settings and requires deposition in absence of Oxygen. It is high in carbon and can easily be burned to obtain energy.", "Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.", "Petroleum is a naturally occurring complex mixture made up predominantly of carbon and hydrogen compounds, but also frequently containing significant amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen together with smaller amounts of nickel, vanadium, and other elements. Solid petroleum is called asphalt; liquid, crude oil; and gas, natural gas. Its source is biological. Organic matter buried in an oxygen-deficient environment and subject to elevated temperature and pressure for millions of years generates petroleum as an intermediate in the transformation that ultimately leads to methane and graphite. The first successful drilled oil well came in 1859 in Pennsylvania. This is considered to be the beginning of the modern oil industry. Continuous distillation of crude oil began in Russia in 1875.", "In 1846, Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner gave a public demonstration in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort, and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid that he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name \"Kerosene\" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion, meaning wax-oil. The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was high.", "At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water. This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. ", "One of the common types of fossils is permineralization. This occurs when the pores of the plant materials, bones, and shells are impregnated by mineral matter from the ground, lakes, or ocean. In some cases, the wood fibers and cellulose dissolve and some minerals replace them. Sometimes the mineral substance of the fossils will completely dissolve and some other minerals replace them. The common minerals that form this kind of fossils are calcite, iron, and silica.", "1979 Liquid balsam produced by species of Copaifera (copaiba tree) was found to be so similar in composition to diesel fuel that it could be utilized (with no further processing) to power a diesel engine. (Lewington,1990)", "Fossil fuels take millions of years to make. We are using up the fuels that were made more than 300 million years ago before the time of the dinosaurs. Once they are gone they are gone.", "Coal is composed of complex mixtures of organic and inorganic compounds. The organic compounds, inherited from the plants that live and die in the swamps, number in the millions. The approximately more than 120 inorganic compounds in coal either were introduced into the swamp from waterborne or windborne sediment, or were derived from elements in the original vegetation; for instance, inorganic compounds containing such elements as iron and zinc are needed by plants for healthy growth. After the plants decompose, the inorganic compounds remain in the resulting peat. Some of those elements combine to form discrete minerals, such as pyrite. Other sources of inorganic compounds used by the plants may be either the mud that coats the bottom of the swamp, sediments introduced by drainage runoff, dissolved elements in the swamp water, windborne sand, ash, or dust.", "Coal formed from the dead remains of magnificent trees, ferns, and other primitive plants that lived in lush swamp forests during the Carboniferous period, 360 to 286 million years ago, long before a single dinosaur roamed the land. Back then, the various continents we know today were positioned very differently. For most of the period, Laurentia (ancient North America) and Baltica (ancient Europe) were pretty much a single landmass located near the equator. The climate was warm and humid year-round—in other words, perfect for the proliferation of plant life, especially pteridophytes, or plants that reproduce by spores.", "As we see daily proof, fossil fuels make the world go round. For the past century, and especially the past 50 years, they've created vast fortunes for individuals and entire nations, powered the global economy, and provoked geopolitical tensions and sometimes wars. No news there. But did you know that current events on this petroleum-addled planet are closely linked to weird and wonderful plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago? Recent international developments propelled me to do some paleobotanical detective work.", "More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China. Early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, indicate very ancient origins.", "The Carboniferous trees made extensive use of lignin. They had bark to wood ratios of 8 to 1, and even as high as 20 to 1. This compares to modern values less than 1 to 4. This bark, which must have been used as support as well as protection, probably had 38% to 58% lignin. Lignin is insoluble, too large to pass through cell walls, too heterogeneous for specific enzymes, and toxic, so that few organisms other than Basidiomycetes fungi can degrade it. To oxidize it requires an atmosphere of greater than 5% oxygen, or compounds such as peroxides. It can linger in soil for thousands of years and its toxic breakdown products inhibit decay of other substances. Probably the reason for its high percentages is protection from insect herbivory in a world containing very effective insect herbivores, but nothing remotely as effective as modern insectivores and probably many fewer poisons than currently. The extensive burial of biologically produced carbon led to an increase in oxygen levels in the atmosphere; estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, compared to 21% today. This oxygen level may have increased wildfire activity. It also may have promoted gigantism of insects and amphibians — creatures that have been constrained in size by respiratory systems that are limited in their physiological ability to transport and distribute oxygen at the lower atmospheric concentrations that have since been available. ", "The Lycophytes became significant elements of the world's flora during the Carboniferous time (the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are terms used for this time span in the United States). These non-seed plants evolved into trees placed in the fossil genera Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, with heights reaching up to 40 meters and 20-30 meters respectively. Lepidodendron stems are composed of less wood (secondary xylem) that usually is found in gymnosperm and angiosperm trees.", "↵ 1 This work was supported by the Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences in the Office of Science at the U.S. Department of Energy via the Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, and from the Chemical Sciences, Geosciences, and Biosciences Division, Office of Basic Energy Sciences in the Office of Science at the Department of Energy via the Michigan State University-Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory.", "Fossilized trees standing upright through as many as thirty feet of strata are found all over the world. Examples can be seen on John Mackay’s website:", "Cycas revoluta is called �the living fossil� because its origin can be traced back to the ancient flora of the early Mesozoic era (200 million years ago)." ]

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[ "Oxygen, as a gaseous element, forms 21% of the atmosphere by volume. The element and its compounds make up 49.2%, by mass of the Earth’s crust, about two-thirds of the human body and nine-tenths of water.", "A colorless, odorless reactive gas, the chemical element of atomic number 8 and the life-supporting component of the air. Oxygen forms about 20 percent of the earths atmosphere, and is the most abundant element in the earth's crust, mainly in the form of oxides, and carbonates.", "Oxygen forms roughly 21% of the Earth's atmosphere; all of this oxygen is the result of photosynthesis. Pure oxygen has use in medical treatment of people who have respiratory difficulties. Excess oxygen is toxic.", "Earth's atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.08 percent), oxygen (20.95 percent), and argon (0.93 percent). A fourth major component, carbon dioxide, which is essential to all plant life, is present only to the extent of about 0.032 percent. The gases are most dense near sea level and thin rapidly at higher altitudes. At a distance of 5000 km there is still a trace of an atmosphere, but it is extremely tenuous. The very outer realm of the atmosphere is represented by the magnetosphere, a zone of magnetically trapped particles. This part of the atmosphere is a powerful shield from damaging radiation that comes from outer space.", "Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe and makes up nearly 21% of the earth's atmosphere . Oxygen accounts for nearly half of the mass of the earth's crust , two thirds of the mass of the human body and nine tenths of the mass of water. Large amounts of oxygen can be extracted from liquefied air through a process known as fractional distillation. Oxygen can also be produced through the electrolysis of water or by heating potassium chlorate (KClO3).", "Today, just two elements--nitrogen and oxygen--comprise 99 percent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen alone accounts for 78 percent. Other trace gases include argon, at 0.93 percent, and carbon dioxide, at about 0.04 percent.", "Joseph Priestley and Carl Scheele (each working independently) are credited with the isolation and \"discovery\" in 1774 of the element oxygen. A few years later Antoine Lavoisier showed that oxygen is a component of the atmosphere. Oxygen is the most abundant element on Earth , constituting about half of the total material of its surface (47 percent by weight of the lithosphere and 89 percent by weight of the ocean) and about 21 percent by volume of the air. Under ordinary conditions (STP) on Earth, oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is only slightly soluble in water. Oxygen has a pale blue color in the liquid and the solid phases. Ordinary oxygen gas (O2) exists as diatomic molecules. It also exists in another allotropic form, the triatomic molecule ozone (O3). Although eight isotopes of oxygen are known, atmospheric oxygen is a mixture of only three: those having mass numbers 16, 17, and 18.", "The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases. This thin gaseous layer insulates the Earth from extreme temperatures; it keeps heat inside the atmosphere and it also blocks the Earth from much of the Sun's incoming ultraviolet radiation.", "The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere, which is the body of air or gasses that protects the planet and enables life. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses. There are five distinct layers of the earth. Let's look at each, from closest to farthest from the earth.", "), composed of molecules of two oxygen atoms, occupies 21% of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. It is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Oxygen also comprises 86% of the oceans and 60% of the human body, and is the third most abundant element found in the Sun. Almost all plants and animals require oxygen for respiration to maintain life.", "• Air: Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity. It contains roughly 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.97% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases, in addition to water vapor. This mixture of gases is commonly known as air. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.", "  7. What is the chemical composition of our air? The lower layers of the atmosphere form a thin enveloping layer of gases of which 78 percent is nitrogen, 21 percent is oxygen, and the remaining 1 percent includes trace gases. Water vapor (an invisible gas) and water droplets (cloud, fog, or rain) or ice particles (frozen water droplets), and the gas carbon dioxide are present in generally small quantities but are important.", " as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 1015 tonnes). Figures given are for values up to 50 mi above the surface Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% by volume) and Venus have much less. The surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.", "Atmospheric oxygen partial pressure is approximately 21% of the atmospheric pressure of the location at which you measure. For example, the atmospheric preassure at sea level is around 1 atmosphere, and the partial pressure of oxygen is 0.21 atm.", "The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics describes the atmosphere as 78.084% N2, 20.946% O2, 0.934% Ar, and 0.033% CO2 by volume when the water vapor has been removed. What image does this description evoke in your mind? Do you believe that only 20.463% of the room in which you are sitting contains O2? Or do you believe that the atmosphere in your room is a more or less homogeneous mixture of these gases?", "The troposphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with only small concentrations of other gases. Nearly all atmospheric water vapour is found in the troposphere.", "This consists of 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, 0.3 per cent carbon dioxide, with traces of several other gases plus copious quantities of water vapor. Next is the stratosphere and the mesosphere, which extend up to about 50 miles. The stratosphere consists in part of ozone or heavy oxygen formed by electrical discharges, or strong ultra-violet rays, passing through ordinary oxygen. At about 50 miles, up to between 350-600 miles, is the ionosphere, where X-rays and ultra-violet rays from the sun ionize the rarefied air.", "Page 22: “Table 2.2 Present gaseous composition of the Earth’s atmosphere. … Ozone O3 > 100.0 ppbv [parts per billion by volume] in stratosphere† … 10-100.0 ppbv in troposphere.‡ … About 90% of ozone is located in the stratosphere….”", "atmosphere—The gaseous mass or envelope surrounding a celestial body (including the one surrounding the Earth), and retained by the celestial body's gravitational field. The Earth's atmosphere is subdivided into levels: the troposphere is the lowest portion (up to about 6-8 miles) where all weather takes place and contains about 80% of the air's mass and 99% of water vapor. The overlying stratosphere contains an abundance of ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on land and in the shallow ocean extends up to about 31 miles. The upper atmosphere extends upward to the transition into space above about 60 miles where the charged atomic particles of the solar wind begins to interact with atmospheric gases.", "Though part of the stratosphere, the physical and chemical composition of the ozone layer is far different from that of the stratosphere. Ozone (O3) in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen). The atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O2 to create O3, the ozone. Ozone is unstable (although long-lived in the stratosphere) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone, it splits into a molecule of O2 and an atom of atomic oxygen thus creating a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle . This occurs in the ozone layer, the region from about 10 to 50 kilometres (6 to 31 miles) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in the Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between the heights of about 20 and 40 kilometres above the Earth's surface, where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million by volume.", "Earth's atmosphere is made up of a combination of gases. The major components of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon remain constant over time and space, while trace components like CO2 and water vapor vary considerably over both space and time.", "Ozone, is a molecular form (allotrope) of oxygen where three atoms are joined together rather than the usual two. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. Ozone is formed by the action of ultraviolet light and atmospheric electrical discharges on normal oxygen, and is present in low concentrations (0.6 ppm) throughout the Earth's atmosphere; it is a powerful oxidant.", "An atmospheric layer that contains a high proportion of oxygen that exists as ozone. It acts as a filtering mechanism against incoming ultraviolet radiation. It is located between the troposphere and the stratosphere, around 9.5 to 12.5 miles (15 to 20 kilometers) above the earth's surface.", "1) The Earth's atmosphere, which consists of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Helium, Hydrogen and small amounts of other gases", "Earths atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds our planet. Gravity keeps the gases from drifting off into space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere is located within 11 kilometers of the Earth's surface. The atmosphere thins out as Earth's gravitational pull decreases. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner as the distance from Earth increases.", "Understanding Atomic Oxygen, more from NASA’s Glenn Research Center : “Oxygen comes in several different forms. The oxygen that we breathe is called O2—that is, it is comprised of two atoms of oxygen. O3 is ozone, such as occurs in Earth’s upper atmosphere, and O (one atom), is atomic oxygen.”", "In the stratosphere ozone acts as the primary UV radiation shield, short wavelength UV radiation from the sun (<240nm) provides the energy to split oxygen molecules into oxygen atoms:", "_______ to ______ years ago the Earth began to develop an atmosphere that is more similar to today's atmosphere being composed of mostly oxygen and nitrogen and is refereed to as ________ ", "Above the troposphere, some 30 miles (48 km) above the Earth's surface, is the stratosphere. The still air of the stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which was created when ultraviolet light caused trios of oxygen atoms to bind together into ozone molecules. Ozone prevents most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earth's surface.", "The Earth has an Ozone Layer which protects it from harmful solar radiation. This shell is a special type of oxygen that absorbs most of the Sun’s powerful UV rays.", "In which of the layers of earth’s atmosphere is some 90% of the earth’s ozone layer located?", "2.    Beginning with the letter ‘O’, what layer shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun.       (ozone)" ]

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[ "There are different kinds of tides depending on the alignment of the sun and moon. These two kinds are the neap tide and the spring tide. Spring tides occur on the new moon and the full moon. In this case, the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun is combined making it stronger. The high tides become higher than usual, and the low tides become very low. The alignment also causes an increased speed in tidal currents which also contributes to changes in the characteristics.", "It is well known that Full (and New) Moons elevate the ocean tides, bringing monthly spring tides. At spring tide, the high tide climbs especially high whereas the low tide falls especially low, so the variation between high and low tide is extreme. But a Full (or New) Moon coinciding with perigee accentuates the spring tide even more, bringing forth what's called a perigean spring tide. If onshore winds and a low barometric pressure prevail as well, flooding along the ocean shorelines is certainly a possibility. Typically, there's a lag time of a few days between Full Moon and the ensuing spring tide, but this Old Farmer's Almanac tide calculator predicts high and low tides for your neck of the woods.", "Spring Tide: Spring tide is the term used to describe extremely high and low tides, occurring during a full moon or a new moon, when the sun, moon, and the earth are more or less aligned.", "Around each new moon and full moon – when the sun, Earth, and moon are located more or less on a line in space – the range between high and low tides is greatest. These are called spring tides. Image via physicalgeography.net", "Twice a month the Sun and Moon are either roughly together in the sky (the New Moon) or roughly opposite (the Full Moon). That causes what's called a spring tide, a name that refers to the water \"springing\" or jumping unusually high and not to the season following winter.", "The tides on Earth are mostly generated by the Moon’s gravitational pull from one side of Earth to the other. The Moon’s gravity can cause small ebbs and flows in the continents called land tides or solid Earth tides. These are greatest during the Full and New Moons because the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same or opposite sides of Earth.", "spring tide—the exceptionally high and low tides that occur at the time of the new moon or the full moon when the sun, moon, and earth are approximately aligned.", "About three or four times a year, the new or full moon coincides closely in time with the perigee of the moon—the point when the moon is closest to the Earth. These occurrences are often called ‘perigean spring tides.’ The difference between ‘perigean spring tide’ and normal tidal ranges for all areas of the coast is small. In most cases, the difference is only a couple of inches above normal spring tides. Image and caption via NOAA.", "During full or new moons—which occur when the Earth, sun, and moon are nearly in alignment—average tidal ranges are slightly larger. This occurs twice each month. The moon appears new (dark) when it is directly between the Earth and the sun. The moon appears full when the Earth is between the moon and the sun. In both cases, the gravitational pull of the sun is \"added\" to the gravitational pull of the moon on Earth, causing the oceans to bulge a bit more than usual. This means that high tides are a little higher and low tides are a little lower than average.", "When the sun, moon, and the earth are lined up, the sun and moon are exerting their strongest force together and tidal ranges are at their maximum. This is known as spring tide (spring tides are not named from the season but from \"spring forward\") This occurs twice each month, when the moon is full and new.", "The Sun also creates a tidal bulge because the Sun's gravitational force is a little bit stronger on the side of Earth that faces the Sun than it is on the side of Earth that faces away from the Sun. Depending on where the Moon is in its orbit around Earth, the tidal bulges made by the Moon and the Sun may line up in the same direction, or partially cancel one another. We can tell where the Moon is in its orbit by the phases of the Moon. The Moon has four primary phases: new, first quarter, full, and third quarter. As shown in Figure 3, below, the tidal bulges created by the Sun and the Moon line up in the same direction at the new moon and full moon, when the Sun, Earth, and Moon form a line. This creates a spring tide. Spring tides have a larger-than-normal tidal range (higher high tides and lower low tides). When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun, Earth, and Moon form an \"L\" shape, and the tidal bulges of the Moon and the Sun make the shape of a plus sign (+). This creates a neap tide. Neap tides have a smaller-than-normal tidal range (lower high tides and higher low tides).", "Everyone who lives by the sea is familiar with its restless periodic changes in level, called the tide, a word that, in fact, means \"time.\" The tidal movements are related to the position of the moon, occurring about 50 minutes 28 seconds later every day, to match the eastward motion of the moon relative to the sun. Usually there are two high tides and two low tides each day. When the sun and moon are aligned, at new and full moon, the tides are larger and are called \"spring\" tides, while at first and third quarters, the lesser tides are called \"neap\" tides. This general behavior is by no means the same in all locations, and successive tides may not be of the same magnitude. For more information on tides, see Tides .", "The moon affects the tides depending on its position around the earth. For example, if the sun, the moon and the earth are all lined up in a straight line (180 degree angle) then they form tides call SPRING TIDES (they do not necessarily occur during spring). The Earth's tides are about the same whether the Sun and Moon are lined up on opposite sides of the Earth (full moon phase) or on the same side (new moon phase). During spring tides you will notice higher and/or lower tides than normal. When the earth, sun and moon form right angles (occurs when the moon is at the first quarter or last quarter phase) to each other they form tides called NEAP TIDES. Neap tides are generally weak tides.", "spring tide. The tide at the new and full moon which is higher than the neap tides;", "Ocean tides are one very observable result of the Moon’s gravity acting on Earth. [link] is a simplified drawing of the Moon’s position relative to the tides. Because water easily flows on Earth’s surface, a high tide is created on the side of Earth nearest to the Moon, where the Moon’s gravitational pull is strongest. Why is there also a high tide on the opposite side of Earth? The answer is that Earth is pulled toward the Moon more than the water on the far side, because Earth is closer to the Moon. So the water on the side of Earth closest to the Moon is pulled away from Earth, and Earth is pulled away from water on the far side. As Earth rotates, the tidal bulge (an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite and the primary planet that it orbits) keeps its orientation with the Moon. Thus there are two tides per day (the actual tidal period is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes), because the Moon moves in its orbit each day as well).", "Another type of tide, the neap tide, occurs twice per month. However, this tide type occurs when the Moon's and Sun's gravitational forces form a 90-degree angle with respect to the Earth. Neap tides happen during the first and third quarter moons.", "Neap tide occurs when the Moon is in the first or third quarter phase and results in", "When the moon is at first or third quarter (you can find more on moon phases here ) then the moon and sun are exerting forces from two different directions and the overall effect on the water is less, so the high tides are lower than average and the low tides are higher than the average and we call these low tides 'neap' tides.", "Both the sun and moon produce atmospheric tides; and there exist both gravitational tides and thermal tides. The harmonic component of greatest amplitude, the 12-hour or semidiurnal solar atmospheric tide, is both gravitational and thermal in origin, the fact that it is greater than the corresponding lunar atmospheric tide being ascribed usually to a resonance in the atmosphere with a free period very close to the tidal period. Other tides of 6, 8, and 24 hours have been observed.", "Neap tide occurs when the difference between high and low tide is least; the lowest level of high tide, This type of tide occurs during the first & third quarters of the moon", "The regular rise and fall in the surface level of the Earth's oceans, seas, and bays caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and to a lesser extent of the Sun. The maximum high tides (or spring tides) occur when the Moon and Sun are directly aligned with Earth, so that their gravitational pull on Earth's waters is along the same line and is reinforced. The lowest high tides (or neap tides) occur when the Moon and Sun are at right angles to each other, so that their gravitational pull on Earth's waters originates from two different directions and is mitigated. Tides vary greatly by region and are influenced by sea-floor topography, storms, and water currents. See also ebb tide , flood tide, neap tide, spring tide.", "If the gravitational force causes things to shift so that they are closer to the moon, the part of the ocean closest to the moon gets pulled farther than the earth which gets pulled farther than the far side of the ocean. The result is that the oceans look like they have been pulled away from the Earth on BOTH the side closest to the moon and the side farthest from the moon, implying that high tide occurs on opposite ends of the Earth at the same time. Now, from the point of view of people on the Earth, the high tide appears to move as the Earth rotates, with a high tide occurring every 12 hours.", "the large rise and fall of the tide at or soon after the new or the full moon.", "The interaction between the earth, moon and sun is quite complex. The gravitational pull of the moon draws the seas on the side of the earth nearest to the moon  into a bulge towards the moon, while the seas furthest from the moon experience a less than average lunar pull and bulge away from the moon. That gives two tides per day (in every 24.8 hour), occuring approximately 12.5 hours apart. This timing of of the high tides will vary occuring approximately 50 minutes later each day.", "The Moon continues to wax. Once more than half of the disc is illuminated, it has a shape we call gibbous. The gibbous moon appears to grow fatter each night until we see the full sunlit face of the Moon. We call this phase the full moon. It rises almost exactly as the Sun sets and sets just as the Sun rises the next day. The Moon has now completed one half of the lunar month.", "File:High tide sun moon same side end.png|Spring tide: Sun and Moon at the same side (end of cycle)", "File:High tide sun moon same side beginning.png|Spring tide: Sun and Moon on the same side (zero degree)", "Only a single high and a single low during each tidal day; successive high and low waters do not vary by a great deal. This tends to occur in certain areas when the moon is at its furthest from the equator.", "Since the moon moves around the Earth, it is not always in the same place at the same time each day. So, each day, the times for high and low tides change by 50 minutes.", "smallest tidal range in a lunar month occurring at the first- and third-quarter moons when the Sun and Moon are at 90o relative to each other, relative to Earth", "In the past, the Moon was closer to the Earth and the difference in the heights of the ocean at high and low tides were", "A. As the rays of the moon are not so oblique as those of the sun, they will often reach the water. (See next figure.)" ]

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[ "In everyday language weather means such qualities as wet or fine, warm or cold. For most people, such descriptive terms are adequate. However, many industries today require more quantitative assessments of the weather, with the use of standardised terms measured by suitably designed instruments. The science of the study of weather is called meteorology; the meteorologist measures temperature, rainfall, pressure, humidity, sunshine and cloudiness, and makes predictions and forecasts about what the weather will do in the future.", "Weather: the condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and location, defined as temperature, cloudiness, precipitation, and wind speed and direction. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and the processes that cause weather. A professional meteorologist is a person who has completed the requirements for a college degree in meteorology or atmopsheric science.", "Short-term variations in atmospheric phenomena that interact with the environment, and affect life, are called weather. These variations take place on a timescale of minutes, hours, days, weeks, or occasionally months. Weather is defined as the state of the atmosphere at a given location and time. It includes such variables as temperature, precipitation, cloudiness, wind speed and direction, and relative humidity. The study of atmospheric phenomenon is known as meterology. The word meterology comes from the Greek word meteorous, meaning high in the air. By this definition a cloud, raindrop, fog, dust particle, lightning, or wind are all types of meteors. Meteorologists study these phenomena.", "Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmospheric area at a given time. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, \"weather\" is understood to be the weather of Earth.", "Meteorology - The study of the atmosphere and all its phenomena, including weather and how to forecast it.", "Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, \"weather\" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth.", "Since humans’ early records to understand the weather, from Aristotle’s Meteorologica around 340 B.C., a philosophical treatise with theories about the formation of rain, clouds, hail, wind, thunder, lightning, and hurricanes, meteorology has evolved into a highly quantitative science to model the movement and interaction of natural elements; think of the Earth as a huge sphere of 12,800 kilometers (8,000 miles) in diameter covered with a 40-kilometer skin of various gases, whose concentration varies both spatially and temporarily. Keeping in mind that this sphere has a bumpy surface and is rotating all the time, its tilt about the vertical access varying with the season, and also, that this sphere is heated from 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) away with about eight million quadrillion BTUs of solar energy each year reaching its surface (about 20,000 times the energy consumed by all human activity in a year), thus there is an always changing interaction among the factors determining the weather. Long before the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the US and the Met Office with the Shipping Forecast on BBC’s Radio 4 in the UK, sailors and navigators were crystallizing shortcuts of weather patterns to become weather lore about the appearance of the sky, the shape and type of clouds, the conditions of the atmosphere, and the direction of the winds.", "The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales. At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the geospatial size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale.", "A distinction can be drawn between meteorology and climatology, the latter being primarily concerned with average, not actual, weather conditions. Meteorology may be subdivided, according to the methods of approach and the applications to human activities, into a large number of specialized sciences. The following are of interest to space science: aerology , aeronomy , dynamic meteorology , physical meteorology , radio meteorology.", "Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.", "Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.", "Meteorological studies are carried out in conjunction with several environmentally related fields. These include aeronautics, agriculture, architecture, ballistics, ecology, energy production, forestry, hydrology, medicine, and oceanography. Many of these related fields simply need to determine the weather's effects at a particular time and place, but some — hydrology and oceanography, for example — also affect meterological events by modifying atmospheric conditions at the Earth's surface.", "Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics , and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology.", "Meteorology has advanced through theoretical understanding and through new technologies such as aviation, computers, and satellites, which have enhanced data collection and observation of the weather. Economic and social aspects of meteorology now include practical fore-casting, severe weather warnings, and governmental and diplomatic initiatives regarding the health and future of the planet.", "Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth’s atmosphere : temperature , air pressure , water vapor , mass flow , and the variations and interactions of those variables, and how they change over time. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels.", "Other branches of meteorology focus on phenomena in specific locations, such as equatorial areas, the tropics, maritime regions, coastal areas, the poles, and mountains. The upper atmosphere is also studied separately. Other disciplines concentrate on taking observations with particular technologies, including radio, radar, and artificial satellite. Computer technology is applied extensively, including numerical weather prediction, interactive data analysis, and display systems.", "Meteorologists are scientists who study meteorology. [55] The American Meteorological Society published and continually updates an authoritative electronic Meteorology Glossary. [56] Meteorologists work in government agencies , private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations , and in education . In the United States, meteorologists held about 9,400 jobs in 2009. [57]", "Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause, and the lower section of the stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to weeks. The events typically of interest are thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes. ", "** History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.", "Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a particular time and place: What temperature is it? Is it raining? How hard is the wind blowing, and in which direction? Climate, on the other hand, is defined in terms of the statistical behavior of these quantities:", "In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology . [2] Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. [3] One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle . [4]", "Meteorologists are best known for forecasting the weather. Many radio and television weather forecasters are professional meteorologists, while others are merely reporters (weather specialist, weatherman , etc.) with no formal meteorological training. The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association issue \"Seals of Approval\" to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements.", "Hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle , the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms . [86] A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences. [87]", "Hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle , the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms. A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.", "Meteorologists are scientists who monitor weather conditions.  They sample a wide network of weather stations and use satellite images to map out the positions of the large air masses circling the Earth.  Since air masses interact in a relatively predictable way, meteorologists are able to predict weather patterns with some degree of accuracy.", "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. ", "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Mankind has attempted to predict the weather since ancient times. Today, weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, and incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the range of the forecast increases.", "Used in meteorology to describe bounderies between hot and cold air masses. This is typically where bad weather is found.", "7.    Beginning with the letter \"F”, the practice of attempting to predict the weather is known as weather _______?", "Could also cover parts of 8.III.B.1. The student will define conduction, convection, and radiation and explain their effects on weather and climate.", "Weather experts are only able to rely on scientific observation, experimentation and reason�physical evidence�to forecast weather in the short term. But this tells only part of the story. There is another little-used source we can turn to for the other portion of the picture. It claims to pinpoint the causes of weather cataclysms, and to forecast long-term weather trends. Yet it is a source whose veracity most people would naturally question.", "In Greece, Aristotle wrote one of the earliest documents on weather forecasting. He wrote in approximately 300 BC and took a basically scientific approach to it. Before that, it was more common to attribute weather to the whims of the gods. Aristotle explored the way earth, fire, air and water interacted to try to explain weather patterns. One of his students, Theophrastus, collected weather lore and ways to forecast and put it in a text called “The Book of Signs.” These signs included sky colors, sound, and rings and halos spotted in the sky." ]

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[ "Crust: The outermost layer of the earth is called the crust. It is about 5 km to 80 km thick and is made up of sial and sima.", "The outermost layer of the Earth’s surface (known as the pedosphere) is where soil exists, a combination of minerals and organic compounds. This layer exists as the interface between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere (all watery surfaces in the world) and biosphere (where all terrestrial life exists).", "The Earth is not just a solid ball of rock. That rock is made up of layers characterized by different elements and different types of rock that are either solid or fluid. It also possesses different temperatures and thicknesses. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. It's thin compared to the other layers, a little bit like the peel of an orange. Unlike a fruit peel, though, the crust is broken up into several pieces, called tectonic plates. These plates move relative to each other so that the surface of the Earth's crust is always changing, although very slowly.", "The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, the land that forms the continents and ocean floors. It can be three to five miles thick under the oceans and 15 to 35 miles thick on the continents.", "As for other planets, the term crust refers to the chemically distinctive outermost layer of Earth. Today, the term designates the outer layer of Earth extending from the solid surface down to the first major discontinuity in seismic-wave velocity in the lithosphere, which heralds a compositional change. The crust-mantle boundary should not be confused with the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. The crust of the continents is distinctly different from the crust beneath the ocean basins. The continental crust is much thicker (as much as 50 km thick) and is composed of relatively light granitic (high SiO2) rock that includes the oldest rock of the crust. By contrast, the oceanic crust is only about 8 km thick and is composed of basalt and gabbro (low SiO2), igneous rocks having densities much greater than granite. The oceanic crust is young and relatively undeformed by folding. The differences between the continental and oceanic crust, as we shall see, are of fundamental importance in understanding Earth.", "Crust - The crust is the outermost, thinnest layer of Earth. It represents less than 0.1% of Earth's total volume. It lies above the Mohorovičić discontinuity and is less dense than the mantle rocks below. Source: Bates and Jackson (1984)", "The size of the Earth -- about 12,750 kilometers (km) in diameter-was known by the ancient Greeks, but it was not until the turn of the 20th century that scientists determined that our planet is made up of three main layers: crust, mantle, and core. This layered structure can be compared to that of a boiled egg. The crust, the outermost layer, is rigid and very thin compared with the other two. Beneath the oceans, the crust varies little in thickness, generally extending only to about 5 km. The thickness of the crust beneath continents is much more variable but averages about 30 km; under large mountain ranges, such as the Alps or the Sierra Nevada, however, the base of the crust can be as deep as 100 km. Like the shell of an egg, the Earth's crust is brittle and can break.", "Crust: The thin outermost layer of the Earth including both the continents and the ocean floors.", "crust -- n. The outermost layer of the Earth, varying in thickness from about 10 kilometers (6 miles) below the oceans, to 65 kilometers (about 40 miles) below the continents; represents less than 1 percent of the Earth's volume.", "Specifically, the outermost part of the Earth 's interior is made up of two layers: above is the lithosphere , comprising the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle. Below the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, which is a more viscous zone of the mantle. Although solid, the asthenosphere has very low shear strength and can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The deeper mantle below the asthenosphere is more rigid again.", "Crust (of the Earth): outermost layer (average 20 km thick) of Earth composed of rocks similar to those seen at the surface", "Hard and rigid, the earth's outermost and thinnest layer. It is only a few miles (5 km) thick under the oceans and averages 20 miles (30 km) thick under the continents.", "Lithosphere - The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle. Source: Katie KellerLynn", "The exterior of the Earth represents the planet's solid layer. Its base is formed by the uppermost part of the mantle, known as the lithosphere which contains the rigid material of the outer portion of the Earth. The lithosphere possesses a thin, rocky outer layer called the crust. The crust ranges in thickness, from 30-60 kilometers thick beneath the continents to only 5-10 kilometers thick beneath the oceans. Bedrock of the crust is covered by loose rock particles called the regolith that forms when bedrock reacts with the atmosphere and hydrosphere. When nature transports regolith to a different location, the regolith is re-named sediment, which means \"settling\". The upper portion of regolith creates soil, which permits the growth of plants and crops that are crucial for human survival.", "The Earth is separated into layers based on mechanical properties in addition to composition. The topmost layer is the lithosphere (crust and solid portion of the upper mantle). The lithosphere essentially floats atop a semi-liquid layer known as the asthenosphere. This layer allows the solid lithosphere to move around since the asthenosphere is much weaker than the lithosphere.", "In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crusts of Earth, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than their respective mantles.", ":  the solid part of a celestial body (as the earth); specifically :  the outer part of the solid earth composed of rock essentially like that exposed at the surface, consisting of the crust and outermost layer of the mantle, and usually considered to be about 60 miles (100 kilometers) in thickness", "Studies of the refraction and reflection of seismic waves propagating through the Earth show that it consists of three main internal layers: the crust, mantle, and core. The crust has a thickness of about 30–40 km under the continents (but much thicker beneath mountains) and an average of 6 km under the oceans. It has a density of about 3 times that of water. It consists largely of sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and sandstone, resting on a base of igneous rocks, such as granite (under the continents) and basalt (under both the continents and oceans). The mantle extends to a depth of 2900 km, its density increasing with depth from 3.3 to 5.5 times that of water. Its composition is thought to include a high proportion of magnesium- and iron-rich silicate rocks. The core increases in density from 10 times that of water at its junction with the mantle to 13 times at the center. It is composed predominently of iron with several, possibly many, additional components. The inner core has a radius of about 1200 km and is solid. The outer core has a radius of 3485 km; it is liquid and is regarded as the seat of the Earth's magnetic field (see geomagnetism ).", "The outermost major layer of the Earth, ranging from about 10 to 65 km in thickness worldwide. The continental crust is about 40 km thick in the Pacific Northwest. The thickness of the oceanic crust in this region varies between about 10 and 15 km.The crust is characterized by P-wave velocities less than about 8 km/s. The uppermost 15-35 km of crust is brittle enough to produce earthquakes. The seismic crust is separated from the lower crust by the brittle-ductile boundary. (USGS)", "Earth’s outer rigid shell, situated above the asthenosphere and consisting of the crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided into plates.", "The mantle consists of three layers (B, C, and D) and extends from the Mohorovicic discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km, where the earth’s core begins. Layers B and C form the upper mantle (850-900 km thick), while layer D forms the lower mantle (about 2,000 km). The upper part of layer B, which lies directly under the crust, is called the substratum; the crust and the substratum together make up the lithosphere. The lower part of layer B of the upper mantle is named after B. Gutenberg, the seismologist who discovered its properties. The velocity with which seismic waves travel in the Gutenberg layer is somewhat less than in the layers above and below it, which scientists attribute to the increased viscosity of its matter. Hence, the second name for the Gutenberg layer, the asthenosphere (weak sphere). This layer is the seismic wave conduit because the seismic “beam” (path of the wave) travels along it for a long time. The C layer (the Golitsyn layer) beneath is identified as a zone where the velocities of seismic waves increase rapidly with depth (from 8 to 11.3 km per sec for longitudinal waves, from 4.9 to 6.3 km per sec for transverse waves).", "It is easy to think of the earth as being solid dirt through and through, but in reality it is made up of several layers. While many of these layers are solid, the layer that surrounds the core is called the liquid outer core. It is so hot inside the earth that the rock at this layer has actually melted. The solid inner core is just as hot as the liquid layer surrounding it, but the pressure on the inner core is so great that scientists believe it is \"pressed\" into a solid.", "Lithosphere – The rigid outer layer of a planet or satellite, composed of the crust and upper mantle", "The last layer is the core, which is separated into the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The outer core is 2300 km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is almost entirely composed of iron. Earth's magnetic field is believed to be controlled by the liquid outer core.", "The mantle is equivalent to 10 – 15 Earth masses and is rich in water, ammonia and methane. This mixture is referred to as icy even though it is a hot, dense fluid, and is sometimes called a \"water-ammonia ocean\". Meanwhile, the atmosphere forms about 5% to 10% of its mass and extends perhaps 10% to 20% of the way towards the core, where it reaches pressures of about 10 GPa – or about 100,000 times that of Earth's atmosphere.", "These final layers stretch from the forest to the horizon and beyond at a depth of, oh, let’s round it off at 300 feet. From that point on, the earth is hollow. If you bang on the “Rothko crust,” as it is called, with a frying pan (ideally) or any metal object, really, it’s not important (although a cast iron sautéing pan is deeply satisfying), you will hear a hollow clanging echo from immense depths up to the length of an American football field where lies the center of the Earth, approximately. (Contrary to legend, no, the center of the Earth is not molten but merely very warm, like air circulating from an enormous handheld hair drier.) The Rothko crust is not part of the forest per se, nonetheless the forest is dependent on it. Neither is it part of the soi-disant “drifting” of any continental “plate.” Rather, it is like a droning chord in the bases, the lied von der Erde, so to speak, on which the forest floats languidly, as does the flute in Debussy’s L’Apres-midi d’un faune.", "The innermost layer of the earth, an extremely hot, solid sphere of mostly iron and nickel. The inner core is 3,200 to 3,960 miles (5,150 to 6,378 km) below the surface and about 750 miles (1,200 km) thick.", "The Mariana Trench (or Mariana's Trench) is a subduction zone and contains the deepest part of the world's oceans, and the deepest location on the surface of the Earth's crust. The deepest part is known as Challenger Deep. It has a maximum depth of about 11 km (6.8 mi), and is located in the western North Pacific Ocean, to the east and south of the Mariana Islands, near Guam.", "2.    Beginning with the letter ‘O’, what layer shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun?", "The Mariana Trench (also called the Marianas Trench ) is the deepest part of the ocean. This trench lies in an area where two of the Earth's plates - the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Plate - come together.", "The central part of Earth below a depth of 2900 kilometers. It is composed largely of iron and is molten on the outside, with a solid central region.", "From center to surface, which of the following correctly lists the interior layers of a terrestrial world?" ]

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[ "China surpassed the US as the world’s largest waste generator in 2004. In 2030, China is likely to produce twice as much municipal solid waste as the United States.", "The list of top 10 MSW-generating countries includes four developing nations (Brazil, China, India, and Mexico) in part because of the size of their urban populations and in part because their city dwellers are prospering and adopting high-consumption lifestyles. Although the United States leads the world in MSW output at some 621,000 tons per day, China is a relatively close second, at some 521,000 tons. Even among the top 10, however, there is a wide range of output: the United States generates nearly seven times more urban refuse than France, in tenth position, does.", "In this map of total trash generation, the US and China stand out as the biggest offenders. China still has a long way to go before catching up to American levels of per capita trash production, but its municipal waste problem is all the more critical with the skyrocketing population growth. In 2025, China will be producing 562 million tons of solid waste per year, according to World Bank estimates—almost three times the current output.", "About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s carbon dioxide|, and generate approximately 30% of world’s waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of , while still far behind based on per capita pollution - ranked 78th among the world's nations. ", "That Calgary holds the No. 1 position on this list is even more impressive considering Calgary’s province Alberta actually leads Canada in per capita waste: 2174 pounds per person. Facing a rapid economic and population expansion, Alberta revamped its sanitation system in the past two years with the Too Good to Waste program, which aims to decrease the amount of waste sent to landfills. Additional efforts were being made to reduce", "For a country that is known to be efficient, and religious about garbage disposal, German cities produce huge solid waste per person. But it's also one of the countries that is projected to generate less both in absolute terms and in relation to population.", "Each year, EPA produces a report called Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: Facts Sheet, formerly called Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: Facts and Figures. It includes information on municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, recycling, combustion with energy recovery and landfilling. The 2014 fact sheet also includes information on Construction and Demolition Debris generation, which is outside of the scope of MSW.", "Consumption is exceeding the Earth's biological capacity by 20%, says Redefining Progress, a public policy organization. The biosphere needs fifteen months to renew what humanity consumes in a year. The U.S. deficit of 10.9 global acres (4.4 hectares) per capita is only exceeded by Belgium and Luxembourg. New Zealand has the largest surplus at 35 global acres (14 hectares) per capita, with Australia second at 17 global acres (7 hectares)per capita.  rw   ", "During these years the municipal garbage dump evolved to become the sanitary landfill site. A number of technologies, including clay and plastic liners were used to contain the smell and leachate. The largest in Canada, the Keele Valley Landfill was operated by the City of Toronto from 1983 until 2002, when it was closed because it was full.", "Switzerland is heavily active in recycling and anti-littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world, with 66% to 96% of recyclable materials being recycled. [59] In many places in Switzerland, household garbage disposal is charged for. Garbage (except dangerous items, batteries etc.) is only collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached, or in official bags with the surcharge paid at the time of purchase. [60] This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible, since recycling is free. [61] Swiss health officials and police often open up garbage for which the disposal charge has not been paid and search for evidence such as old bills which connect the bag to the household/person they originated from. Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200–500. [62]", "Huge amounts of coal ash and other waste is produced annually. In 2013, the US alone consumed on the order of 983 million short tonnes of coal per year. Use of coal on this scale generates hundreds of millions of tons of ash and other waste products every year. These include fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals, along with non-metals such as selenium. ", "As of 2006, China was the world's largest sulfur dioxide polluter, with 2005 emissions estimated to be . This amount represents a 27% increase since 2000, and is roughly comparable with U.S. emissions in 1980. ", "The media reported in 2007 that the Supreme Court of India had directed the central and state governments to pay for collection of waste on the site and to have it landfilled or incinerated, as appropriate. While some of the waste had been landfilled, public interest groups again challenged the Court's incineration directive, as did the states where waste incineration facilities were located.", "We Must Stop Air Pollution Now - There are about seven billion people in the world. Most of these people own cars and live in large cities. Beijing, China, is known for having the most polluted air in the world. China has about 400,000 factories working everyday creating air pollution. Pollution is becoming a big problem in the world. Pollution affects everything from the plants we grow to the ozone layer of the earth. Some of the air pollution is so bad in places around the world that breathing the air is equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day....   [tags: environment, polluted air]", "Looking at the global income divide, PRB found that municipal waste is a massive and growing public health and environmental problem, particularly in low-income countries where toxins from large numbers of uncontrolled dumpsites end up in water tables and in the air through unsorted refuse burning. While waste volumes tend to rise in tandem with national incomes, wealthier cities also have more resources to devote to controlled disposal and household waste collection.", "According to Guinness World Records, Turkey has the largest per capita consumption of bread in the world as of 2000, with 199.6 kg (440 lb) per person; Turkey is followed in bread consumption by Serbia and Montenegro with 135 kg (297 lb 9.9 oz), and Bulgaria with 133.1 kg (293 lb 6.9 oz). ", "With billions of people on the planet, disposing of sewage waste is a major problem. According to 2013 figures from the World Health Organization, some 780 million people (11 percent of the world's population) don't have access to safe drinking water, while 2.5 billion (40 percent of the world's population) don't have proper sanitation (hygienic toilet facilities); although there have been great improvements in securing access to clean water, relatively little progress has been made on improving global sanitation in the last decade. Sewage disposal affects people's immediate environments and leads to water-related illnesses such as diarrhea that kills 760,000 children under five each year. [3] (Back in 2002, the World Health Organization estimated that water-related diseases could kill as many as 135 million people by 2020.) In developed countries, most people have flush toilets that take sewage waste quickly and hygienically away from their homes.", "Reliable trash data is not easy to come by as the World Bank report authors point out (PDF). The statistics in the report charts come from the most recent available year, which varies from country to country. (See the data sources yourself in Annex C of the report) . The lack of robust, standardized trash data underscores how difficult it can be to hold countries accountable for trash generation.", "Uncontrolled dumping is the main waste disposal method in the region, a major source of disease. In Mumbai 12% of total municipal solid waste is burned either openly on the streets or in landfills, a practice that releases black carbon, dioxins and carcinogenic furans.", "There are many issues that surround reporting waste. It is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, and plastic or glass bottles can have different weights but be the same size. On a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001. For the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries. Despite these inconsistencies, waste reporting is still useful on a small and large scale to determine key causes and locations, and to find ways of preventing, minimizing, recovering, treating, and disposing waste.", "Which country contributes more to greenhouse gas emissions-those gases responsible for global warming-than any other country?", "Moreover, it is estimated that some 300–500 million tons of hazardous waste are produced annually. As regulations governing the safe and proper disposal of hazardous waste tighten, increasing handling charges and decreasing safe disposal capacity, much of the waste is suspected to be dumped illegally.", "Urbanization and income levels also tend to determine the type of waste generated. The share of inorganic materials in the waste stream, including plastics, paper, and aluminum, tends to increase as people grow wealthier and move to cities. Waste flows in rural areas, in contrast, are characterized by a high share of organic matter, ranging from 40 to 85 percent.Similarly, organic waste accounts for more than 60 percent of MSW in low-income countries, but only a quarter of the waste stream in high-income countries.", "By 2100,  they estimate , the growing global urban population will be producing three times as much waste as it does today. That level of waste carries serious consequences – physical and fiscal – for cities around the world. ", "The dam catalyzed improved upstream wastewater treatment around Chongqing and its suburban areas. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection, as of April 2007 more than 50 new plants could treat 1.84 million tonnes per day, 65% of the total need. About 32 landfills were added, which could handle 7,664.5 tonnes of solid waste every day. [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url", "* 3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous waste, crematoria, and sewage sludge incineration. This is a significant underestimate due to limited information, and is likely to be off by a factor of two to five.", "In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes comprise less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, much of which remains hazardous for long periods. Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material by volume than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal-burning plants are particularly noted for producing large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash due to concentrating naturally occurring metals and mildly radioactive material from the coal. A 2008 report from Oak Ridge National Laboratory concluded that coal power actually results in more radioactivity being released into the environment than nuclear power operation, and that the population effective dose equivalent, or dose to the public from radiation from coal plants is 100 times as much as from the ideal operation of nuclear plants. Indeed, coal ash is much less radioactive than spent nuclear fuel on a weight per weight basis, but coal ash is produced in much higher quantities per unit of energy generated, and this is released directly into the environment as fly ash, whereas nuclear plants use shielding to protect the environment from radioactive materials, for example, in dry cask storage vessels. ", "        Guiyu is today a textbook example of the major human health and environmental problems associated with the e-waste processing industry. It is also emblematic of the broader problems wrought by a global neoliberal economic regime that values profit over life.", "Rapid urbanisation combined with development will double the solid waste generation. Urban centres generate disproportionately high waste, sometimes creating unrest around the way they are disposed.", "tosses away enough of the super fuel Thorium yearly that can power the entire planet using Molten Salt Reactors (MSR). Imagine powering the World b yrecycling Green Waste?", "Human-generated sources, such as coal-burning power plants emit about half of atmospheric mercury, with natural sources such as volcanoes responsible for the remainder. An estimated two-thirds of human-generated mercury comes from stationary combustion, mostly of coal. Other important human-generated sources include gold production, nonferrous metal production, cement production, waste disposal, human crematoria, caustic soda production, pig iron and steel production, mercury production (mostly for batteries), and biomass burning.", "use of a household disposal to crush food waste and wash it into the sewer system." ]

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[ "Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650 million tons of sewage , 129,000 tons of mineral oil , 60,000 tons of mercury, 3,800 tons of lead and 36,000 tons of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. [18] The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' [19]", "The Convention for Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention), also known as the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean or simply the Barcelona Convention, is a regional convention adopted in 1976 to prevent and abate pollution from ships, aircraft and land based sources in the Mediterranean Sea. This includes but is not limited to dumping, run-off and discharges. Signers agreed to cooperate and assist in dealing with pollution emergencies, monitoring and scientific research. The convention was adopted on 16 February 1976 and last amended on 10 June 1995. ", "Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650000000 t of sewage, 129000 t of mineral oil, 60000 t of mercury, 3800 t of lead and 36000 t of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' ", "Barcelona (,,) is the capital city of the autonomous community of Catalonia in the Kingdom of Spain, as well as the country's second most populous municipality, with a population of 1.65 million within city limits. Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 4.7 million people, being the seventh-most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, London, Madrid, the Ruhr area, Berlin, and Milan. It is the largest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea, located on the coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs, and bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola mountain range, the tallest peak of which is 512 m high.", "Growing industrialization, shoreline populations, and tourism since the mid-20th century have resulted in severely polluted waters in many Mediterranean coastal areas. Pollution in the Mediterranean tends to remain near its source of discharge because of relatively weak tidal and current movements. Despite the absence of significant transborder effects, the countries of the region have agreed to cooperate to control the threat of marine pollution. Assisted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 16 countries adopted the Mediterranean Action Plan ( Med Plan) in 1975. The Med Plan comprises four elements: legal measures, institutional and financial support, integrated planning to prevent environmental degradation , and coordinated pollution monitoring and research. The two most important legal measures are the Barcelona Convention (1976), which calls for protective action against all forms of pollution, and the Athens Protocol (1980), which requires state parties to adopt programs to prevent and control pollution from land-based sources. The Med Plan has been widely regarded for successfully raising awareness of pollution in the Mediterranean; however, improvements in environmental quality under the plan have been limited.", "The Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution adopted a Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal on 1 October 1996. UNEP, Athens. UNEP(OCA)/MED/IG.9/4, 11 October 1996.", "Oceans and seas are the bodies of salt water that cover about 71% of the Earth's surface; they are referred to in total as the world ocean. Several centuries ago the \"seven seas\" were considered the navigable oceans. They were the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans; the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas; and the Gulf of Mexico. At present, however, oceanographers consider all other oceans and seas as belonging to the Atlantic, Pacific, or Indian oceans. The Arctic Ocean, the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas, and the Gulf of Mexico are considered marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean. These, in turn, have their own marginal bays and seas. Narrow, shallow straits separate the marginal seas from the Atlantic: the Straits of Florida (Gulf of Mexico), the Strait of Gibraltar (Mediterranean), and many gaps between the islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles (Caribbean Sea).", "Barcelona has served as a crossroads of manufacturing - a vital centre of trading and shipping - since before Christopher Columbus set sail for the Americas. Its strategic location, on the Mediterranean Sea and near the border with France, has made its emergence as the principal industrial and commercial centre of Spain inevitable. But just as important has been its cultural commitment to manufacturing as the mainstay of the community's economic life.", "Many industrial enterprises have been built on the shores of the Mediterranean and on its islands. Chemical and metallurgical industries have developed using raw materials delivered by sea. Between 1960 and 1975 the Italian islands of Sardinia and Sicily, the mouth of the Rhone in France, and other regions became major centers of the chemical industry. Petroleum and gas extraction has begun on the Mediterranean shelf in the northern Adriatic, along the coast of Greece, and elsewhere. Compared to other basins of the Atlantic Ocean, fishing is of secondary importance in the Mediterranean. The industrialization of the coastline, the growth of cities, and the development of recreation areas are polluting the coastal waters. The most famous resorts are on the Riviera in France and Italy, on the Levantine coast, and on Spain’s Balearic Islands.", "Spain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.", "The sea is of higher salinity than the Atlantic and has little variation in tides. The largest rivers that flow into it are the Po, Rhône, Ebro, and Nile. The shores are chiefly mountainous. Earthquakes and volcanic disturbances are frequent. The region around the sea has a warm, dry climate characterized by abundant sunshine. Strong local winds, such as the hot, dry sirocco from the south and the cold, dry mistral and bora from the north, blow across the sea. Fish (about 400 species), sponges, and corals are plentiful. In addition, oil and natural gas have been found in several sections of the sea. The overuse of the sea's natural and marine resources continues to be a problem.", "As early as the 1950s, environmental scientists in the Baltic region became aware of environmental degradation resulting from large-scale industrial development and chemical runoffs from agriculture. This awareness led to the 1974 signing by Baltic countries of the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, an agreement that was put into effect in 1980, revised in 1992, and reimplemented in 2000. The Helsinki Convention was one of the first international attempts to control land-based sources of pollution in a shared marine environment. Although some significant improvements in pollution control have been achieved, particularly in the Scandinavian countries, it is difficult to determine how much these improvements can be attributed to the institutions established under the Helsinki Convention.", "29. Spanish Islas Baleares; Archipelago, (population in 2001: 841,669), western Mediterranean Sea, constituting an autonomous community and province of Spain. It occupies an area of 1,927 sq mi (4,992 sq km); its capital is Palma. The most important islands are Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza, Formentera and Cabrera. Long inhabited, the islands were ruled by Carthage in the 5th century BC, by Rome from &#0441; 120 BC and by the Byzantine Empire from AD 534. Raided by the Arabs, the area was conquered in the 10th century by the Umayyad dynasty at Córdoba. It was reconquered by the Spanish and united with the kingdom of Aragon in 1344. Fought over in the 18th century by the Spanish, British and French, the islands came under Spanish rule in 1802. Their modern economy is fueled by tourism.", "Lanzarote (;), a Spanish island, is the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 125 km off the coast of Africa and 1000 km from the Iberian Peninsula. Covering , it is the fourth largest of the islands in the archipelago. With 141,938 inhabitants, Lanzarote is the third most populous island of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife and Gran Canaria. In the center-west of the island is the Timanfaya National Park, which is one of the main attractions of Lanzarote. Its capital is Arrecife.", "Barcelona is the capital and largest city of Catalonia and Spain’s second largest city. The city, located directly on the northeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain, has a rich history, having been under Roman, then Frank law before declaring its independence.", "*Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), Paris, 1992.", "Catalonia (, , ) is an autonomous community of Spain, located on the northeastern extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. It is designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy. Catalonia consists of four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. The capital and largest city is Barcelona, the second-most populated municipality in Spain and the core of the seventh-most populous urban area in the European Union.", "The Canary Islands (; ,), also known as the Canaries (), are an archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located just off the southern coast of Morocco, 100 km west of its southern border. The Canaries are among the outermost regions (OMR) of the European Union proper. It is also one of the eight regions with special consideration of Historical Nationality recognized as such by the Spanish Government. ", "major seaport(s): Algeciras, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cartagena, Huelva, Tarragona, Valencia (Spain); Las Palmas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands)", "Catalonia (, , ) is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, located on the northeastern extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. It is politically designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy. Catalonia consists of four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. The capital and largest city is Barcelona, the second-largest city in Spain.", "•    The Amoco Cadiz tanker ran aground due to a steering gear failure on March 16, 1978, three miles from the coast of Brittany, France. It split in three before sinking, creating the largest oil spill of its kind in history to that date – 1.6 million barrels. Public outcry and political pressure resulted in significant updates to both MARPOL and SOLAS, and the addition of safety and pollution audits that led to in 1982 to the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (Paris MoU), which established Port State Control. The beauty of port state control is that it has enabled an international port inspection system that makes it impossible for non-compliant ships to hide. It also led to the International Convention on the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) in 1978.", "Denmark includes Greenland and the Faroes in regional and international environmental agreements pertaining to air pollution and the ozone layer, ship pollution and marine life, climactic changes, endangered species and habitats. In 1985 the Folketing passed legislation against the future construction of nuclear power plants in Denmark and agreed to help establish a Nordic nuclear-free zone.", "While in the eastern Mediterranean, Eleanor learned about maritime conventions developing there, which were the beginnings of what would become admiralty law. She introduced those conventions in her own lands on the island of Oleron in 1160 (with the \"Rolls of Oléron\") and later in England as well. She was also instrumental in developing trade agreements with Constantinople and ports of trade in the Holy Lands.", "The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place between 1973 and 1982. The Law of the Sea Convention defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. The Convention, concluded in 1982, replaced four 1958 treaties. UNCLOS came into force in 1994, a year after Guyana became the 60th nation to sign the treaty. , 167 countries and the European Union have joined in the Convention. It is uncertain as to what extent the Convention codifies customary international law.", "Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution", "*Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention), London, 1972.", "*Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983.", "Trade has been active along the coast since Greek and Roman times. The history of medieval Catalonia is that of the counts of Barcelona, who emerged (9th cent.) as the chief lords in the Spanish March founded by Charlemagne. United (1137) with Aragón Aragón", "In more recent decades, Barcelona, again the capital of the autonomous Catalonia, has gained importance as an economic center and as one of Europe's busiest ports. In 1992, the city garnered attention by hosting the Summer Olympics.", "After Franco's death in 1975, Catalonia voted for the adoption of a democratic Spanish Constitution in 1978, in which Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy, restoring the Generalitat from the exile in 1977 and adopting a new Statute of Autonomy in 1979. Today, Catalonia is one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination. In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympic Games.", "Catalonia is an autonomous community within Spain defined as a nationality, and before the 18th century it was an State (in the form of principality) of the Crown of Aragon , with a complex parlamentary system. Since 1714, as a consequence of its defeat in the War of the Spanish Succession, Catalan institutions and laws were supressed, as well as the administrative use of Catalan language. The country gained its current autonomous status first in the Republican era (1931-1939) and then again after Franco's death in 1975 and continues to press for more political and economic autonomy, mainly in the form of the right to decide on language, education, culture, healthcare and its political future.", "The Autonomous Community of Catalonia , known throughout history simply as Catalonia, is today one of the 17 autonomou..." ]

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[ "Scientists use the Mohs scale to gauge the hardness of minerals to help identify them.  Gary Ombler, Getty Images", "Refers to one mineral 's ability to scratch another. Hardness is measured on a scale called the Mohs' scale of hardness. This scale ranges from 10 ( diamond ) to 1 ( talc ), with 10 being the hardest.", "Hardness is measured using the Mohs' scale, on which 10 is hardest. (Diamond has a hardness of 10.) Gemstones should have a Mohs' hardness of 6 or more. A really durable gem should have a hardness of at least 7, which is the hardness of quartz. Table 1 shows the hardness of some familiar minerals on the Mohs' scale.", "A measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched. Hardness is measured on the Mohs scale.", "The scale used to measure the degree to which a stone or mineral is resistant to scratches . Hardness is measured from 1 to 10, 10 ( diamonds ) being the hardest.", "The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale. Defined by ten indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc, a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. The scale is provided below:", "Although there are many methods and systems used to gauge a material’s hardness, the most common of these is the Mohs Hardness Scale. Mohs Hardness Scale, a system founded by Friedrich Mohs in 1812, is a type of chart used to test and contrast the hardness of different minerals. The scale, which can best be described as ordinal rather than linear or logarithmic, provides a rough measure of a mineral’s hardness based on its smooth surface resistance to scratching and abrasion. In other words, it allows our custom jewelry designer in Seattle and Bellevue to rank the hardness of a mineral by its ability (or inability) to scratch another known mineral.", "Despite its simplicity and lack of precision, the Mohs scale is highly relevant for field geologists, who use the scale to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits. The Mohs scale hardness of minerals can be commonly found in reference sheets. Reference materials may be expected to have a uniform Mohs hardness.", "The Moh's (Mohs) scale of hardness is the most common method used to rank gemstones and minerals according to hardness. Devised by German mineralogist Friedrich Moh in 1812, this scale grades minerals on a scale from 1 (very soft) to 10 (very hard).", "Hardness is one of the better properties of minerals to use for identifying a mineral. Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals whose hardness is known. The softest mineral, talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one. Diamond is the hardest mineral and has a rating of ten. Softer minerals can be scratched by harder minerals because the forces that hold the crystals together are weaker and can be broken by the harder mineral.", "Hardness: Resistance to abrading or scratching; measured from 1 to 10 on the Mohs Hardness Scale. **For a list of the Mohs Hardness values of various minerals and gemstones, click here: Mohs Hardness Scale �", "Since the Mohs Scale was developed, many other hardness tests have been invented. These include tests by Brinell , Knoop , Rockwell , Shore and Vickers . Each of these tests uses a small \"indenter\" that is applied to the material being tested with a carefully measured amount of force. Then, the size or depth of the indentation coupled with the amount of force is calculated into a hardness value. The Mohs scale however, is the most universal scale, and the one all jewelers reference today.", "Mohs' hardness scale provides an index and relative measure of mineral hardness (i.e., resistance to abrasion). German geologist Frierich Mohs (1773–1839) devised a scale with specimen minerals that offered comparison of \"hardness\" qualities that allows the assignment of a Mohs hardness number to a mineral. Mohs' scale utilizes 10 specific representative materials that are arranged numerically from the softest (1) to the hardest (10). The reference minerals are (1) talc, (2) gypsum , (3) calcite, (4) fluorite, (5) apatite, (6) orthoclase feldspar , (7) quartz , (8) topaz, (9) corundum, and (10) diamond .", "Hardness is a measure of how easily a gemstone will get scratched or how it is affected by abrasion. Organic red Coral gemstone gets scratched easily and therefore it measures less on the scale of hardness. At the same time diamond resists any kind of scratching and is by itself the hardest substance known. Diamond measures the highest on the Moh’s scale of mineral hardness.", "It is possible to identify an individual mineral in a specimen by examining and testing its physical properties. Determining the hardness of a mineral is the most practical way of identifying it. This can be done by using the Mohs scale of hardness, which lists 10 common minerals in their relative order of hardness: talc (softest with the scale number 1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite (4), apatite (5), orthoclase (6), quartz (7), topaz (8), corundum (9), and diamond (10). Harder minerals scratch softer ones, so that an unknown mineral can be readily positioned between minerals on the scale. Certain common objects that have been assigned hardness values roughly corresponding to those of the Mohs scale (e.g., fingernail [2.5], pocketknife blade [5.5], steel file [6.5]) are usually used in conjunction with the minerals on the scale for additional reference.", "The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the scales means the harder the material.", "Mohs Scale of Hardness is important instrument that give us possibility to compare and order minerals by their main quality – hardness. Based on this characteristics we use it properly as abrasives and polishers. ", "The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale that characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material. It was created in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs and is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science, some of which are more quantitative.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387714/Mohs-hardness \"Mohs hardness\"] in Encyclopædia Britannica Online The method of comparing hardness by seeing which minerals can visibly scratch others, however, is of great antiquity, having been mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise On Stones, c. 300 BC, followed by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, c. 77 AD. While greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, the Mohs scale does not show how well hard materials perform in an industrial setting. ", "There are many systems used to measure hardness, which is defined several different ways. Gemstones and other minerals are ranked according to their Mohs hardness. Mohs hardness refers to a material's ability to resist abrasion or scratching. Note that a hard gem or mineral is not automatically tough or durable.", "Example: You select one of the minerals from Mohs Scale that looks like the one pictured here and find that it can be scratched by the knife (H=5.5) but not by the penny (H=3). Therefore, you are able to conclude that the specimen has a relative hardness between 3.0 and 5.5. The minerals from Mohs Scale that fall into that relative hardness range are calcite (H=3), fluorite (H=4) and apatite (H=5). By using your powers of observation and your knowledge of other physical characteristics of minerals such as crystalline structure, color, streak etc. you are able to conclude that your sample calcite!", "Mohs hardness scale A scale of relevant Hardness , where 10 is the hardest and 1 is the softest. The Diamond ranks 10 on the Mohs Scale . Mother of Pearl The iridescent lining of the inside of a mollusk 's shell . Often used as decorative pieces, such as button s.", "There are multiple scales that evaluate hardness because of the number of materials that can be measured with a durometer. These range from hard plastics to rubbers and foam. The three most utilized scales are “A,” which covers the broadest range of materials but not softest or hardest, “D,” which is used for hard materials like plastics and “OO,” for the softest materials like foams and rubbers. On every scale materials are valued numerically 0 to 100, with 100 being the hardest and 0 being the softest.", "Some people use a few common objects for quick hardness tests. For example, a geologist in the field might always carry a pocket knife. The knife can be used for a quick hardness test to determine if a specimen is harder or softer than Mohs 5 to 6.5.", "An instrument that measures the hardness of a sample in arbitrary terms of elasticity. A diamond tipped hammer is allowed to fall freely down a graduated glass tube on to the sample under test. The hardness is measured by the height of the rebound. In another form the rebounding hammer actuates the pointer of a scale so that the height of the rebound is recorded.", "The scale includes 10 examples of minerals that illustrate the general hardness of minerals. Mosh choose to compare minerals because they are 100% natural products that are basic components of our environment as they build stones and rocks.", "The degree of resistance of a given mineral to scratch ing, indicating the strength of the bonds that hold the mineral 's atoms tog ether . The hardness of a mineral is measured by rubbing it with substances of known hardness.", "A penny has a hardness of 3.0 - slightly harder than your fingernail. So, if you can't scratch the specimen with your fingernail (H=2.5), but a penny does the job, you immediately know that it is at least as hard as calcite (H=3).", "The hardness of a mineral is a way of describing how easy or difficult it is to scratch the mineral. It is used, in combination with the other physical properties, to help identify a mineral specimen.", "The durometer scale was defined by Albert F. Shore, who developed a measurement device called a durometer in the 1920s. The term durometer is often used to refer to the measurement, as well as the instrument itself. It is also known as Shore Hardness. A Durometer is an instrument that is commonly used for measuring the indentation hardness of rubbers/elastomers and soft plastics. A Durometer simply uses a calibrated spring to apply a specific pressure to an indenter foot. The indenter foot can be either cone or sphere shaped. An indicating device measures the depth of indentation. There are several scales of durometer, used for materials with different properties. The two most common scales, using slightly different measurement systems, are the ASTM D2240 type A and type D scales. The scale A is used for softer materials and the scale D is used for harder materials. Each scale results in a value between 0 and 100, with higher values indicating a harder material. The indenting foot is made from hardened steel rod. Its geometry for scale A and scale D is shown in figure given below.", "Hardness testing is done by \"scratching\" one mineral with the other. To get the most accurate results, a sharp edge should be scratched against a smooth surface, on a small an area as possible. The scratch should not be conducted on a surface that is coated, chipped, or weathered, for it will give inaccurate results.", "To use the scale, a mineral is tested against one of the standard minerals listed below. Whichever one scratches the other is harder.", "Shore hardness is a measure of the resistance of material to indentation by 3 spring-loaded indenter. The higher the number, the greater the resistance." ]

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[ "The smallest continent in the world is Australia/Oceania, with an area of approximately 8,112,000 square kilometers. Australia/Oceania, also called Australasia/Oceania, consists of different islands, including Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Micronesia, Vanuatu and Samoa.", "In terms of land area, the continent of Australia is the world's smallest continent. In total, it includes 2,967,909 square miles (7,686,884 square kilometers), which is slightly smaller than the country of Brazil as well as the contiguous United States.", "The smallest continent in the world is Australia at just over 8.5 million square kilometers. Arbitrarily, Australia isn’t considered an island because it is so large, so the status of largest island in the world is awarded to Greenland at about one quarter the size of Australia. Australia is not only a continent unto itself, but also a country that includes Tasmania, and a number of small islands in the South Pacific. The population is approximately, 21 million people. The capital of Australia is Canberra, and its largest city is Sidney.", "By convention, \"continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water.\" Many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. The criterion \"large\" leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2166086 sqkm is considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at 7617930 sqkm is deemed the smallest continent.", "Antarctica is the southernmost continent and includes the South Pole. Geographic sources disagree as to whether it is surrounded by the Southern Ocean or the South Pacific Ocean , South Atlantic Ocean , and Indian Ocean . It is divided by the Transantarctic Mountains. On average, it is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. [1] At 14.425 million km², Antarctica is the third-smallest continent after Europe and Australia; 98% of it is covered in ice. Because there is little precipitation, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest desert in the world. There are no permanent human residents and Antarctica has never had an indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, fur seals, mosses, lichens, and many types of algae. The name \"Antarctica\" comes from the Greek ανταρκτικός (antarktikos), meaning \"opposite the Arctic.\" [2]", "Europe is the second smallest continent in the world. It comprises the westernmost peninsula of the giant Eurasian continent. Covering almost 2 percent of the earth’s surface Europe takes 6.8 percent of the world’s total land area. Europe is home to almost 50 countries and is the third most populated continent in the world after Asia and Africa. About 11 percent of the world’s population lives in Australia. Russia is the largest country in Europe and Vatican City is the smallest.", "The mainland of Australia is not only the largest island in the world but also the flattest and the smallest continent.", "Greenland is the world's largest island with an area of over 2.1 million km², while Australia, the world's smallest continent, has an area of 7.6 million km², but there is no standard of size which distinguishes islands from continents, or from islets. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology. Continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earth's mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, so it floats low on the mantle. Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust (e.g. volcanic islands) or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere (e.g. Greenland). This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate.", "Following Africa is Europe, with a population in 2016 of 738 million, or 11% of the world's total population. Europe accounts for only 2% of the earth's surface and 6.8% of its land area, and it's the second-smallest continent. Russia takes up 40% of the continent's area, while Asia's landmass is much greater with a higher population density. Europe has approximately 134 people per square mile, compared to 203/square mile in Asia.", "The continent of Australia has a total land area of 8,560,000 square kilometers. It is the smallest and also the lowest lying human inhabited continent on the face of the Earth. Half of the islands on the continent are less than 50 meters deep, and the continental shelf that connects them covers around 2,500,000 square kilometers. This includes the Bass Strait and the Sahul Shelf. The country of Australia covers most of the continent as it is mostly on the single mainland landmass. As such, it is also called the island continent that is covered by oceans on all sides.", "Antarctica is the most southerly continent and encompasses the South Pole. It is surrounded by the Southern Ocean and divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains. On average, it is the coldest, driest, windiest, and highest of all the continents. With 98% of it covered in ice, Antarctica, at 14 million kms, is the third-smallest continent (after Europe and Australia), but the third highest. Because there is little precipitation, the entire continent is technically a desert and is thus the largest in the world. There are no permanent human residents and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, fur seals, mosses, lichens, and many types of algae.", "Australia officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent (the world's smallest), the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east, and New Zealand to the southeast.", "The world has seven focal continents. Rated by physical area from the largest to the smallest, they are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Australia, and Europe. Antarctica, which is larger than Australia and 1.3 times larger than Europe, is located entirely south of 60° latitude and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica has the highest average elevation of any continent; there are many mountain ranges. The two-thousand-mile-long Transantarctic Mountain range divides Antarctica into a small western region and a larger eastern region. At both ends of the Transantarctic Mountains are the two main ice shelves: the Ross Ice Shelf and the Ronne Ice Shelf. The Ellsworth Mountains are located in the western region and are home to Mt. Vinson (or the Vinson Massif), which is the highest peak on the continent, reaching an elevation of 16,050 feet. This is higher than any mountain in the contiguous, continental United States, Europe, or Australia.", "There are seven continents of the world, covering 1/3rd area of the planet. Rest of the 2/3rd part of the globe is occupied by water. In the table to the right, these large pieces of landmass are arranged according to their area in kilometers. Also the population, Asia and Australia are the largest and smallest continents, respectively.", "The continent of Australia is a single country continent. It is the sixth largest country by total area. It is also the smallest of all the seven continents. Because of its size, and isolated location, it is also called as island continent. Covering an area of 7617930 square kilometers, Australia lies in the Indo- Australian Plate. This continent is surrounded by Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Australia is one of the least populated continents and is rich in biodiversity. The Great Barrier Reef, which is the largest coral reef in the world, is in Australia. It extends over 2000 kilometers in the north east coast of Australia. Australia is also home to world’s largest monolith, Mount Augustus.", "The continent of Australia is a single country continent. It is the sixth largest country by total area, and is also the smallest of all the seven continents. Because of its size, and isolated location, it is also called as island continent. Covering an area of 7617930 square kilometres, Australia lies in the Indo- Australian Plate. This continent is surrounded by Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Australia is one of the least populated continents and is rich in biodiversity. The Great Barrier Reef, which is the largest coral reef in the world, is in Australia. It extends over 2000 kilometres in the north east cost of Australia. Australia is also home to world’s largest monolith, Mount Augustus.", "The title of the smallest country on the continent of South America goes to Suriname. It consists of a region that is 163,270 km2 (63,040 square miles), which makes it about 13,000 km² smaller than the next smallest country Uruguay. It also has the smallest population of any country in South America with just under 500,000 people. It is located in the northern part of the continent and borders French Guiana to the east and Guyana to the west. The country was once a colony of the Netherlands, but achieved independence in 1975. Dutch remains the official language of Suriname.", "Europe second smallest of the world’s continents, composed of the westward-projecting peninsulas of Eurasia (the great landmass that it shares with Asia) and occupying nearly one-fifteenth of the world’s total land area. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic...", "It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the English conception. The continent lies on a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past ten thousand years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent. Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota.", "17.2. What are the continents of the world arranged according to land size, largest to smallest?", "Ecuador is located in the western corner at the top of the South American continent. Ecuador, the smallest country in South America, is named after the Equator, the imaginary line around the Earth that splits the country in two. Most of the country is in the Southern Hemisphere.", "And come on……..don’t say all Asia is the whole world and see what you do………you say Europe is not the whole world, Latin America, Oceania are smallest,etc….. so ??", "-roo), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island nation in Micronesia in the South Pacific . Its nearest neighbor is Banaba Island in Kiribati , 300 km to the east. Nauru is the world's smallest island nation, covering just 21 square kilometres (8.1 square miles ). [1]", "The smallest region of South America is South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. These cover an area of just 3,903 km2 (1,507 square miles) and have a population of about 30 people (mainly scientists). This region belongs to the United Kingdom who annexed the area in 1908.", "The average elevation of the continent approximates closely to 600 m above sea level, roughly near to the mean elevation of both North and South America, but considerably less than that of Asia, 950 m. In contrast with other continents, it is marked by the comparatively small area of either very high or very low ground, lands under 180 m occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia or South America, but the area of land over 3000 m is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a specialised term [Inselberg-Landschaft, island mountain landscape] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, thought to be in great part the result of wind action.)", "Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. There are a number of rivers and lakes in antarctica, the longest river being the Onyx. The largest lake, Vostok, is one of the largest sub-glacial lakes in the world. Antarctica covers more than 14000000 km2, making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17968 km and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:", "While Africa is the second largest of the earth’s seven continents, it has the shortest coastline, due to very few jutting edges and bays in its landscape.a", "Size of Windsor Great Park, UK and just under that of Nauru, an island country in Micronesia in the South Pacific that is the world’s smallest republic", "Having a wingspan of only ½\", the smallest butterfly is in the world is found in South Africa. It is know as the Dwarf Blue Butterfly", "Polynesia is also home to some tiny island nations: The northern Cook atolls are seldom visited other than by the occasional government official from Rarotonga. Tahiti has three island groups that tourists seldom venture to with the Gambier and Astral islands occasionally visited by passing yachties. Niue is the smallest nation in the world whilst Tuvalu, virtually flat and with its highest point being just 5 metres high, is rapidly succumbing to sea level rise. Tokelau, a tiny atoll and dependency of Samoa, is virtually unknown; whilst Rotuma, north of Fiji, even though larger, is even less well known. Add to these the two mountainous islands of Wallis & Futuna and if you regard yourself as an explorer, then these are some exceptional islands to add to your bucket list.", "The smallest African country is The Seychelles covering an area of 453 sq km but Gambia is the smallest of the mainland African states, covering an area of 11,300 sq km (4,363 sq mi).", "An island continent of 2,941,526 square miles (7,618,517 square kilometers), with low elevation and moderate relief, situated in the southern Pacific." ]

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[ "Most of our atmosphere is made up of nitrogen (78% by volume) and oxygen (21% by volume). The remaining 1% of the atmospheric gases are known as trace gases because they are present in such small concentrations. The most abundant of the trace gases is the noble gas argon (approximately 1% by volume). Noble gases, which also include neon, helium, krypton and xenon, are very inert and do not generally engage in any chemical transformation within the atmosphere. Hydrogen is also present in trace quantities in the atmosphere, but because it is so light, over time much of it has escaped Earth's gravitational pull to space.", "Argon comprises about 1% of the atmosphere, which is more than carbon dioxide. Its origin is rocks containing radioactive potassium that decays into argon. Argon is by far the most common noble gas, and therefore the cheapest.", "The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium, radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio), and ozone. In addition the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is highly variable but typically 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols. [1]", "In the 1800s, scientists, including John Dalton, realized that the atmosphere was composed of a variety of gases. By volume, air is made up of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, with small amounts of additional gases including water vapor and carbon dioxide. While the three major components have remained relatively constant over time and space, the minor components, which also include methane, sulfur dioxide, ozone , and nitrogen oxides , have varied more widely. These minor components are the major contributors to phenomena like weather, the greenhouse effect, and global warming .", "The last 1 percent of the gases in the atmosphere form two groups: those whose quantities fluctuate and those that remain constant. The most abundant of these trace components is argon, which forms a constant 0.93 percent of the atmosphere. Other noble gases -- helium, neon and krypton -- also exist in trace amounts. Among the elements whose quantities vary are water vapor, ozone, methane, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and -- most abundantly -- carbon dioxide. The atmosphere also contains particulate matter, such as snow, dust and volcanic ash, whose quantities are highly variable.", "The noble gases form 1% of air, and most of this is argon. All the noble gases, except radioactive radon, are separated by the fractional distillation of liquified air.", "The atmosphere surrounds Earth and protects us by blocking out dangerous rays from the sun. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%).", "The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surround the Earth. It is essential to all life and serves several purposes, such as providing air for respiration, absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, protecting the earth from falling meteorites, controlling climate and regulating the water cycle. The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 1 percent argon and trace amounts of other gases that include carbon dioxide and neon.", "Earth's atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen (77%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), and carbon dioxide (0.03%).", "The remaining 1% of the atmospheric gases is made up of trace gases. These include the noble gases, very inert or unreactive gases, of which the most abundant is argon. Other noble gases include neon, helium, krypton and xenon. Hydrogen is also present in trace quantities in the atmosphere, but because it is so light, over time much of it has escaped Earth's gravitational pull to space.", "Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere: 78% of the Earth�s atmosphere is nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases like carbon dioxide, etc.", "Air is the name given to atmosphere used in breathing and photosynthesis. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1%. While air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals is currently only known to be found in Earth's troposphere and artificial atmospheres.", "The atmosphere is the mixture of gas molecules and other materials surrounding the earth. It is made mostly of the gases nitrogen (78%), and oxygen (21%). Argon gas and water (in the form of vapor, droplets and ice crystals) are the next most common things. There are also small amounts of other gases, plus many small solid particles, like dust, soot and ashes, pollen, and salt from the oceans.", "The graph uses as logarithmic scale for volume percentage of the atmosphere so that these gases with very different concentrations can all be plotted. By far the predominant gas is carbon dioxide, making up 95.9 percent of the atmosphere's volume. The next four most abundant gases are argon, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon monoxide. Researchers will use SAM repeatedly throughout Curiosity's mission on Mars to check for seasonal changes in atmospheric composition.", "By contrast, helium is much less abundant on Earth. It is the sixth most abundant gas in the atmosphere after nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and neon. It makes up about 0.000524 percent of the air.", "The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics describes the atmosphere as 78.084% N2, 20.946% O2, 0.934% Ar, and 0.033% CO2 by volume when the water vapor has been removed. What image does this description evoke in your mind? Do you believe that only 20.463% of the room in which you are sitting contains O2? Or do you believe that the atmosphere in your room is a more or less homogeneous mixture of these gases?", "composition of atmosphere is 90% N2, 7% CH4, 2% Ar and traces of ethane, acetylene, ethylene, propane and hydrogen cyanide (i.e. smog)", "The atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen. It does have some helium and small amounts of other gases in it as well.", "Nitrogen gas (N2) is the largest constituent of Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). However, this high concentration does not reflect nitrogen's overall low abundance in the makeup of the Earth, from which most of the element escaped by solar evaporation, early in the planet's formation.", "1. a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and minute amounts of other gases that surrounds the earth and forms its atmosphere.", "The primary atmosphere for every terrestrial world was composed mostly of light gases that accreted during initial formation. These gases are similar to the primordial mixture of gases found in the Sun and Jupiter . That is 94.2% H, 5.7% He and everything else less that 0.1%.", "heavy atmosphere (1.4 times the Earth's) with structure in the form of haze - reddish color from organic molecules formed by breakdown of CH4 (methane) by cosmic rays", "The layer resting on the \"surface\" of the gas giant is known as the troposphere, and extends to approximately 31 miles (50 kilometers) above the surface. The troposphere contains ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfide, and water, which form the distinctive red and white bands seen from Earth. The colder white bands are known as zones, while the darker red ones are belts. Gases within the zones rise, while within the belts they fall.", "Trace amounts of methane (CH4), at the level of several parts per billion (ppb), were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2003. In March 2004, the Mars Express Orbiter and ground-based observations by three groups also suggested the presence of methane in the atmosphere at a concentration of about 10 ppb (parts per billion). Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal.", "The Mars Orbiter Mission by India is searching for methane in the atmosphere, while the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, planned to launch in 2016, would further study the methane as well as its decomposition products, such as formaldehyde and methanol.Mustard, Jack (July 9, 2009) [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/pss/july2009/presentations/05MEPAG.pdf MEPAG Report to the Planetary Science Subcommittee]. lpi.usra.edu. p. 3", "a gas composed of 3 atoms of oxygen; occurs at ground level and in the upper atmosphere", "1) The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains  70 to 80 per cent of the Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer. ", "meteorologists study the troposphere, the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere starts at Earth's surface and goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km (4 to 12 miles) above sea level. Most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Almost all weather occurs within this layer.", "The gaseous area surrounding the planet is divided into several concentric strata or layers. About 99% of the total atmospheric mass is concentrated in the first 20 miles (32 km) above Earth's surface. Historical outline on the discovery of atmospheric structure.", "The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km. Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.", "The boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. The atmospheric pressure here is 1/1000th of the atmospheric pressure at sea level.", "What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation?" ]

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[ "Hot dry rock is mainly metamorphic rock or crystalline rock. The key technology of heat collection is to build a heat exchange system in the body of hot dry rock without percolation. Generally, high-pressure water is injected into the rock stratum of 2,000~6,000 metres underground through a injection well which permeates the gaps of rock stratum and obtains geothermal energy; then the high-temperature water and steam in the gaps of rocks are picked up through a dedicated production well (at a distance of 200~600 metres) to the ground; the water and steam can be used to generate electricity after pouring into a heat exchange system; the water after refrigeration will be injected into the underground heat exchange system again via a high-pressure pump for recycling. The entire procedure is a closed system.", "Geothermal energy may be classified into four categories [ 12 ]: (1) hydrothermal: the hot water or hydrothermal steam in the shallow layer with a depth of hundreds of metres ~ 2,000 metres; (2) geopressured geothermal energy: the high-temperature high-pressure fluid sealed thousands of metres under the ground in some large sedimentation basins; (3) magmatic thermal energy: the enormous thermal energy stored in magma pockets; (4) hot dry rock: it is a high-temperature rock mass stored deep underground without water or steam with the depth (thousands of metres) that can be reached with current drilling technology. Usually, the geothermal energy contained in hot dry rocks and magma pockets is much more than the geothermal energy of hydrothermal and geopressured heat reservoirs.", "The term “geothermal” is derived from the Greek words for Earth (geo) and heat (therme). In essence geothermal energy is power harnessed from the Earth itself. Heat from the Earth’s core, which averages about 6,650 degrees Fahrenheit, emanates out toward the planet’s surface. Heated springs and geysers up to three miles underground can be accessed by special wells that bring the hot water (or steam from it) up to the surface where it can be used directly for heat or indirectly to generate electricity by powering rotating turbines.", "energy produced when underground water is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rock", "Geothermal energy originates from the inner core of the earth. Geothermal energy is evident on the earth's surface in the forms of volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs. Even though the amount of energy within the earth is basically infinite, our ability to use it is limited by site considerations. Favorable sites for geothermal energy extraction are rare and occur where magma, or hot molten rock of the earth's mantle, has been pushed up near the earth's surface through faults and cracks in the crust. The resulting \"hot spots\" 2 to 3 km from the surface naturally heat water that leaks in. From there, the steam and hot water may be used directly to turn turbines or to heat homes. As the steam and hot water is expelled from the hot spot, cooler water runs back down, and the cycle continues.", "People live close to volcanoes because Geothermal energy can be harnessed by using the steam from underground which has been heated by the Earth's magma. This steam is used to drive turbines in geothermal power stations to produce electricity for domestic and industrial use. Countries such as Iceland and New Zealand use this method of generating electricity.", "When magma comes close to the surface it heats ground water found trapped in porous rock or water running along fractured rock surfaces and faults.   Such hydrothermal resources have two common ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal).  Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called geothermal reservoirs.  Geologists use different methods to look for geothermal reservoirs. Drilling a well and testing the temperature deep underground is the only way to be sure a geothermal reservoir really exists.", "Magma (layers of melted rock from the Earth’s crust) deep in the Earth’s core heats nearby rock and rainwater that has seeped into the ground. Some of this hot water reaches the Earth’s surface in the form of geysers or hot springs. But most stays trapped in porous rocks and cracks underground in what are called geothermal reservoirs.", "Geothermal energy can only be used in locations where the topography of the earth provides reservoirs. In these areas, the magma (molten rock) comes closer to the surface and the water running through this porous and fractured rock creates a hydrothermal feature. Hydrothermal refers to the presence of water and heat. Geothermal reservoirs are found by geologists who drill test holes deep into the ground to find existing geothermal reservoirs.", "Several types of rock contain radioactive substances such as uranium. Radioactive decay of these substances releases heat energy, which warms up the rocks. In volcanic areas, the rocks may heat water so that it rises to the surface naturally as hot water and steam. Here the steam can be used to drive turbines and electricity generators.", "More recently, since 1970, technology has been developed to extract the heat from hot rock by artificially circulating water through the rock to produce super-heated water or steam to drive the generators.", "There are two main exploitable sources of geothermal energy. Hydrothermal systems, first demonstrated in 1904, used the naturally occurring hot water or steam trapped in or circulating through permeable rock, to drive steam powered electricity generators.", "Hydrothermal resources have the common ingredients of water (hydro) and heat (thermal). These geothermal reservoirs of steam or hot water occur naturally where magma comes close enough to the surface to heat ground water trapped in fractured or porous rocks, or where water circulates at great depth along faults. Hydrothermal resources are used for different energy purposes depending on their temperature and how deep they are.", "Magma (molten rock) may come quite close to the surface where the crust has been thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate tectonics. When this near-surface heat is transferred to water, a usable form of geother- energy is created.", "The ground is a good insulator and stores the heat as energy. Pipes are run through a large area several feet underground. Water is heated as it passes through these pipes. New drilling technologies are being researched and developed to capture the heat in deeper areas.", "The term igneous comes from the Latin ignis, meaning \"fire\". Igneous is used to describe rocks that crystallize out of hot molten material in the Earth called magma. When magma pushes up through Earth's crust to the surface, it is called lava. Both magma and lava cool and harden to form igneous rocks.", "When hot magma is erupted onto the surface of the Earth, it is called lava.  The word lava is used to describe both moving melted rock, and cooled and hardened rock that originated as lava.  Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an erupting volcanic vent.  Lava comes in many types defined by the range of minerals in the rock.", "In the laboratory, most rocks must be heated to temperatures of 800°C to 1200°C before they melt. In nature, these temperatures are present in the upper mantle and lower crust. Where does this heat come from? Scientists theorize that the remaining energy from Earth's molten formation and the heat generated from the decay of radioactive elements are the sources of Earth's thermal energy.", "comes from a Greek word for fire. Deep inside the earth, the temperature is very. Igneous rock definition . Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire) is one of the three", "These rocks are made when magma, molten rock, cools within Earth's surface or near it. These rocks come from volcanoes", "Magma is a dynamic and fluid substance that is capable of creating new landforms. This molten rock starts in the upper part of the mantle and the lower portion of the crust. When magma erupts from a volcano or other vent, the molten rock is referred to as lava. When lava cools on the Earth’s surface and forms a solid structure, it is called igneous rock.", "volcanism—Any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surface discharge of molten rock or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.", "comes from a Greek word for fire. Deep inside the earth, the temperature is very. Igneous textures include the rock textures occurring in igneous rocks. Igneous", "When magma is eject ed by a volcano or other vent , the material is called lava . Magma that has cooled into a solid is called igneous rock .", "The temperature increase with depth, as well as volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, etc., are in a sense the visible or tangible expression of the heat in the interior of the Earth, but this heat also engenders other phenomena that are less discernible by man, but of such magnitude that the Earth has been compared to an immense 'thermal engine'. We will try to describe these phenomena, referred to collectively as the plate tectonics theory, in simple terms, and their relationship with geothermal resources.", "Extrusive, also known as volcanic, rocks are a type of igneous rock that form at the crust's surface as a result of volcanic activity. This type of rock occurs when lava flows on or above the Earth's surface and cools down rapidly. The lava comes from the upper mantle layer, 30 to 90 miles beneath the surface, and cools within a few weeks. Because the magma cools and solidifies quickly, the crystals that form do not have time to grow very large, and therefore most extrusive rocks are finely grained. The most common type of extrusive rock is basalt.", "Extrusive , or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools outside of, or very near the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures. The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and solidifies almost instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere.", "Igneous rock that forms at the surface of the earth is referred to as extrusive or volcanic rock. These are named after the fire god, Vulcan. Basalt is a good example of extrusive igneous rock.", "the transfer of heat by the movement of rock from areas of high heat to the areas of low heat", "a fine-grained or glassy igneous rock formed from magma that erupts at Earth's surface as lava and cools rapidly", "Hotspot — A hotspot is an upwelling center of molten basalt, a narrow plume or pipe of mantle material that rises and spreads out radially in the asthenosphere.", "IGNEOUS - rocks which formed by the cooling and solidification (crystallization) of molten rock which originated from below the earth's surface." ]

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[ "Quartz’ stability, even under harsh chemical conditions, was aptly demonstrated by some dinosaurs that swallowed stones to aid in the digestion of land plants. These gizzard stones, called gastroliths, are almost always composed solely of quartz. Other stones the dinosaur may have swallowed broke down in the swirl of its strong stomach acids, only leaving quartz rocks to survive as working gastroliths.", "Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths.", "Gastrolith   A pebble swallowed to help with digestion. Massive plant-eaters like Diplodocus had no chewing teeth, so they swallowed food whole, along with gizzard stones, or gastroliths . These helped to mash the food in the dinosaurs’ stomachs. ", "The teeth of Apatosaurus were incapable of efficiently crushing or grinding food to prepare it for digestion. How, then, was digestion accomplished? Clues to the digestion system of large herbivorous dinosaurs come from birds, which do not have teeth to chew their food. Parakeets swallow gravel and keep it in their gizzard, a muscular pocket in the digestive tract. As the muscles cause the walls of the gizzard to move, the gravel crushes the food.", "Early on, it was believed that Apatosaurus Dinosaurs was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent conclusion does not support this. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in dispensation food, Apatosaurus may have swallowed gizzard stones (gastroliths) the same way many birds do today — its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers.", "that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative Diplodocus , Apatosaurus was a grazing animal with a very long neck, and a long tail that served as a counterweight. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, Apatosaurus may have swallowed gizzard stones (gastroliths) the same way many birds do today — its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers.", "The true giants of the finosaur world were the sauropods. These quadrupedal, herbivores included Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, and Diplodocus. Paleontologists believe that the sauropod clade evolved from a Triassic ancestor similar to Plateosaurus. Sauropods ate numerous types of plants, often specializing in plants of a certain height. Since the teeth of sauropods are not adapted for grinding, this mechanical part of the digestive process was accomplished in their stomachs. Sauropod skeletons are often found in association with curiosuly rounded stones in the approximate position of the stomach. These \"stomach stones\" are known as gastroliths, and served a similar function in sauropods as bird gravel does in birds: to aid digestion of plant material not ground up enough in the mouth. Gastroliths are not unique to sauropods, as many other herbivorous dinosaurs and plesiosaurs have been found with stomach stones.", "Stomach contents are another line of evidence, somewhat more direct but also a bit trickier to interpret accurately. Well-preserved dinosaur skeletons sometimes have traces of apparent food items preserved in their abdominal cavity, where it's safe to assume that they had a stomach. This includes pine cones and/or needles in some herbivores' guts, and traces of some vertebrates in some theropods' guts. So this independent line of inquiry substantiates the data from tooth morphology. Also, some sauropodomorph stomachs contain well-rounded stones, called gastroliths, that were probably used to grind food in a muscular crop or gizzard, like some birds (and crocodilians) do.", "The giant sauropods like Diplodocus and Apatosaurus must have required large quantities of plant food, but there is no direct evidence as to the particular plants they preferred. Since angiosperms rich in calories and proteins did not exist during most of the Mesozoic, it must be assumed that these sauropods fed on the abundant conifers and palm trees. Such a cellulose-heavy diet would have required an unusual bacterial flora in the intestines to break down the fibrous tissues. A digestive tract with one or more crop chambers containing millstone batteries might have aided in the food-pulverizing process, but such gastroliths, or �stomach stones,� have only rarely been found in association with any dinosaur skeleton (the Seismosaurus specimen and its several hundred such stones is an important exception).", "Cave Mouth : In \"The Stone Age\" the Goodies go caving. They find a remarkable Cave Mouth . They note the curving rows of stalagmites and stalactites and treat the odd red thing note uvula like a punching bag. The giant dinosaur, naturally, closes its mouth on them.", "If polished stones are not found associated with dinosaur bones, we cannot confidently term the gastroliths. True or False?", "Some dinosaurs ate lizards, turtles, eggs, or early mammals. Some hunted other dinosaurs or scavenged dead animals. Most, however, ate plants (but not grass, which hadn't evolved yet). Rocks that contains dinosaur bones also contain fossil pollen and spores that indicate hundreds to thousands of types of plants existed during the Mesozoic Era. Many of these plants had edible leaves, including evergreen conifers (pine trees, redwoods, and their relatives), ferns, mosses, horsetail rushes, cycads, ginkos, and in the latter part of the dinosaur age flowering (fruiting) plants. Although the exact time of origin for flowering plants is still uncertain, the last of the dinosaurs certainly had fruit available to eat.", "As important as they were for the primitive ecosystem, dinosaur droppings have proved equally crucial for modern-day paleontologists. Occasionally, researchers stumble across huge, well-preserved piles of fossilized dinosaur dung—or “coprolites,” as they’re called by polite society. By examining these fossils in detail, researchers can figure out if they were created by plant-eating, meat-eating, or omnivorous dinosaurs—and they can sometimes even identify the type of animal or plant that the dinosaur ate a few hours (or a few days) before going Number 2. (Unfortunately, unless a specific dinosaur is discovered in the immediate vicinity, it's nearly impossible to attribute a particular piece of poop to a particular dinosaur genus.)", "Accordingly, certain groups of dinosaurs, such as the ornithopods, included a succession of types that were increasingly adapted for efficient food processing. At the peak of the ornithopod lineage, the hadrosaurs (duck-billed dinosaurs of the Late Cretaceous) featured large dental batteries, in both upper and lower jaws, consisting of many tightly compressed teeth that formed a long crushing or grinding surface. The preferred food of the duckbills cannot be certified, but at least one specimen found in Wyoming offers an intriguing clue: fossil plant remains in the stomach region have been identified as pine needles.", "A bird \"chews\" with its stomach. Since most birds do not have teeth, a bird routinely swallows small pebbles and gravel. These grits become vigorously agitated in the bird's stomach and serve to grind food as it passes through the digestive system.", "Fossilized poop is called coprolites. Scientists have found coprolites from Tyrannosaurus rex dinosaurs that contain bits of crushed bones.", "\"The carnivorous or flesh-eating dinosaurs that lived on land, such as Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus, were protected from foes by their sharp biting teeth, while the land-living herbivorous forms were provided with defensive horns, as in Triceratops, sharp spines as in [88]Stegosaurus or were completely armored as inAnkylosaurus. Trachodon was not provided with horns, spines or plated armor, but it was sufficiently protected from carnivorous land forms by being able to enter and remain in the water. Its skin was covered with small raised scales, pentagonal in form on the body and tail, where they were largest, with smaller reticulations over the joints but never overlapping as in snakes or fishes. A Trachodon skeleton was recently found with an impression of the skin surrounding the vertebrae which is so well preserved that it gives even the contour of the tail as is shown in the illustration (fig. 32).", "First of all, two dinosaurian clans, the hadrosaurs and the ceratopsians, featured highly specialized dentitions that obviously were effective food processors. Both groups were herbivorous, but unlike living reptiles they chewed their foliage thoroughly. Such highly efficient dental equipment implies that the hadrosaurs and ceratopsians were tachymetabolic. With the exception of the carnivores and possibly some ornithopod predecessors of the duckbills, like Heterodontosaurus and Iguanodon, other dinosaurs generally possessed very weakly developed dentitions.", "From antiquity, fossils of large animals were often quoted as having lived together with the giants from the Book of Genesis: e.g. the Tannin or \"great sea monsters\" of Gen. 1:21. They are often described in later books of the Bible, especially by God Himself in the Book of Job: e.g. Re'em in verse 39:9, Behemoth in chapter 40 and Leviathan in chapter 41. With the advent of geological mapping in the early 19th century, it became increasingly obvious that much of the fossils associated with the \"secondary\" (sedimentary) rock, notably large animals like Ichthyosaurs, Mosasaurs, Pliosaurs and the various giant mammals found when excavating the Catacombs of Paris, were neither those of giant humans nor of any extant animals. The geologists of the day increasingly came to use the term Antediluvian only for the younger strata containing fossils of animals resembling those alive today. ", "Ooid s are small (≤2 mm in diameter), spheroidal, \"coated\" (layered) sedimentary grains, usually composed of calcium carbonate, but sometimes made up of iron- or phosphate-based minerals. After being buried under additional sediment, these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite. [Source: en.wikipedia.org ]", "The Jurassic period is known for an increase in the numbers and diversity of dinosaurs. At the beginning of the period, dinosaurs such as the bipedal and carnivorous theropods were small and lightly boned, feeding on insects or other small dinosaurs. By the close of the period, massive predators like Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus had appeared. These dinosaurs had heavy bodies, powerful hind legs, front limbs used for grasping and holding prey, and long, sharp teeth for spearing and stabbing. The largest of all dinosaurs, the plant-eating sauropods, also developed during the Jurassic. The sauropods include Apatosaurus (formerly called Brontosaurus), Brachiosaurus, Diplodocus, Seismosaurus, and Suprasaurus. These animals were quadrupeds, with pillarlike legs (like the legs of an elephant) that supported their enormous body weight, which was often 18 metric tons (20 tons) or more. The large size of the sauropods may have helped them maintain a consistent body temperature. The Stegosaurus is known for a distinctive row of heavy, triangular, bony plates, known as scutes, which were arranged along its back. Paleontologists (scientists who study dinosaurs) believe these plates helped the Stegosaurus regulate its body temperature and protected it from being eaten. Several sharp, bony spikes on the end of the tail of Stegosaurus probably served as a weapon against attack.", "A study of fossil dinosaur dung has for the first time confirmed that the ancient reptiles ate grass. Grass was previously thought to have become common only after the dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago. But grasses were probably not a very important part of dinosaur diets - the fossilized feces show the big beasts ate many different types of plants.", "[7] Allosaurus, a carnivorous Dinosaur, and its Prey. By W.D. Matthew. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Jour. Vol. viii, pp. 3-5, pl. 1.", "Ichthyosaurs were carnivorous. Ichthyosaurs ranged so widely in size, and survived for so long, that they are likely to have had a wide range of prey. Species with pointed snouts were adapted to grab smaller animals. McGowan speculated that forms with protruding upper jaws, in the Eurhinosauria, would have used their pointy snouts to slash prey, as has been assumed for swordfish. For their food, many of the fish-shaped ichthyosaurs relied heavily on ancient cephalopods called Belemnoidea. They also most likely fed on fish. A few of the larger species had heavy jaws and teeth that indicated they fed on smaller reptiles. The large Triassic form Thalattoarchon had large bladed teeth and was probably a macropredator, capable of killing prey its own size. These food preferences have been confirmed by coproliths which indeed contain the remains of fishes and cephalopods. Another confirmation is provided by fossilised stomach contents. Buckland in 1835 described the presence in a specimen of a large mass of partly digested fishes, recognisable by their scales. Subsequent research in 1968 determined that these belonged to the fish genus Pholidophorus but also that cephalopod beaks and sucker hooks were present. Such hard food particles apparently were retained by the stomach and regularly regurgitated. Stomach remains can also contain larger animals, including small ichthyosaurs. Carcasses of drowned animals were eaten as well: in 2003 a specimen of Platypterygius longmani was reported having besides fishes and a turtle the bones of a land bird in its stomach. ", "The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses, with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier, southern relatives. The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth, then backwards while opening; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other, grinding the food. The ridges were wear-resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food, which often contained grit. Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below, and to break ice to drink. This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat, polished sections up to 30 cm long on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground. The tusks were also used for obtaining food in other ways, such as digging up plants and stripping off bark. ", "Fierce predatory dinosaurs hunted and scavenged for meat. Plant-eating dinosaurs grew body armour for protection. Crocodiles, turtles, and lizards flourished, and the first snakes appeared. Insects, birds, and pterosaurs flew in the sky, and small mammals ran on the ground.", "Researchers have discovered a nearly complete fossil of a dinosaur which appears to have been caught in a collapsing sand dune. The Seitaad ruessi fossil, described in the journal PLoS One, is a relative of the long-necked sauropods that were once Earth's biggest animals. S. ruessi, found in what is now Utah, could have walked on all four legs, or risen up to walk on just two.", "This prehistoric reptile looks like a small dinosaur. It has a thick tail, clawed feet, and strong jaws. Underwater, they keep their mouths open, and use their worm-like tongue to lure in prey.", "Many species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and even insects, in all parts of the world, eat dirt. In the animal world, parrots seek out particular clays and deer lick hollows into patches of soil, traveling long distances to reach these tasty spots. Cattle will chew on clods of particular earths; in South Africa, cattle will often be found meditatively licking away at termite nests, hollowing out polished scoops in any weak spots. Termite nests are rich in trace elements, as these \"white ants\" carry up fragments from as much as a hundred feet down.\"", "New research suggests that reptiles that lived during the Dinosaur age were hard-hit. Here, the carnivorous lizard Palaeosaniwa chases a pair of young Edmontosaurus while the snake Cerberophis and the lizard Obamadon look on.", "In the early 2000s, some scientists suggested Apatosaurus and other large sauropods got to be so huge because of their food supply. That is, their food was so low in nitrogen — which is necessary for protein formation and energy — that they had to eat a lot of it to survive, increasing their body size. Subsequent research, which analyzed the total energy in modern plants, discarded this idea. ", "This issue of The Kansas School Naturalist will introduce you to these fascinating fossil reptile show we know they lived on earth, when they lived, some examples, and several theories as to why they became extinct. From time to time YOU will no doubt wish to consult the pronunciation guide, the prefix and suffix list explaining the meaning of dinosaur names, and the geological time table at the end of this paper." ]

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[ "Rhinos have been hunted to near extinction, mostly because of their horns, and are now protected and considered an endangered species. The black rhino is a symbol for conservation in Africa, just as the bald eagle is to us.", "Unfortunately, not even the keenest sense of smell can save the rhino from human hunters. Poached for its magnificent horn, all species of rhino are in danger of extinction. Rhino populations are now increasing due to protection from national park systems and captive breeding programs in zoos throughout the world.", "There are five species of rhinoceros, and with the exception of one subspecies of the African white rhino, all are in danger of being hunted to extinction for their horns. Rhinos as we know them have been around for millions of years, but Dr H. Sapiens has created a predicament from which they might never recover. It is heartbreaking to realize that the world’s rhinos are being eliminated from the face of the earth in the name of medications that probably don’t work.", "The scimitar-horned oryx, so named for its magnificent curved horns, is now thought to be Extinct in the Wild, hunted to the brink... More 5 Images 6 Videos", "After a rapid decline they were nearly completely exterminated in the 1920s, but they were able to recover. By 1950, two million of them were found in the steppes of the USSR. Their population fell drastically following the collapse of the USSR due to uncontrolled hunting and demand for horns in Chinese medicine. At one point, some conservation groups, such as the World Wildlife Fund, encouraged the hunting of this species, as its horn was presented as an alternative to that of a rhinoceros. ", "The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) has declared the Markhor in their endangered list. The Markhors are considered a scattered specie with uncertain distribution however they are found significantly in number in Pakistan where it is a highly-valued trophy species. The Government of Pakistan is issuing 2 to 3 licenses for trophy hunting and the trophy license is sold for as much as 18, 000 US $. The money is being spent for the welfare of the locals. This rare animal Markhor, the national animal of Pakistan is terribly in the danger of extinction. The illegal hunting , the US Afghan war effects and the use of sophisticated weapons is causing the removal of this wonderful specie from our lovely planet. The lust for getting their precious horns as a matter of prestige by the illegal hunters and negligence by the local authorities to preserve their natural habitat are the major factors that can result in the permanent deletion of the Markhors from the mother earth.", "\"...those animals which are called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of the appearance, colour, and shape of a bull. Their strength and speed are extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast which they have espied. These the Germans take with much pains in pits and kill them. The young men harden themselves with this exercise, and practice themselves in this sort of hunting, and those who have slain the greatest number of them, having produced the horns in public, to serve as evidence, receive great praise. But not even when taken very young can they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape, and appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our oxen. These they anxiously seek after, and bind at the tips with silver, and use as cups at their most sumptuous entertainments.\"", "This was unsuccessful for two reasons: One was that rhinos’ horns grow back, and the poachers would still kill them for just a little bit of the horn. Second was that after a poacher tracks a rhino for a day and sees one without the horn, the poacher will kill it for the simple fact that next time they poach, they won’t be tracking a hornless rhino.", "To prevent poaching, in certain areas, rhinos have been tranquillized and their horns removed. Armed park rangers, particularly in South Africa, are also working on the front lines to combat poaching, sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act. A recent spike in rhino killings has made conservationists concerned about the future of the species. An average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in Vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn. ", "Due to economic growth in many Chinese cultures, the demand for rhino horns has increased dramatically in the past five years. Many countries in Africa have increased security within their parks by hiring more rangers. A few years ago, some countries tried to help rhinos by cutting the animals’ horns off so poachers wouldn’t kill them.", "Rhinoceros is a group of five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. Two of these species are native to Africa and three to southern Asia. The rhinoceros family is characterized by its large size (one of the largest remaining megafauna), with all of the species able to reach one ton or more in weight; an herbivorous diet; a thick protective skin, 1.5–5 cm thick, formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure; relatively small brains for mammals this size (400–600 g); and a large horn. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter, if necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their powerful premolar and molar teeth to grind up plant food. Rhinoceros are killed by humans for their horns, which are bought and sold on the black market, and which are used by some cultures for ornamental or medicinal purposes. The horns are made of keratin, the same type of protein that makes up hair and fingernails. Both African species and the Sumatran Rhinoceros have two horns, while the Indian and Javan Rhinoceros have a single horn.", "The three Asian rhino species have tusks, and they use these enlarged incisors rather than their stubby horns when fighting or defending their territory. Greater one-horned rhino bulls develop longer tusks than the females. A bull may confront a rival by opening his mouth to show off his tusks. The two African species lack these tusks and so use their horns for defense or fights. Fights among rhinos can sometimes led to death; 50 percent of black rhino bulls and 30 percent of females die from wounds received during a fight. No other mammal has such a high death rate from this type of combat.", "July 9, 09: Rhino poaching around the world is set to reach a 15-year high as demand for the animals' horns grows, conservation groups warn.", "Megafaunal extinctions continue into the 21st century. Modern extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences. Extinction rates are minimized in the popular imagination by the survival of captive populations of animals that are extinct in the wild (such as the Père David's deer, Hawaiian crow) and by marginal survivals of highly publicized megafauna that are ecologically extinct (such as the giant panda, Sumatran rhinoceros, North American black-footed ferret). However, the Holocene can also be characterisied by widespread extinctions among arthropods, widespread local extinctions of populations of species that still exist elsewhere (such as the extinction of gray whales in the Atlantic and of the leatherback sea turtle in Malaysia) and by universal declines in range and population of various animal and plant species throughout all of the world.", "Fun Fact: Historically, these types of cows were known for their horns, which could reach over a foot in length, and curved gracefully.", "Two herds of onagers have been successfully re-introduced to the wild at two locations,Makhtesh Ramon (the Ramon Crater), a huge crater in Israel's Negev Desert, and at another site in the Arava Desert. These wild asses (the biblical pereh) were never domesticated and once inhabited all of Israel's desert regions until they were hunted to extinction between 70-80 years ago. They have also become extinct in neighbouring countries.", "      Until they acquired firearms, humans made relatively little impact on animal numbers or—with some exceptions—their range. From the last half of the 19th century, however, and particularly since 1940, direct or indirect human wastage of Africa's animal life ( endangered species ) has been intense and has reduced stocks considerably. The antelope known as the Zambian black lechwe, for example, believed to have numbered 1,000,000 in 1900, had been reduced to less than 8,000 by the late 20th century, and the population of African elephants declined from 2,000,000 in the early 1970s to some 600,000 by 1990, largely because of poaching for the ivory trade. The African white rhinoceros reached the verge of extinction in 1980.", "Not just that, but how many people know that rhinos also live in Asia? Or that two species have just one horn? Or that the horn is not used as an aphrodisiac? We have even heard some people say that they are carnivores!", "The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of \"coneyhunting\" still endures in a few regions.", "There are cryptozoological reports of sabre-tooth cats surviving to the modern day in remote areas. The Tigre de Montage (Mountain Tiger) of northern Chad is described as lion-sized, striped reddish and white, tailless (or bobtailed) and having huge projecting fangs. From a selection of images, the one chosen by a Zagaoua hunter was Machairodus, an African sabre-tooth officially extinct for the last million years. The region is remote, mountainous and not well-known in zoological terms. Similar tales have come from the mountainous regions of Ecuador, Columbia, and Paraguay in South America, a region that has harboured marsupial sabre-tooths and eutherian sabre-tooth cats. In 1975, a big cat with 12 inch fangs was apparently killed in Paraguay; it was officially identified as a mutant Jaguar and unofficially identified as a Smilodon (the carcass seems to have been lost, preventing further study). Without firm evidence, e.g. a fresh or living specimen, sabre-tooth cats remain officially extinct.", "The Māori arrived sometime before CE 1300, and all moa genera were soon driven to extinction by hunting and, to a lesser extent, by habitat reduction due to forest clearance. By 1445, all moa had become extinct, along with the Haast's eagle which had relied on them for food. Recent research using carbon-14 dating of middens strongly suggests that the events leading to extinction took less than a hundred years, rather than a period of exploitation lasting several hundred years, which is what had previously been hypothesized.", "*Four species are considered critically endangered: the Javan rhino, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the black rhino and African wild ass.", "Environmental and zoological circles have been abuzz of late due to the capture of an exceedingly rare Saola , or “Asian Unicorn”, in the landlocked nation of Laos. Though this forest-dwelling relative of cows and cattle was known to science, a living Saola hadn’t been seen since 1999. Though the majestic two-horned ungulate shown above died shortly after being taken into captivity, studying its remains can help us learn more about the creature’s way of life and hopefully lead to ways we can protect and preserve the few that are left in the wild.", "Long-standing paleo-fans will remember for sure the name \"Diatryma\": that large, flightless, large-headed predatory bird who used to hunt the small \"horse\" Eohippus in so many paleo-artistic depictions. Well, now poor \"Diatryma\" seems having definitively disappeared... but luckily, it's not such: it has simply changed identity. Now we have to call it Gastornis (a far less awesome name, we've got to admit, but...never mind.) Whatever name should be used, this is actually one of the most enigmatic extinct birds.", "* The Guadalupe caracara (Polyborus lutosus) was intentionally made extinct by humans around 1901, ironically because it occasionally preyed on young goats.", "Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought. However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. ", "Kodkods are extremely inconspicuous cryptic animals and this fact might be the reason of negative cultural constructs on such animals. They are a “phantom to human observers” as Maehr [ 104 ] accurately described the Florida panther due to its elusive habits and the difficulty of sighting one in the wild. As our results indicate, the idiom associated to the kodkod referring to “being a guiña” as being a thief was frequently encountered, not only in the local stories, but also in the linguistic material. This is of relevance as such cultural constructs convey deeper attitudes towards the animal itself. Here we can link again to Tambiah’s study (1969) on animal symbolism, who by drawing a line between wild and domestic animals, notes that less known wild animals are used by the villagers to represent the social deviant, in this case a criminal figure: the thief.", "As mentioned, the rigors of wild life can hit wildlife not just above the belt, but over the brow. Though losing a horn won’t affect an animals speed, alertness or general health, it can hinder their performance in a different event called The Mating Season – insert “horny” joke here.", "Intensive hunting encouraged by bounties is generally blamed for its extinction, but other contributory factors may have been disease, the introduction of dogs, and human encroachment into its habitat. Despite being officially classified as extinct, sightings are still reported.", "10 Awesome Animals That Were Hunted To Extinction By Humans Before You Were Born | IFLScience", "Habitat loss is ongoing within its range, and an estimated 98% of its habitat already is gone. It is also threatened by hunting (in some regions it is the favorite game) and the wild animals trade.", "Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations." ]

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[ "2. Fertilizers are another group of chemicals commonly used in agriculture to increase crop yield. Fertilizer by-products, formed as a result of natural chemical processes, however, can be potentially carcinogenic. These agricultural chemicals are one of the major sources of water pollution. For instance, the nitrogen in fertilizers gets converted into nitrate that seeps into groundwater. When ingested, nitrates form nitrosamines which have been found to cause tumor growths in animal studies.", "Three-quarters of the pineapples sold in Europe are grown in Costa Rica, where pineapple production is highly industrialised. Growers typically use 20 kg of pesticides per hectare in each growing cycle, a process that may affect soil quality and biodiversity. The pesticides – organophosphates, organochlorines and hormone disruptors – have the potential to affect workers' health and can contaminate local drinking water supplies. Many of these chemicals have potential to be carcinogens, and may be related to birth defects.", "Drinking water quality is an important environmental health problem in the country, both in urban and in rural areas. In towns, the main drinking water problems are low water quality and limited water supply. In rural areas, where wells provide a more substantial source of water, the problems include water shortages and contamination of drinking water sources with chemicals such as manganese, iron, hydrogen sulfide and nitrates. There is also extensive leakage into the underground pipes of chemicals from pesticides. On average, 25 percent of the samples of drinking water taken from piped water supply systems and private wells in the country do not meet the European Union quality standards.", "A further point to note is that drinking-water treatment commonly involves the addition of treatment chemicals such as aluminium sulfate or ferric chloride as flocculants, lime for pH adjustment, chlorine for disinfection and fluoride compounds for dental health.", "Fertilizers that often contain manure are used to grow crops (such as cereals and fodder) that contain phosphorus and nitrogen, 95% of which is estimated to be lost to the environment. Water pollution from agricultural runoff causes dead zones for plants and aquatic animals due to the lack of oxygen in the water. This lack of oxygen, known as eutrophication, is caused when organisms present in the water grow excessively and then later decompose, in the process using up the oxygen in the water. A prominent example is the Gulf of Mexico, where much of the nutrients in fertilizer used in the US Midwest is funneled down the Mississippi River into the Gulf, causing massive dead zones. Other pollutants not commonly considered are antibiotics and hormones. In southern Asia, vultures that consumed carcasses of livestock declined 95% due to their ingestion of the antibiotic known as diclofenac.", "Given the agricultural nature of much of the Tyne catchment there is a risk of diffuse water pollution from agriculture (DWPA). Historically, a number of pesticides have been found in the raw water at our Horsley and Whittle Dene Water Treatment Works, including metaldehyde, the active ingredient in slug pellets. Removing these substances requires additional chemicals and energy, and can therefore increase the cost of treating drinking water.", "Irrigated crops grown to meet consumer demand use an enormous quantity of water (30 percent of consumer-related water use). pesticides and fertilizers cause 5 percent of consumer-related toxic water pollution. Food crops also use substantial amounts of land.", "The use of pesticides was a prominent feature of post war agriculture across Canada. Insecticides based on fluorine, arsenic, rotenone, nicotine pyrethrum as well as herbicides using sulphiric acid, arsenites and salt and finally fungicides based on sulphur, mercury or copper have been very effective in controlling life forms that degrade agricultural output. At the same time these compounds have also had a negative effect beyond their intended sphere of use. DDT was registered for use in Canada from 1946 until 1985 when its use was banned. The product was never manufactured in Canada. Food irradiation, in particular the irradiation of potatoes to prevent sprouting while in storage was approved for use in Canada in 1960.", "• Carbamate pesticides, as a general group, are considered to be moderately persistent in the environment. But finding carbamates in groundwater, 25 years since the plant shut down, clearly means that the UCIL plant is acting as a continuous source of groundwater contamination8.", "'s Environmental Protection Agency is only 35 parts per billion. The contamination was blamed on leaking undergrowund gasoline tanks close to wells from which much of the city's water was supplied. MTBE, or or methyl tertiary butyl ether, remains dissolved in water for a long time and may attach to particles in the water which will eventually cause it to settle to the bottom sediment. MTBE is a known human carcinogen and studies with rats and mice suggest that drinking MTBE may cause gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney damage, and nervous system effects. Benzene is another petrochemical that may end up in water supplies as it is widely used in industry and consumer products such as paint thinners. The Foundation for Water Research, based in", "The introduction of the disinfectant chloramine to water systems with lead-containing pipes, fixtures, or solder may increase the amount of dissolved lead in water due to changes in water chemistry. In Washington, D.C., a change of disinfectant from free chlorine to chloramine in the early 2000s caused an elevation in drinking water lead concentrations which resulted in elevated BLLs for children (≤ 1.3 years) consuming that water (Edwards et al. 2009). A similar trend was observed in North Carolina, where the use of chloramine disinfectant was a significant predictor of BLL in children (Miranda et al. 2007a). In this study, lead concentrations in water were not measured, and the authors suggested that the increase in BLL was caused by an increase in lead concentration in drinking water resulting from the switch to chloramine. The impact of chloramines on children's BLL was mitigated in newer housing, where the presence of lead service lines and lead solder was less likely. The increase in BLL for children where chloramine was used was greatest in houses built before 1926, followed by houses built in 1926-1950 and 1951-1975 (Miranda et al. 2007a).", "Use of fumigant nematicides, particularly methyl bromide, and to a lesser extent 1,3-D and metam-sodium, is confined to greenhouses and nurseries. Application rates vary depending on crop value; the potential damage; soil temperature and depth; application method; and the needs for additional control of other soil pests.", "Low-salinity water (C1) can be used for irrigation of most crops on most soils with little likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Medium-salinity water (C2) can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Crops of moderate salt tolerance, such as potatoes, corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa can be irrigated with C2 water without special practices. High-salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Very high salinity water (C4) can be used only on certain crops and then only if special practices are followed.", "Herbicides for specific crops include pyridate and propaquizafop in chickpea; clopyralid in rapeseed; hexazinone, metribuzin and terbacil in lucerne/alfalfa. In clover-based pastures, flumetsulam or bentazone were better than 2,4-DB (Gawn et al., 2012).", "Fertilizer and Pesticides With a lowering of the water table, and increased deposits of salt, local agricultural industry must use more additives in their production, which in turn makes its way down the watershed, contributing to the contamination of soils and the quality of the air.", "One of the commonly used pesticides on cotton throughout the world, endosulfan, leached from cotton fields into a creek in Lawrence County, Alabama during heavy rains in 1995. Within days 245,000 fish were killed over 16 mile stretch. 142,000 pounds of endosulfan were used in California in 1994.", "Howard especially denigrated sulfate of ammonia and single superphosphate as earthworm poisons. Both of these chemical fertilizers are made with sulfuric acid and have a powerful acidifying reaction when they dissolve in soil. Rodale correctly pointed out that golf course groundskeepers use repeated applications of ammonium sulfate to eliminate earthworms from putting greens. (Small mounds of worm casts made by nightcrawlers ruin the greens' perfectly smooth surface so these worms are the bane of greenskeepers.) However, ammonium sulfate does not eliminate or reduce worms when the soil contains large amounts of chalk or other forms of calcium that counteract acidity.", "Modern use of artificial fertilizers, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, has affected the mouths of drainage basins. The minerals are carried by the drainage basin to the mouth, and may accumulate there, disturbing the natural mineral balance. This can cause eutrophication where plant growth is accelerated by the additional material.", "used in food preservation especially meat pickling and as a fertilizer. Can cause nitrate-nitrite poisoning or nitrite poisoning in ruminants.", "agriculture will contain some form of Fulvic Acid.  Scientists have theorized about the ‘missing link’ of nutrition ... they", "Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions", "In 1970, organic chemist John E. Franz developed a new class of herbicide that allows for the destruction of difficult perennial and annual weeds without danger to nearby vegetation, soil, or animals, even bacteria. The glyphosate molecule, which he discovered and studied to develop its properties, has become the basis for the world’s most widely used type of herbicide and has helped change the face of agriculture by enabling the development of no-till farming.", "Lead Arsenate Pesticides were used commonly to control agricultural pests in Wisconsin. The pesticide residues bind tightly to the soil, and some has remained there for decades, and may pose a health risk to humans when the land changes from agriculture uses.", "The quality of drinking water is a major concern. Poor water management standards have raised health concerns in many cities, and water safety also is doubtful in the countryside, where 59 percent of the population draws water from common wells affected by groundwater pollution. Unsanitary runoff from populated places and agricultural sites contributes heavily to pollution of sources that ultimately provide water for domestic use; the quality of drinking water declines noticeably during spring floods, when such runoff is heaviest. Rudimentary portable filters are not widely available. An estimated 8 percent of wastewater is fully treated prior to dumping in waterways; most water treatment facilities are obsolete, inefficient, and generally overwhelmed by the volume of material that now passes through them, but funding is not available to replace them.", "Recommendations of specific chemicals are based upon information on the manufacturer's label and performance in a limited number of trials. Because environmental conditions and methods of application by growers may vary widely, performance of the chemical will not always conform to the safety and pest control standards indicated by experimental data. All recommendations for pesticide use were legal at the time of publication, but the status of registration and use patterns are subject to change by actions of state and federal regulatory agencies. Last printed 04/91", "Karen Gaia says: Overpopulation has raised the demand for food. As farmlands are lost from overuse, erosion and urbanization, more and more pesticides will be required to produce crops. How to keep them out of the water supply?", "Consumptive use Human consumption of basin waters through agricultural and industrial processes (e.g., evaporation from irrigation and steam emitted from power plants) plus that incorporated into products (e.g., milk).", "Soil nutrient deficiencies can cause a variety of plant problems that range from malformed plants to a lack of head growth. Many insects are attracted to lettuce, including cutworms, which cut seedlings off at the soil line; wireworms and nematodes, which cause yellow, stunted plants; tarnished plant bugs and aphids, which cause yellow, distorted leaves; leafhoppers, which cause stunted growth and pale leaves; thrips, which turn leaves gray-green or silver; leafminers, which create tunnels within the leaves; flea beetles, which cut small holes in leaves and caterpillars, slugs and snails, which cut large holes in leaves. Mammals, including rabbits and groundhogs, also eat the plants. Lettuce contains several defensive compounds, including sesquiterpene lactones, and other natural phenolics such as flavonol and glycosides, which help to protect it against pests. Certain varieties contain more than others, and some selective breeding and genetic modification studies have focused on using this trait to identify and produce commercial varieties with increased pest resistance. ", "Several techniques of soil treatment and decontamination to reduce the accumulation of radioactivity in agricultural produce and cow's milk and meat have been tested with positive results in some cases. Nevertheless, within the former Soviet Union, large areas of agricultural land are still excluded from use and are expected to continue to be so for a long time. In a much larger area, although agricultural and dairy production activities are carried out, the food produced is subjected to strict controls and restrictions of distribution and use.", "1) Before commenting on this point, I’d like to read the papers you cited, but unfortunately I don’t have institutional access to the “Food and Chemical Toxicology” journal – the first paper you cite (as well as a follow up 13 week trial on the same plant ( http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691508001804 )) is in that journal, but I can only access the abstract. Do you have access to the full text and can you send it to me?", "The suppression of growth of one plant species by another due to the release of toxic substances.", "Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Temple WA. Contaminant berries in frozen vegetables. N Z Med J. 2009;122:95-6." ]

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[ "Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.", "“ Cash for Cans ” programs usually only apply to to aluminum drink cans, not tin food cans. Steel is considered scrap metal, but unless you have very large amounts of it, it is not worth much.", "Today, aluminum is the most widely used metal in the world after iron. It is used in the manufacture of automobiles, packaging materials, electrical equipment, machinery, and building construction. Aluminum is also ideal for beer and soft drink cans and foil because it can be melted and reused, or recycled.", "Drinks cans – On top of being light and cheap, the king of aluminium products is 100 per cent recyclable. 113,204 cans are recycled every minute.", "Depending on the efficiency of the process, up to 90 per cent of the energy used to make a can from virgin material can be saved by recycling. There are some losses in the melting process, and also some limitations caused by the different alloys. Paints and lacquers on the used cans are burned off in the re-melting process. The industry claims a world-wide recycling rate of 55 per cent for aluminium drinks cans. For Europe, that figure is 40 per cent (see Table opposite). In the UK alone, 1.5 billion cans - amounting to 23,900 tonnes - wore collected for recycling in 1997.", "Technically, aluminum foil can be recycled, but not every municipality does. “It all depends on who is buying the collected bales of aluminum,” Grendell said. “Used beverage cans are king, and every aluminum recycler has a system optimized around beverage cans. Some of those recyclers don’t mind a little aluminum foil in there, some don’t even mind a little dirty aluminum foil, but it’s not preferable to them.”", "In addition, steel cans typically contain at least 25% recycled steel, but many are made almost entirely of recycled steel.", "It is also is used extensively to produce a variety of important alloys. For example, the aluminum used to make most soft drinks cans contains about 1% manganese to improve the cans’ stiffness and corrosion resistance.", "Despite its fragility and high production costs, glass had an advantage over cans: glass is chemically inert. In a metal can, iron, tin, and even lead may interact with the water of the preserved food due to chemical or galvanic reactions (although that problem had been solved when iron was replaced by lighter material). The problem of lead contamination had been removed in 1904 when the production system of the Sanitary Can Company in New York made soldering of the can unnecessary. Glass became a relatively cheap and convenient form of packaging in1903 when Michael J. Owen in Britain invented a semiautomatic machine for producing both jars and bottles. In the nineteenth century a major problem with glass containers had been finding a way to close a relatively expensive container without making the bottle or jar useless after it had been opened (Lief, 1965). Glass bottles could be closed with a cork, but closing bottles and jars that had wide mouths remained a problem.", "Tin's heyday ended in the mid-20th century, however, when Coors Brewery introduced the first aluminum can. Cheaper, lighter and recyclable, aluminum rapidly overtook tin and steel. ", "If you have a curbside recycling program, chances are that tin/steel cans will be accepted. Steel is the largest category of metal in the municipal waste stream, with a very high recycling rate of about 95 percent .", "A giant magnet lifts out cans that are made of metals such steel. Since aluminum cans aren't magnetic, they drop down to a conveyor belt and are gathered.", "A process for recovering metal, most commonly copper, from oxide or low grade ore or residues. Material is heaped up on an impermeable surface and sprayed with acid which picks up metal and is collected and sent for refining. The process may be bacterially assisted. See also Cement copper and SX/EW.", "Other specialized symbols for aluminum cans and steel cans are being utilized by individual manufacturers. Therefore, the trend in the evolution of recycling symbols can be summarized as follows:", "   Usually the negatrode material reduces to the pure metal form when charged: iron, cadmium, zinc, lead, manganese, and oxidizes to an oxide or hydroxide during discharge.", "A large amount of nickel is now recycled from scrap metal. Scrap metal comes from old cars, demolition of buildings, appliances like washing machines and stoves, and landfills. The task in recycling scrap metal is to find a way to separate", "Probably the easiest to recycle would be bismuth-containing fusible alloys in the form of larger objects, then larger soldered objects. Half of the world's solder consumption is in electronics (i.e., circuit boards). As the soldered objects get smaller or contain little solder or little bismuth, the recovery gets progressively more difficult and less economic, although solder with a higher silver content will be more worthwhile recovering. Next in recycling feasibility would be sizeable catalysts with a fair bismuth content, perhaps as bismuth phosphomolybdate, and then bismuth used in galvanizing and as a free-machining metallurgical additive.", "The slag is discarded or reprocessed to recover any remaining copper. In the 3rd stage of extraction, copper (I) sulphide is reduced to copper metal upon reaction with oxygen air:", "The military recycles some metals. The U.S. Navy's Ship Disposal Program uses ship breaking to reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create an artificial reef. Uranium is a very dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and titanium for many military and industrial uses. The uranium left over from processing it into nuclear weapons and fuel for nuclear reactors is called depleted uranium, and it is used by all branches of the U.S. military use for armour-piercing shells and shielding.", "   Two commercial giants in the U.S. are in a bitter struggle: they are the tin can people and the glass bottle crowd, and there is no use denying it but the tin can groups are slowly but surely winning out. Even vodka is being served in metal cans, the first hard stuff. Here�s some of your old bottled favorites that are coming to you in tin cans--pardon us, metal containers: Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola, Seven Up, Canada Dry. But ginger ale, finest of the bunch to a lot of old timers, is never mentioned. The Steel Trust is interested in the tin cans: it turned out 810 million in 1960 and will have a 20 per cent up in 1961. Tin has the edge on glass, it does not need to be returned.", "Recycle aluminum . Aluminum is very lucrative for the recycling companies and recycled aluminum requires only 5 percent of the energy required for making it from scratch. Here are some of the items to consider recycling:", "Recycling aluminum is a good way to not only prevent waste, but also to save energy. Aluminum does not biodegrade easily and will last for years in a landfill. By reducing the amount of garbage produced, an inter-office recycling program will assist your office in minimizing landfill contributions.", "Magnesium metal is preferably made by electrolytic reduction of the fused chloride, and CW215 suggests that it be a mixture of magnesium, calcium, and sodium chlorides (which avoids a separation step). The alternative is chemical reduction of the oxide with carbon or ferrosilicon, at high temperature, but it’s inefficient. EB11 teaches that carboreduction doesn’t work, but CW215 suggests heating with coke at 2000 degrees C followed by rapid quenching.", "Most drinks, such as sodas, beer and dairy, can be corrosive to all metals. Not only would metal containers contaminate products with the residue of corrosion, they also became safe havens for bacteria. Food and dairy processing was much more dangerous to consumers before stainless steel became a viable option.", "Heating of the mixture at fusion stage 4 produces a fluid melt at 650 C. and decomposition is completed in from 35 to 45 minutes when temperatures of at least 698 C. are maintained. A high efficiency fusion decomposition results, on the order of 99%. At the end of the heating interval, the fused mixture is cooled and leached with water at stage 5. After leaching, the tungsten-bearing solution is separated from the insoluble residue by filtration at stage 6. The separated insoluble residue is discharged to waste as shown at 6a and the tungsten-bearing solution remains in the circuit for additional treatment.", "A recycling plant for steel from dismantled nuclear facilities is at Marcoule, in France. This metal will contain some activation products, but it can be recycled for other nuclear plants.", "scrap metal - discarded metal suitable for reprocessing; \"he finally sold the car for scrap metal\"", "Recycling: The process of extracting useful materials from garbage, that can be put to use after reprocessing is known as recycling.", "4. discarded or leftover material that can be reused in some way, as metal that can be melted and reworked.", "Many counties or cities have drop sites for recycling hazardous chemicals such as oil-based paints and other household chemicals.  Most will also accept muriatic acid.  Call your local recycling center for more info.", "The metal is used in atomic reactors. Its alloys tend to have low melting points (often below 100°C) and are used for fuses, solders, and fire protection devices.", "Resource recovery is the retrieval of recyclable waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use. It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy. This process is carried out at a resource recovery facility. Resource recovery is not only important to the environment, but it can be cost effective by decreasing the amount of waste sent to the disposal stream, reduce the amount of space needed for landfills, and protect limited natural resources. " ]

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[ "LAVA - Lava is the liquid rock (magma) that flows out of a volcano. Lava glows red hot to white hot as it flows.", "Lava is liquid rock (magma) that flows out of a volcano. Fresh lava ranges from 1,300° to 2,200° F (700° to 1,200° C) in temperature and glows red hot to white hot as it flows.", "Magma is liquid rock inside a volcano. Lava is liquid rock (magma) that flows out of a volcano. Fresh lava glows red hot to white hot as it flows.", "• What is the name of the substance, shown here, that erupts from a volcano? Lava", "Lava: Molten rock which flows to the Earth during a volcanic eruption is known as lava.", "Lava is the name for magma that has reached the earth's surface. When lava comes to the surface, it is red hot and may have a temperature of more than 2012 F. (1100 C). Highly fluid lava flows rapidly down a volcano's slopes. Sticky lava flows more slowly. As the lava cools, it hardens into many different formations. Highly fluid lava hardens into smooth, folded sheets of rock called pahoehoe (pronounced (pa-hoy-hoy). Stickier lava cools into rough, jagged sheets of rock called aa (AH ah). Pahoehoe and aa cover large areas of Hawaii, where the terms originated. The stickiest lava forms flows of boulders and rubble called block flows. It may also form mounds of lava called domes.", "When magma is eject ed by a volcano or other vent , the material is called lava . Magma that has cooled into a solid is called igneous rock .", "Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word \"lava\" comes from Italian, and is probably derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma (molten rock below the Earth's surface) was apparently in a short account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4, 1737. Serao described \"a flow of fiery lava\" as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain.", "Shield volcanoes, the third type of volcano, are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. Flow after flow pours out in all directions from a central summit vent, or group of vents, building a broad, gently sloping cone of flat, domical shape, with a profile much like that of a warrior's shield. They are built up slowly by the accretion of thousands of highly fluid lava flows called basalt lava that spread widely over great distances, and then cool as thin, gently dipping sheets. Lavas also commonly erupt from vents along fractures (rift zones) that develop on the flanks of the cone. Some of the largest volcanoes in the world are shield volcanoes. In northern California and Oregon, many shield volcanoes have diameters of 3 or 4 miles and heights of 1,500 to 2,000 feet. The Hawaiian Islands are composed of linear chains of these volcanoes including Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii-- two of the world's most active volcanoes. The floor of the ocean is more than 15,000 feet deep at the bases of the islands. As Mauna Loa, the largest of the shield volcanoes (and also the world's largest active volcano), projects 13,677 feet above sea level, its top is over 28,000 feet above the deep ocean floor.", "Lava rock is rock formed from the cooling and solidification of lava issued from volcanoes. Most lava rock in the North American continent is located in the western half. • Molten rock beneath the earth’s surface is referred to by geologists as magma. Once this molten material is expelled through volcanic eruption onto the earth’s surface, it is then referred to as lava.", "Not all magma is made equal though – different magmas can have different chemical compositions, different quantities of gases and different temperatures; different magmas -> different rocks. That’s why you get this incredible variety. There are over 700 hundred types of igneous rocks, and they are generally the hardest and heaviest (densest) of all rocks. However, volcanic rocks can be incredibly lightweight – pumice for example can even float, and was called by ancient sailors “the foam of the sea”. This happens when a volcano violently erupts, creating pockets of air in the rock. The most common types of igneous rocks are:", "Streams of molten rock that either extrude quietly from a vent or are fed by lava fountains. Lava flows destroy everything in their path, but most move slowly enough that people can move out of the way. Fluid basalt flows may extend tens of kilometers from their source, and the leading edges of basalt flows can move at velocities as much as 10 kilometers per hour on steep slopes. Basalt ('bA-\"'solt) is a dark gray to black, dense to fine-grained igneous rock. The flow front of a basalt flow on a shallow slope typically advances less than one kilometer per hour. Where basalt lava flows are confined within channels or lava tubes, however, velocities can reach over 30 miles per hour. Viscous andesite ('an-di-\"zIt) flows move only a few kilometers per hour and rarely extend more than 8 kilometers from their vent. Viscous dacite and rhyolite flows often form steep-sided mounds called lava domes right over an erupting vent. Andesite, dacite and rhyolite are all very acidic volcanic rock.", "Congealed magma, along with fragmental volcanic and wallrock materials, can be preserved in the feeding conduits of a volcano upon cessation of activity. These preserved rocks form crudely cylindrical masses, from which project radiating dikes; they may be visualized as the fossil remains of the innards of a volcano (the so-called \"volcanic plumbing system\") and are referred to as volcanic plugs or necks. The igneous material in a plug may have a range of composition similar to that of associated lavas or ash, but may also include fragments and blocks of denser, coarser grained rocks-- higher in iron and magnesium, lower in silicon--thought to be samples of the Earth's deep crust or upper mantle plucked and transported by the ascending magma. Many plugs and necks are largely or wholly composed of fragmental volcanic material and of fragments of wallrock, which can be of any type. Plugs that bear a particularly strong imprint of explosive eruption of highly gas-charged magma are called diatremes or tuff-breccia.", "Shield volcanoes are constructed almost entirely out of lava flows. Unlike composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes produce eruptions of very fluid basaltic lava. This lava flows out of vents in all directions, traveling long distances before solidifying. They are characterized by broad, gently sloping cones, resembling a soldier's convex shield. They are commonly associated with a high magma supply rate, fueling a continuous flow of lava on the surface. Lacking any real explosivity, these ongoing eruptions take the form of lava fountains. Over time, shield volcanoes can become extremely large, producing islands in the middle of the ocean.", "A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions, although some have collapsed craters called calderas. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite), with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as . ", "Molten rock that flows beneath the earth's surface and is made up of gases, liquids, and crystals. When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava.", "Some volcanoes, such as shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa (respectively the most active and second largest on Earth, are both on the island of Hawaii), form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters. Kilauea Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake.", "A type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption.", "In other cases, the magma continues moving upward to the surface, unimpeded by surrounding rocks. When it reaches the surface, it discharges through a volcanic vent or some other opening in the crust. Igneous rocks that form from magma extruded, or thrust out, from Earth are known as extrusive masses.", "Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic-andesitic composition, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions, with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice as well as rainfalls often cause massive lahars (mud and debris flows), such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971. ", "obsidian—a dark, glasslike volcanic rock formed by the rapid solidification of lava without crystallization (natural glass).", "�  Magma � Molten rock, usually mostly silica. The liquid may contain dissolved gases as well as some solid minerals.", "igneous rock produced by eruption and solidified on or near the earth's surface; rhyolite or andesite or basalt", "The volcano sits on top of sedimentary rocks which were deposited before the volcano existed within a shallow sea. These sedimentary rocks contains some fossils, but more fossils are to be found in thin layers of younger sedimentary rocks which are found between the lava flows. This shows that the volcano was erupting into a sea, and between eruptions, these sediments were depositing. It is these rocks which include the plant fragments and fish remains.", "Molten rock that comes from a volcanic explosion and the rock that results after it has hardened and cooled", "\"Numerous small cones (maximum diameter about 10 m, up to about 1-2 m high) were also present on the surface of the pyroclastic-flow deposit. These cones resulted from the activity of large steam fumaroles. At the time of the visit, two intermittent fumaroles were active in the upper portion of the deposit (~8 km from the crater) emitting a steam plume 3-4 m high mixed with fine-grained ash. A hot (88°C) stream of muddy water (65 cm wide), with the consistency of a mudflow, was also surging from the ground in the area close to these intermittent fumaroles. A water sample filtered from this stream showed a high chloride content compared to other streams and rivers travelling down the volcano (table 3). Many old tracks of other mudflows were observed on the surface of the pyroclastic flow deposit.\"", "called magma when it is below the Earth's surface and lava. Igneous Rock Classificiation. Mineralogical Classification Igneous Rock", "Extrusive igneous rock of mafic composition formed from lava that has flowed widely over Earth’s surface.", "Molten rock material that occurs below Earth's surface. When it erupts onto the surface, it is known as \"lava.\"", "a hard, black, often glassy, volcanic rock. It was produced by the partial melting of the Earth's mantle.", "a lava type of mafic composition that has a low silica content, erupts at high temperatures, and flows readily", "Salado's rock is predominantly potassium-rich dacite and rhyodacite. Its lavas are high in biotite, hornblende, plagioclase, and opaques, with lower levels of augite, quartz, and hypersthene. " ]

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[ "Scientifically-based weather forecasting was not possible until meteorologists were able to collect data about current weather conditions from a relatively widespread system of observing stations and organize that data in a timely fashion. By the 1930s, these conditions had been met. Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes developed a weather station network in the 1920s that allowed for the collection of regional weather data. The weather data collected by the network could be transmitted nearly instantaneously by use of the telegraph, invented in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse. The age of scientific forecasting, also referred to as synoptic forecasting, was under way.", "Humans have been looking for ways to forecast the weather for centuries. Modern weather forecasting owes its existence to the invention of many weather recording instruments, such as the hygrometer, barometer, weather balloon, and radar. Three major technological developments have led weather forecasting to its current status: the development of instant communications with distant areas beginning in the late 1800s, remote sensing devices starting in the early 1900s, and computers in the late 1900s.", "For UK forecasting, observations from the network of local weather stations remain essential, while 18 weather radars across the British Isles give forecasters a picture of where rain or snow is falling. One of the most important developments in recent years is ensemble forecasting. Because the observations are far from being a perfect description of the atmosphere – and because the atmosphere is in scientific terms a “chaotic” system in which very small errors in the initial state can lead to big errors in its development a few days ahead – the ensemble technique runs the computer model many times with slightly different starting conditions.", "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change.", "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.", "Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere . The study of meteorology dates back millennia , though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. It wasn’t until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and, more particularly, the development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.", "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Mankind has attempted to predict the weather since ancient times. Today, weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, and incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the range of the forecast increases.", "Weather forecasting is the attempt by meteorologists to predict the state of the atmosphere at some future time and the weather conditions that may be expected. Weather forecasting is the single most important practical reason for the existence of meteorology as a science. It is obvious that knowing the future of the weather can be important for individuals and organizations. Accurate weather forecasts can tell a farmer the best time to plant, an airport control tower what information to send to planes that are landing and taking off, and residents of a coastal region when a hurricane might strike.", "Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate. [63]", "Meteorology has advanced through theoretical understanding and through new technologies such as aviation, computers, and satellites, which have enhanced data collection and observation of the weather. Economic and social aspects of meteorology now include practical fore-casting, severe weather warnings, and governmental and diplomatic initiatives regarding the health and future of the planet.", "Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate. [79]", "One system receiving data is a Windows-based PC that takes weather bulletins, like watches and warnings, and automatically creates informational maps and crawls to alert viewers to dangerous or potentially dangerous weather conditions. This First Warning System not only creates the maps and crawls but signals the forecast staff and others in the TV station that severe weather is upon the community and action must be taken. At this point, other TV station staffers, such as engineers in Master Control, can interface with the First Warning System remotely and get the prepared maps or crawls on the air, even if no trained forecaster is on duty at the time.", "Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition, forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome. ", "Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition, weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.", "Several decades prior to the advent of the modern computer, Vilhelm Bjerknes, a Norwegian physicist-turned-meteorologist, advocated a mathematical approach to weather forecasting. This approach was based on his belief that it was possible to bring together the full range of observation and theory to predict weather changes. British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson was the first person to attempt to work out Bjerknes's program. During and", "Meteorologists are best known by the public for weather forecasting . Some radio and television weather forecasters are professional meteorologists, while others are reporters (weather specialist, weatherman, etc.) with no formal meteorological training. The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association issue “Seals of Approval” to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements.", "Meteorologists are best known for forecasting the weather. Many radio and television weather forecasters are professional meteorologists, while others are merely reporters (weather specialist, weatherman , etc.) with no formal meteorological training. The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association issue \"Seals of Approval\" to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements.", "Occasionally, mistakes occur. For example on Friday 17 August 2007, the 0520 forecast and data, as read by BBC Weatherman Philip Avery, was in fact that for the previous day, and a special reading of the correct day's issue was given out at 0700 on 198 kHz Longwave, before rejoining the normal FM programming.[ citation needed ] This has occurred on other occasions and, when noticed, a repeat forecast is generally transmitted in a diversion from the advertised schedule.", "Television, the ship’s barometer, thermometer, and a deck log where weather observations have been noted. All of these sour ces will add storm information. As you gather data, make hourly visual observations on deck. Look at cloud formations, wave sizes, direction and pattern.", "The desire to make better weather predictions coincided with the evolution of today's modern electronic computers. In fact, computers and meteorology have helped shape one another. Moreover, weather forecasting has helped drive the development of better multimedia software, both for forecasting purposes and for communicating forecasts to specific audiences.", "Calculators and computers make it possible for meteorologists to process large amounts of data and make complex calculations quickly. Weather satellites, first launched in 1960, can now produce photographs showing cloud and frontal movements, water-vapor concentrations, and temperature changes.", "Every weather prediction is based on the chance that the weather conditions will act together in a certain way. However, forecasts can be wrong. Some general patterns help meteorologists predict weather for a local area.", "making routine climate predictions readily available to those who have need of them for planning purposes, much as weather forecasts are made available to the public today.", "While the National Weather Service uses sophisticated equipment such as Doppler radar and high-altitude balloons to collect data, you can use many of the same tools they use.", "BBC Weather is the BBC's department in charge of preparing and broadcasting weather forecasts and is now part of BBC News. The broadcast meteorologists are employed by the Met Office. The longest-serving BBC weather forecaster is Michael Fish, who appeared for 36 years between 1974 and 2010 and still occasionally forecasts for South East Today.", "Weather Forecasting Through the Ages , by Steve Graham, Claire Parkinson, and Mous Chahine - This article from the Earth Observatory at NASA discusses the history of predicting weather.", "Meteorologist - A scientist who studies and predicts the weather. Meteorologists use sophisticated equipment, like Doppler radar and supercomputers, but they also rely on old-fashioned sky watching.", "Weather experts are only able to rely on scientific observation, experimentation and reason�physical evidence�to forecast weather in the short term. But this tells only part of the story. There is another little-used source we can turn to for the other portion of the picture. It claims to pinpoint the causes of weather cataclysms, and to forecast long-term weather trends. Yet it is a source whose veracity most people would naturally question.", "Meteorologists may be able to predict the weather in the short term, but they still do not know the extent to which climatic changes or climatic variability may be accurately predicted in the long term. They admit they don�t know why major global-impacting weather forces, such as high-altitude jet streams or powerful ocean currents, shift as they do.", "Several years ago now, I was part of a discussion panel with a local TV meteorologist. I was doing computer modeling of astronomical phenomena at the time; he was discussing weather forecasting models, I was talking about the difficulties of complex, long-time-span models.", "The job of actually reading the forecast can be a tough one. The late broadcast - lasting around 11 minutes - can strike fear in those new to the task.", "At UCAR’s COSMIC program , researchers have shown that computer models do a better job of predicting hurricanes when they’re fed extra data on how much moisture is in the air surrounding a developing storm. The data to help predict which potential hurricanes are most likely to develop come from SuomiNet , a UCAR-managed network of ground-based sensors that assess moisture by measuring tiny changes in GPS signals." ]

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[ "meandering—A meander is a bend in a sinuous watercourse. Meandering is the process when the faster-moving water in a river erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the slower-moving water on the inner side of the bend becomes a place where sediments are deposited. As a result, rivers tend to constantly change their course over a floodplain over time.", "meandering:  Tendency of a stream channel to gradually shift position across a valley as a result of simultaneous erosion and deposition on opposite stream banks over time.", "Meander, is a river in southwestern Turkey.  The word \"meander\" is used to describe a winding pattern, after the river.", "When a river reaches a low-lying plain, often in its final course to the sea or a lake , it meanders widely. In the vicinity of a river bend, deposition occurs on the convex bank (the bank with the smaller radius). In contrast, both lateral erosion and undercutting occur on the cut bank or concave bank (the bank with the greater radius.) Continuous deposition on the convex bank and erosion of the concave bank of a meandering river cause the formation of a very pronounced meander with two concave banks getting closer. The narrow neck of land between the two neighboring concave banks is finally cut through, either by lateral erosion of the two concave banks or by the strong currents of a flood . When this happens, a new straighter river channel is created and an abandoned meander loop, called a cutoff , is formed. When deposition finally seals off the cutoff from the river channel, an oxbow lake is formed. This process can occur over a time scale from a few years to several decades and may sometimes become essentially static.", "A stream that has many bends (meanders). This type of drainage pattern usually develops on a nearly level landscape and where the banks of the stream are easily eroded.", "It was later realised that periodic flooding of rivers and their floodplains is a natural phenomenon which serves to provide water to underground aquifers and replenish layers of silty topsoil on the floodplain, essential for river life, plants and animals. If river channels do not flood then sedimentation occurs and if the river channel becomes narrow, as in the case of the Hunter, and then the energy of any future flood increases – causing further damage. In the 1955 flood, there was a large deposit of sediment over a major area from Oakhampton to Morpeth.", "Atmospheric motion that shows irregular and random motion over very small distances and over short intervals of time.", "flights of birds (with or without cobwebs or other objects attached), falling leaves, insect swarms, peculiar weather conditions, reflections,", "Currents run down these gentle slopes under the pull of gravity. Winds and gravity start water moving, but the currents that form don't flow parallel to the wind or straight down the steepest surface. Instead, the currents move at an angle to the force that generates them�a phenomenon called the Coriolis effect.", "a long depression in the land surface, usually containing a river, formed by erosion or by movements in the earth's crust", "A lot of water has covered a lot of land since then, disrupting human societies and natural ecosystems all the way. Nearly every continent has a low-lying stretch of coast that has been affected. The United States has several: Georgia’s Sea Islands, the Florida Everglades, Louisiana’s Mississippi Delta. In England, the largest such area is called the Fens, 300,000 acres of flat and sinking land, facing the North Sea from Cambridge to Lincoln. The Fens, like the Louisiana Delta, formed over the last 10 millennia as rivers dumped sediment onto a sinking plain, forming wide marshes. A person might see one of these marshes as something eternal and unchanging, but this appearance is erroneous; in geological terms, these lands are recent and changing rapidly. A person might also think he’s looking at ordinary land that’s been flooded. This, too, turns out to be a serious, common and costly error.", "A small local current usually caused by tidal streams as they ebb and flow around or against obstructions.", "(geology) a long winding ridge of post glacial gravel and other sediment; deposited by meltwater from glaciers or ice sheets", "A wind that flows from a glacier, caused by air cooled by the ice becoming heavier than surrounding air, then draining down-valley.", "There are wake sightings that occur when the loch is dead calm with no boat nearby. A bartender named David Munro claims to have witnessed a wake he believed was a creature zigzagging, diving, and reappearing. (There were 26 other witnesses from a nearby car park.) [68] Some sightings describe the onset of a V-shaped wake, as if there were something underwater. [70] Moreover, many wake sightings describe something not conforming to the shape of a boat. [42] Under dead calm conditions, a creature too small to be visible to the naked eye can leave a clear v-shaped wake. In particular, a group of swimming birds can give a wake and the appearance of an object. A group of birds can leave the water and then land again, giving a sequence of wakes like an object breaking the surface, which Dick Raynor says is a possible explanation for his film. [75]", "Dunes and ripples are the primary sedimentary features in streams whose channel is composed mainly of sand and silt. Dunes are about 10 or more centimeters in height and are spaced a meter or more apart. They are common in streams with higher velocities. Ripples are only a few centimeters in height and spacing, and are found in slow moving streams with fine textured beds. Both of these features move over time, migrating down stream. Material on the gently sloping stoss-side of these features rolls and jumps up the slope under the influence of water flow. Particles move up the slope until they reach the crest of the feature and then avalanche down the steeper lee-side to collect at the base of the next dune or ripple. This process is then repeated over and over again until the material reaches a location down stream where it is more permanently deposited.", "From Andrew Collins book; \"Gateway to Atlantis\" we get the following interesting information. Many native American traditions tell of a moon fell out of the sky, onto the earth. During it's passage through the sky it looked like a feiry snake, there were terrible earth quakes and the day turned into night, there was a gigantic flood and a formidable rain that lasted many days, many people died. This most likely describes the impact of the comet that created the Carolina Bays.", "As you head towards the lighthouse along the narrow road, the spit of land thins down to a mere 165ft (50m) in places, giving a feeling of vulnerability with the River Humber to your right and the North Sea to your left. These bodies of water are quite different, the North Sea is energised and dynamic, actively crashing against the rocky coastline. In complete contrast, the River Humber barely laps against its shore, shepherded as it is by the 'arm' of Spurn. The stillness is deceptive though, because the gravitational influence of the Moon is at work. Therefore the vegetation on this side has to be able to withstand being immersed in salt water every 12 hours due to the tidal movement .", "natural process involving the abandonment of one river channel and the formation of a new one.", "Recent research has shown that changes are occurring in the Gulf Stream. According to scientists, in the absence of the Gulf Stream and its two northern branches, the north Atlantic Drift and the Canary Current, the weather in the United Kingdom could be more like that of Siberia, which lies on the same latitude. According to Peter Wadhams of the University of Cambridge, changes are occurring in the water of the Greenland Sea. Historically, large columns of very cold, dense water in the Greenland Sea, known as chimneys, sink from the surface of the ocean to about 9,000 ft. (2,743 m.) below, to the seabed. As that water sinks, it interacts with the warm Gulf Stream current flowing from the south. However, the number of those chimneys, according to Wadhams, has decreased from about a dozen to just two. That is causing a weakening of the Gulf Stream, Wadham asserts, which could mean less heat reaching northern Europe. It is possible that the coastal areas of western Europe could be converted into deserts. However, this would require much more extensive research on changing land use patterns in coastal areas.", "People often mistake my use of “flowing data” as purely meaning data that frequently updates – that it moves in some way like a river, and that’s certainly part of it, but there’s more to it than that. There’s life in that river. There are undercurrents, erosion, growth, curves and bends, temperature changes, rapids, waterfalls, and water that is practically at a standstill. Where does the river begin, and where does it pour out into? Where did that river come from? How old is it? How young is it?", "ripple marks and mud cracks: sand patterns formed by wind or water, and/or cracks caused by the drying and contracting of sediments", "On the fourth of July, 2010, a man named Kent Smith was on a cruise in the Gulf of Alaska. He started watching the water, as many cruise-goers are bound to do, and, in his words (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/), noticed something strange: \"I had been on the deck for quite some time when I noticed what appeared to be a shadow cast by clouds over the ocean about 5 miles in front of the ship. As we approached the shadow I realized it was something different.\" That something different turned into the picture seen above (larger version here). (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/sizes/o/in/photostream/)", "Zonal Flow - Its when the winds in the upper levels of the atmosphere blow from coast to coast with little or no deviation. In other words, the jest stream creates a straight line.", "The unevenness of development in time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodical—daily, monthly, seasonal, annual) and nonrhythmic (episodic) changes typical of this shell. As a result of these processes particular sectors of the geographic shell have differing ages, the course of natural processes has an inherited aspect, and relict features are pre-served in existing landscapes. A knowledge of the principal rules of development of the geographic shell enables us to forecast natural processes in many cases.", "RAPID. A slope, down which water runs with more than ordinary rapidity, but not enough to be called a \"fall;\" and sometimes navigable by boats.", "Small-scale seiches and surges may not be noticed, but those that have significant water movement can:", "A sea running in a direction contrary to the wind, which can be confused and dangerous.", "A sea running in a direction contrary to the wind, which can be confused and dangerous.", "ROB COE: And what we found was even harder to believe. The quickly chilled margins in the bottom and the top had one direction, like that of the underlying flow, and the middle portion had a direction that was sixty degrees farther away. It was just as though, while the flow cooled, the field had moved sixty degrees, which if you calculate it out, that comes to about six degrees of movement per day. If we were observing this with a compass, you would be able almost to see the motion with your eye. It was truly astonishing and extraordinary.", "Image caption 63mph winds from the east could have pushed the water back at an ancient river bend", "· That means that this was not a shallow river with still waters rather had rushing water at the time." ]

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[ "Precipitation - General name for water in any form falling from clouds. This includes rain, drizzle, hail, snow and sleet. Although, dew, frost and fog are not considered to be precipitation.", "water falling from the sky to the surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet or hail", "precipitation - the collection of water molecules that falls from the sky as rain, sleet, hail, or snow.", "So, just to refresh on the various forms of frozen, winter precipitation in Australia, we have: snow, sleet, graupel (sago snow, snow pellets, wintry/soft hail), ice pellets (american sleet) and snow grains. Remember, sleet is easier to identify if you follow this; it will be observed as melting snowflakes falling with some rain and even rain occuring with a bit of ice associated with it. IMO, the best method of identification, is to watch it falling on a car windscreen as you drive through it, in which case the sleet splatters leaving ice crystals clearly visible.", "(often used as 'wintry showers') When the air temperature is close to zero deg.C (either side), it is sometimes easier to use this shorthand term for showers producing soft hail, sleet, snow, 'sleety-rain' etc. Frowned upon by proper meteorologists but a useful term nonetheless. (However, we try to avoid it when the showers are much heavier, and are expected to give significant snowfall.)", "The shower symbol is combined with a precipitation symbol to indicate rain or snow shower. The hail symbol may be combined with the thunderstorm symbol, for example, and a dot in the triangle represents sleet. Everywhere except in the U.S., sleet is hail or snow with rain; in the U.S., it is freezing rain with clear crystals (ice pellets). A rain dot or snow asterisk can be used above a thunderstorm symbol to indicate a slight or moderate storm with rain or snow. If the lightning is given an extra zigzag, a heavy thunderstorm is indicated. The sandstorm symbol can be used if the thunderstorm is kicking up dust.", "precipitation Moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, and mist.", "Any and all forms of water, liquid or solid, that falls from clouds and reaches the ground. This includes drizzle, freezing drizzle, freezing rain, hail, ice crystals, ice pellets, rain, snow, snow pellets, and snow grains. The amount of fall is usually expressed in inches of liquid water depth of the substance that has fallen at a given point over a specified time period.", "Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from American sleet (called ice pellets outside of the United States), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Sleet (ice pellets) falls generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures. ", "Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of precipitation is also referred to as \"sleet\" by the United States National Weather Service. (In Commonwealth English \"sleet\" refers to a mixture of rain and snow). Ice pellets are usually smaller than hailstones. They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.", "Hail: Precipitation which comes down in the form of irregular shapes of ice is known as hail.", "sleet - precipitation that consists of clear pellets of ice; sleet is formed when raindrops fall through a layer of cold air and freeze", "Sleet can be a confusing term, at times. Probably the best Australian and English definition of sleet is snow in the process of melting. As an observation, this can present as snow flakes with some rain present, or even cold rain with some slushy, soft ice present. The UK Met Office says, 'Sleet has no internationally agreed definition but is reported in meteorological observations as a combination or mix of rain and snow. Essentially, it is frozen precipitation that partially melts as it falls and has begun the melting process before it reaches the ground.'", "A: Sleet is wintry precipitation that results when falling snowflakes are partially melted by warm air and then refrozen into small grains of ice as they fall into subfreezing air near the Earth's surface.", "(abbrev. IP) Same as Sleet; defined as pellets of ice composed of frozen or mostly frozen raindrops or refrozen partially melted snowflakes. These pellets of ice usually bounce after hitting the ground or other hard surfaces. A Winter Storm Warning is issued for sleet or a combination of sleet and snow based on total accumulation which is locally defined by area.", "Precipitation that originates in convective clouds, such as cumulonimbus, in the form of balls or irregular pieces of ice, which comes in different shapes and sizes. Hail is considered to have a diameter of 5 millimeter or more; smaller bits of ice are classified as ice pellets, snow pellets, or graupel. Individual lumps are called hailstones. It is reported as \"GR\" in an observation and on the METAR. Small hail and/or snow pellets is reported as \"GS\" in an observation and on the METAR.", "A term sometimes used for ice pellets, a mixture of precipitating rain and snow, or glaze.", "SLEET: A type of frozen precipitation, consisting of small pellets produced by the freezing of raindrops as they fall.", "Hail is observed precipitation in the form of small balls or pieces of ice (hialstones), falling either separately or agglomerated into irregular lumps. Hail falls during heavy thunderstorms.", "Hail is produced when water freezes in falling; snow, when there is some air imprisoned in the water. -- Aet. iii. 4, I (Dox. p. 370).", "The water droplets often coelace, forming bigger and bigger drops until they are heavy enough to fall as rain. If the droplets are carried up to the freezing point repeatedly, adding new water layers on each time until it too is heavy enough to fall, hail results.", "Freezing rain follows a similar journey as sleet , but instead of a thin pocket of warm air, freezing rain falls through a larger pocket of warm air in the middle of its journey. Freezing rain begins as snow , but when it reaches the warm pocket, it melts and becomes rain .", "Sleet occurs when a snowflake falls through the atmosphere and warms up a bit before refreezing. The snowflake begins its journey frozen. As it passes through a thin layer of warm air in the atmosphere , it melts a bit.", "Hail Solid precipitation in the form of chunks or balls of ice with diameters greater than 5 mm. The stones fall from cumulonimbus clouds.", "Nimbostratus clouds form a dark gray, wet looking cloudy layer associated with continuously falling rain or snow. They often produce precipitation that is usually light to moderate.", "Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus, which he called the rain cloud, \"a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling\". He described it as \"a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally and from beneath\".", "Ice Storms - They occur when temperatures below a raining cloud are very cold, causing the raindrops to become supercooled (less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit). Freezing rain covers streets, houses, and trees with heavy layers of ice, causing concern for dangerous driving, and damage from the weight of the ice.", "FREEZING RAIN: Rain which falls as liquid then freezes upon impact of a surface, resulting in a coating of ice on exposed objects.", "Freezing rain and freezing drizzle Rain or drizzle that falls in liquid form and then freezes upon striking a cold object or ground. Both can produce a coating of ice on objects which is called glaze.", "A low layer of rolling grey patchy clouds that sometimes joins together, creating a continuous cloud. This often forms on the back side of the cold front, producing light rain or drizzle.", "Rain that freezes on objects such as trees, cars and roads, forming a coating or glaze of ice. Temperatures at higher levels are warm enough for rain to form, but surface temperatures are below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, causing the rain to freeze on impact.", "High-level clouds, called cirrus clouds, can reach heights of 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and are typically thin. They do not produce rain and often indicate fair weather. They are usually made up of ice." ]

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[ "The hardest natural substance is diamond which is an allotrope of carbon. It has superlative physical qualities which originated from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. The carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centred cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice.", "Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance known; it is also the most popular gemstone. Because of their extreme hardness, diamonds have a number of important industrial applications.", "Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. It is the hardest known natural substance. Its hardness and high dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and jewelry . Diamonds make excellent abrasives because they can be scratched only by other diamonds. Because all these qualities and its rare natural occurence, the cost of diamonds is very high.", "Diamonds are known as The King of Gems and needs no introduction. They are the most famous and desirable jewels. With a 10 on the Mohs scale, diamond is the hardest natural substance on earth. As the 6th century Indian text Ratnapariksa says, “the diamond scratches all and is not scratched by any.” What is most remarkable is that diamond is made of pure carbon, the same material that makes up charcoal or pencil lead. It is the crystalline structure that gives the gem its incredible strength.", "Diamond is the hardest natural material known, scoring 10 on the relative Mohs scale of mineral hardness and having an absolute hardness value of between 90, 167, and 231 gigapascals in various tests. Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. However, aggregated diamond nanorods, an allotrope of carbon first synthesized in 2005, are now believed to be even harder than diamond.", "corundum, naturally occurring aluminum oxide mineral (Al 2 O 3) that is, after diamond, the hardest known natural substance. Its finer varieties are the gemstones ...", "Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers and the Mohs scale. Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.", "Diamond is the hardest known natural material on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, where hardness is defined as resistance to scratching and is graded between 1 (softest) and 10 (hardest). Diamond has a hardness of 10 (hardest) on this scale and is four times harder than corundum, 9 Mohs.  Diamond’s hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.", "Diamond is currently thought to be the hardest natural material on Earth, having a hardness of ten out of ten on the Mohs scale of mineral", "Diamonds (means \"unbreakable\" in Greek) are crystallized carbon created under extreme heat and pressure, carbon in its most concentrated form. Diamonds are the hardest substance in nature and the only gemstone composed of a single element. Diamonds are not only hardest gemstone but also the farest light reflected among the gems. Even though diamond is only one level higher on the Moh's scale than corundum, diamond can be anywhere from ten to hundreds of times harder than this class of gems. It is the molecular structure that makes diamonds so hard (carbon atoms linked together in a lattice structure). These transparent crystals are also notable for its high dispersion index and high thermal conductivity. It has been associated with purity and fearlessness since ancient times and, more recently, with love.", "The hardest natural mineral in the world is lonsdaleite, a rare mineral made of carbon atoms. This mineral can withstand up to 58 percent more stress than diamond, according to a report by Jessica Griggs of NewScientist.", "Diamond is the hardest substance on earth (*not* a metal). The Americal Iron and Steel institute recognizes that some tungsten carbide alloys are the hardest (commercially viable/useful) metals. Now, just like there are elements that are man-made in the laboratory (that exist only for a short time), I am sure that there are or have been alloys constructed in labs that rival even the tungsten carbide alloys, but many, if not all, of these would most likely be impractical for any useful purpose base on any number of factors (brittle, dangerous/toxic, unstable, expensive, etc.). So, if we just consider common, useful materials, then tungsten carbide is the agreed-upon \"winner\".", "The hardest material known to man, diamond is the only gemstone primarily comprised of one element, carbon. One of the oldest known gems, diamonds were mined in India as far back as 400 B.C. The largest diamond ever found was the Cullinan, a 3,106 ct. behemoth, found in 1905. It was cut into 105 stones, two of which reside in the British Crown Jewels.", "diamond The word originated from old French, diamant. The hardest known substance on earth, in the cubic (isometric) crystal system.", "It’s as strong as steel and tough as a bulletproof vest, capable of withstanding the same amount of pressure it takes to turn carbon into a diamond. Scientists have discovered nature’s newest strongest material, and it comes from … a sea snail.", "_____ is known as the hardest substance in the human body, making teeth a very good means of identification of even very badly decomposed bodies.", "Corundum is the second hardest natural mineral known to science.The History SaysOne century ago, the richest corundum mine in the world was in Canada, at …", "A rare metallic element, of the same group as platinum, which it much resembles, being silver-white, but harder, and brittle, and indifferent to most corrosive agents. With the exception of osmium, it is the heaviest substance known, its specific gravity being 22.4. Symbol Ir. Atomic weight 192.5.", "Q & A: The Hardest Substance | Department of Physics | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign", "Actually tungsten carbide pressed into a solid form is the strongest metal you can find. No steel even comes close. Unless they made some kind of mythic discovery, the hardest steel can be is Rockwell 58 if even that high; it might only be a 56. I can't remember.", "��������� Copals comprise a considerable group of resins of recent, semi fossil and fossil origin that are found in many tropical and subtropical areas of the world.� The word �copal� is of Mexican origin.� Many of the harder copals are called animes, especially in northern Europe.� The copals insignificant quantities of oil and they yield a hard elastic varnish, which has been widely used for outdoor work.� Several types are know which are diverse in character and source", "Don't try this at home! but here's a recipe. First put on some gloves and catch a bouga toad. Carefully collect some of its gland secretions, said to be a hundred times more powerful than the heart medicine digitalis and hallucinogenic. Then (perhaps keeping your gloves on) catch some puffer fish for their tetrodotoxin, said to be one of the strongest poisons in the world. Add tarantulas, millipedes, seeds and leaves of poisonous plants, and skins from poisonous tree frogs. Mix the poisons together, and for extra effect add ground-up human bones. Then sidle up to an unsuspecting victim and surreptitiously apply a little of the brew to that person's skin.", "Furthermore, it contains a number of unknown compounds. Up to 4% of the weight consists of natural substances for which the function and structure are unknown.  In other words, the researchers know these substances exist, but they don't know what they are. Yet, such substances are certain to exert profound therapeutic benefits, effects which are superior to those produced by man-made drugs, which are merely synthetic chemicals.", "The element itself does not occur naturally and is difficult to extract. Once produced it is fairly stable. It resembles a hard, grey, metallic rock.", "Of the most lethal mushrooms, three—the death cap (A. phalloides), destroying angels (A. virosa and A. bisporigera), and the fool's mushroom (A. verna)—belong to the genus Amanita, and two more—the deadly webcap (C. rubellus), and the fool's webcap (C. orellanus)—are from the genus Cortinarius. Several species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe also contain lethal amounts of amatoxins. Deadly species are listed in the List of deadly fungi.", "Three crystalline tannoids have been extracted. The purgative constituents apparently exist in the form of an unstable crystalline substance: Rheopurgarin. This splits up into four glucosides: two of these yield Chrysophanic acid (so named from its forming yellow crystals) and Rheochrysidin respectively. The other two glucosides have not yet been isolated, but they appear to yield Emodin and Rhein.", "Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Widely distributed across Europe, A. phalloides forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees. In some cases, the death cap has been introduced to new regions with the cultivation of non-native species of oak, chestnut, and pine. The large fruiting bodies (mushrooms) appear in summer and autumn; the caps are generally greenish in colour, with a white stipe and gills.", "Its hallucinogenic properties have been well-known for centuries and the species has a long history of use in religious and shamanistic rituals, especially in Siberia. It is a common and widespread fungus, native to much of the north-temperate world, and an important ectomycorrhizal associate of various broadleaved and coniferous trees. Its fruitbodies are also utilised by a wide variety of flies (Diptera) and by some beetles (Coleoptera) as breeding sites.", "There is no one tree responsible for the resin that fossilizes into amber. Botanical affinities have been suggested based on examination of the entombed debris and through chemical studies of the resin. The botanical affinity of jelinite, Kansas amber, appears to be from the Araucariaceae family, which is considered to be a primary Mesozoic amber tree. Although this tree does not exist today in the northern hemisphere, it would closely resemble Agathis australis, or the huge Kauri pine found today in New Zealand.", "This week, we're hunting for the chemical that was named after France. But you'll need very good eyesight because there's less than a kilogram of it across the entire earth. Know what it is yet? Here's Peter Wothers.", "formed from the remains of prehistoric animals and plants and are preserved in rock or other materials.", "This rock is strange and I'm curious what it is exactly,but it is impossible for me to complete all 3 steps.Would you think yourself or your friend or anybody or any lab have same interests to research this rock? I have prepared 48.4g to test and exchange the TEST REPORT for what it is exactly or any suspected substance?" ]

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[ "A horde, hover, muster, parcel are also listed as collective nouns for Crows. The most famous of them all is \"a murder.", "Perhaps appropriately, a group of cockroaches is called an intrusion of cockroaches. A group of rats is often called a pack, but it also can be called a mischief. Crows also have particularly negative collective nouns, including an unkindness of crows, as well as a congress, a conspiracy, a parliament and a murder of crows. Doves have a more positive group of names, including a cote of doves and a piteousness of doves.", "Crows are members of a widely distributed genus of birds, Corvus, in the family Corvidae. Ranging in size from the relatively small pigeon-size jackdaws (Eurasian and Daurian) to the Common Raven of the Holarctic region and Thick-billed Raven of the highlands of Ethiopia, the 40 or so members of this genus occur on all temperate continents except for South America, and several islands. In Europe the word “crow” is used to refer to the Carrion Crow or the Hooded Crow, while in North America it is used for the American Crow or the Northwestern Crow. The crow genus makes up a third of the species in the Corvidae family. Crows appear to have evolved in Asia from the corvid stock, which had evolved in Australia. The collective name for a group of crows is a flock or a murder. Recent research has found some crow species capable of not only tool use but also tool construction and meta-tool use. Crows are now considered to be among the world’s most intelligent animals with an encephalization quotient approaching that of some apes. The Jackdaw and the European Magpie have been found to have a nidopallium approximately the same relative size as the functionally equivalent neocortex in chimpanzees and humans, and significantly larger than is found in the gibbon.", "Sure you have heard of a “gaggle” of geese or “murder” of crows, but what do you call a group of Finches, Jays or Woodpeckers? Generic collective nouns such as “flock fleet,” or “dissimulation” can apply to all bird species; however, there are more distinctive terms used for groups of specific types of birds that often are a reflection of the bird’s personality and behavior.", "Collective nouns used for animals: a catch of fish, a flock of birds, a flight of birds, an army of ants, a haul of fish, a flock of sheep, a herd of any animal (like deer, cattle, goats, elephants, buffaloes, horse, etc), a hive of bees, a team of horses, a troop of lions, a zoo of wild animals, a pack of wolves, a litter of cubs, a host of sparrows, a kennel of dogs, a murder of crows, a team of ducks, a team of oxen, a litter of puppies or kittens, a swarm of bees (or ants, rats, flies, etc), a pack of hounds, herd of antelope, army of ants, colony of ants, shrewdness of apes, tribe of baboons, flange of baboons, congress of baboons, culture of bacteria, cete of badgers, colony of badgers, sloth of bears, sleuth of bears, pack of bears (or polar bears), grist of bees, colony of beavers, lodge of beavers, flight of bees or insects, congregation of birds, volery of birds, sedge of bitterns, herd of boar, chain of bobolinks, brace or clash of bucks, rabble of butterflies, wake of buzzards, army of caterpillars, clowder (or clutter, pounce, glaring, dout, nuisance, etc) of cats, drove of cattle, brood of chickens, flock of chickens, congregation of crocodiles, float of crocodiles, litter of dogs, kennel of dogs, pack of dogs, pod of dolphins, convocation of eagles, colony or knot of frogs, bury of rabbits, and so many.", "Collective nounsterms for groups of animals, birds and insects (for example, 'herd' of cows, 'flock' of birds, 'swarm' of insects, etc.)", "Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In common English, they are known as the crow family, or, more technically, corvids. Over 120 species are described. The genus Corvus, including the jackdaws, crows, and ravens, makes up over a third of the entire family.", "Crows are medium to large birds; many species are black or black and grey; others are pied; others are more colourful or well-patterned. Eight species breed in the UK; there are many others around the world.", "crow Corvus any of various glossy black birds found in most parts of the world, with the exception of southern South America. Crows are generally smaller and not as thick-billed as ravens, which belong to the same genus. A large majority of the 40 or so Corvus...", "Collective animals  antelopesherd apesshrewdness assespace or herd badgerscete bearssloth beesswarm or grist birdsflock, congregation, flight, or volery bitternssedge or siege boarssounder bucksbrace or lease buffaloesherd capercailziestok catsclowder cattledrove or herd choughschattering coltsrag cootscovert cranesherd, sedge, or siege crowsmurder cubslitter curlewsherd curscowardice deerherd dolphinsschool dovesflight or dule duckspaddling or team dunlinsflight elkgang fishshoal, draught, haul, run, or catch fliesswarm or grist foxesskulk geesegaggle or skein giraffesherd gnatsswarm or cloud goatsherd or tribe goldfinchescharm grousebrood, covey, or pack gullscolony haresdown or husk hawkscast hensbrood heronssedge or siege herringsshoal or glean houndspack, mute, or cry insectsswarm kangaroostroop kittenskindle lapwingsdesert larksexaltation leopardsleap lionspride or troop mallardssord or sute maresstud martensrichesse moleslabour monkeystroop mulesbarren nightingaleswatch owlsparliament oxenyoke, drove, team, or herd partridgescovey peacocksmuster pheasantsnye or nide pigeonsflock or flight pigslitter ploversstand or wing pochardsflight, rush, bunch, or knob poniesherd porpoisesschool or gam poultryrun pupslitter quailsbevy rabbitsnest racehorsesfield or string ravensunkindness roesbevy rooksbuilding or clamour ruffshill sealsherd or pod sheepflock sheldrakesdopping snipewalk or wisp sparrowshost starlingsmurmuration swallowsflight swansherd or bevy swiftsflock swineherd, sounder, or dryft tealbunch, knob, or spring whalesschool, gam, or run whelpslitter whitingpod wigeonbunch, company, knob, or flight wildfowlplump, sord, or sute wolvespack, rout, or herd woodcocksfall", "R�cach12345, R�ca35, R�fa5 [Pre-Germanic Krog or Krag imit.7]; Pr�ach�n Dubh2345 [Black Crow]; Pr�ach�n36 [see Crow]; Cn�imhfhiach5, Cr�imhfhiach5 (Don.) [see Raven]", "But the term “murder of crows” mostly reflects a time when groupings of many animals had colorful and poetic names. Other fun examples of “group” names include: an ostentation of peacocks, a parliament of owls, a knot frogs, and a skulk of foxes.", "Crows are very social and have a tight-knit family. They roost in huge numbers (in the thousands) to protect themselves from enemies like red-tailed hawks, horned-owls, and raccoons. Crows also use at least 250 different calls. The distress call brings other crows to their aid, as crows will defend unrelated crows. Crows mate for life.", "But what is the origin of the terms a “murder of crows”, a “parliament of owls”, and a “gaggle of geese’”? Upon further investigation, I learned that the term “murder of crows” originates from folklore: flocks of crows held trials to judge and punish members of the flock that had transgressed. If found guilty, the “defendant” was executed (that is, “murdered”) by the flock. There may be some factual basis to this, as crows are territorial and may kill another crow that has encroached on their turf.", "A number of medieval sources provided lists of collective nouns for various animals and birds, purportedly as technical hunting terms, although clearly fanciful in origin. Whether these terms were ever actually used by hunters is doubtful, but a few have in the end become a part of the standard English vocabulary, and scholars from the 19th century onwards have been diligent in reproducing these medieval lists, with greater and less accuracy, so that many of these terms are today still known as the 'proper' terms for a group of some stated animal or bird, even though their use outside this limited domain is virtually non-existent. In imitation of these medieval terms many new terms of a similar nature have been coined in recent times, such as a crash of rhinoceroses. It may be noted that despite the existence of these collective nouns, ordinarily a group of plovers, starlings or owls will most likely be denoted, in both spoken and written English, by the term flock and not congregation, murmuration or parliament. Actual evidence of these 'proper' terms in genuine use is either sketchy or non-existent. The list below includes many common standard English terms, such as a pod of whales and a pack of dogs, as well as more arcane terms such as a clowder of cats and a descension of woodpeckers.", "If we are to believe Aesop, crows are known to take the color shed by peacocks, replacing their \"own rusty black ones [feathers]\" with the \"borrowed plumage\" in order to strut amongst the flock of the favored ( The Vain Crow ). ( A Cawing Kakaphonic Constellation of Crows, Or, The Refrain of Just \"Bird-wisdom\" , On Icarian Seas, 3 July 2013)", "The Corvidae family contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs and nutcrackers. They are considered the most intelligent of the birds. They are medium to large in size, with strong feet and bills, and a single moult each year (most passerines moult twice). Most species have bristle-like feathers covering their nostrils. They are omnivores having a varied diet. Corvids are found worldwide except for the tip of South America and the polar ice caps. [abstracted from Wikipedia]", "The crows and their relatives are fairly large birds with strong bills and are usually intelligent and adaptable. There are about 119 species worldwide with 9 in Britain and Wales.", "Crows live in large, close-knit families, and, like social mammals, they not only hunt and forage together but also defend territories and care for the young together. Most species, however, do not nest in colonies. Each mating pair has its own nest of sticks and twigs, usually high up in a tree. There are laid five or six greenish-to-olive eggs, with darker speckles. Young crows may spend up to six years with their parents before breeding on their own. As winter approaches, northern crows gather into large night-roosting groups. These flocks can include tens of thousands of birds and occasionally hundreds of thousands. Possible reasons for this seasonal gregariousness are warmth, protection against predators such as owls, or information exchange. A crow may live 13 years in the wild and more than 20 years in captivity.", "American Crows are highly social birds, more often seen in groups than alone. In addition to roosting and foraging in numbers, crows often stay together in year-round family groups that consist of the breeding pair and offspring from the past two years. The whole family cooperates to raise young. Winter roosts of American Crows sometimes number in the hundreds of thousands. Often admired for their intelligence, American Crows can work together, devise solutions to problems, and recognize unusual sources of food. Some people regard this resourcefulness and sociality as an annoyance when it leads to large flocks around dumpsters, landfills, and roosting sites; others are fascinated by it. American Crows work together to harass or drive off predators, a behavior known as mobbing.", "Crows have been congregating in large roosts in the fall and winter for as long as there have been crows. Crow roosts can range from small scattered roosts of under one hundred individuals to the spectacularly large roosts of hundreds of thousands, or even more than a million crows! A roost in Fort Cobb, Oklahoma was estimated to hold over two million crows (Gerald Iams, 1972, State of Oklahoma Upland Game Inventory W-82-R-10). Most roosts are much smaller, but roosts of tens of thousands are common.", "An archaic collective noun for a group of jackdaws is a \"clattering\". Another term used is \"train,\" however, in practice, most people use the more generic term \"flock\".", "The call is usually described as kaah—it is similar to that of the carrion crow, but usually rather flatter in tone. It is given both in flight and while perched, when the bird fans its tail and bows on each caw. Calls in flight are usually given singly, in contrast to the carrion crow's which are in groups of three or four. Solitary birds often \"sing\" apparently to themselves, uttering strange clicks, wheezes and human-like notes.", "Most crows are adaptable but often shy where persecuted; in towns, some become tame and may visit gardens. They all have strong, scaly feet, and stout (or downcurved) bills, mostly with a small patch of bristly feathers covering the nostrils. Northern populations of some species are migratory or nomadic, others are entirely resident.", "Sue says many traditional collective nouns incorporate a characteristic of the animal’s behaviour, such as a pride of lions or a cloud of gnats. Even an unkindness of ravens was originally related to their supposed habit of turfing chicks out of nests. One that doesn’t seem to fit is a parliament of owls. Owls are usually found singly or in pairs rather than in large groups. Others are just plain bizarre, such as a smack of jellyfish.", "Giant crows: Bigger than their mainland counterparts, they also have a unique tendency to make their nests using glasses, and also sometimes hunt humans in large numbers. ", "The ten species of Ravens in the world are the largest members of the family Corvidae and of the genus Corvus. They are distinguished as a group from crows mainly by their greater size.", "A bird of the worldwide family Corvidae. It can be a common name for the whole family, or just for the 40 species of the genus Corvus (other genera being jays, magpies, choughs, nutcrackers, and the piapiac), or just for some species of Corvus (others being ravens, rooks, and jackdaws). The name is also sometimes misapplied to birds not belonging to Corvidae. …", "slang for a slow-witted or stupid person, a simpleton or dope, a fool or idiot, after any of the several passerine bird species of Africa, Asia, and Australia having black plumage and long forked tails", "You’ve probably heard of a gaggle of geese or a pack of wolves, but did you know that a group of ravens is called an unkindness or that when several elk get together, they form a gang? David Fellows of the U.S. Geological Survey compiled more than 100 of these , in his quest to answer the question, What do you call a group of…?", "When a flock consists of just one type of bird or related species of birds, specialized terms are often used to describe the group. The most colorful and creative flock names include...", "The genus Corvus consists of large birds that are are either black all over, or mainly black with white or gray patches. They range in size from the relatively small Jackdaws to the very large Common Raven. The 40 or so members of this genus occur on all continents except South America and Antarctica." ]

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[ "A garden snail's speed is 0.03 mph (yes a snail is an animal and not an insect). Due to its slowness, the snail has traditionally been seen as a symbol of laziness. In Judeo-Christian culture, it has often been viewed as a manifestation of the deadly sin of sloth. A giant tortoise's speed is 0.17 miles per hour.", "If you are searching for a video of the record holder for the slowest moving animal on Earth, then you're in the right place. As all of you may know that there are 3 animals known to be the slowest animals in the world. Sloths move only when necessary and even then very slowly. On the ground the maximum speed of the three-toed sloth is 2 m or 6.5 feet per minute or 0.15 mile per hour. A giant tortoise's speed is 0.17 miles per hour. The common garden snail is the slowest moving animal and can travel about 0.03 mph (0.05 kmph). Please do note that a snail is an animal and not an insect (SNAILS ARE ONE OF THE EARLIEST KNOWN TYPES OF ANIMALS IN THE WORLD) . Due to its slowness, the snail has traditionally been seen as a symbol of laziness. Snails move by crawling, swimming, or floating with currents. Land snails crawl on the ground, creeping along on their large, flat foot; a special gland in the foot secretes mucus (a slimy fluid) that helps the snail move. Average life span of a snail is approximately 15 years but some of them survive upto a maximum of 25 years.", "Running fact 19. The garden snail is considered the slowest land animal with a speed of only 0.03 miles per hour.", "The snail moves by creeping or gliding along on a flat \"foot\" underneath it's body. The band of muscles in the foot contracts and expands and this creates a kind of rippling movement that pushes the snail forward. The \"foot\" has a special gland that produces slimy mucus to make a slippery track. You can often see these silvery tracks in the garden. The slime comes out from the front and hardens when it comes into contact with air. The snail is able to move on very sharp pointed needles, knife, razors and vines without being injured because the mucus-like secretion helps to protect its body.", "snail, garden, mollusc, passion flower, fruit, shell, feeding, wildlife, local species, common, herbivore, prey, pest, helix, slow moving,", "A garden snail would take three years and two months to make its way from John O’Groats to Land’s End.", "     This subclass contains most of the woodland and garden snails.  Garden slugs are pulmonate snails that have evolved without developing a shell, or that have perhaps lost them somewhere in the mists of time.  Many freshwater snails are also pulmonates. ", "vehicles, prohibited to pedestrians, animals, pedal cycles, mopeds, agricultural vehicles. The minimum speed is not lower than 50 km/h and the maximum speed is not higher than 130 km/h (Except Germany where there is no speed limit is defined).", "* Koenigsegg CCXR (2007-2010) 8 units - 0–100 km/h (0-62 mph) 3.1 sec. Top speed 400+ km/h (250+ mph) ", "Wombats are usually slow movers. However, if threatened, they can sprint up to 25 mph (40 km/h) for brief periods of around 90 seconds.", "Snails eat mostly living plants as well as decaying plants. They also chew on fruits and young succulent plant barks.", "The largest known land snail is the Giant African Land Snail. It can weight up to 2lb (900g) and measure up to 15.5 inches (39.3cm) from snout to tail.", "House centipedes, with their many legs, can really move. They have been clocked at sprinting 420 mm per second. If they were human-sized, that would be about 42 mph.", "Unless otherwise posted, speed limits are 130 km/h (80 mph) on the motorways, 80 km/h (50 mph) outside build-up areas and 50 km/h (30 mph) in build-up areas. Vehicles with caravans or trailers as well as trucks are limited to 80 km/h on motorways, 70 km/h on roads outside build-up areas and 50 km/h in build-up areas, even though other speed limits may be indicated. Speeding occurs frequently, especially on motorways, though recent years dedicated effort by the Danish police on speeding, has made more people aware of speed limits. Trucks in Denmark generally do 90-ish km/h on motorways and trucks overtaking each other on long stretches of motorway (colloquially known as elephant races) occurs frequently.", "The race is started with a terminology, “Ready, Steady, Slow”. It was first heard during the first competitive live snail race in London called “The Guinness Gastropod Championship” in 1999.", "Warning of a permanent speed restriction on the left diverging route of 75 mph. Again, typically placed about a half mile to a mile before the permanent speed restriction on the diverging route, depending upon the difference between the maximum permitted line speed and the restricted line speed.", "Jeremy Niven, a research fellow at the University of Sussex, measured the speed of this terrible termite deathblow back in 2008. Individual strikes exceeded 67 m/s (nearly 150 mph) . \"Since we published, no other group has published anything faster,\" Niven confirmed via email.", "The hare is one of the fastest of all the smaller animals , with hares being able to move at speeds of around 45mph. The strong hind legs of the hare, combined with the large feet of the hare give the hare the ability to run so quickly. The hare is also able to jump over large distances with great ease.", "While the cheetah is commonly thought of as one of the speediest creatures in the animal kingdom, and moves at 16 body lengths per second, the Paratarsotomus macropalpis trounces the big cat with a whopping 322 body lengths per second, according to a study by Pomona College in Claremont, Calif. This is almost twice as quick as what was previously believed to be the fastest animal, the Australian Tiger Beetle, which moves at 171 body lengths per second.", "Everyone knows that the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport holds the current land speed record for a production car with an outrageous speed of 267.86 mph. With the Chiron about to hit the market, everyone is wondering if it will be a worthy successor to the Veyron and top that record breaking speed. Bugatti believes it can, however, it has told Motor Authority that the Chiron’ s top speed will be limited to 261 mph. The news comes after rumors began flying around that Bugatti was indeed removing the speed limiter, which would let the Chiron hits its maximum speed – a supposed 285 mph.", "The state speed limit is 55 mph, unless otherwise posted, as is the case with rural expressways being 65. Speed limits on surface roads will generally be 30 within cities and villages, except on the outskirts where it might be 35-45. School zones may have a limit of 15 to 45 mph during school hours, 7am-6pm.", "NONE OF THE ABOVE are correct. Speed over distance is the criteria. Has no one heard of PERSISTENCE HUNTING!", "On the surface, crawling speed varies both within and among individuals. Earthworms crawl faster primarily by taking longer \"strides\" and a greater frequency of strides. Larger Lumbricus terrestris worms crawl at a greater absolute speed than smaller worms. They achieve this by taking slightly longer strides but with slightly lower stride frequencies. ", "mollusc; yellow and brown; unusual impression in rock; resembles cartoon car; shell wheels; zoom; fast snails; homes on their backs", "A dual carriageway in a built up area will have a statutory speed limit of 30 mph unless otherwise sign-posted. It is common for such urban dual carriageways to have an increased speed limit of 40 mph. A built up road is indicated by the presence of street lights, on lit dual carriageways that are not considered to be in a built-up area, the speed limit will be clarified with intermittent signs.", "> > In many cases, the road has a 60mph or 70mph limit, slowed to 40mph or 50mph", "Image:MUTCD EM-4.svg|Unique speed limit sign in the United States on evacuation routes requiring drivers to maintain the maximum safe speed", " August 21, 1926: Curly Fredericks, on his 61 inch Altoona motorcycle, set the record for the fastest speed (120.3 mph) that would ever be attained by a motorcycle on a circular wooden track.", "We have various garden slugs that live in Oregon as well. There are black ones, bright orange ones, speckly spotty ones and drab brown ones. I'm not an expert on the various species, though it interests me.", "But record breaking often creates less likely heroes who would arguably qualify for the same distinguished mantle.  Don Vesco was one such person, who not only set an outright World Land Speed Record for motorcycles of 318.598mph (512.73kph), but also an outright World Land Speed Record for a wheel-driven vehicle of 458.440mph (737.787kph).", "In Nature, the piddock might move differently. The electrical stimulation experiment was done in water and not in clay. The piddock therefore has no resistance from a burrow wall. This might also influence the movements of the piddock. However, the piddock does not have a lot of freedom in its movements. It only has two rotational axes, and can move forwards by contracting its foot. In the initial model, the shells could move forwards and sideways. However, when these movements are added, the results were not satisfactory. Therefore, in the rest of this study, only rotation around the pivot was assumed.", "The slow worm is a carnivorous animal meaning that the slow worm only feeds on other animals in order to survive. Slow worms primarily feed on small, slow-moving animals like worms, slugs and snails as well as insects , spiders and other invertebrates." ]

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[ "One of the common types of fossils is permineralization. This occurs when the pores of the plant materials, bones, and shells are impregnated by mineral matter from the ground, lakes, or ocean. In some cases, the wood fibers and cellulose dissolve and some minerals replace them. Sometimes the mineral substance of the fossils will completely dissolve and some other minerals replace them. The common minerals that form this kind of fossils are calcite, iron, and silica.", "As with almost all fossilization processes, the specific type of permineralization, silicification (because of its conditions for fossilization), tells us a much about what type of environment the organism most likely lived in. This is because specific fossil types occur in environments with certain features. Silicification is a fossilization process whereby the organism is penetrated by minerals that form on the cells and cell structures. In this case, the mineral is silica, and because the mineral \"follows\" the internal structures of the organism during mineralization, this accounts for the amazing amount of detail found in permineralizations. For example, (for silicification) fluids in volcanic terrain often contain silica that could be absorbed by the plants themselves. This would indicate that a volcano was near the plant in the past. An interesting point that this example presents is that the plant was already beginning its fossilization process when it was still living. The silica that is taken up by the plants become embedded within them and when they die, the material (silica) is already present within them to quickly mineralize the organism and fossilize it. The silicification process can often show very fine detail in this way.", "One of the processes involved in petrification is permineralization. The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large amount of the original material of the specimen. This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals (most commonly quartz, calcite, pyrite, siderite (iron carbonate), and apatite (calcium phosphate) ), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or wood. The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water. Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization.", "Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.", "By definition, a mineral is a natural solid, generally formed by inorganic (or nonbiological) processes, with an ordered internal structure and a specific chemical composition. Some geologists expand this definition to include substances such as coal that are formed from the ancient remains of plants and animals.", "Wood becomes petrified (fossilised) when it is buried in the mud of a pond or swamp containing volcanic ash. The same applies to organic materials, for example, fish. The minerals in the ash (silica, iron, manganese) fill the spaces in the wood gradually, over millions of years of time, so that the wood�s cell structure is preserved as stone. Thus this stone becomes an impression of what was once wood or other organic material; it is now preserved in the earth�s crust.", "Fossil: The remains of ancient animals and plants, the traces or impressions of living things from past geologic ages, or the traces of their activities. Fossils come in many different mineral and organic forms, including plain-looking rocks, marble-like casts of ancient animals, opals, and amber.", "DEFINITION: Mineral or organic matter that is unconsolidated and on or near the land surface. A prerequisite for soil formation is the growth of vegetation. Gradual colonization, first by lichens and then by higher plants causes build-up of organic matter (humus) in the developing soil. Clay minerals form complexes with humus and act as reservoirs of nutrients. Water from rainfall, entering the top of a", "a biological sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of organic carbon formed by the diagenesis of wetland vegetation", "Amber is a fossilized resin, not tree sap. Sap is the fluid that circulates through a plant's vascular system, while resin is the semi-solid amorphous organic substance secreted in pockets and canals through epithelial cells of the plant. Land plant resins are complex mixtures of mono-, sesqui-, di-, and triterpenoids, which have structures based on linked isoprene C5H8 units (Langenheim, 1969, p. 1157). Volatile terpenoid fractions in resins evaporate and dissipate under natural forest conditions, leaving nonvolatile terpenoid fractions to become fossilized if they are stable enough to withstand degradation and depositional conditions. The fossil resin becomes incorporated into sediments and soils, which over millions of years change into rock such as shale and sandstone.", "The fossilized remains of conifer and angiosperm roots, stems and branches may be locally abundant in lake and inshore sedimentary rocks from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. Sequoia and its allies, magnolia, oak, and palms are often found.", "Lichen-like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.", "A hidden trove of fossilized treasures in cloudy ancient tree sap have been brought to light with a new form of \"x ray vision,\" scientists announced recently. Fossilized tree sap, or amber, is usually transparent but can become murky due to contamination by dirt and other debris. The dirtiest type, called opaque amber, resembles rocks and is a challenge for paleontologists who want to see organisms trapped inside. That is changing with synchrotron imaging, which uses high-energy x-rays generated by accelerated electrons to examine hidden fossils.", "In 2016, Oregon State University entomologist George Poinar, Jr. announced the discovery of a new plant species that's a 45-million-year-old relative of coffee found in amber. Named Strychnos electri, after the Greek word for amber (electron), the flowers represent the first-ever fossils of an asterid, which is a family of flowering plants that not only later gave us coffee, but also sunflowers, peppers, potatoes, mint — and deadly poisons. ", "What I’m trying to do now is classify the fossils in terms of fabrics, says Chin. I’ve looked at so many of these slides, I’m beginning to recognize patterns. You can have fabrics full of bioclasts--fragments of organic origin, such as bits of plants or clamshells--and you can classify the kinds of mineral grains, their size and distribution. Chin picks up a slide in comely tones of gray, brown, and off-white. The victim was one of her Two Medicine fossils. I could say, for example, that this type of fabric has larger bits of woody material in a fine-ground mass. Now, that fine-ground mass, under magnification, is a series of disaggregated tracheids--water-conducting plant cells.", "Grossularite is a calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, though the calcium may in part be replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron. The name grossularite is derived from the botanical name for the gooseberry, grossularia, in reference to the green garnet of this composition that is found in Siberia. Other shades include cinnamon brown (cinnamon stone variety), red, and yellow. Because of its inferior hardness to zircon, which the yellow crystals resemble, they have also been called hessonite from the Greek meaning inferior. Grossularite is found in contact metamorphosed limestones with vesuvianite, diopside, wollastonite and wernerite.", "A laterite is an aluminium and/or iron-rich soil formed by significant in-situ weathering in tropical areas with significant rainfall. Long-term chemical weathering of pre-existing rocks under wet and humid conditions, known as lateritization produces laterites. These soils are often a rust-red colour due to the present of hematite and goethite. [Source: wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/ ]", "The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous may owe their existence primarily to two factors. The first of these is the appearance of wood tissue and bark-bearing trees. The evolution of the wood fiber lignin and the bark-sealing, waxy substance suberin variously opposed decay organisms so effectively that dead materials accumulated long enough to fossilise on a large scale. The second factor was the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the preceding Devonian period. This promoted the development of extensive lowland swamps and forests in North America and Europe. Based on a genetic analysis of mushroom fungi, David Hibbett and colleagues proposed that large quantities of wood were buried during this period because animals and decomposing bacteria had not yet evolved enzymes that could effectively digest the resistant phenolic lignin polymers and waxy suberin polymers. They suggest that fungi that could break those substances down effectively only became dominant towards the end of the period, making subsequent coal formation much rarer. ", "Taphonomy — It deals with the study of conditions conducive to fossilization of organisms in the plant.", "The Rhynie chert is one of the most famous plant fossil localities in the world. This deposit has been of extrodinary historical and evolutionary importance in our understanding of early land plants and their environment. Several excellent web pages have been developed that describe plant, algal and fungal remains from the chert. Here, in the photo on the left, is a hand specimen of Rhynie chert showing numerous stem-like axes and other structures in various planes of section. On the right is a higher magnification view showing what this matrix looks like under low magnification. Image and text from http://lsvl.la.asu.edu/plb407/kpigg/rhyniechert.htm , used with permission by K.B. Pigg.", "The major fossil groups of lycophytes are the lepidodendrids and sigillarids, often referred to as the arborescent lycopods because they usually were large trees. During the middle Devonian lycophytes retaind their herbaceous habit, but also began to grow taller, more than a few meters high at first, and developed the capability for secondary growth to produce wood , allowing the plants to grow still taller. Modern lycophytes lack secondary growth and are entirely herbaceous.", "A coprolite is fossilized feces and is classified as a trace fossil. In paleontology they give evidence about the diet of an animal. They were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known as \"fossil fir cones\" and \"bezoar stones\". They serve a valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation and diet of extinct organisms. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to more than 60 centimetres.", "formed from the remains of prehistoric animals and plants and are preserved in rock or other materials.", "Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.", "Our understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defense (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised animal faeces; and the construction of herbivore mouthparts.", "The relatively young South Africa n geology gives rise to soils of high nutrient status. The Nama-karoo biome of the central regions comprise predominantly mudstones and sandstones of the Karoo Supergroup, which give rise to shallow (<30 cm) aridosols, typically with a calcareous hardpan layer in the profile. During the Jurassic age, these sedimentary rocks were intruded by dolerites, which criss-cross the landscape in characteristic dykes. The dolerites contain plagioclase, which give rise to soils of high clay content, and these features contain many grasses and associated phreatophytic woody shrubs and represent refugia for many desirable (to the herbivore) plant species. The dolerite sills and dykes provide summer grazing, whereas the nutrient-rich, calcareous plains provide abundant, high quality winter forage.", "silicate: [�Island of Terror� by EdwardAndrew Mann and Allan Ramsen] chitinous oblong mound with starfish-like base, thick grabbing tentacles, feeding on bones via microscopic punctures", "Chin has been able to group the coprolites from 14 Two Medicine sites into four distinct categories based on the proportion of woody fibers and the type and quantity of plant cells they contain. Those categories, she believes, represent diets with different fiber contents and probably different nutritional values as well. A high-fiber diet, full of stems and bark, might keep an animal regular, but the animal would have to eat a lot to meet nutritional needs. The low-fiber samples may correspond to nutritionally rich diets of ferns, young leaves, and flowering plants, which would require more selective foraging. At one time Chin thought that her low-fiber coprolites might be the work of juvenile duckbills, because they seemed to be concentrated in a Maiasaura nesting area. Later excavations turned up a specimen too big to have come from a juvenile, and Chin went back to the drawing board.", "The dominant land plant species of the time were gymnosperms, which are vascular, cone-bearing, non-flowering plants such as conifers that produce seeds without a coating. This is opposed to the earth's current flora, in which the dominant land plants in terms of number of species are angiosperms. One particular plant genus, Ginkgo, is thought to have evolved at this time and is represented today by a single species, Ginkgo biloba. As well, the extant genus Sequoia is believed to have evolved in the Mesozoic. ", "From the Late Devonian through the base of the Late Cretaceous Period (about 385 million to 65.5 million years ago), gymnosperms underwent dramatic evolutionary radiations and became the dominant group of vascular plants in most habitats. Extant gymnosperms include conifers , cycads , and Ginkgo biloba , but those represent only a small fraction of the gymnosperms that inhabited Earth during the Mesozoic Era (251 million to 65.5 million years ago). Among the Mesozoic forms were species with a wide variety of mechanisms for effecting pollination , protecting the seeds, dispersing the seeds, and increasing the natural selection of the most successful varieties.", "Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. They were overtaken by the flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous, and became dominant in the Cainozoic era. They were the main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons would have given protection against herbivores. Reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era. ", "A distinctive organic compound preserved in the rock record that indicates the existence of a particular kind of organism." ]

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[ "The ozone layer is the part of the atmosphere with relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer is mainly located in the lower part of the stratosphere (15 to 35 km above Earth's surface) although the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.", "The ozone layer is an important part of the atmosphere located in the lower part of the stratosphere between about 49,000 and 110,000 feet or 9.3 to 22 miles (15 to 35 km). Ozone is a molecule of oxygen containing 3 atoms instead of the usual 2 atoms. The ozone layer plays an important part in protecting us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99% of the most damaging high-frequency UV rays. There is ozone throughout the atmosphere, but about 90% of it is in the ozone layer. When ozone is in the lower atmosphere where we live, it's considered pollution and has bad effects on people and plants. Ozone in the air we breathe causes headaches, burning eyes and breathing problems, and it can permanently damage our lungs. However, in the ozone layer high above, it protects us from the harmful UV rays. Some man-made chemicals such as CFCs cause harm to the ozone layer and for that reason that have been banned in most countries. People have done that to protect the ozone which protects us. It is interesting that the ozone layer is actually created and sustained by the UV radiation from the sun – the same UV rays that the ozone layer protects us from. The design of the atmosphere is amazing.", "The ozone layer is one layer of the stratosphere , the second layer of the Earth’s atmosphere . The stratosphere is the mass of protective gases cling ing to our planet.", "Way up high in the Earth's atmosphere , called the stratosphere, there is a fairly high concentration of ozone molecules that are formed when the sun hits oxygen molecules. This part of the atmosphere is called the ozone layer.", "* The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15 -, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.", "* The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15 -, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.", "About 90% of the ozone in the Earth's atmosphere is found in the region called the stratosphere. This is the atmospheric layer between 16 and 48 kilometers (10 and 30 miles) above the Earth's surface. Ozone forms a kind of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more concentrated than anywhere else.", "The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the stratosphere, in a region also known as the ozone layer between about 10 km and 50 km above the surface (or between about 6 and 31 miles). However, even in this \"layer\", the ozone concentrations are only two to eight parts per million, so most of the oxygen there remains of the dioxygen type.", "Ozone is mainly found in two regions of the Earth's atmosphere. Most ozone (about 90%) resides in a layer that begins between 6 and 10 miles (10 and 17 kilometers) above the Earth's surface and extends up to about 30 miles (50 kilometers). This region of the atmosphere is called the stratosphere. The ozone in this region is commonly known as the ozone layer. The remaining ozone is in the lower region of the atmosphere, which is commonly called the troposphere. The figure (above) shows an example of how ozone is distributed in the atmosphere.", "Ozone LayerThe ozone layer refers to a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation. ... The ozone layer contains less than ten parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is only about 0.6 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometers above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson....", "The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several layers. The lowest region, the troposphere, extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10 kilometers (km) in altitude. The next layer, the stratosphere, continues from 10 km to about 50 km. Most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a layer in the stratosphere, about 15–30 kilometers above the Earth's surface.", "Most of the remaining ozone occurs in the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere that extends from Earth’s surface up to the stratosphere. Near-surface ozone often results from interactions between certain pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds), strong sunlight , and hot weather . It is one of the primary ingredients in photochemical smog , a phenomenon that plagues many urban and suburban areas around the world, especially during the summer months.", "The Earth's atmosphere has several distinct layers, some of which are shown in the image above. The layer nearest the Earth's surface is called the troposphere. The troposphere is usually approximately 16 km (ten miles) thick and is the layer that contains most of the weather. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which stretches from ten miles to 30 miles high. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects the Earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The ionosphere is found above the stratosphere. This layer contains many free electrons and ions, which reflect radio waves. This reflection allows radio waves to travel much farther than they would without the ionosphere. The highest layer of the atmosphere is the exosphere. Here the air is extremely thin and some of the air molecules are lost to space.", "The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the surface to about 10 km. Above 10 km is the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. In the stratosphere incoming solar radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above 80 km, in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electrostatic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.", "The layer of ozone that begins approximately 15 km above Earth and thins to an almost negligible amount at about 50 km, shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The highest natural concentration of ozone (approximately 10 parts per million by volume) occurs in the stratosphere at approximately 25 km above Earth. The stratospheric ozone concentration changes throughout the year as stratospheric circulation changes with the seasons. Natural events such as volcanoes and solar flares can produce changes in ozone concentration, but man-made changes are of the greatest concern. See stratosphere , ultraviolet radiation . [3]", "It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the tropopause) and at about 85 km (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropospause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the ozone layer.", "Found in two layers of the atmosphere, the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the stratosphere (the atmospheric layer beginning 7 to 10 miles above the earth's surface) ozone is a form of oxygen found naturally which provides a protective layer shielding the earth from ultraviolet radiation's harmful health effects on humans and the environment.In the troposphere (the layer extending up 7 to 10 miles from the earth's surface), ozone is a chemical oxidant and major component of photochemical smog. Ozone can seriously affect the human respiratory system and is one of the most prevalent and widespread of all the criteria pollutants for which the Clean Air Act required EPA to set standards. Ozone in the troposphere is produced through complex chemical reactions of nitrogen oxides, which are among the primary pollutants emitted by combustion sources; hydrocarbons, released into the atmosphere through the combustion, handling and processing of petroleum products; and sunlight.", "Ozone Layer - The ozone layer is an atmospheric layer at heights of about 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 km) that is normally characterized by high ozone (a very reactive form of oxygen) content which blocks most solar radiation from entry into the lower atmosphere. Source: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.)", "These targeted efforts have seen the ozone layer recovering over the past years. The thickness of the ozone layer varies immensely on any day and location. Due to relentless vertical atmospheric air circulation in both the stratosphere and troposphere, the amount of ozone layer shielding humans from strong UV rays can be lesser or greater. In addition, those residing in higher elevations are at risk of UV radiation than those at lower elevations.", "An atmospheric layer that contains a high proportion of oxygen that exists as ozone. It acts as a filtering mechanism against incoming ultraviolet radiation. It is located between the troposphere and the stratosphere, around 9.5 to 12.5 miles (15 to 20 kilometers) above the earth's surface.", "Mesosphere The layer of the atmosphere between 50 and 80km above the surface Thermosphere Atmospheric layer located from 80 to 600km above surface Environmental lapse rate Rate of cooling with increasing altitude in the troposphere Tropopause Boundary between troposphere and stratosphere Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Solar radiation that is shorter than visible wavelengths Ozonosphere Region of the stratosphere with high concentrations of zone molecules that block UV radiation Ionosphere Region of the upper mesosphere and the thermosphere between about 80 and 500km where gases are ionized by solar energy Aurora borealis/Australis Displays of light caused by energized molecules in the ionosphere Air pollution Harmful concentrations of gases/aerosols in the atmosphere Fossil fuels Ancient remains of plants preserved in the lithosphere in the form of coal, oil, and natural gas Primary pollutant A pollutant that enters the air or water directly form its source Secondary pollutant Pollutant that is not directly emitted from a source, but forms through chemical reactions among primary pollutants in air or water Carbon monoxide (CO) Toxic odorless and invisible gas Sulfur dioxide (S02)", "Although climate change tends to get the bulk of our atmospheric attention today, back in the 80s the ozone layer was the focus our environmental ire. The ozone layer, a delicate layer of atmosphere comprised ozone (O3), has a powerful job: trapping most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation making life on Earth possible.", "Figure Q4-1. Total ozone. Total ozone at any location on the globe is defined as the sum of all the ozone molecules in the atmosphere directly above that location. Total ozone varies with latitude, longitude, and season, with the largest values at high latitudes and the lowest values in tropical regions. The variations are demonstrated here with two-week averages of total ozone in 2009 as measured with a satellite instrument. Total ozone shows little variation in the tropics (20°N–20°S latitudes) over all seasons. Total ozone outside the tropics varies more strongly with time on a daily to seasonal basis as ozone-rich air is moved from the tropics and accumulates at higher latitudes. The low total ozone values over Antarctica in September constitute the “ozone hole” in 2009. Since the 1980s, the ozone hole in late winter and early spring represents the lowest values of total ozone that occur over all seasons and latitudes", "The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterized by a decrease in temperature with altitude. [8] The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km. [59] [56] The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause ) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude. [8] [53] The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of the planet’s thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K. [53] [54]", "Ozone: a three-atom oxygen molecule that in its gaseous state screens ultraviolet radiation. The protective ozone layer hangs 10 to 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface.", "The mesosphere (; from Greek mesos \"middle\" and sphaira \"ball\") is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratopause and directly below the mesopause. In the mesosphere temperature decreases as the altitude increases. The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below 130 K. The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season, but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km, except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km.", "Although air is well mixed throughout the atmosphere, the atmosphere itself is not physically uniform but has significant variations in temperature and pressure with altitude, which define a number of atmospheric layers. These include the troposphere (0 to 16 km), stratosphere (16 to 50 km), mesosphere (50 to 80km) and thermosphere (80 to 640km). The boundaries between these four layers are defined by abrupt changes in temperature, and include respectively the tropopause, stratopause and mesopause. In the troposphere and mesosphere, temperature generally falls with increasing altitude, whilst in the stratosphere and thermosphere, temperature rises with increasing altitude.", "All weather occurs in the troposphere layer of the atmosphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, covering approximately the first 6.8 miles from the ground.", "The Thermosphere, the second highest layer of the atmosphere, is next to the mesopause. This layer extends from an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi) up to the thermopause, which is at an altitude of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi). The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometers (50 to 342 mi), contains the ionosphere – which is so named because it is here in the atmosphere that particles are ionized by solar radiation.", "The layer of the atmosphere closest to the earth is the troposphere. This layer is where weather occurs. It begins at the surface of the earth and extends out to about 4-12 miles. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height. This layer is known as the lower atmosphere.", "Troposphere -- The region in Earth's atmosphere just above the Earth's surface and below the ionosphere.", "The layer of the atmosphere from the earth's surface up to the tropopause, characterized by decreasing temperature with height. It's the layer of the atmosphere where most of the weather occurs." ]

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[ "Bhutan (Dzongkha: འབྲུག་ཡུལ་; Wylie transliteration: ʼbrug-yul \"Druk Yul\"), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia located at the eastern end of the Himalayas. It is bordered to the north by China and to the south, east and west by the Republic of India . Further west, it is separated from Nepal by the Indian state of Sikkim, while further south it is separated from Bangladesh by the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal. Bhutan's capital and largest city is Thimphu .", "The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's northeastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are also one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 m (8,202 ft), covering an area of 500,000 km² (193,051 sq mi). The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (22,966 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,685 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,843 ft) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies on the Sikkim – Nepal border, is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.", "The Himalayas are bordered on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain, on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges and on the east by the Indian states of Sikkim, the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur. The Hindu Kush, Karakoram and Himalayas together form the \"Hindu Kush Himalayan Region\" (HKH). The western anchor of the Himalayas, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of the Indus River; the eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the great bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. The Himalayas span five countries: Nepal, India, Bhutan, China (Tibet), and Pakistan, the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.", "The Purvachal or the Eastern Hills: In the east after crossing the Cihang gorge the Himalayas bend towards south forming a series of hills running through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and eastern Assam and form the boundary between India and Burma.", "West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north, to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88752 km2. The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3636 m)—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the North Bengal plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.", "Great Himalayas highest and northernmost section of the Himalayan mountain ranges. It extends southeastward across northern Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal before trending eastward across Sikkim state (India) and Bhutan and finally turning northeastward across northern...", "The name Himavat in the above passage refers not only to the snow-capped ranges of the Himalayas but also to their less elevated offshoots - the Patkai, Lushai and Chittagong Hills in the east, and the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges in the west. These go down to the Sea and separate India from the wooded valley of Irrawady, on the one hand, and the hilly tableland of Iran, on the other. The Himalayas standing tall in breathtaking splendour are radiant in myth and mystery. These, the youngest and tallest mountain ranges, feed the Ganga with never-ending streams of snow. The Himalayas are home to the people of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.", "Apart of the eastern Himalayan range and situated in the north eastern tip of India bounded by Myanmar on its east, Bhutan on the west, China on the north and north east, Arunachal Pradesh is:", "The Trans Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas: Brahmaputra rivers divide Himalayas intotree sections: the main Himalayas, the northwest Himalayas and the southeast Himalayas.  The main Himalayas running from the Pamir Plateau in the northwest to Arunachal Pradesh in the southeast are the youngest mountains in the world.  The highest peak of the word, the Mount Everst(8,884m, named after Sir George Everst).  There are about 140 peaks  in the Himalayas whose elevation is more than the Mount Blanc (4,810m),the highest peak of the Alps. The three mountain ranges: the Himadri in the north(the greater Himalayas)the Himachal in the  middle(the lesser Himalayas) and the Siwalik(the Outer Himalayas),facing thr palins of India.  The Himadri is of grat elevations (6,000m) which remains covered with everlasting snows.  The Siwalik have some flat-floored structural valleys knowns as duns.  Dehradun is well-known. Between the Himadri and the Himachal are some broad synclincal valleys. The Karakoram Himalayas contain India’s four largest glaciers, namely Siachen (75km), Baltoro(58km) Biafo(59km), and Hispar(62Km)", "Further east, the Himalaya extends across to the Baralacha range in Himachal Pradesh before merging with the Parbati range to the east of the Kullu valley. It then extends across kinnaur Kailas to the swargarohini and Bandarpunch ranges in Uttaranchal. Further east it is defined by the snow capped range North of the Gangotri glacier and by the huge peaks in the vicinity of Nanda Devi, the highest mountain in the Indian Himalaya. In Western Nepal the range is equally prominent across the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri massifs, while in Eastern Nepal the main ridgeline frequently coincides with the political boundary between Nepal and Tibet.", "Punjab is a state in North India, forming part of the larger Punjab region. The state is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir to the north, Himachal Pradesh to the east, Haryana to the south and southeast, Rajasthan to the southwest, and the Pakistani province of Punjab to the west. The state capital is located in Chandigarh, a Union Territory and also the capital of the neighbouring state of Haryana.", "Punjab, northwestern India, is bounded on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu and Kashmir, on the north east by Himachal Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan. Physically, the state may be divided into two parts, sub Shivalik strip and Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain. The sub-Shivalik strip covers the upper portion of Ropar, Hoshiarpur and Gurdaspur districts. The Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain embraces the other districts of the Punjab. Most of the Punjab is an alluvial plain, bounded by mountains to the North. Despite its dry conditions, it is a rich agricultural area due to the extensive irrigation made possible by the great rivers. The Indian Punjab is the wealthiest state in the country per capita, with most of the revenue generated from agriculture.", ", state (2001 provisional pop. 6,077,248), 21,629 sq mi (56,019 sq km), NW India, in the W Himalayas, bordered by the Tibet region of China on the east. Shimla is the capital.", "The Purvanchal Range is the extension of the Great Himalaya range in north-east region of India. It is parallel to Karakoram and ladakh range. Three hill ranges that come under the Purvanchal ranges are, the Patkai, the Garo–Khasi–Jaintia and Lushai Hills. It is the most densely forested area and full of flora and fauna in India. These hill region also known for highest rainfall. Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are well famous for highest annual rainfall and wettest place on earth . Phawngpui is the highest peak of Purvanchal Range situated in Manipur with an elevation of 2,157 m (7,077 ft).", "state of India, located in the eastern part of the country. It is bounded to the north by the state of Sikkim and the country of Bhutan, to the northeast by the state of Assam, to the east by the country of Bangladesh, to the south by the Bay of Bengal, to the southwest by the state of Odisha, to...", "West Bengal (;) is a state in eastern India and is the nation's fourth-most populous state, with over 91 million inhabitants. Spread over 34267 sqmi, it is bordered by the countries of Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, and the Indian states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata. Together with the neighbouring nation of Bangladesh, it makes up the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal.", "The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple (Indian state of Uttarakhand ), which is one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines .", "The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind  Kedarnath Temple  (Indian state of  Uttarakhand ), which is one of the twelve  jyotirlingashrines .", "Dhaulagiri is the seventh highest mountain in the world. It forms the eastern anchor of the Dhaulagiri Himal, a subrange of the Himalaya in the Dhawalagiri Zone of north central Nepal. It lies northwest of Pokhara, an important regional town and tourist center. Across the deep gorge of the Kali Gandaki to the east lies the Annapurna Himal, home to Annapurna I, one of the other eight-thousanders. Dhaulagiri means “White Mountain”.", "Nanga Parbat forms the western anchor of the Himalayan Range and is the westernmost eight-thousander. It lies just south of the Indus River in the Astore District of Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan administered Kashmir. Not far to the north is the western end of the Karakoram range", "The southern half of India is a largely upland area that thrusts a triangular peninsula (c.1,300 mi/2,090 km wide at the north) into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west and has a coastline c.3,500 mi (5,630 km) long; at its southern tip is Kanniyakumri (Cape Comorin). In the north, towering above peninsular India, is the Himalayan mountain wall, where rise the three great rivers of the Indian subcontinent—the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra.", "The Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalaya Mountains along the disputed India-Pakistan border at approximately . It is the longest glacier in the Karakoram and second longest in the world's non-polar areas. It ranges from an altitude of 5,753 m (18,875 ft) above sea level at its source at Indira Col (pass) on the China border to its snout at 3,620 m (11,875 ft)", "The Himalayas or Himalaya (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə/ or /hɪˈmɑːləjə/) is a mountain range in the Indian subcontinent, which separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau. Geopolitically, it covers the Himalayan states and regions. This range is home to nine of the ten highest peaks on Earth, including the highest above sea level, Mount Everest. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia. The word Himalaya is made up of two Sanskrit words combined together - \"Him\" meaning snow, and \"Alaya\" meaning home. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Dharmic religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.", " Eastern Ghats mountain ranges are a series of discontinuous low ranges along the Bay of Bengal coast running from the Mahanadi River valley for about 500 metres up to the Nilgiri Hills in the south and forms the eastern edge of the divided Deccan plateau .The Eastern Ghats start from the state of West Bengal in the north and culminates in Tamil Nadu in the south. On the way Eastern Ghats mountain ranges cover several states including Orissa and Andhra Pradesh . They are swept by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari River, Mahanadi River, Krishna River , and Kaveri River . These major rivers cut the Eastern Ghats into various discontinuous hills. They are separated from the Bay of Bengal by the coastal plains. The elevation of the Eastern Ghats is comparatively lower than the Western Ghats mountain ranges . They have an average height of 450 metres and rarely exceed 1200 metres.", "^ The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Northern Areas administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.", "India comprises the Himalayas in the North and Northeastern region, which divides the country from the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayan range is further divided into different ranges:", "Bhopal is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarter of Bhopal District and Bhopal Division. Bhopal is known as the Lake city (or City of Lakes as its landscape is dotted with a number of natural lakes. Bhopal is also one of the greenest cities of India. Historically, Bhopal was capital of the Bhopal state.", "India borders on China in the northeast. Other neighbors are Pakistan on the west, Nepal and Bhutan on the north, and Burma and Bangladesh on the east.", "Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate, the Himalayan range runs northwest to southeast in a 2,400-kilometre (1,500 mi)-long arc. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the east. Besides the Greater Himalayas, there are several parallel lower ranges. The southernmost, along the northern edge of the Indian plains and reaching 1000 m in altitude, is the Sivalik Hills. Further north is a higher range, reaching 2000–3000 m, known as the Lower Himalayan Range.", "The Terai (te-RYE) is a region of plains that extend from India's northern border to the foothills of the Himalayas in which Asian country?", "Home > Reference > Geography of India > Indian Mountains > Indian Mountain Ranges > Eastern Ghats Mountain Range in India", "The state government has set for itself a target of attracting at least 12 lakh tourists by 2025 to see the breath-taking view from India's highest mountain peak Kanchenjunga (28,169 feet or 8,586 metres). Kachenjunga is also the world's third highest mountain peak." ]

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[ "What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation?", "2 What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun’s harmful UV radiation? a.Oxygen b.Ozone c.Carbon d.Carbon dioxide", "The outermost layer of Earth is the gas layer, better known as the atmosphere. The atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, but is also comprised of several trace gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor. All of these gases, which together form what is commonly called \"air\", are held to the Earth by the pull of gravity and each serves an important function. Carbon dioxide gas provides a barrier which keeps heat from escaping the Earth; this is known as the \"greenhouse effect.\" The \"greenhouse effect\" caused by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere serves to maintain a temperature on Earth great enough to sustain life. Yet, if the amount of carbon dioxide gas were to increase drastically, too much heat would be trapped in the atmosphere, making it too hot for many organisms to survive. This causes a frightful problem wherein a certain balance of CO2 gas must be maintained to ensure that life may be maintained on the planet. Carbon dioxide also serves as the lifeline to most plants, allowing them to breath by taking in the carbon dioxide and emitting oxygen gas. Another gas, ozone (O3) screens out the harmful ultraviolet rays emanating from the sun. One of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere, oxygen, is needed for animals to breath and live.", "Originally our atmosphere contained; hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, methane, ammonia and water vapor. For millions of years, the waste product of oxygen, from the ocean’s algae, bubbled up out of the sea and into the atmosphere. Gaseous oxygen reacted strongly with the methane and ammonia in the atmosphere, turning it into carbon dioxide and water vapor. Over time, methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide were almost eliminated from the atmosphere. As oxygen began to build up in the atmosphere, the usual oxygen module (0-2) began to absorb ultraviolet wavelengths from the sun to form three atom molecules (0-3). In time a layer of poisonous ozone had built up high in the atmosphere, about 30 miles above the surface of the Earth. This ozone layer effectively blocked much of the damaging ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earth. Paleontological records show that life moved from the sea to land, only after the ozone layer had formed, providing a ‘sunscreen’ to protect the land from harmful ultraviolet radiation.", "While the amount of gases do not vary relative to each other in the atmosphere, there is one exception: the ozone layer. Ozone in the upper atmosphere protects life from the Sun's high-energy ultraviolet radiation.", "Ozone shield - a layer of the atmosphere composed of ozone gas (O3) that resides approximately 25 miles above the Earth's surface and absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful to living organisms.", "There are several additional gases present in the atmosphere in minute amounts. These gases are referred to as trace gases and include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, helium, hydrogen and ozone. These gases each have their own purpose and forms of production. Methane, for example, is a powerful greenhouse gas, trapping heat in the earth’s atmosphere. Ozone is found in two distinct layers of the atmosphere: high in the stratosphere, where it blocks harmful ultraviolet light from the sun, and the lower atmosphere, where it is one of the components of smog.", "The Earth has an Ozone Layer which protects it from harmful solar radiation. This shell is a special type of oxygen that absorbs most of the Sun’s powerful UV rays.", "Ozone and oxygen molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet light from the Sun, providing a shield that prevents this radiation from passing to the Earth's surface. While both oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, only ozone effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-B. This ultraviolet light can cause biological damage like skin cancer, tissue damage to eyes and plant tissue damage. The protective role of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is so vital that scientists believe life on land probably would not have evolved - and could not exist today - without it.", "Unlike ordinary oxygen (O2), ozone or O3 is capable of absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which would otherwise be harmful to human life. It is believed that CFCs catalyze the conversion of ozone to oxygen, and that this may explain the “ozone hole,” which is particularly noticeable over the Antarctic in September and October.", "). Ozone absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, and protects life on Earth from its damaging effect. Although abundant between 19 and 30 km altitude, the air at these levels in the atmosphere is thin. If all the ozone in the stratosphere was compressed to ordinary atmosphere pressure at ground level, it would occupy a layer only 3 mm thick.", "2.    Beginning with the letter ‘O’, what layer shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun.       (ozone)", "The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surround the earth. It is the air we breathe, the wind and rain, and the clouds in the sky. It is life giving, retaining heat and blocking out harmful rays (ultraviolet radiation) from the sun. The atmosphere is about 1,000 kilometres thick, and is made up of invisible layers that circle the planet. We live in the lowest and thinnest layer, called the troposphere, which is only about 14 kilometres thick.", "Ozone is only a trace gas in the atmosphere—only about 3 molecule s for every 10 million molecules of air. But it does a very important job. Like a sponge , the ozone layer absorbs bits of radiation hitting Earth from the sun. Even though we need some of the sun's radiation to live, too much of it can damage living things. The ozone layer acts as a shield for life on Earth.", "Ultraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be strongly absorbed by air and by ozone (O3) in particular. Ionizing UV therefore does not penetrate Earth's atmosphere to a significant degree, and is sometimes referred to as vacuum ultraviolet. Although present in space, this part of the UV spectrum is not of biological importance, because it does not reach living organisms on Earth.", "A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about , rather than present average of 15 °C. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect.", "8 Which layer of the atmosphere absorbs the majority of the potentially damaging ultra-violet rays from the sun?", "an increase in temperature caused when incoming solar radiation is passed but outgoing thermal radiation is blocked by the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are two of the major gases responsible for this effect.", "Unmanned satellites outside our atmosphere have already investigated the solar wind, and from these studies scientists have found that it holds particles of hydrogen, helium, and probably oxygen. Theoretically it should also contain particles of all the other chemical elements making up the sun—some 92 in all. The Swiss researchers do not expect to detect all these; rather, they seek to measure the gases helium, neon, and argon, known as “noble gases” because they normally do not react with other substances.", "The Sun is a big ball of gas and plasma . Most of the gas is hydrogen or helium, but there are also small amounts of other elements such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium and iron.", "Atmosphere is thick and is mostly hydrogen, with some helium and traces of methane, water and ammonia.", "Ultraviolet Spectroscopy. The occultation spectrometer provided a sensitive detection of any atmosphere present, and of its composition, with a detection threshold improved by a factor of about 107 over current ground-based studies. The airglow spectrometer provided quantitative information on the abundance of H, He, He+, C, [9] O, Ne, and A in the atmosphere of Mercury by measuring the intensity and spatial distribution of their ultraviolet emission lines. Data were taken on the first and third encounters.", "The Sun emits not only visible light but also a continuous flow of particles known as the solar wind . Most of these particles are electrically charged and interact only weakly with the atmosphere, because the Earth’s magnetic field tends to steer them around the planet. Prior to the formation of Earth’s iron core and consequent development of the geomagnetic field, however, the solar wind must have struck the top layers of the atmosphere with full force. It is postulated that the solar wind was much more intense at that time than it is today and, further, that the young Sun emitted a powerful flux of extreme ultraviolet radiation. In such circumstances, much gas may have been carried away by a kind of atomic sandblasting that may have had a marked effect on the earliest phases of atmospheric development.", "The atmosphere consists of many molecular and atomic filters that each block a certain range of wavelengths of light. With the combined effect of all of these, most of the harmful radiation from the sun is blocked before it reaches the plants and animals on the surface of the Earth.", "Instead, parts of our atmosphere act as an insulating blanket of just the right thickness, trapping sufficient solar energy to keep the global average temperature in a pleasant range. The Martian blanket is too thin, and the Venusian blanket is way too thick! The 'blanket' here is a collection of atmospheric gases called 'greenhouse gases' based on the idea that the gases also 'trap' heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse do.", "The solar wind is an ionized, or electrified, gas constantly streaming away from the sun at speeds of 200 to 400 miles a second. Ordinarily we do not detect the wind on earth, because the magnetosphere—the magnetic field around our planet—deflects the electrified gas. We see its effects only when a little of the solar wind occasionally leaks into the magnetosphere in the polar regions, becomes accelerated by some process that scientists do not yet understand, and causes the brilliant aurora high in the atmosphere.", "heavy atmosphere (1.4 times the Earth's) with structure in the form of haze - reddish color from organic molecules formed by breakdown of CH4 (methane) by cosmic rays", "a gaseous layer of the sun's atmosphere (extending from the photosphere to the corona) that is visible during a total eclipse of the sun", "Through a hydrogen-alpha filter, the photosphere is hidden under a blanket of hydrogen known as the chromosphere — only light from this outer layer gets through.", "phenomenon where gases allow sunlight to enter Earth's atmosphere but make it difficult for heat to escape.", "The near-transparency of Earth's atmosphere to solar radiation, and its strong absorption of Earth's longer wavelength infrared", "It's true, it is a gas, but the density suddenly drops when you reach the photosphere, and light can easy leave. That level, where the bulk of light comes from, is called the photosphere. In visible light you can't see under the photosphere." ]

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[ "The deepest ocean in the world is the Pacific Ocean with an average depth of 13,740 feet. The deepest point in the Pacific Ocean is the Mariana Trench at 36,200 feet.", "The largest and deepest ocean in the world is the Pacific Ocean. It covers more than 1/3 of the Earthâs surface and is 18 times the size of the U.S. The Pacific contains more than half the worldâs seawater.", "The deepest spot in the ocean is called the Mariana Trench and is approximately 35, 797 ft (10,911 m) deep in the Pacific Ocean. That's deeper than the height of the world's highest mountain, Mount Everest , which is 29,035 ft (8,850 m) high.", "The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world's oceans. It is located in the western Pacific Ocean, to the east of the Mariana Islands. The trench is about 2550 km long with an average width of 69 km. It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10,994 m (± 40 m) or 6.831 mi (36,070 ± 131 ft) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep, at its southern end, although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m. ", "Deepest Points located in the different part of the oceans on earth, the deepest are explored and still exploring by the explorer, there might be unknown or unexplored deepest point exist on earth than Mariana trench the deepest point on earth. Oceanic trenches in the ocean are long but narrow topographic depressions on the sea floor the deepest parts of the ocean floor. The Pacific Ocean has around 50,000km of convergent plate margins and most of the deepest point located around this place. Geographical activities created deep trenches beneath the ocean that thousands of feet in depth which could part of the deepest point. The Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean are the deepest oceans that holds all 10 deepest points on earth.", "! Have you ever wondered what is at the bottom of the deepest place on Earth? Well, you are about to find out. The deepest place in the world is called Challengers Deep in the Mariana Trench. It is a very amazing place because of all the wonders in it. Even though it is so amazing, not many people have went there. That is because it is at the bottom of the largest ocean on earth - the Pacific Ocean. This book explains all about the deepest place on Earth, with many very interesting facts within the threads of it.", "The deepest part of the ocean is 35,813 feet (10,916 meters) deep and occurs in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. At that depth the pressure is 18,000 pounds (9172 kilograms) per square inch.", "\"The world's deepest point in the oceans is the Challenger Deep which is found within the Marianas Trench. The Marianas Trench is a depression (deep cracks) in the floor of the western Pacific Ocean. Marianas Trench is formed (as other ocean trenches) as a result of the oceanic plate being pushed against a continental plate whereby causing the oceanic plate to pushed downward making deep fissure. Its location is east of the Mariana Islands and is 1,554 miles long and averages 44 miles wide (see diagrams below). The Marianas Trench depth is 36,200 feet (11,033 m or 11.03 km).\"", "The top five deepest ocean trenches are all located in the Pacific Ocean. The 5th deepest is the Kermadec Trench at 10,047 meters, 32,963 feet and 6.24 miles. In 4th place is the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench at 10,500 meters, 34,449 feet and 6.52 miles. The Philippine Trench is 3rd at 10,540 meters, 34,580 feet and 6.54 miles. The 2nd deepest is the Tonga Trench at 10,882 meters, 35,702 feet and 6.76 miles. Finally, the deepest ocean trench in the world is the Mariana Trench at 10,911 meters, 35,797 feet and 6.78 miles.", "The Indian Ocean is the world's third-largest ocean and it has an area of 26,469,900 square miles (68,566,000 sq km). It is located between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia and Australia. The Indian Ocean has an average depth of 13,002 feet (3,963 m) and the Java Trench is its deepest point at -23,812 feet (-7,258 m). The waters of the Indian Ocean also include water bodies such as the Andaman, Arabian, Flores, Java and Red Seas as well as the Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Mozambique Channel and the Persian Gulf. The Indian Ocean is known for causing the monsoonal weather patterns that dominate much of southeast Asia and for having waters that have been historical chokepoints . More »", "* Southern Ocean, although having a depth varying from 4,000 to 5,000 meters is not considered as the deepest ocean, since technically, its categorization as an independent ocean is questioned by many scientists all over the world.", "The Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench is the deepest known point in Earth's oceans. In 2010 the United States Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping measured the depth of the Challenger Deep at 10,994 meters (36,070 feet) below sea level with an estimated vertical accuracy of ± 40 meters. If Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth , were placed at this location it would be covered by over one mile of water.", "Icy cold, pitch black and with crushing pressures - the deepest part of the ocean is one of the most hostile places on the planet. Only three explorers have made the epic journey there: 11km (seven miles) down to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean's Mariana Trench. As a new wave of deep-sea exploration begins, take a look at the mysterious world that they will be plunging into.", "The Paradise Quiz 1 Lae. (Recent research suggests a fragment of metal found at Nikumaroro, an atoll in the south-western Pacific republic of Kiribati, 3000 kilometres from Lae, is from her Lockheed Electra). 2. The deepest part of the world’s oceans, located north of PNG, near Guam. It is 2550 kilometres long, an average of 69 kilometres wide and 10.994 kilometres deep. 3. 18 per cent. 4. Rugby league. 5. Edo. 6. Germany. 7. Channel-billed cuckoos. 8. Kalem Richardson. 9. Vijay Singh. 10. Wau. 11. Gordon Ramsay. 12. Malaysia, Singapore, China, Japan, Bahrain. 13. Southwestern Philippines. 14. Jakarta. 15. Five; one.", "..... Click the link for more information. ) and filling with molten rock from the earth's interior. As a result the Western Hemisphere and Europe and Africa are moving away from each other. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the floor of the Atlantic Ocean into eastern and western sections that are composed of a series of deep-sea basins (abyssal plains). The greatest depth (c.28,000 ft/8,530 m) is the Milwaukee Deep, in the Puerto Rico Trench, N of Puerto Rico. Scientific knowledge of the ocean floor dates from the Challenger expedition Challenger expedition,", "The deepest part of the Earth’s surface, Mariana trench lies in Pacific Ocean at Challenger Deep. It was created by ocean-to-ocean sub duction, a phenomena in which a plate topped by oceanic crust is sub ducted beneath another plate topped by oceanic crust. The trench is about 2,550 kilometres long and 69 kilometres wide. It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10.994 km. There have been 4 descents in Marine Trench by different bathyscaphes. Expeditions conducted before have discovered living creatures such as sole, flounder and flatfish at the bottom of the trench. More info", "The trench is standing alone in the South Pacific Ocean, the depth known as the Horizon Deep, is the 2nd deepest point on earth lies at the northern end of the Kermadec Tonga Subduction Zone. The tonga leads north-northeast from the Kermadec islands north of the North Island of New Zealand.", "A journey into the heart of Earth must include Mariana Trench, located near the Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean. At the southern end of the Trench lies Challenger Deep, the deepest known point of the earth’s sea floor. With a depth of around 10,971 m, it had been proposed as a site for nuclear waste disposal. However, that was before interesting living organisms were discovered at the bottom of Mariana Trench.", "The ocean's second-deepest place is also in the Mariana Trench. The Sirena Deep, which lies 124 miles (200 kilometers) to the east of Challenger Deep, is a bruising 35,462 feet deep (10,809 m).", "Located in the western Pacific east of the Philippines and an average of approximately 124 miles (200 kilometers) east of the Mariana Islands, the Mariana Trench is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth’s crust that measures more than 1,500 miles (2,550 kilometers) long and 43 miles (69 kilometers) wide on average. The distance between the surface of the ocean and the trench’s deepest point—the Challenger Deep, which lies about 200 miles (322 kilometers) southwest of the U.S. territory of Guam—is nearly 7 miles (11 kilometers). If Mount Everest were dropped into the Mariana Trench, its peak would still be more than a mile (1.6 kilometers) underwater.", "The 65 000-km undersea mountain chain begins in the Arctic Ocean with what is known as the Gakkel Ridge . Located 3 to 5 kilometres beneath the surface, the Gakkel Ridge is the deepest and slowest-spreading ridge on the planet . The Gakkel is covered in pyroclastic deposits and hydrothermal vents, and is home to a unique type of magma ten times more volatile than that in other mid-oceanic ridges. The high mineral content has provided the opportunity for rather unique life forms to evolve around the seafloor heat vents via chemosynthesis .", "Sirena Deep. At 10,809 meters (35,462 feet) down, this steep-walled canyon is another of the deepest points in the world’s ocean. Patricia Fryer, one of the members of the DEEPSEA CHALLENGE team, helped discover and map the area, which is about 124 miles (200 kilometers) east of the Challenger Deep, with her Hawaii Mapping Research Group in 1997 and 2001. Originally called the HMRG Deep after the science team that discovered it, Fryer enlisted the help of students in the Mariana Islands to give the site a name that would honor local culture, and the Sirena Deep was born. During a 2011 expedition to the monument, scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography, led by marine microbiologist and DEEPSEA CHALLENGE chief scientist Doug Bartlett, documented the presence of xenophyophores, some of the largest individual-celled organisms on Earth. The researchers found the life-forms at depths of up to 6.6 miles (10.6 kilometers) within the Sirena Deep. The previous depth record for xenophyophores was approximately 4.7 miles (7.6 kilometers). According to Bartlett, these cells host a wide variety of other organisms and essentially give scientists a new habitat to study.", "The Earth's deepest trench is the Mariana Trench which extends for about across the seabed. It is near the Mariana Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the West Pacific. Though it averages just 68 km wide, its deepest point is 10.994 kilometers (nearly 7 miles) below the surface of the sea. An even longer trench runs alongside the coast of Peru and Chile, reaching a depth of and extending for approximately 5900 km. It occurs where the oceanic Nazca Plate slides under the continental South American Plate and is associated with the upthrust and volcanic activity of the Andes. ", "With a measured depth of approximately 36,000 feet below sea level, a journey to the bottom of the Challenger Deep is nearly seven miles, making it the deepest known place on Earth. To give you an idea of just how deep the Mariana Trench is, if Mt. Everest were placed in the deepest part, there would still be over a mile of water above its peak!", "Deepest part of the ocean that's been mapped so far, in the Mariana's Trench, 11,035 meters", "Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean [where old ocean crust from one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another plate, raising mountains, causing earthquakes, and forming volcanoes on the seafloor and on land. With depths exceeding 6,000 meters (nearly 20,000 feet), trenches make up the world’s \"hadal zone,\" named for Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and account for the deepest 45 percent of the global ocean. The deepest parts of a trench, however, represent only about 1 percent or less of its total area. The vast submarine slopes and steep walls of trenches make up much of the hadal zone, where unique habitats extending across a range of depths are home to diverse number of species, many of which are new or still unknown to science.", "The ________________ in the Marianas Trench is the deepest point in the world at 11,033 meters", "*In 1998, a regional bathymetric survey of the Challenger Deep was conducted by the Deep Sea Research Vessel RV Kairei, from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, using a SeaBeam 2112 multibeam echosounder. The regional bathymetric map made from the data obtained in 1998 shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are 10922 m ±74 m, 10898 m ±62 m, and 10908 m ±36 m, respectively, making the eastern depression the deepest of the three.", "The deepest parts of ocean basins are trenches, which may descend over 36,000 feet (11,000 meters) beneath the surface of an ocean. These long, narrow, canyonlike structures are formed where sections of oceanic crust are moving and sliding under sections of continental crust. Thus, trenches are often found parallel to continental margins and the seaward", "The abyssal zone is the ocean habitat 4,000 to 6,000 meters (13,000 to 20,000 ft) below sea level. This region is defined by complete darkness, extremely high pressure, and average temperatures of 2-3 degrees C (35 degrees F). Reaching down yet farther, oceanic trenches extend to depths exceeding 30,000 feet. Sometimes called the last frontier, the extreme depths of the ocean have only begun to be explored.", "As humans, we are rarely confronted with what lies beneath the ocean, only with the things that emerge from it (islands and continents). The world’s sea floors, however, are riddled with mountains and ridges. Every place on the planet where two tectonic plates are pulling apart, magma is rising through the breaks in the crust to create new land . This magma creates new volcanic mountains rising out of the ocean floor. With plate boundaries running into each throughout the world’s oceans, many of these underwater mountain chains ( mid-oceanic ridges ) stitch together to form a continuous set of peaks that stretch 65 000 km in length . That’s nearly ten times the length of the Andes.", "�  Mid-oceanic ridge � A giant mountain range that lies under the ocean and extends around the world." ]

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[ "4 Which is the largest animal ever to have inhabited the Earth? a.Blue whale b.Elephant c.Dinosaur d.Giraffe", "The Blue Whale is the largest animal ever to have lived on earth. Their tongues alone can weigh as much as an elephant - their hearts, as much as a car.", "The blue whale is the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth; it is larger than any of the dinosaurs. The biggest recorded blue whale was a female in the Antarctic Ocean that was 30.5 m long (more than 3.5 times the length of a double-decker bus and as long as a Boeing 737 plane) with an estimated weight of 144 tonnes (almost the same as 2,000 men). The tongue alone of a blue whale can weigh as much as an elephant and an entire football team could stand on it!", "Blue whales are the largest animals ever known to have lived on Earth. These magnificent marine mammals rule the oceans at up to 100 feet long and upwards of 200 tons. Their tongues alone can weigh as much as an elephant; their hearts, as much as an automobile.", "The blue whale is the largest animal to have ever lived, almost as big as a Boeing 737, and even larger than the biggest dinosaurs.... More 10 Images 3 Videos", "Scientist don't really know for sure, but they are sure of one thing - as big as the ancient dinosaurs were they were never as big as the blue whale is. The blue whale is the largest creature to have ever lived on earth! One of the most important reasons that whales have become so large is they have more space - more room to roam. Remember: over 70% of the earth is covered in ocean water.", "The African Bush Elephant (Loxodonta africana), of the order Proboscidea , is the largest living land animal. At birth it is common for an elephant calf to weigh 100 kg (220 lb). The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in Angola in 1956. It was a male and weighed 24,000 lb (11,000 kg), with an overall length (trunk to tail) of 10 m (33 ft) and a shoulder height of 3.96 m (13.0 ft). [10] [11]", " Blue whale (largest animal to have ever existed), Among blue whales, the largest animal ever on Earth, female sex is larger", "Capble of growing to around 100 feet in length and 180 tons in weight, the blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived. It's even bigger than any known dinosaur.", "Other sauropods grew even larger than that. Supersaurus, Argentinosaurus, and Diplodocus were the largest creatures to ever walk the Earth, stretching more than 100 feet from their pencil-like teeth to their sinuous tails. But that “walked the Earth” clause is important. While no terrestrial creatures ever approached these sizes, the largest whales can make sauropods look rather skinny. When it comes down to it, who can rightfully lay claim to the title of the largest animals of all time: dinosaurs or whales?", "WASHINGTON (Reuters) -- Scientists in Spain have found the fossilized remains of one of the largest animals ever to walk the Earth, a gargantuan plant-eating dinosaur up to 125 feet long and weighing as much as seven elephants.", "Mammals live almost everywhere on land as well as in water. Blue whale, the largest animal that ever lived, is a mammal, measuring more than 30 metres long and weighing more than 150 tons.  The smallest mammal is the Kitti's hog-nosed bat of Thailand which weighs only about 2 grams.", "Like the Galapagos Islands of South America, isolation has allowed evolution to proceed independently on the islands. Marine life ranges from microscopic plankton to the blue whale, the largest animal to live on Earth. Archeological and cultural resources span a period of more than 13,000 years of human habitation.", "The largest extant monotreme ( egg -bearing mammal) is the Western Long-beaked Echidna (Zaglossus bruijni) weighing up to 16.5 kg (36.4 lb) and measuring 1 m (3.3 ft) long. [12] The largest monotreme ever was the extinct echidna species Zaglossus hacketti , known only from a few bones found in Western Australia . It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to 100 kg (220 lb).", "The African Elephant is the largest living terrestrial animal, normally reaching 20 to 24 feet in length and 11.5 to 13 feet in height at the head, and weighing between 13,000 to 20,000 pounds.", "A member of the order Cetacea , the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is believed to be the heaviest animal to have ever lived, with the largest extinct sauropods believed to surpass the blue whale in terms of dimensions,[citation needed] but not in weight. The maximum recorded weight was 190 metric tons (210 short tons) for a specimen measuring 30 m (98 ft), while longer ones, up to 33.3 m (109 ft), have been recorded but not weighed.", "Bears are some of the largest mammals on Earth, with the polar bear even holding the title for the largest of all carnivores on land. Arctodus —also known as the short-faced bear—lived in North America during the Pleistocene.  The short-faced bear weighed about one ton (900kg), and when standing on its hind legs it reached a height of fifteen feet (4.6m), making the short-faced bear the largest mammalian predator that ever existed.", "The African Bush Elephant (Loxodonta africana), of the order Proboscidea , is the largest living land animal. At birth it is common for an elephant calf to weigh 100 kg (220 lb). The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in Angola in 1974. It was a male and weighed 27,000 lb (12,000 kg), with an overall length (trunk to tail) of 10.6 m (35 ft) and a shoulder height of 4.2 m (14 ft).", "*The largest living land carnivore, on average, is the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). It can reach a shoulder height of over and total length of as much as . The heaviest wild polar and weight recorded was . The Kodiak bear, a brown bear subspecies rivals the polar bear in size, but is slightly smaller. It has a similar body length with the largest wild specimen weighing 750 kg. The largest panda is Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanouca) of China long, including a tail of about 10 -, and 60 to tall at the shoulder.[http://www.arkive.org/giant-panda/ailuropoda-melanoleuca/#text", "Around 28 million years ago, the largest shark to have ever lived on Earth roamed the seas, tearing apart large marine mammals such as whales and dolphins. Measuring up to 18 meters in length, armed with teeth up to 7 inches long, the iconic Carcharocles megalodon (“ Megalodon ”) was a formidable predator.", "At a height of 5.8 m, the giraffe is considered the tallest living animal on earth. They weigh approximately 2tonnes (2.2 US tons)!", "Big and Brisk: Weighing between 7,000 and 10,000 kg (15,000-22,000 lb), it is the largest land animal in the world. It moves at a rate of 6 km/h, but it can reach a top speed of 40 km/h when scared or upset.", "*The largest species in terms of weight is the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), native to the rivers of sub-Saharan Africa. They can attain a size of , long and tall. Prehistoric hippos such as H. gorgops and H. antiquus rivaled or exceeded the modern species as the largest members of the family and order to ever exist.", "North America. 12,000 years ago, North America had an amazing Megafauna including condors with a sixteen-foot wingspan, ground sloths as big as hippos, three kinds of elephants, three kinds of cheetah and five other kinds of big cat, several kinds of pronghorn antelopes, long-legged, antelope-like pigs, an assortment of camel, llama, deer, horse, and bison species, giant wolves, giant bears and giant armadillos.  North America has been called a \"super-Serengeti\" with more big animal species than you would find in Africa.", "*The second largest land mammal ever was Paraceratherium or Indricotherium (formerly known as the Baluchitherium), a member of this order. The largest known species (Paraceratherium orgosensis) is believed to have stood up to tall, measured over 9 m long and may have weighed up to 20 tonnes. ", "But the largest carnivorous mammal that ever existed was not related to modern Carnivora, but to the ... hoofed mammals. It looked like a hyena and it was the size of a rhino, but Andrewsarchus was a hoofed mammal closely related with the ancestors of the whales, dolphins, and hippos!", "The best known genus is Dinofelis (\"giant cat\") which lived in Eurasia, Africa and North America around 5 million - 1.5 million years ago. In South Africa, Dinofelis has also been found at sites along with Australopithecines, so it was probably a predator of our own ancestors. Genus Dinofelis includes cats previously classified as Therailurus. It became extinct in Eurasia and North America during the Early Pleistocene, but survived in Africa until the Mid-Pleistocene. The largest known form was the Chinese D abeli. Its size and build are comparable to a large leopard or jaguar (1.2 metres/4 ft) with forelimbs more heavily built than hind-limbs. Like the modern jaguar, they may have been forest-dwellers. Dinofelis (\"giant cat\") had flattened canines considerably shorter than those of the sabre-tooths, scimitar-tooths or even dirk-tooth cats. The canines were longer than those of biting cats (those that kill prey with a single neck-bite) so it is debatable as to which subfamily of the Dinofelis belongs.", "The giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus), is an open-forest savanna antelope. A species of the family Bovidae and genus Taurotragus , it was first described in 1847 by John Edward Gray. The giant eland is the largest species of antelope, with a body length ranging from 220–290 cm (87–110 in). There are two subspecies: T. d. derbianus and T. d. gigas.", "Today, sloths are tree-climbing, slow, and non-threatening animals that reside in the Amazon. Their ancestors were the complete opposite. During the Pliocene era, Megatherium was a giant ground sloth found in South America; it weighed up to four tons and was twenty feet (6m) in length from head to tail.  ", "Which is the largest bear on earth? (Everyday Mysteries: Fun Science Facts from the Library of Congress)", "So I have cultivated this list of land carnivores and have given their average masses and dimensions leaving the decision up to you. Once enough people have partaken in the voting, I will re order the list to match. Hopefully we will be able to end a much argued debate on what is the largest land carnivore as even amongst scientists the number one spot is still disputed.", "A summary of the largest organisms alive today, and some information about the largest organisms to ever live." ]

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[ "What once covered 14% of the Earth's land area, but by 1991 over half had been destroyed?", "19 What once covered 14% of the Earth’s land area, but by 1991 over half had been destroyed? a.Rainforest b.Oceans c.Mountains d.Sand", "The Earth was covered by approximately 14.8 billion acres of forest 8,000 years ago ( Rainforest Alliance, 1999 ). As a repercussion of human exploitation, only 8.6 billion acres now remain the highest rates of deforestation occurred during the last 50 years ( Rainforest Alliance, 1999 ). For example, between 1980-1990, Brazil lost 91.4 million acres of tropical forest, roughly the total area of North and South Dakota ( Rainforest Alliance, 1999 ). Annual forest loss, in the Brazilian Amazon, rose from less than 3 million acres in 1991 to an average of 4.8 million acres during the next three years ( Laurence, 1998 ). An area the size of Belgium, more than 7 million acres, was destroyed in the Brazilian Amazon in 1995 alone ( Laurence, 1998 )! Between 1960-1980, Asia lost almost one-third of its tropical forest cover; in West Africa, approximately 90% of all rainforests have been destroyed ( Rainforest Alliance, 1999 ). Countries with tropical rainforests, the country's land area, original forest cover, present forest cover, and the annual deforestation rate are illustrated in Figure 1 . While examining Figure 1, it is important to compare the original forest cover with the present forest cover; the numbers are dreadfully surprising.", "During the last Ice Age, which ended approximately 10,000 years ago, 32 percent of Earth's land area was covered with glaciers. At present, glaciers cover roughly 10 percent of the land area. A vast majority of that glacial ice overlies much of the continent of Antarctica. Most of the rest covers a great portion of Greenland; a small percentage is found in places such as Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Patagonia, New Zealand, the Himalayan Mountains, and the Alps.", "The largest part of the earth’s surface is occupied by the world ocean (361.1 million sq km, or 70.8 percent); land constitutes 149.1 million sq km (29.2 percent) and forms six large masses—the continents Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, and Australia (see Table 2). The land portion also includes numerous islands. The division of land into continents does not coincide with the division of the world into parts; Eurasia is divided into two parts of the world, Europe and Asia, while both American continents are considered one part of the world, America. Sometimes the islands of the Pacific Ocean are taken to be a special “oceanic” part of the world, Oceania, whose area is usually considered together with Australia.", "The world’s two great land masses — North and South America in the western hemisphere and Europe, Asia, and Africa in the eastern hemisphere — had been isolated from each other for 10,000 years. When the land bridge across the Bering Strait closed after the last Ice Age, the Paleoindians of the Americas and their Stone Age counterparts in Asia were cut off. In the hundreds of thousands of years before that, the two halves of the world had evolved different animals, plants, and microbes .", "The global non-ice-covered land area is 130-133 million km2, of which 30-40 million km2 is grazing land (40 million are forested, 15 million km2 are cultivated). The remainder is desert, tundra, mountains, rocky areas, urban (developed) areas, lakes/ rivers (2 million km2) and wetlands (2 million km2) (78B2?). (la)", "����������� The exploding human population, with its demand for space and natural resources, is extinguishing plant species at an unprecedented rate. The problem is especially critical in the tropics, where more than half the human population lives and population growth is fastest. Tropical rain forests are being destroyed at a frightening pace. The most common cause of this destruction is slash-and-burn clearing of the forest for agricultural use. Fifty million acres, an area about the size of the state of Washington, are cleared each year, a rate that would completely eliminate Earth's tropical forests within 25 years. As the forest disappears, so do thousands of plant species insects and other animals that depend on these plants are also vanishing.� In all researchers estimate that the destruction of habitat In the rain forest and other ecosystems is claiming", "Despite being called Earth, only 29% of the surface is actually 'earth' (land). The rest of the planet's surface (71%) is made up of water.", "Looking at a satellite image of the whole earth it is easy to spot a series of conspicuous ochre, vegetation-barren areas that run parallel to the equator, in both the northern and southern hemispheres, along two East-West fringes at i5-35° latitude (Figure 1.1). They are the mid-latitude deserts of the world, lying some 2 000-4 000 km away from the equatorial rainforests. In the northern hemisphere, the succession of mid-latitude subtropical deserts is formed by (1) the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan Deserts in North America, (i) the Sahara’s immense swathe in Northern Africa and the Somali-Ethiopian deserts in the Horn of Africa, and (3) the deserts of Asia, including the Arabian, Mesopotamian, Persian, and Thar deserts that stretch from West Asia into Pakistan and India, as well as the Central Asian deserts in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Taklimakan and Gobi deserts in China and Mongolia. In the southern hemisphere, the chain is formed by (1) the Atacama, Puna, and Monte Deserts in South America, (i) the Namib and the Karoo in southern Africa, and (3) the vast expanse of the Australian deserts (Allan and others 1993, McGinnies and others 1977, Pipes 1998, Ricciuti 1996).", "The impact caused some of the largest megatsunamis in Earth's history, hitting the Caribbean island of Cuba especially hard. A cloud of dust, ash and steam would have spread from the crater, as the impactor burrowed underground in less than a second. [17] Pieces of the impactor, ejected out of the atmosphere by the blast, would have been heated to incandescence upon reentry, broiling Earth's surface and igniting global wildfires; meanwhile, shock waves spawned global earthquakes and volcanic eruptions . [18] The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the earth for several years, possibly a decade, creating a harsh environment for living things to survive in. The shock production of carbon dioxide caused by the destruction of carbonate rocks would have led to a dramatic greenhouse effect , [19] and sunlight would have been filtered out by dust particles in the atmosphere. The photosynthesis of plants would be interrupted, subsequently affecting the entire food chain . [20] [21]", "Once a vast sea of tropical forest, the Amazon rainforest today is scarred by roads, farms, ranches and dams. Brazil is gifted with a full third of the world's remaining rainforests and unfortunately, it is also one of the world's great rainforest destroyers, burning or felling over 2.7 million acres each year. Today, more than 20 percent of rainforest in the Amazon has been razed and is gone forever. This ocean of green nearly as large as Australia, is the last great rainforest in the known universe and it is being decimated like the others before it. Why? Like other rainforests already lost forever, the land is being cleared for logging timber, large scale cattle ranching, mining operations, government road building and hydroelectric schemes, military operations, and the subsistence agriculture of peasants and landless settlers. Sadder still, in many places the rainforests are burnt simply to provide charcoal to power industrial plants in the area.", "When 11.5 percent of all the land in the entire world is claimed by just one country, it’s not surprising to learn that the tenth largest country ( Algeria ) could fit into the largest ( Russia ) seven times over. When all 10 of the world's largest countries are taken together, they total 49% of the earth's entire 149 million square kilometres of land.", "70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water.  Where did that water come from?  It is generally believed that most of it outgased from the interior of the earth during the first 700 million years of the earth’s existence.", "A supervolcanic eruption at Lake Toba around 74,000 years ago could have wiped out as much as 99% of the global human population, reducing the population from a possible 60 million to less than 10 thousand; see Toba catastrophe theory . However, this theory is not widely accepted because the evidence is disputed, and there have been, for instance, no remains found. The eruption is not listed here as it was pre-historic and outside the scope of this article. Also, the Thera eruption in the Aegean Sea between 1550 and 1650 B.C. may have caused a large number of deaths throughout the region, from Crete to Egypt . See also La Garita Caldera , Yellowstone Caldera , and Supervolcanoes .", "Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.", "are dominated by the ocean and the swirling patterns of clouds, underlining the importance of water in Earth's geologic systems. In this view, a large part of Africa and Antarctica are visible, and climatic zones are clearly delineated. Much of the vast tropical forest of central Africa is seen beneath the discontinuous cloud cover. Several complete cyclonic storms, spiraling over hundreds of square kilometers, can be seen pumping huge quantities of water from the ocean to the atmosphere. Much of this water is precipitated on the continents and erodes the land as it flows back to the sea. A large part of the South Polar ice cap, which covers the continent of Antarctica with a glacier more than 3000 m thick, can also be seen. Of particular interest in this view is the rift system of the Red Sea, a large fracture in the African continent that separates the Arabian Peninsula from the rest of Africa. (NASA:Apollo Mission.)", "Uneven heating of Earth's atmosphere, combined with its rotation causes complex weather patterns. Wind and rain gradually erode the mountains and create vast sandy plains. Even though the planet was bombarded by asteroids and meteors throughout its early history, erosion has wiped out most of the craters. Some can still be found, however. Meteor crater in Arizona is over a mile (1.6 km) wide and almost 600 feet (183 m) deep. It is believed that large meteors may have caused mass extinctions throughout Earth's history. One of these may have been responsible for wiping out the dinosaurs. Although the planet may seem calm and tranquil now, its surface is highly active and ever changing on the wider geologic scale of time.", "And \"most of the species on Earth\", in this case, means ''roughly 90%''. Among other things, this was the only time in all of Earth's history that insects suffered a mass extinction. That's right, if Siberia erupts again, [[CreepyCockroach even the cockroaches wouldn't survive]].", "The volcano ejected an estimated 800 cubic kilometers of ash into the atmosphere, leaving a crater (now the world's largest volcanic lake) that is 100 kilometers long and 35 kilometers wide. Ash from the event has been found in India, the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea. The bright ash reflected sunlight off the landscape, and volcanic sulfur aerosols impeded solar radiation for six years, initiating an \"Instant Ice Age\" that -- according to evidence in ice cores taken in Greenland -- lasted about 1,800 years.", "The Chernobyl disaster had significant impact on public opinion at the end of the 1980s, and the fallout was still causing cancer deaths well into the 1990s and possibly even into the 21st century. All along the 1990s, several environmental NGOs helped improve environmental awareness among public opinion and governments. The most famous of these organizations during this decade was Greenpeace, which did not hesitate to lead illegal actions in the name of environmental preservation. These organizations also drawn attention on the large deforestion of the Amazon Rainforest during the period.", "The breakthrough finally came in the first decade of the 21st Century, as ever-increasingly sophisticated space probes, some in orbit, some as landers, photographed, radar-probed, scratched the soil, traversed the surface testing thousands of samples of rock and soil.  The chemical hints of water were everywhere, but the proof seemingly nowhere.  Schiaparelli’s channels were there, as were volcanoes of a height that stunned planetary scientists.  Mars bears the scar of the largest canyon known in the solar system, Valles Marineris, as wide as the continental United States, deeper and wider than the Grand Canyon on a scale so massive as to make the great rift in the Earth look like a scratch by comparison.  Ice on the poles was confirmed, too, although the amount of carbon dioxide ice “dry ice” mixed with the water is substantial.  Still, the volume of water seemed too small, even accounting for evaporation and sublimation (liquid turning from ice to gas without going through a fluid state).   ", "The impetus generated by the UNESCO project led to expanded interest in, and support of, arid lands studies throughout the world. By 1970, knowledgeable scientists were well aware of the magnitude of the land destruction that had taken place in the past, and that was becoming even more serious as population pressures increased.", "Fifty-eight million years ago, a few million years after the fall of the dinosaurs, Cerrejón was an immense, swampy jungle where everything was hotter, wetter and bigger than it is today. The trees had wider leaves, indicating greater precipitation—more than 150 inches of rain per year, compared with 80 inches for the Amazon now. Mean temperatures may have hovered in the mid- to high-80s Fahrenheit or higher. Deep water from north-flowing rivers swirled around stands of palm trees, hardwoods, occasional hummocks of earth and decaying vegetation. Mud from the flood plain periodically coated, covered and compressed the dead leaves, branches and animal carcasses in steaming layers of decomposing muck dozens of feet thick.", "Maureen Raymo , William Ruddiman and others propose that the Tibetan and Colorado Plateaus are immense CO2 \"scrubbers\" with a capacity to remove enough CO2 from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year Cenozoic Cooling trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and CO2 \"scrubbing\" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years. [38] [41]", "Global agricultural expansion cut a wide swath through tropical forests during the 1980s and 1990s. More than half a million square miles of new farmland was created in the developing world between 19080 and 2000, of which over 80% was carved out of tropical forests.", "small towns, big cities, isolated forests, and open seas worldwide. The planet and all her inhabitants are affected as a result. What went down in Ecuador is pretty straight forward: the land was exploited for oil and wells were drilled in ways that created billions of gallons of toxic runoff, which contaminated the soil, water and air. As a result, the health and wellness of the ecosystem and the indigenous communities who depend on the land and water for survival has been seriously compromised. The people are sick and they are dying, and it is because of the greed, selfishness, unconsciousness, and arguably, criminal business practices by oil companies. The indigenous people are fighting to have Chevron (who bought out Texaco and therefore carries the culpability of Texaco’s past actions) clean it up and take responsibility. Finally, in 2011, after 20 years of costly legal battles, Chevron lost and was ordered to pay the Ecuadorian people $19 billion. Many court appeals ensued, bringing the payment amount down to $9 billion. And then, just last month the suit was overturned and Chevron is now off the hook. They, so the U.S. courts declared, are responsible for nothing.", "2004 – Scientists reported that Earth may be in the middle its 6th big extinction event, which began some 50,000 years ago. A recent survey indicated population extinctions in all the main ecosystems of Britain.", "Trenberth, K. E., J. T. Fasullo, and J. Kiehl, 2009: Earth's global gnergy budget. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 90, 311-323.", "Firings of the Plain by Europeans to produce more land for sheep devastated it worse than pre-European fires. They wiped out several species of marsupials. The more times a piece of land burns, the more thorough and destructive the incineration. Plants and animals face less and less chance of survival.", "Romania's forests and natural steppes have been encroached on by farmers. Radioactivity from the Chernobyl nuclear site, two floods, and two earthquakes have also contributed to the nation's environmental problems. Moreover, intensive exploitation of forests before, during, and immediately after World War II necessitated a reforestation program that, between 1950 and 1964, resulted in the replanting of 1,159,600 hectares (2,865,400 acres).", "I’ll never forget a conversation I had 15 years ago with paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould.  He told me and several colleagues that he was basically tired of environmentalists talking about \"saving the planet.\"  He flung his arms wide and told us that \"if the history of the Earth is my wingspan, all of human history would represent a sliver of my fingernail.\"" ]

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[ "Which inland sea between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan is fast disappearing because the rivers that feed it have been diverted and dammed?", "An inland sea lying between southern Kazakhstan and northwest Uzbekistan. Once the fourth-largest inland body of water in the world, it is fast disappearing because of diversion of its two sources, the Amu Darya and the SyrDarya.", "The Aral Sea lies between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in a vast geological depression, fed by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers, with no outlet. Before its drastic decline, the Aral Sea was the fourth largest inland water lake in the world. In the past 30 years, the Aral Sea has lost nearly two-thirds of its volume and half of its previous surface area; its level has dropped nearly 50 feet, splitting it in two. Its salinity has increased nearly threefold. The almost total use of water from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers for irrigation purposes has been exacerbated by excessive use of chemicals for growing cotton and rice, much of which returns to the Rivers upstream. The desiccation of the Aral Sea has wiped out its fishing industry and destroyed nearby ecosystems. Toxic blowing salts from the exposed seabed and the pollution of surface and groundwater have caused serious health problems and damaged agricultural production. The United Nations Environment Program has stated that, in terms of its ecological, economic, and social consequences, the Aral Sea is one of the most staggering disasters of the twentieth century. Restoring the Aral Sea to its pre-disaster (1960) conditions is generally considered impossible, given expanding populations and pressures for increased agricultural production.", "For millennia the Aral Sea reigned as one of the planet’s largest inland bodies of water, straddling what is now Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Today its decline serves as a cautionary tale.", "The Aral Sea (Kazakh: Арал Теңізі, Aral Tengizi, Uzbek: Orol dengizi, Russian: Аральскοе мοре), Tajik/Persian \"Daryocha-i Khorazm\" (Lake Khwarazm) (Khor, Khoja Jat clans) is a landlocked endorheic basin in Central Asia; it lies between Kazakhstan in the north and Karakalpakstan (Karkala Jat clan), an autonomous region of Uzbekistan, in the south. The name roughly translates as \"Sea of Islands\", referring to more than 1,500 islands of one hectare or more that dotted its waters.", "The Aral Sea lies in central Asia, between Kazakhstan in the north and Uzbekistan in the south. In 1960 it was the world's fourth-largest lake, with an area of approximately 68,000 km�, about the size of the Republic of Ireland. By 1998, it was only eighth-largest, and had shrunk to 28,687 km�. During the 1980s, the water level fell so low that the sea split into two bodies of water, the North Aral Sea and the South Aral Sea. The artificial channel which was dug to connect them had disappeared by 1999, as the two bodies of water continued to shrink.", "The Aral Sea ( Kazakh : Арал Теңізі Aral Teñizi; Uzbek : Orol Dengizi; Russian : Аральскοе Мοре Aral'skoye More; Tajik : Баҳри Арал Bahri Aral; Persian : دریاچه خوارزم Daryocha-i Khorazm) is an endorheic basin in Central Asia ; it lies between Kazakhstan ( Aktobe and Kyzylorda provinces) in the north and Karakalpakstan , an autonomous region of Uzbekistan , in the south. The name roughly translates as \"Sea of Islands\", referring to more than 1,500 islands that once dotted its waters. The maximum depth of the sea is 102 feet (31 m).", "The Aral Sea is situated in Central Asia, between the Southern part of Kazakhstan and Northern Uzbekistan. Up until the third quarter of the 20th century it was the world?s fourth largest saline lake, and contained 10grams of salt per liter. The two rivers that feed it are the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, respectively reaching the Sea through the South and the North. The Soviet government decided in the 1960s to divert those rivers so that they could irrigate the desert region surrounding the Sea in order to favor agriculture rather than supply the Aral Sea basin. The reason why we decided to explore the implications up to today of this human alteration of the environment is precisely that certain characteristics of the region, from its geography to its population growth, account for dramatic consequences since the canals have been dug. Those consequences range from unexpected climate feedbacks to public health issues, affecting the lives of millions of people in and out of the region.", "A massive irrigation project has devastated the Aral Sea over the past 50 years. In the 1950s and 1960s, the government of the former Soviet Union diverted the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya – the region’s two major rivers – to irrigate farmland. The diversion began the lake’s gradual retreat. By the year 2000, the lake had already separated into the North (Small) Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and the South (Large) Aral Sea in Uzbekistan. The South Aral had further split into western and eastern lobes.", "An extensive system of canals, many built in the 18th century by the Uzbek Khanate of Kokand, spans the regions the river flows through. Massive expansion of irrigation canals during the Soviet Union period, to irrigate cotton fields, wrought ecological carnage to the area, with the river drying up long before reaching the Aral Sea which, as a result, has shrunk to a small remnant of its former size. With millions of people now settled in these cotton areas (and highly repressive post-Soviet regimes in power in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan), it is not clear how the situation can be rectified.", "The river rises in two headstreams in the Tian Shan Mountains (ancient Mount Imeon) in Kyrgyzstan and eastern Uzbekistan -- the Naryn River (Nehra Jat clan) and the Kara Darya River (Kharra Jat clan)-- and flows for some 2,212 km (1,380 miles) west and north-west Uzbekistan and southern Kazakhstan to the remains of the Aral Sea. The Syr Darya drains an area of over 800,000 square kilometres, but no more than 200,000 square kilometres actually contribute water to the river. Its annual flow is a very modest 28 cubic kilometres (23 million acre feet) per year - half that of its sister river, the Amu Darya.", "The confluence forms the Syr Darya , which originally flowed into the Aral Sea . As of 2010 [update] , it no longer reaches the sea, as its water is withdrawn upstream to irrigate cotton fields in Tajikistan , Uzbekistan , and southern Kazakhstan . The Chu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.", "The confluence forms the Syr Darya, which originally flowed into the Aral Sea. As of 2010, it no longer reaches the sea, as its water is withdrawn upstream to irrigate cotton fields in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southern Kazakhstan. The Chu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.", "The confluence forms the Syr Darya, which originally flowed into the Aral Sea. At this time it no longer reaches the sea, as its water is withdrawn upstream to irrigate cotton fields in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southern Kazakhstan. The Chu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.", "Formerly one of the four largest lakes in the world with an area of 68,000 km2 (26,300 sq mi), the Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were diverted by Soviet irrigation projects. By 2007, it had declined to 10% of its original size, splitting into four lakes – the North Aral Sea , the eastern and western basins of the once far larger South Aral Sea , and one smaller lake between the North and South Aral Seas. [4] By 2009, the southeastern lake had disappeared and the southwestern lake had retreated to a thin strip at the western edge of the former southern sea; in subsequent years, occasional water flows have led to the southeastern lake sometimes being replenished to a small degree. [5] Satellite images taken by NASA in August 2014 revealed that for the first time in modern history the eastern basin of the Aral Sea had completely dried up. [6] The eastern basin is now called the Aralkum Desert .", "In a last-ditch effort to save some of the lake, Kazakhstan built a dam between the northern and southern parts of the Aral Sea. Completed in 2005, the dam was basically a death sentence for the southern Aral Sea, which was judged to be beyond saving. All of the water flowing into the desert basin from the Syr Darya now stays in the Northern Aral Sea. Between 2005 and 2006, the water levels in that part of the lake rebounded significantly and very small increases are visible throughout the rest of the time period. The differences in water color are due to changes in sediment.", "Kazakhstan has made major efforts to revive the Aral Sea. The 13 km (8.1 mi) Kok-Aral dam, completed in 2005 by Kazakhstan and financed by World Bank, allows water of the Syr Darya to accumulate and helps restore delta and riverine wetland ecosystems in the Northern Sea. [44] Since then, the northern part of the lake, which lies in Kazakhstan, is slowly reviving. [44]", "What was once one of Central Asia’s most recognizable geographic features and a great regional geo-economic asset may no longer appear on future maps.  Satellite imagery  made available by NASA shows that a vast majority of the Aral Sea — once the world’s fourth largest inland sea — has dried up. Going by current trends, the Aral Sea, with the exception of a small portion in the north, may disappear altogether. The images, released from NASA’s Terra satellite highlights the decay of what was once a distinct feature of Central Asia’s geography. They catalogue the lake’s gradual and dramatic reduction in size since 2000.", "Once the world’s fourth largest body of inland water, this lake is an inland sea that is also called the Orol Sea, Aral Tengizi, or Orol Dengizi. The lake’s remnants nestle in the climatically inhospitable heart of Central Asia, to the east of the Caspian Sea. The Aral Sea and its demise are of great interest and increasing concern to scientists because of the remarkable shrinkage of its area and volume that began in the second half of the 20th century—when the region was part of the Soviet Union—and continued into the 21st century. That change resulted primarily from the diversion (for purposes of irrigation) of the riverine waters of the Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes River) in the north and the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) in the south, which discharged into the Aral Sea and were its main sources of inflowing water. The rapid shrinkage of the Aral Sea led to numerous environmental problems in the region. By the late 1980s the lake had lost more than half the volume of its pre-1960 water. Because of that, the salt and mineral content of the lake rose drastically, which made the water unfit for drinking and killed off the once-abundant fish populations—sturgeon, carp, barbel, roach, and others. The fishing industry along the Aral Sea was thus virtually destroyed.", "The many lakes of Asia vary considerably in size and origin. The largest of them—the Caspian and Aral seas—are the remains of larger seas. The Caspian has been fluctuating in size, and the Aral has been shrinking, primarily because its tributaries, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, have been tapped heavily for irrigation purposes. Lakes Baikal, Ysyk-Köl, and Hövsgöl (Khubsugul), the Dead Sea, and others lie in tectonic depressions.", "The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called \"one of the planet's worst environmental disasters\". [6] The region's once prosperous fishing industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment and economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted, with consequent serious public health problems . The retreat of the sea has reportedly also caused local climate change, with summers becoming hotter and drier, and winters colder and longer. [7]", "Many schoolchildren know the sad tale of the Aral Sea , once the world's fourth largest inland water body with a surface of 26,000 square miles (67,300 square kilometers). The sea was once ringed with prosperous towns and supported a lucrative muskrat pelt industry and thriving fishery, providing 40,000 jobs and supplying the Soviet Union with a sixth of its fish catch.", "It is believed that the Amu Darya's course across the Kara-Kum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time – most recently from the 13th century to the late 16th century – the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas, reaching the latter via a large distributary called the Uzboy River. The Uzboy splits off from the main channel just south of the Amudarya Delta. Sometimes the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.", "Redirecting water from the Volga , Ob and Irtysh Rivers to restore the Aral Sea to its former size in 20–30 years at a cost of US$30–50 billion [33]", "Redirecting water from the Volga , Ob and Irtysh Rivers to restore the Aral Sea to its former size in 20–30 years at a cost of US$30–50 billion [26]", "*Redirecting water from the Volga, Ob and Irtysh Rivers to restore the Aral Sea to its former size in 20–30 years at a cost of US$30–50 billion", "The draining and evaporation of the Aral Sea has been considered one of the worst ecological disasters in the world. Irrigation withdrawals from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers have been a major cause of lake shrinkage. As a result, pesticides and natural salts in its water have become increasingly concentrated so that plant and wildlife habitats have been destroyed. As of 2002, the area of the Aral Sa was reported to cover less than half the size of the original basin.", "The assessment of natural flow in the basin is hampered by the large amounts of water withdrawn from the rivers since the 1950s for irrigation purposes. Reconstructing long-term time series, the average annual renewable surface water resources in the Aral Sea Basin are estimated at 116 km3, of which 78 km3 in the Amu Darya Basin and 37 km3 in the Syr Darya Basin (Table 24). For a 20-year return period, the values are 47 km3 for the Amu Darya and 21 km3 for the Syr Darya.", "For what purpose were the waters of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers, both of which supply the Aral Sea, diverted?", "Although irrigation made the desert bloom, it devastated the Aral Sea. This series of images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite documents the changes. At the start of the series in 2000, the lake was already a fraction of its 1960 extent (yellow line). The Northern Aral Sea (sometimes called the Small Aral Sea) had separated from the Southern (Large) Aral Sea. The Southern Aral Sea had split into eastern and western lobes that remained tenuously connected at both ends.", "River Irtysh is the major tributary of the Ob River of western Siberia. It emerges from the Altay Mountains and passes through Siberia, China as well as Kazakhstan. The gigantic river is 4,248 kilometers in length with an enormous basin area covering 1,643,000 square kilometers. The river serves as an important navigation route for passenger boats, tankers and freight boats in Kazakhstan and Russia. On the other hand, the Chinese have built three dams on the portion of the river passing through their country to serve as a water reservoir for hydroelectric power generation. Therefore, Irtysh carries economical importance for all the three countries it flows through.", "From its origins as the Kara-Irtysh (Black Irtysh) in the Mongolian Altay mountains in Xinjiang, China, the Irtysh flows northwest through Lake Zaysan in Kazakhstan, meeting the Ishim and Tobol rivers before merging with the Ob near Khanty-Mansiysk in western Siberia, Russia after 4248 km." ]

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[ "20 The damaged Chernobyl nuclear power station is situated in which country? a.Russia b.Ukraine c.Belarus d.Slovakia", "The Chernobyl station ( 51°23′14″N 30°06′41″E / 51.38722°N 30.11139°E / 51.38722; 30.11139 ) is near the town of Pripyat , Ukraine, 18 km (11 mi) northwest of the city of Chernobyl, 16 km (10 mi) from the border of Ukraine and Belarus, and about 110 km (68 mi) north of Kiev . The station consisted of four RBMK-1000 nuclear reactors , each capable of producing 1  gigawatt (GW) of electric power , and the four together produced about 10% of Ukraine's electricity at the time of the accident. [7] Construction of the plant began in the late 1970s, with reactor no. 1 commissioned in 1977, followed by no. 2 (1978), no. 3 (1981), and no. 4 (1983). Two more reactors, no. 5 and 6, also capable of producing 1 GW each, were under construction at the time of the disaster.", "The Chernobyl disaster ( Ukrainian : Чорнобильська катастрофа, Chornobylska Katastrofa – Chornobyl Catastrophe; also referred to as Chernobyl or the Chornobyl accident) was a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine (then officially the Ukrainian SSR ), which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities of the Soviet Union . An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe .", "The Chernobyl station is located near the town of Pripyat, Ukraine, 18 km northwest of the city of Chernobyl, 16 km (10 mi) from the border of Ukraine and Belarus, and about 110 km (68 mi) north of Kiev. The station consisted of four reactors of type RBMK-1000, each capable of producing 1 gigawatt (GW) of electric power, and the four together produced about 10% of Ukraine's electricity at the time of the accident. Construction of the plant began in the 1970s, with reactor no. 1 commissioned in 1977, followed by no. 2 (1978), no. 3 (1981), and no. 4 (1983). Two more reactors, no. 5 and 6, capable of producing 1 GW each, were under construction at the time of the accident.", "AMY GOODMAN: We’re on the road in Santa Fe, New Mexico. We end today marking the 30th anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster in the former Soviet state of Ukraine, still considered the worst nuclear disaster in history. It sent a cloud of radioactive fallout into Russia, Belarus and over a large portion of Europe. Fifty thousand people living in Chernobyl’s immediate surroundings had to be evacuated, and a vast rural region became uninhabitable, including the town of Pripyat, near where the damaged reactor was located. Residents had to be permanently relocated, and the town remains abandoned. Lyudmila Kamkina, a former employee at the Chernobyl plant, spoke at a memorial ceremony held earlier today in the Ukrainian capital of Kiev.", "The Chernobyl nuclear plant was crippled after a catastrophic nuclear accident on April 26, 1986. People living in the area around the Chernobyl nuclear power station were evacuated due to the nuclear contamination. The plant is located about 100 kilometers from Kiev, the capital of Ukraine.", "* 26 April 1986 – The Chernobyl disaster occurs at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine, USSR, reducing enthusiasm for nuclear power among many people in the world, and causing a dramatic shift in the growth of nuclear power.", "The world’s worst nuclear accident occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine, Soviet Union", "The Chernobyl disaster, also referred to as the Chernobyl accident or simply Chernobyl, was a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the city of Pripyat, then located in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union (USSR). An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe.", "The Chernobyl station is 18 km northwest of the city of Chernobyl, 16 km from the border of Ukraine and Belarus and about 100 km north of Kiev. Construction of the plant and the nearby city of Pripyat, Ukraine to house workers and their families began in 1970, with Reactor No. 1 commissioned in 1977. It was the third nuclear power station in the Soviet Union of the RBMK-type (after Leningrad and Kursk), and the first ever nuclear power plant on Ukrainian soil.", "The Chernobyl station was situated at the settlement of Pripyat, about 65 miles north of Kiev in the Ukraine. Built in the late 1970s on the banks of the Pripyat River, Chernobyl had four reactors, each capable of producing 1,000 megawatts of electric power. On the evening of April 25, 1986, a group of engineers began an electrical-engineering experiment on the Number 4 reactor. The engineers, who had little knowledge of reactor physics, wanted to see if the reactor’s turbine could run emergency water pumps on inertial power.", "\"On April 26, 1986, an accident occurred at Unit 4 of the nuclear power station at Chernobyl, Ukraine, in the former USSR. The accident, caused by a sudden surge of power, destroyed the reactor and released massive amounts of radioactive material into the environment...", "April 25:  Chernobyl Nuclear disaster takes place in the Ukraine, USSR and about 300,000 to 400,000 people died resulting in the worst nuclear accident in the world.  Safety procedures were ignored during a routine reactor test but the reactor was a flawed design.  Most folks had no idea there was a nuclear accident.  After 9 days 135,000 people were evacuated which eventually rose to 360,000 people. Some suggest the radiation has affected 7 million people.  The radiation is expected to remain for 48,000 years but some believe it will not be low enough to reoccupy the area for 600 to 900 years.  About 650,000 people were sent to clean up the site without protective clothing and 10,000 were known to die outright.  Others suffered grotesque mutations but these are not reported.  The area affected is the size of France, but some places are relatively free from radiation while others are hot spots.  Areas of plant growth are higher than concrete and buildings are more dangerous than open spaces.", "Chernobyl (a city in north central Ukraine; site of a major disaster at a nuclear power plant (26 April 1986))", "The disaster began during a systems test on 26 April 1986 at reactor number four of the Chernobyl plant, which is near the city of Pripyat and in proximity to the administrative border with Belarus and the Dnieper River. There was a sudden and unexpected power surge, and when an emergency shutdown was attempted, a much larger spike in power output occurred, which led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of steam explosions. These events exposed the graphite moderator of the reactor to air, causing it to ignite. [5] The resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere over an extensive geographical area, including Pripyat. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe. From 1986 to 2000, 350,400 people were evacuated and resettled from the most severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia , and Ukraine . [6] [7] According to official post-Soviet data, [8] [9] about 60% of the fallout landed in Belarus.", "In April 1986, Chernobyl' (Chornobyl' in Ukrainian) was an obscure city on the Pripiat' River in north-central Ukraine. Almost incidentally, its name was attached to the V.I. Lenin Nuclear Power Plant located about twenty-five kilometers upstream.", "One of the reactors at the Chernobyl nuclear plant explodes in Ukraine, creating the world's worst nuclear disaster. Thirty-one people are killed directly by the incident and many more die from cancer in later years. Several thousand people are exposed to significant amounts of radioactive material, making vast territories in Ukraine and Belarus uninhabitable.", "On 26 April 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history. This was the only accident to receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear Event Scale, indicating a \"major accident\", until the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011. At the time of the accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.", "The authors suggest that most of the deaths were in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, though others occurred worldwide throughout the many countries that were struck by radioactive fallout from Chernobyl. The literature analysis draws on over 1000 published titles and over 5000 internet and printed publications discussing the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The authors contend that those publications and papers were written by leading Eastern European authorities and have largely been downplayed or ignored by the IAEA and UNSCEAR. [160] This estimate has however been criticized as exaggerated, lacking a proper scientific base. [21]", "In 1986, the Chernobyl disaster , a large-scale nuclear meltdown in the Ukrainian SSR , Soviet Union, spread a large amount of radioactive material across Europe, killing 47 people, dooming countless others to future radiation-related cancer, and causing the displacement of 300,000 people.", "The Chernobyl disaster, also referred to as the Chernobyl accident, was a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 in the No.4 light water graphite moderated reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat , in what was then part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union (USSR).", "Ukraine might just be the world’s creepiest ghost town. This otherwise unremarkable Eastern European city was once home to Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant workers, but when a nuclear reactor at the plant exploded in 1986, it was abandoned & has stood as a bizarre, deteriorating monument to the disaster ever since. it killed 56 people, but up to 4,000 may have developed cancer fr radiation exposure and it’s also implicated in the chromosomal aberrations & neural tube defects of countless…", "On 26 April 1986 at 01:23:45 a.m. (UTC+3) reactor number four at the Chernobyl plant, near Pripyat in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, exploded. Further explosions and the resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area. Four hundred times more fallout was released than had been by the atomic bombing of Hiroshima", "A nuclear power station near Kiev, in the Ukraine. In 1986 a reactor malfunctioned, resulting in large amounts of radioactive material being released into the atmosphere. The effects locally were devastating and were felt as far away as the Britain.", "26/4/1986. The nuclear power station at Chernobyl, near Kiev, suffered a major fire, explosion, and radiation leak. 31 were killed directly, but many thousands more were exposed to radiation. Unseasonably warm weather on 25/4/1986 led to number 4 reactor being shut down; with coolant systems down, an engineer ordered more power to test a turbine; this caused the no.4 reactor to explode.", "The Soviet Union built the Chernobyl plant, which had four 1,000-megawatt reactors, in the town of Pripyat. At the time of the explosion, it was one of the largest and oldest nuclear power plants in the world. The explosion and subsequent meltdown of one reactor was a catastrophic event that directly affected hundreds of thousands of people. Still, the Soviet government kept its own people and the rest of the world in the dark about the accident until days later.", "earthquake and tsunami. On April 26th 1986, the power station at Chernobyl, then part of the Soviet Union, exploded in the world's worst nuclear accident, sending a plume of radiation over a large part of Europe. At least 30 people were killed in the immediate aftermath of the explosion", "A sign reading 'Stop, Forbidden Zone' hangs on a barbed wire fence at the 'border' of the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant, where the world's worst nuclear disaster took place in April 1986, and the 30-km zone around it remain inhabited until now. Japanese crews are now grappling with the world's worst nuclear incident since that incident.", "Chernobyl is the worst nuclear power plant accident in history. The disaster was the equivalent of 400 Hiroshimas.  This mean four hundred times more radioactive material was released into the atmosphere than had been by the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. ", "A visitor walks through the control centre of the damaged fourth reactor at Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Photograph: Gleb Garanich/Reuters", "• In April 1986 the place named CHERNOBYL gained world fame due to accident in Atomic Reactor.", "Chernobyl nuclear reactor after the disaster. Reactor 4 (image center). Turbine building (image lower left). Reactor 3 (center right)" ]

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[ "Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy. The word \"granite\" comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is an igneous rock with at least 20% quartz and up to 65% alkali feldspar by volume.", "Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Igneous rock is formed by the solidification of cooled magma and it is intrusive if the crystallization or solidification occurred underground. Felsic is a term referring to silicate minerals, magma and rocks that have been enriched with lighter elements like silicon, oxygen, aluminum, sodium and potassium. Granite has a medium to coarse texture and can be pink to dark gray or even black. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs. Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough.", "Granite is a very common plutonic rock with feldspar and quartz as the main constituents. Granite is an igneous rock, but some high-grade metamorphic rocks are compositionally very close and have been sometimes referred to as granites also. ^", "Granite is a light-colored igneous rock with grains large enough to be visible with the unaided eye. It forms from the slow crystallization of magma below Earth's surface. Granite is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar with minor amounts of mica, amphiboles, and other minerals. This mineral composition usually gives granite a red, pink, gray, or white color with dark mineral grains visible throughout the rock.", "Granite is a coarse-grained, light-colored, intrusive igneous rock that contains mainly quartz , feldspar, and mica minerals. The specimen above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.", "Granite - Granite is an intrusive igneous rock, meaning that it forms from magma that cools below Earth's surface. It has visible crystals of quartz (≤25%) and potassium and sodium-rich feldspar (>50%). Other common constituents of granite are mica and amphibole. Source: Katie KellerLynn", "Granite is an igneous rock that is composed of four minerals. These minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, and usually hornblende. Granite forms as magma cools far under the earth's surface. Because it hardens deep underground it cools very slowly. This allows crystals of the four minerals to grow large enough to be easily seen by the naked eye. Look at the photo of granite above, notice the different crystals in the rock. ", "Granite: A common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. It was formed by slowly cooling pockets of magma that were trapped beneath the earth's surface. Granites usually have a medium to coarse grained texture.", "granite—a common, coarse-grained (crystalline), light-colored, hard plutonic igneous rock consisting chiefly of quartz, orthoclase or microcline (feldspars), and mica.", "Example of classification Granite is an igneous, intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and with more than 10% of felsic minerals) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible for the unaided eye and some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Granite is the most abundant intrusive rock that can be found in the continents.", "gravity.. Sedimentary rock . Granite is an intrusive igneous rock that has many uses in building construction", "its way Granite is the most common variety of this type of igneous rock and is. planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation; massive rock formations,", "Third, almost all granite is igneous (it solidified from  magma ) and plutonic (it did so in a large, deeply buried body or pluton). The random arrangement of grains in granite—its lack of fabric—is evidence of its plutonic origin. Other igneous, plutonic rocks, like granodiorite, monzonite, tonalite and quartz diorite, have similar appearances. ", "Many rocks identified as \"granite\" using the introductory course definition will not be called \"granite\" by the petrologist - they might instead be alkali granites, granodiorites, pegmatites , or aplites. A petrologist might call these \"granitoid rocks\" rather than granites. There are other definitions of granite based upon mineral composition.", "A rock with a similar composition and appearance as granite,  gneiss , can form through long and intense metamorphism of sedimentary  (paragneiss) or igneous rocks (orthogneiss). Gneiss, however, is distinguished from granite by its strong fabric and alternating dark and light colored bands. ", "Granite differs from granodiorite in that at least 35% of the feldspar in granite is alkali feldspar as opposed to plagioclase; it is the potassium feldspar that gives many granites a distinctive pink color. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite.", "Igneous: a rock congealed from molten material beneath (intrusive) or at (extrusive) the Earth's surface. Granite is an intrusive igneous rock.", "Looking at a granitic rock's composition tells geologists much about its formation. Different granites have unique chemical compositions that produce different mineral proportions. In fact, granitic rocks are generally classified by their mineral proportions and given names such as granite, granodiorite, tonalite, and diorite. A clear example of contrasting compositions is visible on the southeast face of El Capitan where the dark-colored hornblende-rich Diorite of North America intruded the older and lighter-colored quartz and feldspar-rich El Capitan and Taft granites.", "Granite commonly is made of the minerals feldspar, quartz, and biotite, so the batholith granite most likely contains these minerals as well.", "In geology, rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, the common rock granite is a combination of the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.", "Still, there is a fundamentally sound reason to talk about such a vague concept as a rock type because these assemblages occur again and again in many different locations. Rock type is like a biome (desert, savannah, rain forest). One particular desert may greatly differ from another (one is sandy and another rocky), but they both share something that is common (low precipitation). Exactly the same is true with rock types — one granite may be white and another red, but they both have a similar composition (major minerals are feldspar and quartz).", "Granite consists of quartz (gray), plagioclase feldspar (white) and alkali feldspar (beige) plus dark minerals, in this case biotite and hornblende . (more below)", "Rate of cooling depends on where magma cools. Most bodies of magma rising to the surface get emplaced (stuck) inside the earth�s crust. Igneous rocks that solidify within the crust are called \"intrusive rocks\" or \"plutonic rocks\" (named for Pluto, the Roman God of the Underworld). Emplaced bodies of intrusive rock are called \"plutons\". Plutons are well-insulated by miles of overlying rock and so heat escapes very slowly. As a result, intrusive magmas cool very slowly, perhaps requiring tens of thousands of years, and crystals have the time to grow relatively large. Intrusive igneous rocks typically have crystals about the size of a match head. In general, intrusive rocks possess individual crystals that are visible to the naked eye. Rocks with crystals this size have a \"phaneritic\" texture. Look at your granite specimen. This is a phaneritic rock. You can easily see individual crystals of quartz (grayish-glassy), a pinkish feldspar, and biotite (black). The granite pegmatite has much larger crystals and a slightly different mineral composition. The feldspar here is a more whitish variety.", "The vast majority of Yosemite National Park is comprised of plutonic igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks forms deep underground when molten rock cools and solidifies very slowly, allowing large crystals to form. In contrast, volcanic igneous rocks form at the surface when molten rock cools and solidifies quickly, resulting in small crystals. Granite, granodiorite, tonalite, quartz monzonite, and quartz monzodiorite are all forms of plutonic rock that are found in the park, and are loosely referred to as granitic rocks. Quartz diorite, diorite and gabbro are plutonic rocks found in the park, but are not technically considered to be granitic rocks.", "Our magma, however, must take care of its aluminium and iron somehow, but is low in magnesium, so the micas form. The micas include alumina tetrahedra in the construction of the sheets, which have a negative overall charge. They are held together by positive ions between the negative sheets. The micas still come apart in flakes, splitting apart along the weaker interfaces between sheets, but the sheets are harder and more coherent than those of talc. Now we finally have a complete granite: mostly pink orthoclase, with some plagioclase, free silica in transparent crystals, and dark flecks of biotite or clear scales of muscovite. Rocks of this general composition are called felsic, from feldspar and silica, their principal components. Felsic rocks contain more than 65% silica.", "- Intrusive: Rock such as granite that has solidified from a molten state below the ground surface.", "Granite is an excellent material for building bridges and buildings because it can withstand thousands of pounds of pressure. It is also used for monuments because it weathers slowly. Engravings in the granite can be read for hundreds of years, making the rock more valuable. ", "Pegmatite: Photograph of a granite with very large crystals of orthoclase feldspar. Granites with such large crystals are known as \"pegmatites.\" This rock is about two inches across.", "Research has shown that the granite on Ailsa Craig has an unusual crystalline composition that has a distinctive appearance but a uniform hardness. These properties have made the island's rock a favourite material for curling stones. ", "portion of the granite is made of small crystals of orthoclase feldspar which give the rock", "The chart below illustrates the range of granite compositions. From the chart you can see that orthoclase feldspar , quartz , plagioclase feldspar , micas, and amphiboles can each have a range of abundances.", "Plutonic rocks (also called intrusive igneous rocks) are those that have solidified below ground; plutonic comes from Pluto, the Greek god of the underworld." ]

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[ "By definition, basalt is an aphanitic (fine-grained) igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica (SiO2) and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume, and where at least 65% of the rock is feldspar in the form of plagioclase. It is the most common volcanic rock type on Earth, being a key component of oceanic crust as well as the principal volcanic rock in many mid-oceanic islands, including Iceland, Réunion and the islands of Hawaii. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains. The average density is 3.0 gm/cm3.", "Basalt is a type of igneous rock formed from molten lava that has cooled and hardened.", "Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar to gabbro . The difference between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock.", "Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.", "Basalt Lava - Basalt is a hard, black volcanic rock. Less than ½ of the weight of basalt is silica (SiO2). Because of basalt's low silica content, it has a low viscosity (resistance to flow). This enables basaltic lava to flow quickly and allows volcanic gases to escape without explosive events.", "Basalt - a fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock containing primarily calcic plagioclase with some pyroxene and sometimes olivine.", "Basalt — Volcanic rock formed by rapidly cooling lava. Found on the moon and the earth.", "Basalt: A common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. It is the bedrock of the ocean floor and also occurs on land in extensive lava flows.", "Basalt is a black rock, albite is a white mineral silicate, and epidote is green. Credit: Siim Sepp .", "Typically the Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt extending up to Bhor Ghat near Karjat. This is an extrusive igneous rock. Also in certain sections of the region, we can find granite, which is an intrusive igneous rock. The difference between these two rock types is: basalt rock forms on eruption of lava, that is, on the surface (either out of a volcano, or through massive fissures—as in the Deccan basalts—in the ground), while granite forms deep within the Earth. Granite is a felsic rock, meaning it is rich in potassium feldspar and quartz. This composition is continental in origin (meaning it is the primary composition of the continental crust). Since it cooled relatively slowly, it has large visible crystals. Basalt, on the other hand, is mafic in composition—meaning it is rich in pyroxene and, in some cases, olivine, both of which are Mg-Fe rich minerals. Basalt is similar in composition to mantle rocks, indicating that it came from the mantle and did not mix with continental rocks. Basalt forms in areas that are spreading, whereas granite forms mostly in areas that are colliding. Since both rocks are found in the Deccan Plateau, it indicates two different environments of formation.", "The basalts, the most common of all the extrusive igneous rocks, are black, brown, dark gray, or dark green. The basalt formation in the Columbia Plateau, in the northwestern part of the United States, covers an area of more than 200,000 square miles (520,000 square kilometers), and ranges to more than 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) in thickness. Other sizable basalt formations occur in western India and in the spectacular Giant's Causeway on the north-facing coast of Northern Ireland.", "Basalt � A dark colored aphanitic (fine grained) igneous rock (volcanic rock).  Contains mainly  plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine.", "Basalt is defined by its mineral content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic (iron-rich) minerals into hematite and other iron oxides and hydroxides. Although usually characterized as \"dark\", basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured, superficially resembling andesite to untrained eyes. Basalt has a fine-grained mineral texture due to the molten rock cooling too quickly for large mineral crystals to grow; it is often porphyritic, containing larger crystals (phenocrysts) formed prior to the extrusion that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained matrix. These phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt.", "Basalt (n.) A rock of igneous origin, consisting of augite and triclinic feldspar, with grains of magnetic or titanic iron, and also bottle-green particles of olivine frequently disseminated.", "When silica is mixed with aluminium, calcium, magnesium and iron oxides, as in material derived from the mantle, the result is calcium plagioclase, typically anorthite, and pyroxene, typically augite. This is a very familiar rock, basalt. It is not a mantle rock, but one that comes from mixing mantle and crustal rocks in varying amounts. Basalt is the fine-grained extrusive form. The less common coarse-grained form is gabbro, and the frequently-seen hypabyssal or intrusive form is dolerite or diabase. These are very important rocks indeed, associated with volcanic eruptions, and arriving near the surface as fluid lavas.", "Dark, dense igneous rock that is relatively poor in silica and rich in iron and magnesium. Basalt, the characteristic igneous rock of oceanic crust, is an example.", "A few of the less common igneous rock types can be recognized by non-specialists. For instance a dark-colored plutonic mafic rock, the deep version of basalt, is called gabbro . A light-colored intrusive or extrusive felsic rock, the shallow version of granite, is called felsite or rhyolite . And there is a suite of ultramafic rocks with even more dark minerals and even less silica than basalt. Peridotite is the foremost of those.", "Basalt A volcanic rock consisting of less than 53% silica with a low viscosity when in a molten state.", "The term basalt is at times applied to shallow intrusive rocks with a composition typical of basalt, but rocks of this composition with a phaneritic (coarser) groundmass are generally referred to as diabase (also called dolerite) or, when more coarse-grained (crystals over 2 mm across), as gabbro. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as \"black granite.\"", "Gabbro is a coarse-grained and usually dark-colored igneous rock. Gabbro is an intrusive rock. Igneous rocks with a similar composition are basalt (extrusive equivalent of gabbro) and diabase (the same rock type could be named dolerite or microgabbro instead). ^", "The term “basanite” was already used in antiquity and “basalt” is probably a faulty transcription of basanite. It was German scholar Agricola (Georg Bauer) who first mentioned “basalt” in 1546. He referred to black columnar rocks from Stolpen (near Dresden in Germany) which is indeed basalt even according to modern classification principles 1 .", "* Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.", "Tholeiite s are a chemical sub-type of basalt defined on their silica content. Basalts that are silica saturated are known as olivine tholeiites, those that are silica oversaturated are termed quartz tholeiites. Tholeiites lack feldspathoids. Silica undersaturated basalts are termed alkali basalts. [Source: wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/ ]", "Compared to other rocks found on Earth's surface, basalts weather relatively fast. The typically iron-rich minerals oxidise rapidly in water and air, staining the rock a brown to red colour due to iron oxide (rust). Chemical weathering also releases readily water-soluble cations such as calcium, sodium and magnesium, which give basaltic areas a strong buffer capacity against acidification. Calcium released by basalts binds up CO2 from the atmosphere forming CaCO3 acting thus as a CO2 trap. To this it must be added that the eruption of basalt itself is often associated with the release of large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere from volcanic gases.", "Basalt Rocks  These rocks cover the floors of all the oceans, create cinder cones and form the largest volcanic mountains on Earth.", "Normal alkali basalt contains olivine and, commonly, a diopsidic or titaniferous augite. Alkali basalts predominate among the lavas of the ocean basins and are common among the mafic lavas of the forelands and backlands of the mountain belts. In the Brito-Icelandic province the Paleogene and Neogene lava flows of the Inner Hebrides , Antrim, and the Faroe Islands include great successions of both tholeiitic and alkali basalts.", "In tholeiitic basalt, pyroxene (augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite) and calcium-rich plagioclase are common phenocryst minerals. Olivine may also be a phenocryst, and when present, may have rims of pigeonite. The groundmass contains interstitial quartz or tridymite or cristobalite. Olivine tholeiite has augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite with abundant olivine, but olivine may have rims of pyroxene and is unlikely to be present in the groundmass. Ocean floor basalts, erupted originally at mid-ocean ridges, are known as MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalt) and are characteristically low in incompatible elements.", "* Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium. It is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite.", "tholeiite:  A basalt characterized by the presence of orthopyroxene and or pigeonite in addition to clinopyroxene and calcic plagioclase.  Olivine may be present.  The term is derived from Tholey, Saarland, Germany.", "gas bubble holes it is called vesicular basalt or scoria . Basalt that has been exposed to air", "*The oceanic crust is 5 km to 10 km thick and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro. ", "Regrettably, our only Buag rock samples are from dated lahars and the undated lithic pyroclastic-flow deposit. A lahar deposit of the Buag eruptive period in the Pasig River drainage contains blocks of biotite-, cummingtonite-, and quartz-bearing 65% SiO2 dacite pumice (samples P22592-2A, 2B, table 2; unit 15-J). Cummingtonite is present as relatively thin (<30 m) rims on hornblende crystals. Quartz and biotite are relatively abundant in several of dacite samples of the Buag eruptive period. However, in contrast to the biotite- and quartz- rich samples of the Inararo period, quartz phenocrysts in the Buag samples are resorbed. Mafic inclusions and mingled dacite pumice blocks (fig. 8 B,C) with dark olivine-augite bearing andesite bands and mafic inclusions are also present within this deposit. In contrast to the hybrid andesite of 1991, olivine crystals in samples of the Buag eruptive period lack hornblende reaction rims, their absence being suggestive of entrainment immediately prior to eruption." ]

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[ "Methane is the main constituent (typically 80 %) of natural gas, a popular domestic fuel due to its high heat of combustion and clean burning properties.", "A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas composed of one molecule of Carbon and four of hydrogen, which is highly flammable. It is the main constituent of \"natural gas\" that is formed naturally by methanogenic, anaerobic bacteria or can be manufactured, and which is used as a fuel and for manufacturing chemicals.", "An odorless, colorless, flammable gas, CH4, the major constituent of natural gas, that is used as a fuel and is an important source of hydrogen and a wide variety of organic compounds.", "The applications of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas.", "Natural gas composed mainly of methane with only minor amounts of ethane, propane and butane and little or no heavier hydrocarbons in the gasoline range.", "Methane is the major component of natural gas, about 87% by volume. At room temperature and standard pressure, methane is a colorless, odorless gas; the smell characteristic of natural gas as used in homes is an artificial safety measure caused by the addition of an odorant, often methanethiol or ethanethiol. Methane has a boiling point of −161 �C at a pressure of one atmosphere. As a gas it is flammable only over a narrow range of concentrations (5�15%) in air. Liquid methane does not burn unless subjected to high pressure (normally 4�5 atmospheres).", "a colorless, odorless, flammable gas, CH 4 , the main constituent of marsh gas and the firedamp of coal mines, obtained commercially from natural gas: the first member of the methane, or alkane, series of hydrocarbons.", "Methane Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH 4. It is the simplest alkane and the main component of natural gas", "Methane This gas is the chief constituent of natural gas. Produced by the decay of plant & animal matter, this colorless & odorless gas, CH4, is flammable", "Figure 7: The familiar blue flame that characterizes the combustion of methane, the key component of natural gas.", "Natural gas is lighter than air. Natural gas is mostly made up of a gas called methane. Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. It's chemical formula is CH4 – one atom of carbon along with four atoms hydrogen. This gas is highly flammable.", "Natural Gas natural mixture of flammable gases found issuing from the ground orobtained from specially driven wells. Largely a mixture of Hydrocarbons, natural gas isusually 80 to 95% Methane. The composition varies in different localities, and minorcomponents may include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, andhelium. Often found with Petroleum, natural gas also occurs apart from it in sand,sandstone, and limestone deposits. Natural gas began to be used as an illuminant and afuel on a large scale in the late 19th century, when pipelines were built to provide it tolarge industrial cities. Liquified natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been cooled andpressurized to liquify it for convenience in shipping and storage.", "Natural gas is 99% methane (CH4) and 1% other light hydrocarbons such as ethane, (C2H6), propane, (C3H8), and butane, (C4H10), as well as some aromatic hydrocarbons. Natural gas is the gaseous component of coal and oil formation. Uses of natural gas range from industrial and commercial heating and power to residential heating, cooling, and making the blue flame in our kitchen burners (gas stoves). Places in the earth where large deposits are found are called reservoirs .", "Natural gas is the cleanest of all the fossil fuels, as evidenced in the Environmental Protection Agency’s data comparisons in the chart below, which is still current as of 2010. Composed primarily of methane, the main products of the  combustion  of natural gas are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the same compounds we exhale when we breathe. Coal and oil are composed of much more complex molecules, with a higher carbon ratio and higher nitrogen and sulfur contents. This means that when combusted, coal and oil release higher levels of harmful emissions, including a higher ratio of carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Coal and fuel oil also release ash particles into the environment, substances that do not burn but instead are carried into the atmosphere and contribute to pollution. The combustion of natural gas, on the other hand, releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, virtually no ash or particulate matter, and lower levels of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other reactive hydrocarbons.", "Methane was discovered and isolated by Alessandro Volta between 1776 and 1778 when studying marsh gas from Lake Maggiore. It is the major component of natural gas, about 87% by volume. The major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as natural gas fields, with coal seam gas extraction becoming a major source (see Coal bed methane extraction, a method for extracting methane from a coal deposit, while enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of recovering methane from non-mineable coal seams). It is associated with other hydrocarbon fuels, and sometimes accompanied by helium and nitrogen. Methane is produced at shallow levels (low pressure) by anaerobic decay of organic matter and reworked methane from deep under the Earth's surface. In general, the sediments that generate natural gas are buried deeper and at higher temperatures than those that contain oil.", "After methane, ethane is the second-largest component of natural gas. Natural gas from different gas fields varies in ethane content from less than 1% to more than 6% by volume. Prior to the 1960s, ethane and larger molecules were typically not separated from the methane component of natural gas, but simply burnt along with the methane as a fuel. Today, ethane is an important petrochemical feedstock and is separated from the other components of natural gas in most well-developed gas fields. Ethane can also be separated from petroleum gas, a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons produced as a byproduct of petroleum refining. Economics of building and running processing plants can change, however. If the relative value of sending the unprocessed natural gas to a consumer exceeds the value of extracting ethane, ethane extraction might not be run, which could cause operational issues managing the changing quality of the gas in downstream systems.", "The simplest hydrocarbon molecule is methane. It is the essential ingredient of natural gas, and the source of the \"blue flame\" that we see when we turn on a gas stove or furnace (Figure 7). Methane consists of one carbon (C) atom and four hydrogen (H) atoms. Thus, its chemical formula is CH4 or, in abbreviated form, C1.", "Like the other fossil fuels, coal and oil, natural gas is formed from the decayed remains of plant and animal life. The organic matieral is covered, compacted and pressurized by layers of sand and rock over tens of millions of years. In the case of natural gas, as well as oil, it is usually algae and zooplankton layered on the ocean’s floors that formed the basis of the thick organic deposits that are the oil and gas we use today.", "If sufficient NGL is available, it may be economical to separate it further into its constituent hydrocarbons. This involves a process called fractionation in a series of columns, where the NGL is sequentially warmed to higher temperatures, causing the individual hydrocarbons-ethane first, then propane, then butanes-to boil off and then condense. Propane, butanes and their mixtures are referred to as liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs).This leaves a residual, Natural Gasoline, which can be stored at atmospheric conditions (Figure 13).", "Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa (4 psi).", "The major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as natural gas fields . It is associated with other hydrocarbon fuels and sometimes accompanied by helium and nitrogen . The gas at shallow levels (low pressure) is formed by anaerobic decay of organic matter deep under the Earth's surface. In general, sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures than those which give oil generate natural gas.", "Nitrogen gas (N2) is the largest constituent of Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). However, this high concentration does not reflect nitrogen's overall low abundance in the makeup of the Earth, from which most of the element escaped by solar evaporation, early in the planet's formation.", "Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released. For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power. The US Energy Information Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012: ", "Natural gas is the fastest growing fossil fuel, supported by new conventional reserves and increasing supplies of shale gas, particularly in the United States. However, coal still remains the dominant fossil fuel on the global scene. Natural gas is abundant and second to no other fossil fuel in terms of environmental qualities. Estimates point to more than 250 years of recoverable natural gas reserves at current consumption levels. New pipelines, new interconnections and expanding LNG infrastructures, along with a revolution in the exploitation of unconventional resources, have transformed supply realities.", "Natural gas is typically measured in terms of its volume at surface conditions and in thermal energy units. It is measured by weight only when it is in the liquid state (LNG).", "A colorless, odorless, flammable gas, found in petroleum and natural gas. It is used as a fuel and as a raw material for building more complex organic molecules. Propane is the third member of the alkane", "Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form at regasification plant at the terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is also used. LNG is the preferred form for long distance, high volume transportation of natural gas, whereas pipeline is preferred for transport for distances up to 4000 km over land and approximately half that distance offshore. ", "Natural gas liquids go into a variety of different products for consumers. Stripping those liquids out of the gas has to happen first, though.", "The natural gas pipeline system is organized somewhat differently. Natural gas, unlike oil, is delivered directly to homes and businesses through pipelines.", "Despite recent efforts to move toward renewable energy resources, natural gas still remains an essential commodity. Natural gas is used for everything ranging from cooking, to heating, to lighting our homes. Currently the United States and Russia are the two largest producers of natural gas in the world. Over 3 trillion cubic meters of natural gas is produced around the world on an annual basis.", "If your house uses natural gas for cooking and heating, this is a form of a fossil fuel that lies underground usually above oil.", "Natural Gas: production – 176 trillion cubic feet (5,000 km3) (2010 est), total proven reserves – 4,838 billion cubic meters (bcm) (2007 est)" ]

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[ "The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that reflects radio waves. This effect is caused by the ionization, or electrical charging, of the gas particles present in the upper atmosphere by X-rays and ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun.", "The Earth's atmosphere has several distinct layers, some of which are shown in the image above. The layer nearest the Earth's surface is called the troposphere. The troposphere is usually approximately 16 km (ten miles) thick and is the layer that contains most of the weather. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which stretches from ten miles to 30 miles high. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects the Earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The ionosphere is found above the stratosphere. This layer contains many free electrons and ions, which reflect radio waves. This reflection allows radio waves to travel much farther than they would without the ionosphere. The highest layer of the atmosphere is the exosphere. Here the air is extremely thin and some of the air molecules are lost to space.", "The ionosphere—a layer of free electrons and ions—reflects radio waves. Guglielmo Marconi , the “Father of Wireless,” helped prove this in 1901 when he sent a radio signal from Cornwall, England, to St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. Marconi’s experiment demonstrated that radio signals did not travel in a straight line, but bounced off an atmospheric layer—the ionosphere.", "The ionosphere, a layer of the Earth's atmosphere, contains charged particles that reflect some radio waves. Amateur radio enthusiasts make use of this characteristic to help propagate lower frequency HF signals around the world: the waves are trapped, bouncing around in the upper layers of the ionosphere until they are refracted down at another point on the Earth. This is called skywave transmission. UHF TV signals are not carried along the ionosphere but can be reflected off of the charged particles down at another point on Earth in order to reach farther than the typical line-of-sight transmission distances; this is the skip distance. UHF transmission and reception are enhanced or degraded by tropospheric ducting as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day. Since the wavelengths of UHF signals are comparable to the size of buildings, trees, vehicles and other common objects, reflection and diffraction affects the propagation of UHF signals, especially in built-up urban areas.", "Different regions of the ionosphere make radio communications possible by reflecting radio waves back to Earth.", "Solar radiation causes ionization of the molecules in a region of the atmosphere that extends from about 50 kilometers up to about 1100 kilometers above the Earth. That region is called the ionosphere and most of it is in the thermosphere, although it overlaps into the exosphere above the thermosphere and the mesosphere below the thermosphere. It is of importance because certain regions of the ionosphere make long distance radio communication possible by reflecting the radio waves back to Earth. It is also home to auroras . The lower edge of auroras occur at an altitude of about 100 kilometres (about the same height as the Kármán line) and may extend up to an altitude of 480 kilometres. [10]", "The ionosphere is broken into distinct layers, called the D, E, F1, and F2 layers. Like all other parts of the atmosphere, these layers vary with season and latitude. Changes in the ionosphere actually happen on a daily basis. The low D layer, which absorbs high-frequency radio waves, and the E layer actually disappear at night, which means radio waves can reach higher into the ionosphere. That’s why AM radio stations can extend their range by hundreds of kilometers every night.", "Because of the Sun 's UV radiation, Earth 's upper atmosphere is partly (0.1% or less) ionized plasma at altitudes of 70-1500 km. This region, the ionosphere, is coupled to both the magnetosphere and the neutral atmosphere. It is of great practical importance because of its effect on radio waves.", "The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating the ions in the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see ionosphere), enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at 500 to above the Earth's surface, the atmosphere turns into space.", "ionosphere – The electrically charged region of the Earth’s atmosphere located approximately 40 to 400 miles above the Earth’s surface that refracts radio signals.         ", "Tropospheric bending -- When radio waves are bent in the troposphere, they return to Earth farther away than the visible horizon.", "At night the F layer is the only layer of significant ionization present, while the ionization in the E and D layers is extremely low. During the day, the D and E layers become much more heavily ionized, as does the F layer, which develops an additional, weaker region of ionisation known as the F1 layer. The F2 layer persists by day and night and is the region mainly responsible for the refraction of radio waves.", "Shor wave radio signals, with frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz, are reflected by the ionosphere.", "Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.", "The region of the Earth’s upper atmosphere containing free electrons and ions produced by ionization of the constituents of the atmosphere by solar ultraviolet radiation at short wavelengths < 100nm) and energetic precipitating particles. The ionosphere influences radiowave propagation of frequencies less than about 300 MHz. (See D region, E region, F region.)", "Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and Exosphere - Windows to the Universe", "Within this region of the atmosphere there is generally a steady fall in temperature with height. This affects radio propagation because it affects the refractive index of the air. This plays a dominant role in radio signal propagation and the radio communications applications that use tropospheric radio-wave propagation. This depends on the temperature, pressure and humidity. When radio communications signals are affected this often occurs at altitudes up to 2 km.", "As a result of many factors it is found that the level of free electrons varies over the ionosphere and there are areas that affect radio signals more than others. These are often referred to as layers, but are possibly more correctly thought of a regions as they are quite indistinct in many respects. These layers are given designations D, E, and F1 and F2.", "In 1940, DeWitt attempted to bounce radio signals off the Moon in order to study the Earth's atmosphere. He wrote in his notebook: \"It occurred to me that it might be possible to reflect ultrashort waves from the moon. If this could be done it would open up wide possibilities for the study of the upper atmosphere. So far as I know no one has ever [7] sent waves off the earth and measured their return through the entire atmosphere of the earth.\"18", "A region of the Earth’s upper atmosphere where solar radiation ionizes the air molecules. This region affects the transmission of radio wave and extends from 50 to 400 kilometers (30 to 250 miles) above the Earth's surface.", "As commenters Peak and Hall said above. There is ducting – in atmospheric terms it is usually RF at VHF and higher frequencies in the trophosphere, there is skip which is HF and ionospheric, then there is the ‘half a duct’ or simple refraction most often seen in acoustic waves for phenomena like this.", "Energetic protons that are guided into the polar regions collide with atmospheric constituents and release their energy through the process of ionization. The majority of the energy is extinguished in the extreme lower region of the ionosphere (around 50-80 km in altitude). This area is particularly important to ionospheric radio communications because this is the area where most of the absorption of radio signal energy occurs. The enhanced ionization produced by incoming energetic protons increases the absorption levels in the lower ionosphere and can have the effect of completely blocking all ionospheric radio communications through the polar regions.", "The Earth's atmosphere is more than just the air we breathe. It's also a buffer that keeps us from being peppered by meteorites, a screen against deadly radiation, and the reason radio waves can be bounced for long distances around the planet.", "Also known as the thermosphere. A layer in the atmosphere above the mesosphere extending from about 80km above the Earth's surface. It can be considered a distinct layer due to a rise in air temperature with increasing height. Atmospheric densities here are very low.", "The atmosphere plays a vital role in the way in which radio waves travel around the earth.Without its action it would not be possible for signals to travel around the globe on the shortwave bands, or travel greater than only the line of sight distance at higher frequencies. Infact the way in which the atmosphere affects radio is of tremendous importance for anyonewith an interest in the topic.In view of the importance of the atmosphere an overview of its make-up is given here.", "After finding that Venus is completely enshrouded by clouds, astronomers turned to other techniques to study its surface. Foremost among these has been radar (see radio and radar astronomy ). If equipped with an appropriate transmitter, a large radio telescope can be used as a radar system to bounce a radio signal off a planet and detect its return. Because radio wavelengths penetrate the thick Venusian atmosphere, the technique is an effective means of probing the planet’s surface.", "In view of the importance of the atmosphere to radio communications, an overview of its make-up is given here.", "The near-transparency of Earth's atmosphere to solar radiation, and its strong absorption of Earth's longer wavelength infrared", "Composition is a fourth criterion. The homosphere is the shell in which there is so little photodissociation or gravitational separation that the mean molecular weight of the atmosphere is sensibly constant; the heterosphere is the region above this, where the atmospheric composition and mean molecular weight are not constant. The boundary between the two is probably at the level at which molecular oxygen begins to be dissociated, and this occurs in the vicinity of 80 or 90 kilometers.", "2.    Beginning with the letter ‘O’, what layer shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun?", "There is broad absorption from water vapor from several hundred MHz, increasing in frequency to 40 GHz. Beginning at about 40 GHz, even dry atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, at higher frequencies due to absorption from oxygen. A spectral band structure at even higher frequencies causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.", "Specular reflections are indicative of a smooth, mirror-like surface, so the observation corroborated the inference of the presence of a large liquid body drawn from radar imaging. The observation was made soon after the north polar region emerged from 15 years of winter darkness." ]

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[ "Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on earth. Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen (78%), and oxygen (21%). Argon, carbon dioxide and various trace gases make up the remainder.", "Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere: 78% of the Earth�s atmosphere is nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases like carbon dioxide, etc.", "Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases including argon and carbon dixoide.", "The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth’s atmosphere, with some 50% located in the lower 5.6 km (3.48 mi), making it denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers. It is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with trace concentrations of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gaseous molecules. Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth’s weather takes place.", "The atmosphere surrounds Earth and protects us by blocking out dangerous rays from the sun. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%).", "The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%).", "Nitrogen gas (N2) is the largest constituent of Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). However, this high concentration does not reflect nitrogen's overall low abundance in the makeup of the Earth, from which most of the element escaped by solar evaporation, early in the planet's formation.", "The Earth's atmosphere is 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water. Earth has a magnetic field that, together with a primarily nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere, protects the surface from radiation that is harmful to life.", "The Earth's atmosphere is 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water. There was probably a very much larger amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere when the Earth was first formed, but it has since been almost all incorporated into carbonate rocks and to a lesser extent dissolved into the oceans and consumed by living plants. Plate tectonics and biological processes now maintain a continual flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to these various \"sinks\" and back again. The tiny amount of carbon dioxide resident in the atmosphere at any time is extremely important to the maintenance of the Earth's surface temperature via the greenhouse effect . The greenhouse effect raises the average surface temperature about 35 degrees C above what it would otherwise be (from a frigid -21 C to a comfortable +14 C); without it the oceans would freeze and life as we know it would be impossible. (Water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas.)", "We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere , a layer of gases surrounding our planet . Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in dry air , with argon , carbon dioxide , helium , neon , and other gases making up minute portions. Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth ’s atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very different atmospheres, and some have no atmospheres at all.", "This is considered the mixture of gases that make up the earth's atmosphere. The principal gases that compose dry air are Nitrogen (N2) at 78.09%, Oxygen (O2) at 20.946%, Argon (A) at 0.93%, and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) at 0.033%. One of the most important constituents of air and most important gases in meteorology is water vapor (H2O).", "Air, which is the material of which the atmosphere is composed, is a mixture of invisible gases. At altitudes up to 250,000 feet, the atmosphere consists of approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder is made up of argon, carbon dioxide, several other gases, and water vapor. Water vapor acts as an independent gas mixed with air.", "Homosphere: the atmosphere up to 80 km (50 mi.) in which the proportions of the principal gases, N2 (78%) and O2 (21%) remain relatively constant. The homosphere also contains 1% of argon and small quantities of permanent gases of helium, neon, hydrogen, and xenon and variable gases of water vapor, CO2 (0.035%), methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone (O3) and particles of dust, aerosols, cloud droplets and ice crystals.", "In dry air that does not contain pollution, the predominant gas is nitrogen, which makes up 78 percent of the atmosphere. The next two most voluminous gases are oxygen (21 percent) and argon (1 percent). Other gases appearing in trace amounts include carbon dioxide.", "Air is a mixture of gases - 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen - with traces of water vapor, carbon dioxide, argon, and various other components.", "The atmosphere makes up the whole of this planet which mainly comprises Hydrogen and Helium gases and also a small percentage of sulfur, ammonia, methane and water vapor. Negligible traces of some other volatile gases are also found.", "Atmosphere: the envelope of gases that surrounds a planet and is held to it by the planet's gravitational attraction. The earth's atmosphere is mainly composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Although our atmosphere extends upward for many hundreds of kilometers, 99% of the atmosphere's mass is confined within a 30 km of the earth's surface.", "The relative abundance of noble gases in Earth’s atmosphere is largely controlled by the early evolution of our planet. Most of the argon in Earth’s atmosphere is the isotope 40Ar, which is a radioactive decay product of 40K. However, the abundances of ‘primordial’ (non-radiogenic) noble-gas isotopes also differ among the Sun, the terrestrial planets and chondritic meteorites 1 , 2 . Both chondritic meteorites and terrestrial planets are strongly depleted in the light noble gases helium and neon compared to the Sun. This feature can readily be explained by the loss of light noble gases to space in a relatively weak gravitational field. However, compared to chondrites, which are believed to be similar to the material from which the terrestrial planets formed, xenon is strongly depleted on Earth and Mars relative to argon and krypton. This depletion cannot be explained by loss to space, because xenon, the heaviest of all noble gases, should be least affected by this process.", "The atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen. It does have some helium and small amounts of other gases in it as well.", "The troposphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with only small concentrations of other gases. Nearly all atmospheric water vapour is found in the troposphere.", "1. A gaseous element, atomic no. 7, atomic wt. 14.00674; N2 forms about 78.084% by volume of the dry atmosphere.", "Two models are most favored for the origin of the atmosphere: outgassing or accretion. Outgassing is related to the differentiation of the Earth and the release of gases by volcanoes. Assuming that the gases we presently observe were also released by early volcanoes the atmosphere would be made of water vapor (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric", "Argon is more soluble in water than nitrogen gas. During room temperature, argon will not form any stable formations. Argon was isolated in 1894 by William Ramsay when he removed oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen from clean air. Earth's atmosphere is composed of 1.29% of argon. Argon exists in the most common isotopes as Argon 40, Argon 36, Argon 38, and Argon 40.", "The Earth formed 4·5 billion years ago from a swirling cloud of dust, and gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ammonia and methane. The cloud gradually formed tiny clumps of matter that grew into larger planetesimals, some 10 kilometers across. These stuck together and drew in more dust and gas. Eventually, the Earth had enough gravity to hold onto the gases in the planetesimals, and stop them escaping into space.", "Between locations in the Solar System, the isotopic composition of argon varies greatly. Where the major source of argon is the decay of potassium-40| in rocks, will be the dominant isotope, as it is on Earth. Argon produced directly by stellar nucleosynthesis, is dominated by the alpha process nuclide, . Correspondingly, solar argon contains 84.6% (according to solar wind measurements), and the ratio of the three isotopes 36Ar : 38Ar : 40Ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is 8400 : 1600 : 1. This contrasts with the abundance of primordial in Earth's atmosphere, which is only 31.5 ppmv (= 9340 ppmv × 0.337%), comparable with that of neon (18.18 ppmv) on Earth and with interplanetary gasses, measured by probes.", "The mantle is equivalent to 10 – 15 Earth masses and is rich in water, ammonia and methane. This mixture is referred to as icy even though it is a hot, dense fluid, and is sometimes called a \"water-ammonia ocean\". Meanwhile, the atmosphere forms about 5% to 10% of its mass and extends perhaps 10% to 20% of the way towards the core, where it reaches pressures of about 10 GPa – or about 100,000 times that of Earth's atmosphere.", "Ar , argon , atomic number 18 - a colorless and odorless inert gas; one of the six inert gases; comprises approximately 1% of the earth's atmosphere", "In which of the layers of earth’s atmosphere is some 90% of the earth’s ozone layer located?", "The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.", "The layer of gases that surrounds Earth and forms its atmosphere is paper-thin when compared with the diameter of the planet itself, and without it, life probably wouldn't exist. Besides providing the necessities for respiration, the atmosphere filters dangerous rays from the sun while trapping warmth and preventing it from radiating into space. Two molecules form the bulk of the atmosphere, while trace amounts of several others make up the rest.", "4. The gas that is the major constituent of the atmospheres of Venus and Mars and a minor constituent of Earth's atmosphere is", "More than 80 percent of the Earth's surface above and below sea level is of volcanic origin." ]

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[ "Mount Everest (also known in Nepal as Sagarmatha and in Tibet as Qomolangma) is the Earth's highest mountain. It is located in the Mahalangur section of the Himalayas. Its peak is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea leveland is the 5th furthest point from the center of the Earth.[6] The international border between China and Nepal runs across the precise summit point. Its massif includes neighboring peaks Lhotse, 8,516 m (27,940 ft); Nuptse, 7,855 m (25,771 ft) and Changtse, 7,580 m (24,870 ft).", "Mount Everest (Nepali: सगरमाथा, Sagarmāthā,[4][5] Tibetan: ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, Wylie: jo mo glang ma; Chomolungma; / ˈtʃoʊmoʊˌlɑːŋmə/[6] \"Holy Mother\"; Chinese: 珠穆朗玛 峰; pinyin: Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng;[7]) is the Earth's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level and the 5th tallest mountain measured from the centre of the Earth.[8] It is located in the Mahalangur section of the Himalayas. The international border", "Mount Everest, also called Sagarmatha ( Nepali : सगरमाथा meaning Head of the Sky) or Chomolungma, Qomolangma or Zhumulangma (in Tibetan : ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, in Chinese : 珠穆朗玛峰 Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng) is the highest mountain on Earth , as measured by the height above sea level of its summit , 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). The mountain, which is part of the Himalaya range in High Asia, is located on the border between Sagarmatha Zone , Nepal , and Tibet , China .", "Mount Everest is the Earth’s highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level and the 5th tallest mountain measured from the centre of the Earth. It is located on the border between Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal, and Tibet, China and is part of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Although it is the tallest mountain and attracts many climbers of both advanced and limited climbing skill, it is one of the easier mountains to climb.", "Mount Everest. Standing at about 29,029 feet (8,848 meters), Everest boasts the top spot for the tallest mountain in the world. It is located on the border between Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal, and Tibet, China and is part of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Although it is the tallest mountain and attracts many climbers of both advanced and limited climbing skill, it is one of the easier mountains to climb. Don’t be mistaken by what we mean by easier, there is still the danger posed by weather changes, winds, temperature and altitude sickness that can make such a long climb difficult, but the terrain is a lot more simple to take than some of the other tallest mountains like K2 or Nanga Parbat.", "Mount Everest is situated in Nepal in Solu Khumbu district. It is the Earth's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 meters above sea level. It is located in the Mahalangur section of the Himalayas. Everest is situated on the Tibetan Plateau known as Qing Zang Gaoyuan; the summit is directly between Tibet/China and Nepal.", "Mount Everest relief mapMount Everest, also called Chomolungma, Qomolangma or Zhumulangma (in Tibetan: ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, in Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰 Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng) or Sagarmatha (Nepali: सगरमाथाmeaning Ocean Head) is the highest mountain on Earth, as measured by the height of its summit above sea level, which is 8,848 metres or 29,029 feet. The mountain, which is part of the Himalaya range in High Asia, is located on the border between Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal and China.", "Situated in the Great Himalayan Range in Northern part of Nepal, Mount Everest has the highest altitude of any mountain in the world. Technically, the south-east ridge on the Nepali side of the mountain is easier to climb, so most climbers travel to Everest through Nepal. The Annapurna mountain range also lies in Nepal.", "Mount Everest, Sanskrit and Nepali Sagarmatha, Tibetan Chomolungma, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhumulangma Feng or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, also spelled Qomolangma Feng, mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China , at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, the highest point on Earth.", "Mount Everest, also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthā and in Tibet as Chomolungma, is Earth's highest mountain. It is located in the Mahalangur mountain range in Nepal and Tibet. Its peak is 8848 m above sea level. The international border between China (Tibet Autonomous Region) and Nepal runs across Everest's precise summit point. Its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse, 8516 m; Nuptse, 7855 m and Changtse, 7580 m.", "The Himalaya Range (meaning \"home of snow\"), stretching from Pakistan to Bhutan, separates the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The world's highest peak, Mount Everest, at 29,029 feet, is in the Himalayas, as are scores of massive, beautiful, dangerous peaks climbers have given their lives to ascend. Their snowfields supply great rivers: the Ganges, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra.", "Located in the central Himalayas on the border of China and Nepal, Everest stands 29,035 feet above sea level. Called Chomo-Lungma, or “Mother Goddess of the Land,” by the Tibetans, the English named the mountain after Sir George Everest, an early 19th-century British surveyor of the Himalayas. In May 1953, climber and explorer Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal made the first successful climb of the peak. Hillary was later knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for the achievement. Ten years later, American James Whittaker reached Everest’s summit with his Sherpa climbing partner, Nawang Gombu. In 1975, Junko Tabei conquered the mountain, and in 1988 Stacy Allison became the first American woman to successfully climb Everest.", "A landlocked country the size of Arkansas, lying between India and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China, Nepal contains Mount Everest (29,035 ft; 8,850 m), the tallest mountain in the world. Along its southern border, Nepal has a strip of level land that is partly forested, partly cultivated. North of that is the slope of the main section of the Himalayan range, including Everest and many other peaks higher than 8,000 m.", "MOUNTAIN A high, steep elevation of the earthâs surface, higher than a hill Highest Mountain Peak in the world is: Mt. Everest Located in Himalayan Mountain range in Asia", "The world's tallest mountains are situated in this geographic region and along the Chinese border. The Tibetan plateau includes the Himalayas, Karakorum, Pamirs, and Tian Shan. 17 of the world's tallest mountains are located along the Chinese border, along the Indian subcontinent. For example, Mount Everest, the world tallest mountain, measuring 8,848 m high, is located in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have over a hundred mountains that exceed 7,200 m.  Like many of the mountains mentioned already, these are folded mountains. The Himalayas were formed when the Indian subcontinent, or the Indo-Australian plate, crashed into the Eurasian plate 50 million years ago. ", "Figure 6.24: The Himalaya Mountains are the result of the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, seen in this photo from the International Space Station. The high peak in the center is world's tallest mountain, Mount Everest (8,848 meters; 29,035 feet).", "The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) at 8,850 metres (29,035 ft) is located on the border with China. Eight more of the world's ten highest mountains are located in Nepal: Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Manaslu. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems.", "Mount Everest, world’s highest mountain, 8848m (29,029 ft), on the border of China’s Tibet and Nepal", "The name Himalaya, which means \"abode of snow\" in Sanskrit, is given to the tremendous system of mountain ranges, the loftiest in the world, that extends along the northern frontiers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The Himalayas are made up of three parallel ranges. The northernmost and highest are the Greater Himalayas. The world's tallest mountains are found in this range, with most peaks over 6,096 meters (20,000 feet). India's highest mountain is in this range, the five-peaked Kanchenjunga (8,595 meters/28,208 feet) on the border between Nepal and India. Other great peaks include Kamet (7,756 meters/ 25,447 feet) and Nanda Devi (7,817 meters/ 25,645 feet), which lie north of New Delhi and west of Nepal.", "a mountain range in south-central Asia. The highest mountains in the world are found there, including the very highest, Mount Everest.", "The Karakoram, or Karakorum is a large mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, India, China and Afghanistan, located in the regions of Gilgit–Baltistan, Ladakh (India), southern Xinjiang (China) and the northeastern frontier of the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan). A part of the complex of ranges from the Hindu Kush to the Himalayan Range, it is one of the Greater Ranges of Asia. The Karakoram is home to the highest concentration of peaks over 8000m in height to be found anywhere on earth, including K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8611 m.", "Everest is the mountain whose summit attains the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative \"tallest mountains on Earth\". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,200 m (6.3 mi) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level.", "The barren Southeast, Northeast, and West ridges culminate in the Everest summit; a short distance away is the South Summit, a minor bump on the Southeast Ridge with an elevation of 28,700 feet (8,748 metres). The mountain can be seen directly from its northeastern side, where it rises about 12,000 feet (3,600 metres) above the Plateau of Tibet . The peak of Changtse (24,803 feet [7,560 metres]) rises to the north. Khumbutse (21,867 feet [6,665 metres]), Nuptse (25,791 feet [7,861 metres]), and Lhotse (27,940 feet [8,516 metres]) surround Everest’s base to the west and south.", "Top 10 Tallest Mountains in the World: Mountains are the places on earth which lies touching the high altitude skies. The highest points on our earth are on such mountain peaks. There are a large number of mountains on our earth. Many of them are not so high, and are inhabited by people. There are many other mountains which are so high, and having inhabitable conditions in its peak, where people find it difficult to climb and reach. There are many such mountain peaks on earth which are having an elevation of more than 7200 meters above sea level. Almost all of them are located in the southern and central Asia, especially in the Himalayas. Let us now have a detailed look in each of the top 10 tallest Mountains in the World:", "Makalu is the fifth highest mountain in the world at 8,481 metres (27,825 ft) and is located 19 km (12 mi) southeast of Mount Everest, on the border between Nepal and China. One of the eight-thousanders, Makalu is an isolated peak whose shape is a four-sided pyramid.", "The Mount Everest attracts climbers of all levels, from experienced to novice climbers which willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides to complete a successful climb. The mountain still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness, weather and wind. In spite of that information by the end of the 2007 climbing season, there had been 3679 ascents to the summit by 2436 individuals, which this means climbers are a significant source of the Nepal tourism. The government requires to prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit, coasting up to $25,000 per person. Everest has claimed 210 lives, including eight who perished during a 1996 storm high on the mountain.", "Before Mt. Everest Was discovered as the highest mountain in the world, which mountain was the highest?", "Mount Everest has frequently faced competitions from other mountains in the world, which include the following:", "The Rongbuk Monastery  located at the foot of Mt Everest, at an elevation of 5,000meters (16,404 feet), is the highest temple in the world. The monastery is the best place from which to view Mt Everest and the nearby Rongbuk Glacier which is the largest of the hundreds of glaciers located around Mt Everest. ", "Everest from Gokyo Ri: A clear-sky view of the Mount Everest summit through a telephoto lens from the summit of Gokyo Ri. Image © iStockphoto / Grazyna Niedzieska.", "Here is a chart comparing the height of Mount Everest with other well-known mountains in the world:", "Mount Everest has been the inspiration for many Guinness World Records: from the simple fact of being the world's highest peak, to being the venue for the world's highest-altitude concert. Many of the records achieved on Everest are broken regularly. As the world's highest peak, Everest will always attract adventurous climbers and records will continue to be broken on its slopes." ]

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[ "What is the collective term for substances such as coal, oil and natural gas, the burning of which produces carbon dioxide?", "22 What is the collective term for substances such as coal, oil and natural gas, the burning that produces carbon dioxide? a.Renewable resources b.Natural resources c.Fossil fuels d.Energy", "Carbon monoxide (CO) is an invisible, odorless, colorless gas created when fuels (such as gasoline, wood, coal, natural gas, propane, oil, and methane) burn incompletely. In the home, heating and cooking equipment that burn fuel are possible sources of CO. Vehicles or generators running in an attached garage also can produce dangerous levels of CO.", "The combustion of all carbon containing fuels, such as methane ( natural gas ), petroleum distillates ( gasoline , diesel , kerosene , propane ), but also of coal and wood, will yield carbon dioxide and, in most cases, water. As an example the chemical reaction between methane and oxygen is given below.", "* The combustion of hydrocarbons, such as in an internal combustion engine, which produces water, carbon dioxide, some partially oxidized forms such as carbon monoxide, and heat energy. Complete oxidation of materials containing carbon produces carbon dioxide.", "The original gas distributed for street lighting and home use from early in the 19th century was coal gas, made by distilling coal in horizontal cast-iron retorts. All of the volatile ingredients are driven off when the coal is heated to about 900°C, leaving a desirable gas coke in the retort. The condensable fraction of the gas driven off yields ammonia, benzene, coal tar, creosote and many other valuable carcinogenic substances. The gas made is about 49% H2, 42% CH4, 6% CO, and the usual 10% nitrogen and carbon dioxide. It provided 520-575 Btu/cuft. A very similar gas comes from by-product coke ovens, where conditions are optimized for making metallurgical coke instead of gas. The appropriate fraction of the liquid output was used as a lamp fuel under the name of coal oil, a name that was transferred to kerosene in later years.", "Fossil fuel: A fuel based on carbon presumed to be originally from living matter, e.g., coal, oil, gas. Burned with oxygen to yield energy, used in a boiler to produce steam for the generation of electrical energy.", "Each year we release millions of tonnes of carbon dioxide by burning fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas) contributing to climate change.", "Page 42: “[CO2] is produced when any material containing carbon is burned. It is also released by natural combustion processes such as volcanic eruptions.”", "PETROLEUM. Called also rock, mineral, or coal, oil. A natural oil widely distributed over the globe, consisting of carbon and hydrogen, in the proportion of about 88 and 12 per cent. It burns fiercely with a thick black smoke; and attempts, not yet successful, have been made to adapt it as a fuel for steamers.", "Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the Earth's atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides are of particular concern due to their length of time they remain resident in the atmosphere. Primarily, the emissions of coal-fired power plants and combustion engine automobiles produce carbon dioxide that prevents excess heat from escaping through the atmosphere, thereby raising the surface temperature of the earth. More than 80 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide emissions from energy-related sources.", "This entry is the total amount of carbon dioxide, measured in metric tons, released by burning fossil fuels in the process of producing and consuming energy.", "Methane is important for electrical generation by burning it as a fuel in a gas turbine or steam generator. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ/mol, methane's heat of combustion is lower than any other hydrocarbon but the ratio of the heat of combustion (891 kJ/mol) to the molecular mass (16.0 g/mol, of which 12.0 g/mol is carbon) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per mass unit (55.7 kJ/g) than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes. In this context it is usually known as natural gas, which is considered to have an energy content of 39 megajoules per cubic meter, or 1,000 BTU per standard cubic foot.", "Early steam locomotives in the UK used coke as fuel, instead of coal, because of an early legal requirement that locomotives should 'consume their own smoke'.  Coal produces smoke when burnt whereas coke burns almost smoke free.  Coke is created by heating soft coal in an airtight oven.  As it heats, the coal decomposes to give a hard, porous, greyish substance called coke, which contains almost 90% carbon.  When it burns, coke produces intense, smokeless heat.", "Blue gas or water gas is, however, gas that may be sold for use outside the factory. It is made by blowing air and steam alternately through hot coke. The \"blow\" with dry air brings up the temperature of the coke to white heat. Then the \"run\" with steam takes advantage of the reaction H2O + C → H2 + CO to make a gas that is typically 50% H2 and 40% CO, with 10% nitrogen and carbon dioxide, which are low because no air is used in the run phase. The heating value of this gas is 285-310 Btu/cuft. It burns with a blue flame, which gave it its name. An illuminating gas, one that burns with a luminous yellow flame, can be made by carburetting the water gas by adding the gases made by thermal cracking of a fuel oil. This was the gas normally supplied as city gas in later years. The high CO content made it possible to commit suicide by sticking one's head in the oven, but this no longer works, since natural gas is not poisonous. This is also the cheapest way to produce hydrogen gas for a hydrogen economy.", "Methane is important for electrical generation by burning it as a fuel in a gas turbine or steam boiler. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ/mol, methane's combustion heat is lower than any other hydrocarbon; but a ratio with the molecular mass (16.0 g/mol) divided by the heat of combustion (891 kJ/mol) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per mass unit than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes. In this context it is usually known as natural gas, and is considered to have an energy content of 39 megajoules per cubic meter, or 1,000 BTU per standard cubic foot.", "Town gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive distillation of coal. It contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other volatile hydrocarbons, together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and is used in a similar way to natural gas. This is a historical technology and is not usually economically competitive with other sources of fuel gas today. Still, it remains the best option in some specific cases and it may be so into the future.", "Natural Gas- Naturally occurring gaseous hydrocarbon (predominantly methane) generally produced in association with crude oil or from gas wells; an important efficient and clean-burning fuel company used in homes and industry.", "A generic name for hydrocarbons, including crude oil, natural gas liquids, natural gas and their products.", "Natural gas is a by product of oil production. It is serving us as one of the major sources of energy for domestic gas supply. When oil is extracted from the oil wells, it undergoes pressure reduction process. These natural gases which mostly consist of methane and ethane are captured before they are released. The captured gases are then transported to various countries and to number of households through pipelines. The gas which we use in our home is natural gas and is used for cooking and heating purposes. It has no color and smell when it is captured. Some chemicals are added to sense the leakage of this gas. when we burn natural gas, the chemical energy is converted to heat energy. The heat energy is then used to cook the food. Natural gas is highly inflammable and can cause wide destruction of life and property, if it is leaked and catches fire.", "a. a fossil fuel in the form of a gas, used as a source of domestic and industrial heat. See also coal gas , natural gas", "Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals. It is a non-renewable resource.", "an oil used for illuminating purposes, formerly obtained from the distillation of mineral wax, bituminous shale, etc., and hence called also coal oil. It is now produced in immense quantities, chiefly by the distillation and purification of petroleum. It consists chiefly of several hydrocarbons of the methane series", "1. a solid-fuel product containing about 80 per cent of carbon produced by distillation of coal to drive off its volatile constituents: used as a fuel and in metallurgy as a reducing agent for converting metal oxides into metals", "Fluid coking is a process which converts heavy residual crude into lighter products such as naphtha, kerosene, heating oil, and hydrocarbon gases. The \"fluid\" term refers to the fact that coke particles are in a continuous system versus older batch-coking technology.", "Coal is more than just a fuel source; it contains complex tars, oils, and gases that can be", "The word \"fuel\" comes by a tortuous route from Latin focus, \"hearth,\" via focalia, \"things pertaining to a hearth.\" We burn the fuel to heat us and our food. Practically all of our fuels are carbon-based, for reasons that we will discuss in what follows. First, we have to look at how to express certain magnitudes associated with fuels.", "Kerosene, also known as lamp oil, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid widely used as a fuel in industry and households. Its name derives from Greek: κηρός (keros) meaning wax, and was registered as a trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a genericized trademark. It is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage. The term \"kerosene\" is common in much of India, Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. Kerosene is usually called paraffin in the United Kingdom, Southeast Asia, East Africa and South Africa. A more viscous paraffin oil is used as a laxative. A waxy solid extracted from petroleum is called paraffin wax. Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft (jet fuel) and some rocket engines, and is also commonly used as a cooking and lighting fuel and for fire toys such as poi. In parts of Asia, where the price of kerosene is subsidized, it fuels outboard motors on small fishing boats. World total kerosene consumption for all purposes is equivalent to about 1.2 million barrels per day. To prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more flammable and volatile gasoline, some jurisdictions regulate markings or colorings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service stations be colored blue, as opposed to red (for gasoline) or yellow (for Diesel fuel).", "      n   a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced by passing steam over hot carbon, used as a fuel and raw material  ", "flammable gas, consisting largely of methane and other hydrocarbons, occurring naturally underground (often in association with petroleum) and used as fuel.", "Cannel coal is a coal which ignites easily producing a bright flame. The name may derive from northern English pronunciation of candle coal. It contains a high volatile content, is non-coking and was a source for coal oil in West Virginia during the mid-1800s. While the use of Cannel has greatly diminished over the past century, it is still valued by artists for its ability to be carved and polished into sculptures and jewelry.", "If your house uses natural gas for cooking and heating, this is a form of a fossil fuel that lies underground usually above oil." ]

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[ "What contributes to the greenhouse effect at lower atmospheric levels, but in the upper atmosphere protects life on Earth?", "The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).", "The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation and warming the surface through heat retention (the greenhouse effect ).", "The outermost layer of Earth is the gas layer, better known as the atmosphere. The atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, but is also comprised of several trace gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor. All of these gases, which together form what is commonly called \"air\", are held to the Earth by the pull of gravity and each serves an important function. Carbon dioxide gas provides a barrier which keeps heat from escaping the Earth; this is known as the \"greenhouse effect.\" The \"greenhouse effect\" caused by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere serves to maintain a temperature on Earth great enough to sustain life. Yet, if the amount of carbon dioxide gas were to increase drastically, too much heat would be trapped in the atmosphere, making it too hot for many organisms to survive. This causes a frightful problem wherein a certain balance of CO2 gas must be maintained to ensure that life may be maintained on the planet. Carbon dioxide also serves as the lifeline to most plants, allowing them to breath by taking in the carbon dioxide and emitting oxygen gas. Another gas, ozone (O3) screens out the harmful ultraviolet rays emanating from the sun. One of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere, oxygen, is needed for animals to breath and live.", "protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night", "On Earth, the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface, absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun, and convective heat fluxes from the surface. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy, some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect. ", "Due to the presence of certain �greenhouse gases� that trap heat, like carbon dioxide, methane , water vapor, and CFC�s, the atmosphere retains the sun�s radiation and warms up the planet. By increasing the abundance of these gases in the atmosphere, humankind is increasing the overall warming of the Earth�s surface and lower atmosphere, a process called \" global warming .\" The figure below illustrates the radiation balance and the role of greenhouse effect.", "Still, all in all, Earth’s atmosphere is here to stay. And that’s a good thing because our atmosphere protects life on Earth in many ways. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun, helps keep Earth’s surface warm via the greenhouse effect, and reduces temperature extremes between day and night. Yay atmosphere! It keeps Earth livable.", "The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gas held in place by gravity, which prevents it from escaping into space. It protects life by absorbing UV radiation, by holding in heat to warm the Earth’s surface and by reducing temperature extremes between day and night. The gases that comprise the atmosphere are commonly referred to as air, which is what all living things on Earth breathe.", "Solar heat penetrates the troposphere easily. This layer also absorbs heat that is reflected back from the ground in a process called the greenhouse effect . The greenhouse effect is necessary for life on Earth. The atmosphere’s most abundant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane .", "Although both nitrogen and oxygen are essential to human life on the planet, they have little effect on weather and other atmospheric processes. The variable components, which make up far less than 1 percent of the atmosphere , have a much greater influence on both short-term weather and long-term climate . For example, variations in water vapor in the atmosphere are familiar to us as relative humidity. Water vapor, CO2, CH4, N2O, and SO2 all have an important property: They absorb heat emitted by Earth and thus warm the atmosphere, creating what we call the \"greenhouse effect.\" Without these so-called greenhouse gases, the Earth's surface would be about 30 degrees Celsius cooler – too cold for life to exist as we know it. Though the greenhouse effect is sometimes portrayed as a bad thing, trace amounts of gases like CO2 warm our planet's atmosphere enough to sustain life. Global warming, on the other hand, is a separate process that can be caused by increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.", "Greenhouse Effect : Occurs when carbon dioxide gas provides a barrier which keeps heat from escaping the Earth. It serves to maintain a temperature on Earth great enough to sustain life.", "If the warming were caused by a more active sun, then scientists would expect to see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. Instead, they have observed a cooling in the upper atmosphere, and a warming at the surface and in the lower parts of the atmosphere. That's because greenhouse gases are trapping heat in the lower atmosphere.", "The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.", "The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.", "Remarkably, the significant amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere is due to the life found on Earth. As a byproduct of making sugars, plants convert the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into oxygen. Essentially, this means that without plants the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would be much greater and the oxygen levels much lower. On one hand, if carbon dioxide levels were much higher, it is likely the Earth would suffer from a runaway greenhouse effect like that on Venus . On the other hand, if the percentage of carbon dioxide were any lower there would not be a greenhouse effect at all, thus making temperatures far colder. Therefore, the carbon dioxide levels are just right to maintain hospitable temeperatures ranging from -88° C to 58° C.", "A planet's climate is decided by its mass, its distance from the sun and the composition of its atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases. Carbon dioxide accounts for just 0.03 - 0.04%. Water vapour, varying in amount from 0 to 2%, carbon dioxide and some other minor gases present in the atmosphere absorb some of the thermal radiation leaving the surface and emit radiation from much higher and colder levels out to space. These radiatively active gases are known as greenhouse gases because they act as a partial blanket for the thermal radiation from the surface and enable it to be substantially warmer than it would otherwise be, analogous to the effect of a greenhouse. This blanketing is known as the natural greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse gases, Earth's average temperature would be roughly -20°C. T", "Atmospheric radiation, lying almost entirely within the wavelength interval of from 3 to 80 microns, provides one of the most important mechanisms by which the heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system is maintained. Infrared radiation emitted by the earth's surface (terrestrial radiation) is partially absorbed by the water vapor of the atmosphere which in turn remits it, partly upward, partly downward. This secondarily emitted radiation is then, in general, repeatedly absorbed and reemitted, as the radiant energy progresses through the atmosphere. The downward flux, or counterradiation, is of basic importance in the greenhouse effect ; the upward flux is essential to the radiative balance of the planet.", "Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface. These gases then emit the infrared radiation in all directions, both outward toward space and downward toward Earth. This process creates a second source of radiation to warm to surface – visible radiation from the sun and infrared radiation from the atmosphere – which causes Earth to be warmer than it otherwise would be. This process is known as the natural greenhouse effect and keeps Earth's average global temperature at approximately 15°C (59°F).", "Within the region where radiative effects are important, the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic. Earth's surface, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–100 μm. At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent. Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. It reradiates in all directions, both upwards and downwards; in equilibrium (by definition) the same amount as it has absorbed. This results in more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and reradiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.", "Though other planets host atmospheres , the presence of free oxygen and water vapor makes our atmosphere unique as far as we know. These components both encouraged and protected life on Earth as it developed, not only by providing oxygen for respiration , but by shielding organisms from harmful UV rays and by incinerating small meteors before they hit the surface . Additionally, the composition and structure of this unique resource are important keys to understanding circulation in the atmosphere, biogeochemical cycling of nutrients , short-term local weather patterns, and long-term global climate changes.", "Earth's atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.08 percent), oxygen (20.95 percent), and argon (0.93 percent). A fourth major component, carbon dioxide, which is essential to all plant life, is present only to the extent of about 0.032 percent. The gases are most dense near sea level and thin rapidly at higher altitudes. At a distance of 5000 km there is still a trace of an atmosphere, but it is extremely tenuous. The very outer realm of the atmosphere is represented by the magnetosphere, a zone of magnetically trapped particles. This part of the atmosphere is a powerful shield from damaging radiation that comes from outer space.", "The ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and the lower atmosphere (troposphere) are chemically identical, because they all consist of three oxygen atoms and have the chemical formula O3. However, they have very different roles in the atmosphere and very different effects on humans and other living beings. Stratospheric ozone (sometimes referred to as \"good ozone\") plays a beneficial role by absorbing most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet sunlight (called UV-B), allowing only a small amount to reach the Earth's surface. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat, which actually forms the stratosphere itself (a region in which the temperature rises as one goes to higher altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role in the temperature structure of the Earth's atmosphere. Without the filtering action of the ozone layer, more of the Sun's UV-B radiation would penetrate the atmosphere and would reach the Earth's surface. Many experimental studies of plants and animals and clinical studies of humans have shown the harmful effects of excessive exposure to UV-B radiation.", "The ability of certain trace gases to be relatively transparent to incoming visible light from the sun, yet opaque to the energy radiated from the earth is one of the best understood processes in the atmospheric sciences. This phenomenon, the greenhouse effect, is what makes the earth habitable for life. For students to truly understand the nature and importance of the greenhouse effect, they should understand the answers to these questions:", "The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surround the earth. It is the air we breathe, the wind and rain, and the clouds in the sky. It is life giving, retaining heat and blocking out harmful rays (ultraviolet radiation) from the sun. The atmosphere is about 1,000 kilometres thick, and is made up of invisible layers that circle the planet. We live in the lowest and thinnest layer, called the troposphere, which is only about 14 kilometres thick.", "Above the troposphere, some 30 miles (48 km) above the Earth's surface, is the stratosphere. The still air of the stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which was created when ultraviolet light caused trios of oxygen atoms to bind together into ozone molecules. Ozone prevents most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earth's surface.", "The atmosphere consists of 4 layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Figure A shows the placement of the different layers of the atmosphere and how the temperature changes with height as you go from the ground up to space. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This is the layer where we live and where weather happens. Temperature in this layer generally decreases with height. The boundary between the stratosphere and the troposphere is called the tropopause. The jet stream sits at this level and it marks the highest point that weather can occur. The height of the troposphere varies with location, being higher over warmer areas and lower over colder areas. Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. In this layer the temperature increases with height. This is because the stratosphere houses the ozone layer. The ozone layer is warm because it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun. The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. The temperature decreases with height here just like it does in the troposphere. This layer also contains ratios of nitrogen and oxygen similar to the troposphere, except the concentrations are 1000 times less and there is little water vapor there, so the air is too thin for weather to occur. The thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. In this layer the temperature increases with height because it is being directly heated by the sun.", "The troposphere is the atmospheric layer closest to the planet and contains the largest percentage (around 80%) of the mass of the total atmosphere. Temperature and water vapor content in the troposphere decrease rapidly with altitude. Water vapor plays a major role in regulating air temperature because it absorbs solar energy and thermal radiation from the planet's surface. The troposphere contains 99 % of the water vapor in the atmosphere. Water vapor concentrations vary with latitude. They are greatest above the tropics, where they may be as high as 3 %, and decrease toward the polar regions.", "What's going on here? As humans load more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, we're trapping more and more heat on the Earth's surface. But  more than 90 percent of that extra heat is absorbed by the oceans. So subtle interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere can make a big difference for surface temperatures.", "The ozone layer protects our planet from potentially harmful ultraviolet sunlight. A thinning in the ozone layer results in an increase of the amount of ultra-violet radiation. At this time of the year at our latitudes, however, the sun does not rise high enough above the horizon to deliver a significant amount of harmful ultraviolet light.", "In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:", "The layer in the Stratosphere that soaks up most of the Sun's UV radiation and protects us from them by reflecting the radiation back up into the Stratosphere" ]

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[ "What is the name of the process by which substances are washed out of the soil?", "25 What is the name of the process by which substances are washed out of the soil? a.Nutrient reduction b.Eutrophication c.Nutrient deprivation d.Leaching", "leaching--the process by which soluble materials in the soil, such as salts, nutrients, pesticide chemicals or contaminants, are washed into a lower layer of soil or are dissolved and carried away by water.", "Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material. Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons.", "Soil may, itself, be involved in the initiation of limestone pavement or other karren features. Any acidity in rain percolating through a calcareous (calcium-rich) soil is likely to be neutralised by the bases in the soil, and so the soil protects the rock below. If the soil itself is acidic, not only will this neutralisation not occur, but the acidity will be reinforced by organic acids from the soil. The acid waters will penetrate joints, eventually dissolving large grikes, into which the soil may be washed, exposing the bedrock surface. Since erosion under a wet soil results from continuous corrosive soaking, as distinct from the episodic nature of rainfall events, the rock surface my be eroded and dissected in a more irregular manner, producing bizarre shapes in the eventually exposed rock. Detailed discussion of these processes is given by Trudgill (1985).", "Erosion - the process by which the surface of the earth is worn away by the action of water, glaciers, winds, waves, etc", "a process that uses machines to scrape soil or rock away from mineral deposits just under the earth's surface.", "a process that uses machines to scrape soil or rock away from mineral deposits just under the Earth's surface.", "�  Deflation � The removal of clay, silt, and sand particles from the land surface by wind.", "Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains , sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff . Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture . Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops [26] or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants [9] and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication. [27]", "Dredging - The removal of soils from under water, using the water as a means of transportation to convey the soils to final positions.", "Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil. Hydrogen H+ is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO3−) and hydroxide (OH−) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions. As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by ion exchange or desorption), are added from the weathering of soil minerals, and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter. Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically holds about 95 percent of the soil nitrogen, 5 to 60 percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80 percent of the soil sulfur. Where crops are produced, the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter.", "deposition - the process of dropping or getting rid of sediments by an erosional agent such as a river or glacier; also called sedimentation", "evaporation of water and diminishes the soil temperature that can lead to sunburn on the stem resulting even in mortality (see photo above). Anti-erosion measures are very important, if only for maintaining the little soil fertility left, and certainly to conserve the top soil from being washed away and having stones “grow”. Soil work like ripping and ploughing, as well as weeding, should be done along contour lines. In addition, where gullies exist, construction of check-dams has proved very effective in putting a brake on erosion (see photos below). In most of the plantation area, soil erosion has been diminished by", "The process by which weathered particles are removed and transported by a stream, glacier, wind, or other mobile agent.", "Humans impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover with erosion as the result. Their tillage also mixes the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as less weathered material is mixed with the more developed upper layers.", "Soil does not have to be washed or blown away for its productivity to be lowered. Through improper soil and water management, a soil's properties may be altered so that its fertility is seriously reduced or lost for good. Excessive cultivation, for example, can wreck the structure of some soils so that they are no longer capable of holding enough moisture for growing plants.", "(dispersing in water) and holding soil in suspension until it can be rinsed away. Surfactants can also provide alkalinity, which is useful in removing acidic soils.", "a process of filtering wastewater through sand.The wastewater trickles over the bed of sand where air and bacteria decompose the wastes. The clean water flows out through drains in the bottom of the bed. The sludge accumulating at the surface must periodically be removed from the bed.", "a coarse, gravelly ground surface left when continued deflation removes the smaller sand and silt particles from desert soils", "occurs when soil and rocks are worn down and moved around by water, wind, or glaciers.", "(most effective agent) includes all water that falls to earth. As running water flows over earths surface and transports sediments weathering takes place.", "The depression was initiated by either wind or fluvial erosion in the late Neogene , but during the Quaternary the dominant mechanism has been a combination of salt weathering and wind erosion working together. First, the salts break up the depression floor, then the wind blows away the resulting sands. This process is less effective in the eastern part of the depression, due to lower salinity groundwater. [4]", "�  Transported soil � Soil not formed from the local rock but from parent material brought in from some other region and deposited, usually by running water, wind, or glacial ice.", "method for deepening streams or other waters by scraping and removing solid materials from the bottom.", "The running off of water from a land surface or subsurface, such as through sewers or natural means.", "The term `soil salts` is used because water movement may mobilise large amounts of salts from the building materials. Brickwork, for example, may be coated in blown plaster and sodium sulphate crystals, but this does not mean there is rising damp.Most of the sulphate probably came from the clay from which the bricks were made.", "a land application technique that cleanses waste water by allowing it to flow over a sloped surface. As the water flows over the surface, the contaminants are removed and the water is collected at the bottom of the slope for reuse.", "When water falls as rain or snow, much of it either flows into rivers or is used to provide moisture to plants and crops. What is left over trickles down to the layers of rock that sit beneath the soil.", "Removes sediments and pollutants. The reduced water velocity helps in plant uptake of minerals, processing by microbes, and settlement of sediments, as well as removal of chemicals, including heavy metals, that are tied to the minerals (Gottgens 1998)", "A. Because when it filters through the earth, it becomes impregnated with sulphate of lime, and many other impurities from the earths and minerals with which it comes in contact.", "The extensive white fungal mycelium sometimes found in soil can have water-repellent properties, preventing water reaching the root system of shallow-rooted plants. If this occurs, the fungal matter should be broken up with a fork" ]

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[ "* Friends of the Earth: Founded 1969 by the former executive director of Sierra Club, David Brower, it moved to England in 1970, with financing from the Goldsmith interests (see below). It engages in direct action and other activities, particularly targetting nuclear power plants. Its U.K. director during the 1980s was Jonathan Porritt, son of the ex-governor general of New Zealand.", "Engages in direct action and other activities particularly targeting nuclear power plants. Director of FOE U.K. during the 1980s was Jonathan Porritt, son of ex-governor general of New Zealand. Founder of FOE France, Brice LaLonde was later appointed President Francois Mitterrand' s environmental minister. FOE, like Greenpeace, deployed personnel to found Earth First!", "He is Co-Director of The Prince of Wales's Business and Sustainability Programme, was formerly Director of Friends of the Earth (1984-90) and co-chair of the Green Party (1980-83). In 2009 he stood down as Chair of the UK Sustainable Development Commission after nine years providing high-level advice to Government Ministers.", "1969: David Brower resigns as executive director of the Sierra Club and founds Friends of the Earth.", "Although in his mid-40s, McTaggart set about creating a Greenpeace in Europe, finding like-minded people and setting up national organisations. The British branch started in 1978 and was run by Peter Wilkinson, a former Friends of the Earth campaigner. By 1979 Greenpeace was unified across the Atlantic and McTaggart was running it - remaining chairman until 1991.", "Controversy over Kulp's role led to him being replaced by James Mulhoney. The new director ordered reassessments and revisions of the interim report. This was completed in 1991. However, by that time President George H. W. Bush (1924–) was in power, and he had made acid rain legislation a component of his election campaign. As a result, political forces, rather than NAPAP, largely drove the nation's emerging policy toward acid rain.", "Albert Arnold Al Gore, Jr. born March 31, 1948 is an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States 1993�2001, under President Bill Clinton. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for President and lost the 2000 U.S. presidential election despite winning the popular vote. Gore is currently an author and environmental activist. He has founded a number of non-profit organizations, including the Alliance for Climate Protection, and has received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work in climate change activism.", "Albert Arnold “Al” Gore, Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States (1993–2001), under President Bill Clinton. He was the Democratic Party’s nominee for President and lost the 2000 U.S. presidential election despite winning the popular vote. Gore is currently an author and environmental activist. He has founded a number of non-profit organizations, including the Alliance for Climate Protection, and has received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work in climate change activism.", "The event was hosted by environmentalist Ira Einhorn.[10] U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie was the keynote speaker on Earth Day in Fairmount Park in Philadelphia. Other notable attendees included consumer protection activist and presidential candidate Ralph Nader; Landscape Architect Ian McHarg; Nobel prize-winning Harvard Biochemist, George Wald; U.S. Senate Minority Leader, Hugh Scott; and poet, Allen Ginsberg. Photos, video, and other previously unpublished information are available to the public at EarthWeek1970.org.", "Greenpeace USA was founded in 1975, and is one of the largest environmental organizations in the United States. Executive directors of Greenpeace USA have included Richard Grossman, Barbara Dudley, Kristin Engberg, John Passacantando, Phil Radford, and Annie Leonard.", "The 2007 prize went to Al Gore and the IPCC , \"for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change\". The award received criticism on the grounds of political motivation and because the winners' work was not directly related to ending conflict. [88] Al Gore's victory over prize candidate Irena Sendler , a Polish social worker known as the \"female Oskar Schindler \" for her efforts to save Jewish children during the Holocaust , [89] attracted criticism from the humanitarian agency International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW). [90]", "There was a turning point about 1988 when many single-authored books began to come available: Paul Taylor's Respect for Nature; Holmes Rolston's Environmental Ethics; Mark Sagoff's The Economy of the Earth; and Eugene C. Hargrove's Foundations of Environmental Ethics. J. Baird Callicott created a collection of his papers, In Defense of the Land Ethic. Bryan Norton wrote Why Preserve Natural Diversity? followed more recently by Toward Unity among Environmentalists. A large number of books have been written by Kristin Shrader-Frechette on economics and policy.", "These concerns were reinforced and complicated by the ties that some scientists found with other environmentalist issues. An outstanding example was the distinguished biologist George Woodwell, who was a founder and board member of both the National Resources Defense Council and the World Wildlife Fund. Like many biologists and environmentalists, Woodwell decried the destruction of virgin tropical forests. He worried that changes in human use of land could be so socially disruptive \"as to be equivalent to the drastic changes in the human condition that a warming of the climate might lead to.\" (78) The proliferating slash-and-burn peasants who cleared new fields were driving countless species toward extinction, arousing public sympathies for a battle to \"save the rainforests.\" Activists who linked destruction of tropical species with greenhouse warming could make better headway on both issues. Magazine and television images of landscapes going up in smoke began to catch the public eye. Here at last was an immediate, visible connection of CO2 emission with ruined nature (even though the scientific connection to global warming was far from certain). Scientists associated with the Environmental Defense Fund, the World Resources Institute, and similar groups began to issue reports and lobby Congress about global warming. (79)", "The northern spotted owl is listed as a threatened subspecies under the Endangered Species Act, following litigation brought by environmental groups. Sulfur dioxide emissions from U.S. coal plants reach 28 million tons, double pre-WWII levels. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 strengthen rules to reduce “acid rain” — and introduce trade-able pollution permits for sulfur dioxide emissions. The first cap-and-trade scheme heralds the third wave of environmentalism, based on compromise and cooperation with business. Earth First! activist Judi Bari is bombed — the bomb is planted under her car seat — while recruiting for Redwood Summer. In a Gallup poll, 70 percent of Americans call themselves “environmentalists.”", "Greenpeace protester George Callies dumps a suitcase filled with dead fish on the desk of Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB) chairman Vern Millar. Greenpeace members protest ERCB decision to approve a sour gas well development near High River. -- August 12, 1983. -- 1.5 min.", "Dr. David Fleming (2 January 1940 – 29 November 2010) was an independent thinker and writer on environmental issues, based in London, England. He was one of the whistle blowers on the possibility of peak oil's approach and the inventor of the influential TEQs scheme, designed to address this and climate change. He was also a significant figure in the development of the UK Green Party, the Transition Towns movement and the New Economics Foundation, as well as a Chairman of the Soil Association.", "While a Representative, Gore co-sponsored hearings on toxic waste in 1978-79, and hearings on global warming in the 1980s. [20] While a senator working on his book Earth in the Balance, Gore had traveled around the world on numerous fact-finding missions. During Gore's tenure as Vice President, he was a proponent for environmental protection. On Earth Day 1994, Gore launched the worldwide GLOBE program , an innovative hands-on, school-based education and science activity that made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment and contribute research data for scientists.", "90s 1992 The UN conference on environment and development is held in Rio de Janeiro. Greenpeace calls for measures to ensure that the conference produces more than just statements of intent. A few days before the summit begins, the Rainbow Warrior blocks the Rio harbour facilities of Aracruz, a Brazilian pulp producer that has destroyed large sections of rainforest. The Rainbow Warrior also sails to the Pacific, to protest against French nuclear testing. The French navy seizes her off the coast of Moruroa. Shortly afterwards, however, the French government declares a moratorium on nuclear testing. In the UK, Greenpeace carries out a series of protests against the nuclear waste factory at Sellafield; a solidarity concert takes place in Manchester featuring the rock group U2. The Greenpeace ship Solo sails to the Kara Sea and the island of Novaya Zemlya to document the dumping of nuclear reactors from decommissioned submarines by the Soviet navy. And at La Hague processing plant in France, over 100 activists chain themselves to the iron gates in protest against the shipment of 1.7 tonnes of plutonium to Japan. The Solo pursues the freighter Akatsuki Maru on its way to Japan, and draws attention to the dangers of transporting nuclear waste.", "Member AAAS, American Institute Biological Sciences, American Society Limnology and Oceanography, Ecological Society of America, International Society Ecol. Modelling, Society Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Amnesty International (group coordinator 1981-84). Presbyterian.", "Long-time environmental leader Richard (Dick) Day dies. He worked to curb coastal development, stopthe building of Warm Springs Dam and put more \"environmental candidates\" in public office.", "On the East Coast, Larry Bogart founded the Citizens Energy Council in 1966, a coalition of environmental groups that published the newsletters “Radiation Perils,” “Watch on the A.E.C.” and “Nuclear Opponents”. These publications argued that “nuclear power plants were too complex, too expensive and so inherently unsafe they would one day prove to be a financial disaster and a health hazard.", "Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Founded by Canadian environmental activists in 1971, Greenpeace states its goal is to \"ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity\" and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues. It uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals. The global organization does not accept funding from governments, corporations, or political parties, relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants. Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations.", "The leadership, funding, and logistical base of these organizations are interchangeable. Susan Pardee, for example, who is a member of the Greenpeace office in Seattle, Washington, is also a local leader of Earth First! and the Native Forest Network. The Seattle Earth First! office is located within the Greenpeace office.", "Gore has been involved with environmental issues since 1976, when as a freshman congressman, he held the \"first congressional hearings on the climate change, and co-sponsor[ed] hearings on toxic waste and global warming.\" He continued to speak on the topic throughout the 1980s, and is still prevalent in the environmental community. He was known as one of the Atari Democrats, later called the \"Democrats' Greens, politicians who see issues like clean air, clean water and global warming as the key to future victories for their party.\"", "She has served as a Vice President of the RSPCA , the Stop the War Coalition , Campaign Against Climate Change and Environmental Protection UK (formerly National Society for Clean Air), as well as a member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament National Council and a Director of the International Forum on Globalization .", "At the beginning of the decade, sustainable development and environmental protection became serious issues for governments and the international community. In 1987, the publication of the Brundtland Report by the United Nations had paved the way to establish an environmental governance. In 1992 the Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, in which several countries committed to protect the environment, signing a Convention on Biological Diversity.", "In 1982 Benny formed the Kinder Scout Advisory Committee and in 1989 the Rivington Pledge Committee and was secretary of both. He led the campaign against the privatisation of water authority land and took part in Public Enquiries on Ashton Moss,", "Last year, President Clinton and Vice President Gore unveiled the Global Climate Change Action Plan, a public-private partnership to dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere while promoting economic development,. Gore was instrumental in breaking the gridlock on the national wetlands policy and in forging an historic partnership between government and industry to develop a new generation of fuel-efficient vehicles. He recently unveiled the Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) program, an international project to coordinate the work of children, educators and scientists in monitoring the global environment.", "The Natural Resources Defense Council is a US non-profit organization of scientists, lawyers and environmental specialists dedicated to protecting public health and the environment. Founded in 1970, NRDC has more than 1 million members and e-activists nationwide, served from offices in New York, Washington, Santa Monica and San Francisco.", "The most important environmental concern of the Democratic Party is climate change. Democrats, most notably former Vice President Al Gore, have pressed for stern regulation of greenhouse gases. On October 15, 2007, he won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to build greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and laying the foundations for the measures needed to counteract these changes asserting that \"the climate crisis is not a political issue, it is a moral and spiritual challenge to all of humanity.\" ", "Some of the notable environmentalists who have been active in lobbying for environmental protection and conservation include:", "In 1970, a group of Canadian and American environmentalists formed the \"Don't Make A Wave Committee.\" They unsuccessfully sought to prevent a nuclear test under the Alaskan island of Amchitka. This lead to the formation of Greenpeace, an international environmental organization founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1971. Greenpeace describes itself as \"an independent, campaigning organization which uses non-violent, creative confrontation to expose global environmental problems, and to force solutions for a green and peaceful future.\"" ]

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[ "Some countries, like Germany and Spain, are committed to phasing out nuclear power; others, like the UK and Italy, have recently committed themselves to building new power plants; while some, including Ukraine and Finland, already are.", "Angela Merkel has committed to shutting down all of the country's nuclear reactors by 2022, a task said by one minister to be as mammoth as the project to reunite East and West Germany in 1990.", "However, Italy had been a pioneer of civil nuclear power and built several reactors which operated 1963-90. But following a referendum in November 1987, provoked by the Chernobyl accident 18 months earlier, work on the nuclear program was largely stopped. In 1988 the government resolved to halt all nuclear construction, shut the remaining reactors and decommission them from 1990. Italy then remained largely inactive in nuclear energy for 15 years.", "In January 2012 France's Court of Audit released a report on the costs of nuclear power in the country. It included a section on decommissioning, and said that the future costs for decommissioning all of France's nuclear facilities (including reactors, research facilities and fuel cycle plants) and disposing of radioactive wastes were estimated to be €79.4 billion. The cost of demolishing facilities came to €31.9 billion, including €18.4 billion for dismantling EDF's 58 operating reactors. The costs of managing used fuel were put at €14.8 billion ($19.3 billion), while waste disposal will cost €28.4 billion. However, the court noted that these future costs estimates are tentative because of the lack of firm decommissioning costs and the lack of final disposal plans. A massive increase in future costs would have a \"significant but limited\" impact on the annual cost of electricity production, it said.", "The agreement is the latest step in Germany’s decision to phase out nuclear energy, which was made after the Fukushima disaster in 2011. Addressing the Bundestag before the vote, Economy Minister Sigmar Gabriel harkened back to the beginnings of the “no-nukes” movement among private citizens in Denmark, Germany and other parts of Europe in the mid-1970s.", "All of the nuclear reactors at Dounreay at Caithness, Scotland, have closed and the plant is being decommissioned. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) took ownership in April 2005, with United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) still in charge of operations. The rest of the decommissioning will cost around $3bn to take Dounreay to a brownfield site by 2033.", "2011 UPDATE: Wowsers!!! Huge big nuke deal just went down in Germany, and I ain’t talkin’ meltdown here! In the wake of the Japanese tsunami and nuclear power plant disaster, Merkel announced that her state has totally renounced nuclear energy use, and will have all reactors off-line by 2022…which is a stunning 180 degree turn from her administration’s position just 9 months prior!", "In 2003, Belgium's parliament voted to phase out the country's nuclear power plants between 2015 and 2025. The law also prohibits the building of new nuclear power plants and limits the operational period of the existing plants to 40 years. If the law is implemented by the current government, Belgium's largest energy generator, Electrabel, will have to take initial steps regarding the shutdowns in 2009 or 2010.", "The Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan also dominated work by the campaign on nuclear energy. The reaction of Germany and Japan to Fukushima demonstrated how phasing out nuclear power will strengthen the development of renewable energy. Immediately after Fukushima, Germany closed about half its nuclear reactors and pledged to shut the rest within a decade; later, Parliament voted overwhelmingly for replacing nuclear with renewable energy. By the end of 2011, Japan had shut down most of its 54 reactors for testing.", "Germany, like the UK, has plans to close several plants in the coming years. All the reactors built in East Germany prior to reunification have been closed for safety reasons.", "In May 2015 E.On and Vattenfall Europe (VENE) signed an agreement to cooperate on decommissioning \"in order to make the decommissioning and dismantling process of their joint venture nuclear power plants as economical as possible.\" They said that the main objective of the agreement \"is to incorporate experience, especially from the largely-completed dismantling of the E.On nuclear power plant in Stade, in the planning and implementation of the decommissioning of the VENE power plants.\"", "2011 May - In further u-turn on nuclear power following crisis at Japan's Fukushima plant, German government says all nuclear power plants will be phased out by 2022.", "Two 1600 MWe European Pressurized Reactors (EPRs) are being built in Europe, and two are being built in China. The reactors are a joint effort of French AREVA and German Siemens AG, and will be the largest reactors in the world. One EPR is in Olkiluoto, Finland, as part of the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant. The reactor was originally scheduled to go online in 2009, but has been repeatedly delayed, and as of September 2014 has been pushed back to 2018. Preparatory work for the EPR at the Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant in Flamanville, Manche, France was started in 2006, with a scheduled completion date of 2012. The French reactor has also been delayed, and was projected, in 2013, to launch in 2016. The two Chinese EPRs are part of the Taishan Nuclear Power Plant in Taishan, Guangdong. The Taishan reactors were scheduled to go online in 2014 and 2015, but that has been delayed to 2017. ", "In 2012 five steam generators from UK plants were shipped to Studsvik in Sweden for recycling. Studsvik has also set up a plant in the UK, at Lillyhall in Cumbria, to recycle materials from nuclear facilities, and this became fully operational in 2013 after processing 2000 t of metal from numerous sites and recycling 96% of it. The balance went to a LLW repository.", "20 The damaged Chernobyl nuclear power station is situated in which country? a.Russia b.Ukraine c.Belarus d.Slovakia", "Areva is decommissioning the Eurodif enrichment plant at Marcoule since 2012. This involved over 2012-15 the decontamination with ClF3 gas to remove the residual uranium left inside, and extract it as UF6, then recovery of all produced chloride and fluoride gas before the opening of equipments and circuits. Then over 2016-25 the plant is being dismantled.", "Areva wants to use decommissioning funds of Eurodif enrichment plant for construction of nuclear power plant in the UK", "NB. Most of the nine shutdown reactors are not yet defuelled and written off by their owners. No decommissioning licence had been granted to April 2016. Brunsbüttel and Krümmel were shut down in 2007, and not restarted, apart from a few weeks for Krümmel in 2009. Vattenfall started removing fuel from Krümmel in September 2016 to dry casks on site, and planned to start defuelling Brunsbüttel the following month. EnBW’s Phillipsburg 1 was defuelled by the end of 2016 and a permit for decommissioning and dismantling was expected in 2017.  In December 2016 KKE applied for a permit to decommission and dismantle Emsland when it closes in 2022.", "On Oct. 25, 2000, the Hesse State Government approved the decommissioning of the Nukem nuclear fuel production plant at Hanau. The plant is shut down since 1988. 28,000 tonnes of slightly contaminated rubble and soil are to be disposed of in the former underground rocksalt mine of Kochendorf near Heilbronn (Baden-Württemberg). 7000 casks of radioactive waste (containing 350 kg of residual uranium) are to be brought to a Nuclear Cargo und Service (NCS) storage site in Hanau for intermediate storage. (Frankfurter Rundschau Oct. 26, 2000)", "According to the World Nuclear Association , Slovakian scientists failed to properly operate this reactor by forgetting to take out contaminated silica packs—thereby causing fuel rods to overheat. In attempting to cool the machine, the entire reactor was contaminated. It will be fully decontaminated in 2033. ", "Considerable experience has been gained in decommissioning various types of nuclear facilities. About 90 commercial power reactors, 45 experimental or prototype power reactors, as well as over 250 research reactors and a number of fuel cycle facilities, have been retired from operation. Of the 140+ power reactors including experimental and prototype units, at least 15 have been fully dismantled, over 50 are being dismantled, over 50 are in Safstor, three have been entombed, and for others the decommissioning strategy is not yet specified.", "In March 2014 E.On announced to BNetzA that its 1275 MWe Grafenrheinfeld nuclear power plant in Bavaria would close earlier than December 2015, due to the fuel tax of some EUR 80 million making it uneconomic to refuel for that last period. In June 2015 when it closed it had operated 33 years.", "Spain's Vandellos 1, a 480 MWe gas-graphite reactor, was closed down in 1990 after 18 years operation, due to a turbine fire which made the plant uneconomic to repair. In 2003 ENRESA concluded phase 2 of the reactor decommissioning and dismantling project, which allowed much of the site to be released. After 30 years Safestor, when activity levels have diminished by 95%, the remainder of the plant will be removed. The cost of the 63-month project was €93 million.", "In 2015, the IAEA reported that worldwide there were 67 civil fission-electric power reactors under construction in 15 countries including Gulf states such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Over half of the 67 total being built were in Asia, with 28 in China. Eight new grid connections were completed by China in 2015 and the most recently completed reactor to be connected to the electrical grid, as of January 2016, was at the Kori Nuclear Power Plant in the Republic of Korea. In the US, four new Generation III reactors were under construction at Vogtle and Summer station, while a fifth was nearing completion at Watts Bar station, all five were expected to become operational before 2020. In 2013, four aging uncompetitive U.S reactors were closed. According to the World Nuclear Association, the global trend is for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being retired. ", "A specialized agency within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) , which was created to assist its Member countries in maintaining and further developing the scientific, technological, and legal bases for safe, environmentally friendly, and economical use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The NEA's current membership consists of 31 countries in Europe, North America, and the Asia-Pacific region, which account for approximately 86% of the world's installed nuclear capacity.", "As a developer of new nuclear power stations, we will play our part by putting in place robust plans to manage the waste and spent fuel that we produce, by decommissioning our plants responsibility and by setting aside adequate funds for these plans. For these reasons, we have established a Funded Decommissioning Programme and are proud to take full responsibility for our power station from beginning to end.", "A coalition government formed after the 1998 federal elections had the phasing out of nuclear energy as a feature of its policy. With a new government in 2009, the phase-out was cancelled, but then reintroduced in 2011, with eight reactors shut down immediately.", "The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation is an international project involving 25 partner countries, 28 observer and candidate partner countries, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Generation IV International Forum, and the European Commission. Its goal is to \"[..] provide competitive, commercially-based services as an alternative to a state’s development of costly, proliferation-sensitive facilities, and address other issues associated with the safe and secure management of used fuel and radioactive waste.\" ", "In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for, and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity although the nuclear power plant was already finished.", "Phase two of this plan is to  dismantle the reactor and the safe disposal of over 200 tons of radioactive material still rumbling inside the exploded reactor. The clean-up of the material has yet to begin and could take many years to come. The cost of the new sarcophagus and clean up is €1.5 billion so far.", "In October 1998 a coalition government was formed between the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Green Party, the latter having polled only 6.7% of the vote. As a result, these two parties agreed to change the law to phase out of nuclear power. Long drawn-out \"consensus talks\" with the electric utilities were intended to establish a timetable for phase out, with the Greens threatening unilateral curtailment of licences without compensation if agreement was not reached. All operating nuclear plants then had unlimited licences with strong legal guarantees.", "A prototype Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor, opened in 1962 and closed in 1981. It is now being dismantled, but this is not expected to be completed before 2050." ]

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[ "Which Canadian city gave its name to the 1987world agreement on protection of the ozone layer?", "Representatives from 24 nations, meeting in Montreal in September 1987, signed the \"Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,\"1 an international agreement designed to reduce the worldwide production and use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This protocol is the result of years of negotiation fostered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) among the major CFC producing countries. Its formulation was a response to a growing international consensus on the need to protect stratospheric ozone from depletion by CFCs. The Montreal Protocol is a landmark agreement in that it is the first international treaty for mitigating a global atmospheric problem before serious environmental impacts have been conclusively detected. As such, the Montreal Protocol has stirred much interest, and both scientists and policymakers have suggested that it can be used as a model for international agreements on other global environmental problems, especially the problem of C02 and trace-gas induced global warming.", "The public took a strong interest in the \"ozone hole,\" forcing a political response. The outcome was an international agreement, forged in Montreal in 1987, to gradually halt production of ozone-destroying substances. If the agreement was enforced, and if it was extended as industry produced new chemicals, that would settle the ozone problem. It would do little to retard global warming, but the agreement proved that the world could take effective action against an atmospheric threat if the threat was sufficiently convincing, immediate, and well publicized.", "16/9/1987, 70 countries signed an agreement in Montreal to save the ozone layer, to freeze CFC production (used as a refrigeration gas) at current levels and halve it within 12 years. The hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica had been discovered in 1984.", "THE INTERNATIONAL DAY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE OZONE LAYER - 16 September 2012 6 6 Message from Honourable Dr. Leslie Ramsammy- Minister of Agriculture -  The United Nations' (UN) International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer is celebrated on September 16 every year. This event commemorates the date of the signing of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987. The Protocol is an international agreement under which countries worldwide are committed to phasing-out Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS), and to replacing these damaging chemicals with ozone-friendly substances and products. During the 1970s, scientists discovered evidence of a serious threat to the ozone layer, which provided the impetus for the development of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Today marks the 25th anniversary celebrations and the theme for this year is \"Protecting our Atmosphere for Generations to Come\"", "On 16 September 1987, twenty four Parties signed the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. In 1998, in recognition of the Protocol’s unique accomplishments, the General Asembly in its Resolution 49/114 named 16 September as the International day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer. Since that time, the Parties have used this day to celebrate the signing of the Montreal Protocol, and the significant environmental and health benefits that this amazing treaty has yielded.", "Since 1995, emissions of new CFCs in the developed world have been completely phased out. As evidence accumulated that man-made CFCs were contributing to stratospheric ozone depletion, scientists urged nations to control the use of CFCs. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by 24 countries. The Protocol called for the parties to phase down the use of CFCs, as well as other ozone depleting chemicals such as halons and other man-made halocarbons. Although emissions of CFCs have fallen dramatically as a result of the Montreal Protocol, because each chlorine molecule remains in the atmosphere for such a long time, damage done to stratospheric ozone will persist for many years to come.", "The results of a new study appear to support the view that the Montreal Protocol has been effective at protecting the ozone layer. Researchers modelled the impacts of the Protocol's phasing out of ozone depleting substances and found that they matched actual changes of global ozone over the last 50 years.  Read/Download article (PDF)", "The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (\"Montreal Protocol\") is one of the first MEAs to incorporate CDR into its provisions by administering different obligations for developed and developing states. 4 The Montreal Protocol responds to depletion of the ozone layer and regulates the use of ozone-depleting substances (\"ODS\") around the world. 5", "In 1990 DuPont started producing hydrochlorofluorocarbon and hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants under the brand name Suva® at Corpus Christi, Texas, and Maitland, Ontario, Canada. The first major market for Suva refrigerants was automobile air conditioners, the single biggest source of ozone-depleting CFCs. In 1993 the company advanced its CFC phaseout deadline to the end of 1994, one year ahead of the timetables established by the 1987 Montreal Protocol and by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.", "Since the 1972 conference, there have been many international environmental agreements, a number of which have been ratified by Canada. These include the 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement; the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution; the 1985 Helsinki Agreement (a 21-nation commitment to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions); the 1988 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer; and the 1989 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes (see Appendix). (1) It was this kind of international cooperation that the 1992 Rio conference sought, but on a larger scale.", "The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in 1987, limited trade in products containing CFCs . It was the first major agreement to restrict trade for environmental purposes.", "Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.", "Severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer was first observed in the early 1980s. The international response embodied in the Montreal Protocol. Today 191 countries worldwide have signed the Montreal Protocol which is widely regarded as the most successful Multinational Environmental Agreement ever reached to date.", "The partner companies of Refrigerants, Naturally! commend the Parties to the Montreal Protocol for leading the global effort to reduce and phase out ozone-depleting substances, many of which are also powerful greenhouse gases. The partner companies willingly participated in the international effort, transitioning to new technologies that protect the ozone layer.   Read more...", "i /ˈkænədə/ ; French : [ka.na.dɑ] ) is a country in the northern half of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area . Canada's border with the United States is the world's longest land border. The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains . About four-fifths of the country's population of 36 million people is urbanized and live near the southern border. Its capital is Ottawa ; its largest metropolis is Toronto ; other major urban areas include Montreal , Vancouver , Calgary , Edmonton , Quebec City , Winnipeg and Hamilton .", "Discovery of ozone depletion in the stratosphere with its resultant reduced ability to limit passing of potentially hazardous Ultra-Violet (UVA) radiation to the planet's surface led directly to the formation in 1987 of a United Nation's treaty called the Montreal Protocol and which came into force in 1989. The Montreal Protocol called for the ultimate phase out of production and effective banning of all Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) including Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), by 2030. The Montreal Protocol was the first treaty in history to be universally ratified by all member states of the United Nations.", "The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States. ", "The Ozone layers surrounding the Earth absorb significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation. A 1976 report by the US Academy of Sciences supported the ozone \"depletion hypothesis.\" Its suffering large losses from chlorinated and nitrogenous compounds was reported in 1985. Earlier studies had led some countries to enact bans on aerosol sprays, so that the Vienna Convention was signed in 1985 the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to go in force two years later. The use of CFC's and HCFC's in refrigeration were and are among the banned technologies. A German technological institute developed an ozone-safe hydrocarbon alternative refrigerant which came to a Greenpeace campaigner's attention in around 1992. The rights to the technology were donated to Greenpeace, which maintained it as an open source patent. With industry resistance, Greenpeace was able to rescue and engage a former East German manufacturer near closure. Greenpeace's resourceful outreach and marketing resulted in the technologies rapid widespread production in Germany, followed by the banning of CFC technology. They then succeeded in getting Greenfreeze used in China and elsewhere in Europe, and after some years in Japan and South America, and finally in the US by 2012.", "Au cours de l’allocution d’ouverture de cette conférence marquant la célébration officielle de ce 25ème anniversaire du protocole de Montréal Mme KABA Nasséré, Directeur de Cabinet Adjoint, qui y représentait le Ministre de l’Environnement et du Développement Durable, a indiqué que « depuis un quart de siècle, l’un des plus grands défis posés à l’humanité est l’appauvrissement de la couche d’ozone qui protège la vie sur terre des rayons ultra-violets nocifs émis par le soleil ».    Read more...", "1989  - Ozone Treaty - July 1st, 1989: \"The Montreal Protocol, which was an international treaty dealing with ozone-destroying pollutants, went into effect. The treaty sought to cut in half production of chemicals posing the greatest risk to ozone.\"", "Protection de la couche d’ozone : Des équipements pour les techniciens frigorifiques - Madagascar fait partie des 197 pays ayant ratifié le Protocole de Montréal. ", "People began to value the importance of the ozone layer when scientists released a research finding suggesting that certain human-made chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons managed to reach the stratosphere and depleted the ozone via a profound series of chemical reactions. The results of this research study prompted the signing of a global treaty known as the Montreal Protocol in 1973. This treaty helped in the reduction of the production of these harmful human-made chemicals.", "Indonesia is a party to the Vienna Convention for Ozone Layer Protection an the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. In May 1992, by Presidential Decree no. 23/1992, Indonesia ratified the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol.", "Ashgabat, Turkmenistan 28 February 2007- The first regional celebration of the 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol took place in the capital of Turkmenistan on 26 February.The year 2007 marks the 20th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol, which is widely recognized as the most successful international environmental agreement to date. Year-long celebrations are being planned by diverse organizations and countries to commemorate this environmental milestone. UNEP DTIE's OzonAction Branch is working in collaboration with the National Ozone Units and other partners to promote public awareness and media activities, particularly through the Regional Networks of Ozone Officers organized by the Branch's Compliance Assistance Programme (CAP).", "The Protocol supplements the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, a simple framework for cooperation and research which said very little about emissions. It is far more substantive and is designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987; it entered into force on January 1, 1989 and since then, has undergone eight revisions. The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which include 196 states and the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.", "The United States and Canada cooperate closely to resolve and manage transboundary environmental and water issues. A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission, established under the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty. The United States and Canada have hundreds of environmental partnerships at the local, state, and federal level. These include the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement to protect water quality and ecosystem health, and the Columbia River Treaty to jointly regulate and manage the Columbia River as it flows from British Columbia into the United States. The two countries cooperate on a range of bilateral fisheries issues and international high seas governance initiatives, and are both founding members of the Arctic Council.", "As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has denounced the protocol.", "49. Federal Task Force on Inadvertent Modification of the Stratosphere, Fluorocarbons and the Environment (1975) [hereinafter IMOS]. See also Bastian, The Formulation of Federal Policy, in 2 Stratospheric Ozone and Man 166 (1981).", "Environnement: La journée internationale de la protection de la couche d'Ozone a été célébrée View video", "Ranked as the world's eighth largest emitter of greenhouse gases, Canada is a relatively large emitter given its population and is missing its Kyoto targets. A major Canadian initiative called the [http://www.ico2n.com Integrated CO2 Network (ICO2N)] promotes the development of large scale capture, transport and storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) as a means of helping Canada to help meet climate change objectives while supporting economic growth. ICO2N members represent a group of industry participants, many oil sands producers, providing a framework for carbon capture and storage development in Canada. ", "S1 The border between Canada and the USA is the world’s longest international border. Which line of latitude does it follow for nearly half of its length?" ]

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[ "The dodo was a flightless bird about 3 feet (1 meter) tall that was native to the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. It went extinct by 1693, less than a century after the Dutch discovered the island in 1598, killed off by creatures such as rats and pigs, which sailors introduced to Mauritius either accidentally or intentionally.", "The Dodo bird or Raphus Cucullatus was a flightless bird native to the island of Mauritius, near the island of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. The closest relatives to the dodo bird are pigeons and doves, even though dodo birds were much larger in size. On average, dodo birds stood 3 feet tall and weighted about 40 lb. Unfortunately, due to aggressive human population, dodo birds became extinct in late 17th century.", "The dodo was a large flightless bird was native to the Island of Mauritius (located to the east of Africa and Madagascar). This species is best known for becoming extinct in the 17th century, with the last sighting of this species in 1688. The extinction of this bird brought about many changes in the scientific community (extinction was once believed to be impossible) and was a catalyst for understanding human relationships with animals. The dodo is still used as a symbol for the protection of endangered species today. Let’s find out why the dodo became extinct.", "The dodo bird inhabited the forests of Mauritius. Mauritius is an island located about 550 miles east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Dodos, now extinct, were indigenous only to this small, isolated island.", "Dodo birds became extinct because of the combination of overhunting by humans and non-native predators that were introduced by humans to their native island. Dodo birds only inhabited the island of Mauritius, where they had no natural predators. Accordingly, the dodo bird had lost the power of flight and possessed few defensive behaviors by the time humans arrived on the island.", "The Dodo (Raphus cucullatus) was a flightless bird that lived on the island of Mauritius. Related to pigeons and doves, it stood about a meter tall (three feet), lived on fruit and nested on the ground. The dodo has been extinct since the mid-to-late 17th century. It is commonly used as the archetype of an extinct species because its extinction occurred during recorded human history, and was directly attributable to human activity. The adjective phrase \"as dead as a dodo\" means undoubtedly and unquestionably dead. The verb phrase \"to go the way of the dodo\" means to become extinct or obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the past.", "The dodo bird inhabited the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, where it lived undisturbed for so long that it lost its need and ability to fly. It lived and nested on the ground and ate fruits that had fallen from trees. There were no mammals on the island and a high diversity of bird species lived in the dense forests.", "The dodo, a flightless bird related to pigeons and doves, once thrived on the small island of Mauritius, located off the coast of Africa to the east of Madagascar.", "The Dodo Bird was found on the island of Mauritius off the coast of Africa. In 1598 Portuguese explorers first saw it and because the bird had never seen humans before at was not afraid of them. This meant that it was easily caught and was apparently very tasty. By 1681 the Dodo was extinct, literally eaten to death by people and their pets (dogs, cats, etc.)", "Extinct since 1681, the dodo is the symbol of the island of Mauritius , where it once lived. Little is known about this flightless bird that evolved and thrived in relative isolation until the arrival of humans and other bird-eating mammals. ", "Aug 17, 07: A newly discovered dodo skeleton has raised hopes for extracting some of the legendary extinct bird�s DNA. The dodo, a flightless bird related to pigeons and doves, once thrived on the small island of Mauritius, located off the coast of Africa to the east of Madagascar.", "Mauritius is a small, multicultural island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar and southeast of the Seychelles. Mauritius was an uninhabited island until the Dutch arrived in 1598. The Dutch left in 1710 due to tough climatic conditions. The French took their chances 5 years later only to surrender the island to the British in 1810. From then on, the island was renamed Mauritius and remained under British rule until it attained independence. Mauritius is well-known for having been the only known habitat of the dodo. This bird was an easy prey to settlers due to its weight and inability to fly, and vanished less than 80 years after the initial European colonization.", "Although many pictures and stories place the dodo along the shores of Mauritius, it was actually a forest-dwelling bird. The island of Mauritius is home to a variety of biomes, such as plains, small mountains, forests, and reefs all along the shores. However, the dodo made its home primarily in the forest. (Fuller, 1987) (Britannica, 1986)", "You can't have a list of extinct animals without mentioning the dodo. Living happily in isolation on the Isle of Mauritius, the dodo was an oblivious, flightless bird not well built for defending itself from predators. It also only laid one egg a year. This bird was clearly only suited for a quiet life. When mankind arrived at the island, they brought monkeys, rats and pigs with them, which proved too much for the dodos to handle. They were all killed and/or eaten to extinction by 1681 .", "Perhaps the most recently extinct stock dinosaur, having been wiped out before 1700, the dodo was a turkey-sized flightless pigeon that lived on the isolated island of Mauritius. The pigeons it was descended from almost certainly flew to the island, but because there were no land predators, the dodo evolved secondary flightlessness, no longer needing the luxury of flight—which may have been an evolutionary mistake, considering what happened when humans and their pets showed up . Its diet likely comprised of fruit and seeds, as well as possibly insects.", "Dodo (Raphus cucullatus), called Didus ineptus by Linnaeus. A meter-high flightless bird on Mauritius. Its forest habitat was lost when Dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo's nests were destroyed by the rats, pigs, and cats the Dutch brought with them. The last specimen was killed in 1681, only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators. Of the 45 bird species originally found on Mauritius, 24 are now extinct.", "Some controversy surrounds the date of their extinction. The last widely accepted record of a dodo sighting is the 1662 report by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz of the Dutch ship Arnhem, who described birds caught on a small islet off Mauritius, now suggested to be Amber Island:", "     The dodo's close relatives on neighboring islands are far less known. On Reunion, a bird called the Reunion solitaire (Raphus solitarius) was described by early visitors to the island as resembling the Mauritius dodo, except its beak was somewhat smaller, its plumage was white and the tips of the wings and the tail were black (Fuller 1987).  One traveler, M. Carre, said in 1699:  \"The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see. It is of changeable color which verges upon yellow\" (Fuller 1987).  Two were taken aboard ship as a present to the French king, but both refused to drink or eat and soon died.  M. Carre noted in his description that \"The flesh is exquisite; it forms one of the best dishes in this country, and might form a dainty at our tables\" (Fuller 1987).  This was an ominous prediction of its final fate.  The Reunion solitaire probably died out about 1715 as a result of being slaughtered for food.", "There is no denying that Dodo had made its mark in the world of literature as well as popular culture – with oft used phrases like ‘as dead as dodo’ or even ‘as dumb as dodo’. But such negative connotations haven’t stopped the adoption of the long-extinct flightless bird in several national symbols of Mauritius, including on the nation’s coat of arms and as a conspicuous watermark in the country’s currency notes. And in case you are interested, the ‘novel’ coat of arms was designed in 1906, by Johann Van Der Puf, who was the Mayor of Johannesburg when Mauritius was still a colony of Great Britain.", "'The genetic differences suggest that the ancestor of the dodo and solitaire separated from the Southeast Asian relatives around 40 million years ago, and sometime after this point flew across the Indian Ocean to the Mascarene Islands. The data suggest that the dodo and solitaire speciated from each other around 26 million years ago, about the same time that geologists think the first (now submerged) Mascarene Islands emerged. However, Mauritius and Rodrigues islands are much younger (8 and 1.5 million years respectively), implying that the dodo and solitaire used the now sunken island chain as stepping-stones. Furthermore, the isolation of Rodrigues Island suggests that the solitaire, at least, may have still been able to fly as recently as 1.5 million years ago.'", "It is curious that a bird without wings can exist on an island. Experts belief the dodo could fly but once it got to Mauritius it chose not to; it had a strange reverse evolution of trying to achieve flightlessness. Curiouser and curiouser are claims springing from around 1990 that the dodo still exists – including one from Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling who fictionally claimed the dodo is alive and well, but it is called the Diricawl by wizards. This magical bird can vanish and reappear elsewhere, leading muggles (non-magical humans) to believe it is extinct.", "     Portuguese and then Dutch seamen and colonists slaughtered thousands of dodos, using them as a major source of food.  They cut down the seed-bearing trees dodos fed upon, and their eggs and chicks may have been preyed on by rats and introduced macaques (Fuller 1987).  Settlement began in 1634, and within less than 30 years, the once-common dodos were slaughtered to extinction.  The settlements failed and Mauritius remained uninhabited for a period of time.", "     The last account of wild dodos dates from 1662.  A Dutchman named Volquard Iversen was deserted on Mauritius soon after both the early settlement and the penal colony failed (Quammen 1996).  Iversen and his shipmates scoured the island for food and found no dodos, but they did see some on a small islet off the coast.  He described them as \"larger than geese but not able to fly. Instead of wings they had small flaps; but they could run very fast\" (Quammen 1996).  The islet protected the last few dodos from human hunters and introduced predators, and until then, the tiny population had remained undetected.  Iversen's party waded through the shallow water to the islet and captured a dodo.  \"When we held one by the leg he let out a cry, others came running forward to help the prisoner, and they were themselves caught\" (Quammen 1996).  These were the last of their species.  Altruism, a trait that has helped many animals survive through mutual aid, has also caused extinctions.  Human hunters have taken advantage of this, killing animals that come to the aid of each other.", "The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland (1601–1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius. They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now-extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist. Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th-century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.", ". . Separate from the continents since it emerged from the seas some eight million years ago, the island developed hundreds of unique species of flora and fauna that evolved in isolation. But the arrival of Europeans led by the Portuguese in the 16th century triggered an ecological disaster with the slashing of forest habitats and the introduction of predators like rats. By far the most famous victim was the flightless dodo bird, which is believed to have died out in the late 1600s. About 98% of the island's indigenous forest has been cut down, most of it to grow fields of sugar cane.", "Gray in color, the dodo bird may have been a relative of the pigeon family. It had a large, hooked beak and white feathers attached to its tail. This wingless bird had no enemies on the island and was safe living on the ground. In 1581, when dogs and pigs were brought onto the island, things changed. Man introduced other new species and started hunting the dodo bird. Eventually, the dodo became extinct. Although the exact date isn't certain, people believe these birds were last seen around 1681.", "Despite being the emblem of extinction, the evolutionary history of the dodo is poorly understood. Like many other birds confined to islands, the dodo underwent extreme evolutionary change; with very little evidence to work with, scientists have struggled to elucidate the relationship of the dodo to other birds; it has been linked with everything from parrots, pigeons, and shorebirds, to birds of prey.", "Dodos were plump, flightless birds with no natural predators. Sailors first discovered the dodo in the 16th century, and found hunting it to be very easy. This, along with the human introduction of predators, decimated the dodo population. Dogs, pigs and rats fed on the dodos' nest eggs and on small chicks. Farming also destroyed dodo habitats and food sources. The last known sighting of a dodo bird was in 1662.", "On land are found such non-native birds such as canaries, francolins, mynas, sparrows, and waxbills. Sooty terns or \"wideawake birds\" nest in great seashore lava \"fairs\". Other seabirds include some types of boobies, petrels and tropicbirds (named boatswain (pronounced BO-sun) birds by the inhabitants of the island), white tern, brown noddy, black noddy and Ascension frigatebird. The Ascension crake became extinct around the beginning of the 19th century.", "Climate Change and Island Species: How the Dodo Birds Went Extinct : News : Nature World News", "Bird Image Gallery Associated Press The 2007 discovery of a complete dodo skeleton may reveal valuable information about the extinct bird. See more pictures of birds .", ". . Unused to predators, the dodos were not frightened of the human settlers who hunted it and destroyed the forests that provided its habitat. Passing ships also brought rats, which ate the birds' eggs located in nests on the ground." ]

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[ "The study of earthquakes is called seismology. Scientists measure and record earthquakes using devices called seismometers. The size of an earthquake is measured according to its magnitude (the size of the shock waves and the energy produced) or its effects.", "Earthquake, shaking of the earth's surface caused by rapid movement of the earth's rocky outer layer. Earthquakes occur when energy stored within the earth, usually in the form of strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy is transmitted to the surface of the earth by earthquake waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the Greek seismos, \"to shake\"). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists.", "The study of the earthquakes and the movement of Seismic waves around the earth is known as Seismology and the person who studies about these earthquakes and the seismic waves is known as a Seismologist.", "*** Seismology – scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies", "Seismologists study the genesis and the propagation of seismic waves in geological materials. They are involved in the scientific study of sudden violent movements of the earth connected with earthquakes. Although earthquakes have fascinated people for centuries, the roots of modern seismology date back only about 100 years to the development of the first instruments capable of recording seismic waves. So many fundamental questions about earthquakes still remain unanswered: How do earthquakes start? What controls their timing? How do they stop? Although most seismologists are pessimistic about the possibility of predicting earthquakes, a better understanding of fundamental physical processes of earthquakes will help improve seismologists' assessments of earthquake hazards.", "Seismologists study earthquakes by going out and looking at the damage caused by the earthquakes and by using seismographs. A seismograph is an instrument that records the shaking of the earth's surface caused by seismic waves. The term seismometer is also used to refer to the same device, and the two terms are often used interchangably.", "*** History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies", "Then there was the development of seismology, the study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies, in the early 20th century. By measuring the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves, scientists were able to gradually infer how the Earth was layered and what lay deeper at its core.", ", scientific study of earthquakes and related phenomena, including the propagation of waves and shocks on or within the earth by natural or artificially generated seismic signals.", "3) Study different aspects of earthquake formation, such as \"ground-motion seismology,\" which is used to predict shaking caused by large earthquakes. Seismologists observe earthquake patterns and try to accurately predict the time and location of future earthquakes.", "Seismologists are geoscientists who study earthquakes and related phenomena, including the effects of explosions and the formation of tsunamis. These professionals gather data about shifts in the earth's crust through the use of seismographs and other instruments. While many seismologists are uncertain about the possibility of predicting earthquakes, their research has been instrumental in the development of such advances as tsunami warning systems.", "The second group of geological disciplines (dynamic geology) includes tectonics, which studies crustal movements and the structures created by them. When applied to the largest structures of the earth—the continents and oceans—it is frequently called geotectonics, and the tectonics of the Neocene-Anthropogenic (Quaternary) time period is called neotectonics. Experimental tectonics, which studies tectonic processes (for example, the formation of folds) on models, is a separate discipline. This group also includes the divisions of mineralogy and petrology, which study the process of mineral and rock formation, as well as such disciplines as volcanology, which studies the processes of volcanism; seismogeology, the science of geological processes that accompany earthquakes and of using geological data to determine regions of seismic activity (seismic zoning), and geocryology, which investigates processes involving perennially frozen rocks.", "An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.", "Seismologists measure earthquakes to learn more about them and to use them for geological discovery. They measure the pattern of an earthquake with a machine called a seismograph. Using multiple seismographs around the world, they can accurately locate the epicenter of the earthquake, as well as determine its magnitude, or size, and fault slip properties.", "During mountain building, rocks became highly deformed, and the primary objective of structural geology is to elucidate the mechanism of formation of the many types of structures (e.g., folds and faults) that arise from such deformation . The allied field of geophysics has several subdisciplines, which make use of different instrumental techniques. Seismology , for example, involves the exploration of the Earth’s deep structure through the detailed analysis of recordings of elastic waves generated by earthquakes and man-made explosions. Earthquake seismology has largely been responsible for defining the location of major plate boundaries and of the dip of subduction zones down to depths of about 700 kilometres at those boundaries. In other subdisciplines of geophysics, gravimetric techniques are used to determine the shape and size of underground structures; electrical methods help to locate a variety of mineral deposits that tend to be good conductors of electricity; and paleomagnetism has played the principal role in tracking the drift of continents.", "Seismologists use global networks of seismographic stations to accurately map the focuses of earthquakes around the world. After studying the worldwide distribution of earthquakes, the pattern of earthquake types, and the movement of the earth's rocky crust, scientists proposed that plate tectonics, or the shifting of the plates as they move over another weaker rocky layer, was the main underlying cause of earthquakes. The theory of plate tectonics arose from several previous geologic theories and discoveries. Scientists now use the plate tectonics theory to describe the movement of the earth's plates and how this movement causes earthquakes. They also use the knowledge of plate tectonics to explain the locations of earthquakes, mountain formation, deep ocean trenches, and predict which areas will be damaged the most by earthquakes. It is clear that major earthquakes occur most frequently in areas with features that are found at plate boundaries: high mountain ranges and deep ocean trenches. Earthquakes within plates, or intraplate tremors, are rare compared with the thousands of earthquakes that occur at plate boundaries each year, but they can be very large and damaging.", "The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by instruments call seismographs. The zig-zag line made by a seismograph, called a \"seismogram,\" reflects the changing intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released.", "Graham’s work is about more than just earthquakes, though. Seismologists also apply what they learn from studying the Earth’s structure and other geological events, such as tsunamis, for commercial and other purposes, such as detecting nuclear explosions.", "After many years of study, geologists know the speed at which the different types of waves travel through various earth materials. Based on the difference in the arrival times of the first P wave and the first S wave, seismologists determine the distance between the epicenter and a seismometer. Once the distance to the epicenter is known, scientists can identify each point that is that distance away. Let's say that they know that an earthquake's epicenter is 50 kilometers from Kansas City. When each point that is that distance away from Kansas City is marked, the marks create a circle. This circle can be drawn with a compass.", "The evidence for deep-focus earthquakes was discovered in 1922 by H.H. Turner of Oxford, England. Previously, all earthquakes were considered to have shallow focal depths. The existence of deep-focus earthquakes was confirmed in 1931 from studies of the seismograms of several earthquakes, which in turn led to the construction of travel-time curves for intermediate and deep earthquakes.", "Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through the Earth; they are recorded on instruments called seismographs. Seismographs record a zig-zag trace that shows the varying amplitude of ground oscillations beneath the instrument. Sensitive seismographs, which greatly magnify these ground motions, can detect strong earthquakes from sources anywhere in the world. The time, locations, and magnitude of an earthquake can be determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations.", "Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through Earth; they are recorded on instruments called seismographs. Seismographs record a zigzag trace that shows the varying amplitude of ground oscillations beneath the instrument. Sensitive seismographs, which greatly magnify these ground motions, can detect strong earthquakes from sources anywhere in the world. The time, location, and magnitude of an earthquake can be determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations.", "Scholarly interest in earthquakes can be traced back to antiquity. Early speculations on the natural causes of earthquakes were included in the writings of Thales of Miletus (c. 585 BCE), Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 550 BCE), Aristotle (c. 340 BCE) and Zhang Heng (132 CE).", "For the purpose of this study, a team of geologists from the Nanjing University, China, and the University of Illinois studied the echoes generated by seismic waves produced during earthquakes to scan below the surface of Earth, much like an ultrasound is used to see inside patients. Analyzing these echoes, scientists found a marked difference in the structure of iron crystals in the inner and outer regions of the inner core.", "Earthquakes - Earth And Physical Sciences 10 with Elis at University of California - Santa Cruz - StudyBlue", "The California earthquake of April 18, 1906 ranks as one of the most significant earthquakes of all time. Today, its importance comes more from the wealth of scientific knowledge derived from it than from its sheer size. Rupturing the northernmost 296 miles (477 kilometers) of the San Andreas fault from northwest of San Juan Bautista to the triple junction at Cape Mendocino, the earthquake confounded contemporary geologists with its large, horizontal displacements and great rupture length. Indeed, the significance of the fault and recognition of its large cumulative offset would not be fully appreciated until the advent of plate tectonics more than half a century later. Analysis of the 1906 displacements and strain in the surrounding crust led Reid (1910) to formulate his elastic-rebound theory of the earthquake source, which remains today the principal model of the earthquake cycle.", "Richter remained at the Carnegie Institute until 1936, when he obtained a post at the California Institute of Technology, where Beno Gutenberg worked. Gutenberg and Richter published Seismicity of the Earth in 1941. Its revised edition, published in 1954, is considered a standard reference in the field.", "\"It allows us to listen to the earthquakes as they occur and when something unusual happens, we can send out a group of scientists to study the events as they unfold.\"", "‘Richter, who worked in southern California, using data from seismographs - which measure earth movement - devised a method to calculate where an earthquake began, or its epicenter, and its magnitude.’", "Nevertheless, it is important to collect and analyze as much data as possible about past and present earthquakes. Some of Japan’s other largest quakes that have hit off Honshu and produced tsunamis include an estimated magnitude 8.6 in July A.D. 869, an estimated magnitude 8.5 in June 1896, a magnitude 8.4 in March 1933 and a magnitude 7.4 in June 1978. The seismo-tectonic relationship between these past earthquakes and the March 2011 megaquakes off northeast Honshu will be of particular interest to geoscientists. But it will likely be awhile before we have a big picture of how these events were related.", "A few seismologists monitor for underground nuclear test explosions for intelligence agencies. Some use their knowledge to help unearth archaeological sites. Others conduct more theoretical research on the geological makeup and structures of the Earth.", "It is important also to add that there are some signs of a relation between regional lightning and shallow earthquakes (see \"Geophysical Journal International\" v.131, p.485 (1997)). Remarkably, that during 19th century an idea was popular that earthquakes are of electric origin!" ]

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[ "Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.", "Many people have marble tile in their homes, but they might not realize that marble was once a different type of rock -- marble formed from the metamorphism of limestone. The term “metamorphism” comes from the Greek words “meta,” meaning change, and “morph,” meaning form. In geology, metamorphism refers to rocks changing form through conditions including heat and pressure.", "Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to the heat and pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (CaCO3) and usually contains other minerals, such as clay minerals, micas, quartz , pyrite , iron oxides, and graphite . Under the conditions of metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone recrystallizes to form a rock that is a mass of interlocking calcite crystals. A related rock, dolomitic marble, is produced when dolostone is subjected to heat and pressure.", "Marble is a metamorphic rock that may be foliated or non-foliated, composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the term \"marble\" to refer to metamorphosed limestone; however, stonemasons use the term more broadly to encompass unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material.", "The term \"Marble\" is derived from the Latin word \"Marmar\" which itself comes from the Greek root \"Marmarous\" meaning thereby a shining stone. Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the re-crystallization of limestone softened from heat and pressure. Main constituents are calcium and dolomite. Hardness ranges from 2.5 to 5 on the MOH scale. Marble is usually heavily veined and shows lots of grains. Dimensional marble specifications include smooth textures, ease in crafting sculptures, hence highly manageable. It is a reasonably strong and durable stone. It takes good polish, popularly used as wall claddings, floors, skirtings, table tops, treads and risers, sculptures, artifacts, etc. Marble is classified into three categories:", "marble—a crystalline metamorphic rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). A product of metamorphism of limestone.", "Marble - A limestone or dolostone made up only of calcite or dolomite will metamorphose to a marble which is made mostly recrystallized calcite or dolomite.  The Recrystallization usually obliterates all fossils.  Marbles have a variety of colors and are often complexly banded.   They are commonly used as a decorative stone.", "Marble: metamorphic rock made of recrystallized calcite or dolomite. Limestone marble is white. Marbles like those played with on street corners were once made of marble; the common method of shooting one is called fulking (no kidding). It's considered impolite to fulk with another person's marbles without permission.", "Marble - Metamorphosed limestone and dolomite. Marble is composed of large crystals of calcite or dolomite that sparkle when light reflects off of their flat surfaces. In Pennsylvania, marble is white or very light gray, and generally contains flakes of golden-brown or white mica. It reacts to dilute hydrochloric acid. Marble can be scratched by a knife.", ". Marble is metamorphized limestone. While marble is banded like onyx, and while some marble rock does exist in Saudi Arabia, marble is probably not what the Bible is referring to in Gen. 2:12. For one thing, in 1 Chron. 29:2 \"marble stone\" is mentioned separately from \"onyx stone\" suggesting that, in the ancient mind, these were two different types of substances. In antiquity, the word \"onyx\" was usually reserved for very hard silica substances used in jewelry, while \"marble\" was reserved for calcium carbonate, a softer substance used as a building material.", "The main difference between limestone and marble is that limestone is a sedimentary rock, typically composed of calcium carbonate fossils, and marble is a metamorphic rock. Limestone forms when shells, sand, and mud are deposited at the bottom of oceans and lakes and over time solidify into rock. Marble forms when sedimentary limestone is heated and squeezed by natural rock-forming processes so that the grains recrystallize. If you look closely at a limestone, you can usually see fossil fragments (for example, bits of shell) held together by a calcite matrix. Limestone is more porous than marble, because there are small openings between the fossil fragments. Marble is usually light colored and is composed of crystals of calcite locked together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Marble may contain colored streaks that are inclusions of non-calcite minerals.", "Marble is a coarse, crystalline metamorphic rock whose parent was limestone or dolostone (Figure 7.12). Pure marble is white and composed essentially of the mineral calcite. Because of its relative softness (hardness of 3), marble is easy to cut and shape. White marble is particularly prized as a stone from which to create monuments and statues, such", "Diagram 2 shows the limestone being heated by the magma and changing to the metamorphic rock called marble (Yellow). Marble is a beautiful rock that is used by humans as building material and for decorative uses as in sink tops or monuments. Artists have sculpted marble into some of the greatest works of art in the world.", "Most marble forms at convergent plate boundaries where large areas of Earth's crust are exposed to regional metamorphism. Some marble also forms by contact metamorphism when a hot magma body heats adjacent limestone or dolostone.", "A non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of limestone . It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It is often used as a building stone in prestige architecture. The photo shows part of the West Building of the National Gallery of Art, which has extensive use of marble in both the exterior and interior.", "If you examine the photo of granular dolomite, you will see that the rock is composed of easily recognizable dolomite crystals. The coarse crystalline texture is a sign of recrystallization, most often caused by metamorphism. Dolomite that has been transformed into a metamorphic rock is called \"dolomitic marble.\"", "The most common process in the formation of metamorphic rocks is recrystallization. In this process, small crystals of one mineral in contact with one another slowly come together to form fewer larger crystals. For example, the sedimentary rock, limestone. Limestone is composed of microscopic crystals of calcite that once formed the shells of marine creatures. When metamorphosed, those tiny crystals are slowly forced together under high pressure and begin to form larger, more visible crystals of calcite found in the metamorphic rock marble.", "Recrystallization is what marks the separation between limestone and marble. Marble that has been exposed to low levels of metamorphism will have very small calcite crystals. The crystals become larger as the level of metamorphism progresses. Clay minerals within the marble will alter to micas and more complex silicate structures as the level of metamorphism increases.", "♦ METAMORPHIC ROCKS: These rocks arise by the action of high temperatures and pressures on sedimendary rocks. Marble, slate and mica are examples of metamorphic rocks.", "Color:   Marble is usually a light-colored rock. When it is formed from a limestone with very few impurities, it will be white in color. Marble that contains impurities such as clay minerals, iron oxides, or bituminous material can be bluish, gray, pink, yellow, or black in color.", "Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term \"marble\" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation.", "Lapis usually forms in crystalline marble through the geological process of contact metamorphism and due to its composition, it is technically defined as a rock rather than a mineral. It is primarily composed of lazurite, while the remaining composition is made up of sodalite, calcite, pyrite and other various minor constituents. The varying composition is what influences its exact coloring.", "Travertine is a form of limestone formed by chemical precipitation of aragonite and/or calcite from aqueous solution. The most abundant accumulations of travertine occur around hot springs and soda-lakes. Travertine is often banded and/or fibrous and often contains detrital and sometimes biogenic clast s. Precipiation of carbonates on clasts often leads to concentric structures. Stomatilitic structures can be present due to precipitation by micro-organisms. Travertine also forms precipitated carbonates within caves and makes up speleothems such as stalactites and stalagmites, and the matrix of many cave breccia s. The term tufa is used to describe highly porous travertine. [Source: wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/ ]", "Marble is a translucent stone that allows light to enter and produce a soft \"glow.\" It also has the ability to take a very high polish. These properties make it a beautiful stone for producing sculptures. It is soft, making it easy to sculpt, and when it is fine-grained it has uniform properties in all directions. Some of the world's most famous sculptures have been produced from marble. This bust of the Greek goddess, Artemis, is a copy of an original Greek work. Photo © iStockphoto / Diane Diederich.", "Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or volcanic rocks that have been changed, or \"metamorphosed,\" due to the temperature, pressure, and shearing stress that can result from being buried in the Earth's crust. There are two northwest-trending belts of metamorphic rocks, one on each side of the batholith of plutonic rocks that is the core of the Sierra Nevada range - these belts existed before the creation of the batholith and its subsequent exposure. Metamorphic rocks of volcanic origin are called metavolcanic rocks, and metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin are called metasedimentary rocks. (Huber, 1989)", "      Metamorphism describes the set of solid state processes which transform one type of rock into another. Any type of rock, whether igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary, may be metamorphised. Metamorphic changes occur mainly in mineral structure and texture; changes in chemical composition may also take place. Metamorphism typically occurs at the high temperatures and pressures which are present deep within the earth's crust. The process is defined to occur in the solid state and melting of the rock may therefore not occur. Any process during which complete melting of the rock does occur is considered to be of igneous rather than metamorphic nature.", "Plutonic rocks (also called intrusive igneous rocks) are those that have solidified below ground; plutonic comes from Pluto, the Greek god of the underworld.", "Granular Dolomite: Dolomitic marble from Thornwood, New York. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (6.7 centimeters) across.", "Regional metamorphism, also known as dynamic metamorphism, is the name given to changes in great masses of rock over a wide area. Rocks can be metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts, and cause high temperatures, pressures and deformation in the rocks along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they may occur in long belts or other large areas at the surface. The process of metamorphism may have destroyed the original features that could have revealed the rock's previous history. Recrystallization of the rock will destroy the textures and fossils present in sedimentary rocks. Metasomatism will change the original composition.", "Some rocks cool slowly, because the magma from which they form did not erupt on the Earth's surface, but was intruded into a layer beneath it. These rocks are also called intrusive, and because large aggregates of rock formed in this way are also called plutons, such rocks are also called plutonic. Slow cooling allows for grains to grow in size, hence we have coarse grained, plutonic, or intrusive rocks. Again, we spare the reader additional names.", "The volcanic rocks of which the mountain is made were formed in the caldera of an ancient volcano, many of them in violently explosive eruptions, about 450 million years ago during the Ordovician period. During the last ice age these rocks were carved by glaciers to create the landforms seen today.", "During the 18th century, opinion was divided between those who believed that rocks were deposited by the oceans during flooding events, and those that believed they were formed through heat and fire. In a two-volume study of his paper published in 1795, Hutton advanced the idea that some rocks are formed by volcanic heat while others are formed by sedimentation. These processes, he claimed, are ongoing and work over very long, very gradual time periods." ]

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[ "The report finds that common bacteria that cause illness are often found in holy water, as are nitrates (chemicals used in fertilizers and commonly found in runoff from farms). ABC News says that “if ingested, water containing nitrates over the maximum contaminant level could cause serious illness, especially in infants younger than six  months, which could lead to death if untreated, according to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency.”", "Hafeman, D., Factor-Litvak, P., Cheng, Z., van, Geen A., and Ahsan, H. Association between manganese exposure through drinking water and infant mortality in Bangladesh. Environ.Health Perspect. 2007;115(7):1107-1112. View abstract.", "In 2002, an inquiry found a number of toxins, including mercury , lead , 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene , dichloromethane and chloroform , in nursing women’s breast milk. Well water and groundwater tests conducted in the surrounding areas in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at “20,000 and 6 million times” higher than expected levels; heavy metals and organochlorines were present in the soil. Chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as well as trichloroethene , known to impair fetal development, at 50 times above safety limits specified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). [19]", "Boiling water can kill bacteria but it cannot remove chlorine, lead, rust and other pollutants. It is also a common knowledge that fish die from living in unfiltered tap water or boiled water within a few days due to chlorine and other contaminants. When people reach middle age, accumulation of the various pollutants from tap water in the body can help to cause many chronic diseases. Several researches with funding from Health Canada, including one conducted in 1998 in Ontario, have linked chlorine and its by-products, e.g., trihalomethanes (THMs), to increased risk of rectal cancer, colon cancer, and bladder cancer. For women: This chlorine content in our tap water is one of the reasons why more women in the last 5 years have breast cancer than they did 25 years ago.", "2) If your child is using infant formula, it is imperative to avoid making the formula with fluoridated tap water. Infant formula reconstituted with fluoridated water delivers a very high dose of fluoride to a young baby. For instance, infant formula produced with fluoridated water contains 100 to 200 times more fluoride (1,000 ppb) than is found naturally in breast milk (5-10 ppb). In fact, while breast-fed infants receive the LOWEST body burden (mg/kg/day) in the population, they receive the HIGHEST body burden if they receive fluoridated formula.", "In 2002, an inquiry found a number of toxins, including mercury , lead , 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene , dichloromethane and chloroform , in nursing women's breast milk. Well water and groundwater tests conducted in the surrounding areas in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at \"20,000 and 6 million times\" higher than expected levels; heavy metals and organochlorines were present in the soil. Chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as well as trichloroethene , known to impair fetal development, at 50 times above safety limits specified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). [51]", "'s Environmental Protection Agency is only 35 parts per billion. The contamination was blamed on leaking undergrowund gasoline tanks close to wells from which much of the city's water was supplied. MTBE, or or methyl tertiary butyl ether, remains dissolved in water for a long time and may attach to particles in the water which will eventually cause it to settle to the bottom sediment. MTBE is a known human carcinogen and studies with rats and mice suggest that drinking MTBE may cause gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney damage, and nervous system effects. Benzene is another petrochemical that may end up in water supplies as it is widely used in industry and consumer products such as paint thinners. The Foundation for Water Research, based in", "Populations have developed resistance to methylmercury, kepone, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. One study has looked at the genomic variation exhibited by mummichogs populations living in Newark Bay, New Bedford Harbor, and the Elizabeth River (Virginia) (in some areas heavily polluted with polychlorinated biphenyls and creosote, a complex mixture containing dioxin-like chemicals) and has found that about 20% of their genes were modified as compared to populations living in clean sites.", "Water from a private water supply is totally natural. That is, it contains whatever pathogens that might be lurking in the environment that surrounds the source of the supply. In years gone-by that might have been cholera, typhoid or dysentery. Today it’s more likely to be Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Campylobacter or E.coli – pathogens that might not be as life threatening as the “the bloody flux”, but still, not very pleasant", "There’s no way for pregnant women to tell which cans have the higher spikes of mercury, which can potentially damage the brain of an infant in the womb at a critical stage of development. “The brain undergoes a series of complex developmental stages that need to be completed in the right sequence and at the right time,” explains Philippe Grandjean, M.D., an adjunct professor at the Harvard School of Public Health and a leading researcher. A mother’s intake of methylmercury when she eats fish could reach the fetus within hours and may leave a permanent deficit at a critical time, he says.", "The Duwamish River faces many types of pollution, in addition to the contaminants named above. One major form of pollution is fecal coliform caused by sewage overflow. Even if these overflows were to be cleaned up the overall quality of the water would not improve much. The Duwamish River's most common pollutant is petroleum. Other contamination would still occur from farms, surface runoff, or failing septic tanks.", "A successful treatment to prevent the development of this disease was discovered in 1880, and this treatment or its equivalent is now required by law. The eyelids of every newborn baby are cleansed, and drops of a silver nitrate solution (sometimes penicillin and other antibiotics) are put into the eyes. Effort is also directed, of course, to promoting good health on the part of the expectant mother so that she will not transmit harmful germs to her baby.", "Once you're in labour, there's a higher chance of your baby becoming distressed . He may do his first poo, a blackish substance called meconium, into the amniotic fluid. If he inhales the meconium, it may cause him to have breathing problems when he is born.", "Non-point source (NPS) pollution is the source of surface or groundwater pollution originating from diffuse areas without well-defined sources. The most common examples of NPS are chemicals that enter surface water during runoff events from crop land and turfgrass, and soil erosion from cultivated cropland and construction sites.", "Many of us are increasingly unsettled about the potential harm of a growing number of contaminants in tap water, especially those which adversely impact human health. Since the 1970s, sampling for water pollutants has markedly increased. Now hundreds of manufactured chemicals have been found in the groundwater and various other drinking water sources. Chemical contamination of drinking water can be traced to several different causes, including wrongful disposal of household cleaners, leaking underground storage tanks, seepage from landfills, discharge from factories and increased pesticide & fertilizer use over the past fifty years.", "Of the estimated 17,000 children who die daily, about 4,000 die because of polluted drinking water. Many agrarian societies have poor sanitation and unsafe water supplies. Water is often contaminated with microorganisms, leading to diarrhea and dehydration. For an adult this is a nuisance. For an infant or child an intestinal upset can be life threatening-especially if her nutrition is already borderline. In many places, especially in the tropics, parasites sap kids' nutrition and energy.", "Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin. ", "Given the agricultural nature of much of the Tyne catchment there is a risk of diffuse water pollution from agriculture (DWPA). Historically, a number of pesticides have been found in the raw water at our Horsley and Whittle Dene Water Treatment Works, including metaldehyde, the active ingredient in slug pellets. Removing these substances requires additional chemicals and energy, and can therefore increase the cost of treating drinking water.", "Surface waters and groundwater are the two types of water resources that pollution affects. There are also two different ways in which pollution can occur. If pollution comes from a single location, such as a discharge pipe attached to a factory, it is known as point-source pollution. Other examples of point source pollution include an oil spill from a tanker, a discharge from a smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil from their car down a drain. A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single source but from many different scattered sources. This is called nonpoint-source pollution.", "Thermal pollution from municipal and industrial effluents can negatively affect water quality. Photo credit: Vmenkov via Wikimedia Commons", "Taken together, land-based river and urban runoff sources constitute over half of the petroleum pollution introduced to North American coastal waters due to human activity, and 20 percent of the petroleum pollution introduced to ocean waters worldwide. When wastewater from these sources enters the marine environment it is usually by means of an estuary, an area where freshwater from land mixes with seawater. Estuaries are especially critical habitats for a variety of plants and animals, and are among the ecosystems most sensitive to pollutants.", "   Don�t put that little tot of yours out on the lawn without looking over the lawn. A Janesville woman did that. A minute after, she looked out the window and here the baby was gulping a big white toadstool or poisonous mushroom. It was not long before Ma had the little one in the hospital and had its stomach pumped out. �An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.�", "The amniotic fluid is essential for the development of muscles, limbs, lungs , and the digestive system. In the second trimester, the baby begins to breathe and swallow the fluid to help their lungs grow and mature. The amniotic fluid also helps the baby develop muscles and limbs by providing plenty of room to move around.", "\"There are higher percentages of birth defects in people living in close proximity to the contaminated site,\" Levy says. \"What we don't know at the present time is to what extent other factors could be contributing to this. The maternal nutrition has a very big influence on the subsequent health of the baby that's born. These people are extremely poor, their nutrition is -- is not very good. And so we need to rule out some of these alternative explanations for the high birth defects.\"", "        Oil palm agriculture has important implications for water quality as well. Sedimentation from soil erosion can degrade drinking water and destroy aquatic ecosystems. Inputs of petrochemical herbicides, insecticides, and fertilizers often pollute local waterways in areas that have already been converted to industrial plantation agriculture. Additionally, effluent from industrial wastewater creates massive amounts of untreated sewage. In 1999 alone, palm oil mill effluent in Indonesia produced the equivalent of the amount of domestic sewage generated by 20 million people (CSPI, 2005).", "Critical care physicians have long known that giving high levels of oxygen to premature infants can lead to retinal damage, blindness and lung injury; giving too little oxygen can cause brain damage and death.", "Water is one of our most precious resources, yet our infrastructure is failing. Driven by global population growth and rising water scarcity, the UN reports that 75 percent of the world’s available freshwater is already polluted. Under-investment in water management is exacerbating the problem, causing serious impacts on human health and the environment. A key challenge is the high capital cost, and high energy requirements, of current wastewater treatment and management systems.", "The Marcellus Shale formation, located in the Northeast U.S., is of particular interest to the oil and gas industry, not just because of its large, untapped reserve, but because of its proximity to major population centers.  That proximity, however, also raises significant public health concerns.  Of primary concern is the potentially damaging impact of natural gas drilling on water resources.  A new process conducted by drilling companies has the potential to increase pollution exposure, and concerned members of the public, some state and federal regulators and the environmental community are keeping a close watch on the process.", "One of the serious negative consequences of China's rapid industrial development has been increased pollution and degradation of natural resources. A 1998 World Health Organization report on air quality in 272 cities worldwide concluded that seven of the world's 10 most polluted cities were in China. According to China's own evaluation, two-thirds of the 338 cities for which air-quality data are available are considered polluted--two-thirds of them moderately or severely so. Respiratory and heart diseases related to air pollution are the leading cause of death in China. Almost all of the nation's rivers are considered polluted to some degree, and half of the population lacks access to clean water. Ninety percent of urban water bodies are severely polluted. Water scarcity also is an issue; for example, severe water scarcity in Northern China is a serious threat to sustained economic growth and has forced the government to plan a largescale diversion of water from the Yangtze River to northern cities, including Beijing and Tianjin. Acid rain falls on 30% of the country. Various studies estimate pollution costs the Chinese economy about 7% of GDP each year.", "In the United States, which type of poisoning ranks as one of the most common childhood environmental health problems?", "The key to protecting our water quality lies in not only learning where water comes from, but also how to conserve and protect our clean water, as well as our forests, grasslands and wetlands which are nature’s water filters.", "A toddler in Idaho who had mild non-bloody diarrhea routinely shared the family’s bath tub with a neighbor’s child. Several days after the two children bathed together, the neighbor child developed bloody diarrhea that progressed to severe HUS. A few days later, the first toddler was also admitted to the same children’s hospital with HUS. Tragically, the neighbor’s child died." ]

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[ "Rainforests are old-growth forests located in tropical regions near the equator and a few temperate regions that receive comparable rainfall. They are central to the ecological integrity of the planet and the equilibrium of its climate. Rainforests cover 6% of its land mass, yet they house more than half the plant and animal species.", "Rainforests are the world's powerhouses, the most vital habitats on the planet. Characterised by high rainfall, they only cover 6% of the Earth across the tropical regions, but they contain more than half of its plant and animal species.", "Tropical rainforests surround the earth’s equatorial zone and are warm and humid places. They provide shelter and sustenance to an enormous variety of plant and animal species, and they are also home to 50 million Indigenous peoples. Although tropical forests cover less than 7% of the earth’s surface they are home to approximately 50% of all living things on earth.", "nine countries: Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana. The Amazon basin encompasses 7,000,000 square kilometers (1.2 billion acres), while the forest itself, home to the greatest variety of plants and animals on Earth. It occupies some 5,500,000 square kilometers. The landscape contains one in ten known species on Earth,1.4 billion acres of dense forests, half of the planet's remaining tropical forests,4,100 miles of winding rivers and 2.6 million square miles in the Amazon basin, about 40 percent of South America ", "On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the polar regions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent except Australia, and on a few high-latitude oceanic islands. Between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 5 e6sqmi or about 98 percent of Antarctica's , with an average thickness of . Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers. ", "Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous.", "As has been mentioned above, the sea occupies about 70% of the surface area of the earth. The mean elevation of the land above sea level is 840m, while the mean depth of the sea is 3800m. If the area of the sea is represented by the area of a sheet of typing paper, the thickness of the paper (0.003\" or 0.08 mm) is about twice the proportional depth of the sea. The sea is a thin, two-dimensional region between the atmosphere and the crust of the earth. It is the home of most of the life on earth, and controls its climate. The volume of the sea is about 2 x 109 km3, and so its mass is 2 x 1021 kg. Note that this is only 1 part in 3000 of the total mass of the earth. Most of the hydrogen that remains on the earth is in the water of the sea; the rest has escaped to space. Sea levels at present are lower than average, and much of the continental shelf is exposed.", "70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water – the remainder consists of continents and islands which together have many lakes and other sources of water.", "• natural elevated surfaces greater than 600 m • have a large mass, steep sides and valleys, jagged profile and rugged terrain • usually found together in ranges or chains, except for isolated volcanoes • older mountains have a lower elevation and are more worn down • cover about 25% of Earth’s land surface", "Forests cover 31% of the land area on our planet. They produce vital oxygen and provide homes for people and wildlife. Many of the world’s most threatened and endangered animals live in forests, and 1.6 billion people rely on benefits forests offer, including food, fresh water, clothing, traditional medicine and shelter.", "The tundra, shown in Figure 9, covers the northernmost regions of North America and Eurasia, about 20% of the Earth's land area. This biome receives about 20 cm (8-10 inches) of rainfall annually. Snow melt makes water plentiful during summer months. Winters are long and dark, followed by very short summers. Water is frozen most of the time, producing frozen soil, permafrost. Vegetation includes no trees, but rather patches of grass and shrubs; grazing musk ox, reindeer, and caribou exist along with wolves, lynx, and rodents. A few animals highly adapted to cold live in the tundra year-round (lemming, ptarmigan). During the summer the tundra hosts numerous insects and migratory animals. The ground is nearly completely covered with sedges and short grasses during the short summer. There are also plenty of patches of lichens and mosses. Dwarf woody shrubs flower and produce seeds quickly during the short growing season. The alpine tundra occurs above the timberline on mountain ranges, and may contain many of the same plants as the arctic tundra.", "Forests are an ecosystem composed of trees, plants, animals, soil, and various microorganisms. Forests cover about 30% of the earth's surface. Forests grow in all types of landscapes including both salt and fresh water areas. In fact, some forests are located on moving glaciers.", "The portion of the earth comprising the lower atmosphere, the seas, and the land surface (mantle rock) in which living organisms exist.", "Macro- and meso-scale The surface of Earth is naturally divided into two broad landscapes: oceans and land. Each has distinctive landforms. Digital elevation model images of Earth’s surface show the major landscapes with distinctive landform features such as mountains, plateaus and plains. Submarine landforms mirror those found on land, but are much larger and have different names, such as mid-ocean ridges and abyssal plains.", "Twenty-five percent of the earths remaining primary forest is within the confines of the Amazon basin and a typical square mile may contain 750 species of trees, 125 different mammals, 400 types of birds, 100 distinct reptiles, and 16 varieties of amphibians.", "About one-third of the earth's landmass is desert or semi-desert. These regions have unique geologic features not found in more humid environments. These features are most often caused by wind and water erosion in the stark desert environment.", "A planet's life forms inhabit ecosystems, whose total is sometimes said to form a \"biosphere\". Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun evolving about . The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals. On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, height above sea level and humidity. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles, at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life; species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes.", "More than half of the world's estimated 10 million species of plants, animals and insects live in the tropical rainforests. One-fifth of the world's fresh water is in the Amazon Basin.", "Forty-six percent of the world's water is in the Pacific Ocean; that's around 6 sextillion gallons of water. The Atlantic has 23.9 percent; the Indian, ", "A. 2% (but they are home to more than 50% species on Earth). Accept any figure less than 5%.", "Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world. ", "While all organisms influence their environments to some degree, few have ever changed the globe as much, or as fast, as our species is doing. Some estimates indicate that as many as 20 percent of all plant and animal species present today will be extinct by the year 2025. More information is needed to determine whether the current and expected levels of extinction are in line within the natural background levels of species replacement, or whether these have been accelerated by human practices such as hunting, pollution, flood control and deforestation into what has been described as the sixth major mass extinction event. In addition, the vast majority of scientists agree that human activity is responsible for \"global warming,\" an observed increase in mean global temperatures that is still going on and which may have totally unpredictable effects.", "A unique flora, fauna, and mycobiota developed as the continent of Australia drifted northward from Antarctica. Even though the monotremes and marsupials existed on other continents as well, it was only in Australia – New Guinea that they were able to out-compete the placental mammals and dominate the area. Even bird life did prosper considerably. It was mainly the ancestors of the passerine forms that now form over 50% of the avian life on earth. The association between the Cyttaria gunnii, which is a golf ball fungi, and the other associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is notably remarkable among the fungi.", "Asia’s vastness and widely varying climatic conditions have produced the enormous diversity of life described in the discussions of plant and animal life. The distribution of economically valuable species, however, is highly uneven. The Arctic north of the continent and large areas of the central mountain massif—known as “the roof of the world”—are practically barren. In addition, even where there is water—and nowhere is water conservation pursued more carefully than in Asia—there are still many areas of undrained swamp. Conservationists, who believe these swamps are resources in their own right, hope that they will remain undrained. The continent’s naturally occurring biological resources—combined with the produce of intensive crop cultivation and widespread animal husbandry—constitute a large portion of its total economic output.", "As the human race continues to grow exponentially, people require more land for living space and resources. Several scientists estimate that anywhere from 85 to 98 percent of the world's terrestrial habitats have been overrun by humans. Small patches of land scattered all over the world is all the land that remains free of human influence. Species crowd together on these diminutive spots of land. Although many believe these small plots of land can prevent a mass extinction, the science of diversity suggests the opposite, Rosenzweig noted.", "This view is dominated by the large, bright feature informally named the \"heart\"Â which measures approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) across. The heart borders darker equatorial terrains, and the mottled terrain to its east (right) is complex. However, even at this resolution, much of the heart's interior appears remarkably featureless -- possibly a sign of ongoing geologic processes. (Courtesy NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute)", "Ecosystems where the land is permeated with water, which Either lies on or near the surface of the land", "area of the planet which can be classified according to the plant and animal life in it.", "A classification of the cultural, physical, and vegetation features that cover the earth, commonly used with remote sensing technology", "De West-Ghats zijn ouder dan het Himalaya gebergte en hebben belangrijke geomorfologische kenmerken, met unieke biofysische en ecologische processen. De hoge bergachtige bosecosystemen beïnvloeden het weerpatroon van de Indiase moessons. De West-Ghats matigen het tropische klimaat van de omgeving en daarmee geeft de bergketen een duidelijk voorbeeld van het moessonsysteem op aarde. Het gebied kent een uitzonderlijk hoge biodiversiteit en wordt erkend als één van 's werelds acht 'heetste hotspots' van biologische diversiteit. De bossen van de West-Ghats vormen een toonaangevend voorbeeld van niet-equatoriale, tropische, groenblijvende bossen wereldwijd. Ze zijn de thuisbasis van minstens 325 wereldwijd bedreigde flora, fauna, vogel-, amfibie-, reptiel- en vissoorten.", "the sum of all regions of the earth that cansupport life and the life that is found there.", "a spatial mosaic of several ecosystems, landforms and plant communities intermediate between an organism's normal homerange, size and its regional distribution" ]

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[ "24 What name is given to the huge growths of algae sometimes seen in polluted lakes and rivers? a.Algal overgrowth b.Algal overproduction c.Algal bloom d.Algal pollution", "In freshwater lakes around the world, a blue-green slick is often seen floating on the water. These algae blooms often result from an overabundance of what's known as cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, which may be toxic to humans and other animals.", "Algal blooms Extensive and rapid growth of planktonic (floating and suspended) algae, caused by an increased input of nutrients (primarily phosphorus , but sometimes nitrogen ), is a common problem in lakes. Lakes normally undergo aging over centuries, but the process can be accelerated rapidly by human activities that cause increases in sedimentation and nutrient inflow to the lake. Accelerated eutrophication and excessive algal growth reduces water clarity, inhibits growth of other plants, and can lead to extensive oxygen depletion, accumulation of unsightly and decaying organic matter, unpleasant odors, and fish kills.", "Nutrient-rich bodies of water such as some lakes or ponds may support rapid growth of cyanobacteria. With the right conditions, a \"clear\" body of water can become very turbid with green, blue-green or reddish-brown colored algae within just a few days. High concentrations of an alga species in a water body form \"blooms.\" Many species can regulate their buoyancy and float to the surface to form a thin \"oily\" looking film or a blue-green scum several inches thick. The film may be mistaken for a paint spill. Cyanobacteria cannot maintain this abnormally high population for long and will rapidly die and disappear after one to two weeks. If conditions remain favorable, another bloom can quickly replace the previous one. In fact, successive blooms may overlap so that it may appear as if one continuous bloom occurs for up to several months.", "The Great Lakes studies have recognized that excessive algal growth can cause manifold problems. For example, a 1984 study of Cladophora in Lake Erie noted serious possible nuisance effects resulting from algal growth (though the study underscored that the eutrophication issue in the Great Lakes was still within manageable proportions at the time of the publication and that these effects were not an issue for the Great Lakes at the time).", "Algae are primitive, primarily aquatic, one-celled or multicellular plant-like organisms that lack true stems, roots, and leaves but usually contain chlorophyll. There are both marine and freshwater algae, and algae are found almost everywhere on earth. The Washington Department of Ecology's algae program focuses on algae problems in freshwater. Pond scum is algae (mostly), the green slime on rocks in a stream is also algae, as is the pea soup green seen in some nutrient-enriched lakes.", "An ongoing concern is that \"nutrient overloading from fertilizers, human and animal waste\", known as eutrophication, in which additional nitrogen and phosphorus enter the lake, will cause plant life to \"run wild and multiply like crazy\". Since there are fewer wetlands, which are like \"Nature's kidneys\" by filtering nutrients, as well as greater \"channelization of waterways\", nutrients in water can cause algal blooms to sprout as well as \"low-oxygen dead zones\" in a complex interaction of natural forces. As of the 2010s much of the phosphorus in the lake comes from fertilizer applied to no-till soybean and corn fields but washed into streams by heavy rains. The algal blooms result from growth of Microcystis, a toxic blue-green algae that the zebra mussels which infest the lake don't eat.", "Yes, filamentous green algae and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) cause the greatest concern with Washington's freshwater body users. Another freshwater algae called Didymo is beginning to cause problems in some of Washington's streams and rivers.", "Most people's idea of water pollution involves things like sewage, toxic metals, or oil slicks, but pollution can be biological as well as chemical. In some parts of the world, alien species are a major problem. Alien species (sometimes known as invasive species) are animals or plants from one region that have been introduced into a different ecosystem where they do not belong. Outside their normal environment, they have no natural predators, so they rapidly run wild, crowding out the usual animals or plants that thrive there. Common examples of alien species include zebra mussels in the Great Lakes of the USA, which were carried there from Europe by ballast water (waste water flushed from ships ). The Mediterranean Sea has been invaded by a kind of alien algae called Caulerpa taxifolia. In the Black Sea, an alien jellyfish called Mnemiopsis leidyi reduced fish stocks by 90 percent after arriving in ballast water. In San Francisco Bay, Asian clams called Potamocorbula amurensis, also introduced by ballast water, have dramatically altered the ecosystem. In 1999, Cornell University's David Pimentel estimated that alien invaders like this cost the US economy $123 billion a year.", "McCallum, J. and K. Kennedy. 1995. A river runs putrid. Sports-Illustrated, 83(20): 22. [Low levels of dissolved oxygen and a bizarre alga known as Pfiesteria piscicida have killed an estimated 10 million fish in the Neuse River. The environmental tragedy that has taken place and political obstacles that have impeded efforts to clean the river up are discussed.]", "The time to control a toxic algae bloom is before the bloom develops. Preventing fertilizers, animal wastes and other sources of nutrients from reaching the water is the best prevention. Reducing nutrient and pollution runoff from the land has generally been accepted as vitally important in greatly reducing, though not eliminating, the frequency, toxicity and longevity, of harmful algal blooms. High phosphorus is often a precursor to an algal bloom. Nutrient-rich bodies of water such as estuaries, eutrophic lakes, agricultural ponds or catch basins may support a rapid growth of algae. Under ideal conditions a clear body of water can become very turbid with an algal bloom within just a few days.", "Anon. 1993 Researchers report unusual toxic algae in Chesapeake Bay. Sea Technology, 34: 65. (May). [Scientists in Cambridge, Maryland, have isolated unusual algae from a creek near Choptank River. The alga, Pfiesteria piscimorte, is one of the so-called red tide algae, known for its toxicity to fish and other organisms. The organism is difficult to identify as it has 15 different life stages. It is thought to be responsible for numerous fish kills.]", "Algae is an important part of aquatic ecosystems and forms the basis of lake food chains. There are many types of algae commonly found in the freshwaters of New York. The most common types of HABs are made up of blooms of cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae). Individual algae cells cannot be seen with the unaided eye, however, under certain conditions they can cluster together and form visible colonies called blooms.", "Though many types of algae can form blooms, freshwater harmful algal blooms have the ability to produce toxins that are dangerous to other organisms such as humans, dogs, and livestock. Most harmful algal blooms occur in warm, slow moving, eutrophic waters in mid June through late September and are formed by cyanobacteria (aka blue-green algae) which are now known to be photosynthetic bacteria. Algal blooms can also be caused by haptophytes, dinoflagellates, green algae, raphidophytes, euglenophytes, diatoms and cryptophytes, but though they can be a nuisance, they do not produce toxins like cyanobacteria do and have not been linked to any adverse human health effects in the United States.", "Blooms of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are a particular concern for human health, as they can produce toxins.  Algal blooms in reservoirs mean that water companies have to apply extra treatment before the water can be supplied for drinking. It may also be necessary to restrict the use of lochs for water sports to protect human health.", "Brown (Phaeophyta)– includes the wracks and kelps. These are not ‘plants’ in the strict sense, although the giant kelps have evolved their anatomy in a virtually identical way to trees, with the Macrocystis growing to over 150 feet high and forming huge kelp forests that stretch for miles along the Southeast Asian and Pacific coasts. Alginic acid is found in the walls of kelp which has given man reason to harvest them for a long time (this was a major industry in Scotland up until Japanese cultivation took over), and more recently research has highlighted alginates as break-through agents in fighting persistent infectious diseases.", "A slurry of foul-smelling algae washes up on the shore at McKinley Beach in Milwaukee. Invasive zebra mussels increase water clarity, leading to an explosion of sunlight-dependent cladophora algae. The algae eventually die, decompose and wash ashore.", "Mulvaney, K. 1996. Watch out for killer algae. E: The Environmental Magazine, 7(2): 15-19. [The phytoplankton species Pfiesteria piscicida appear at first to be just microscopic cysts, but when exposed to fish the organisms transform themselves into toxic flagellated vegetative cells that kill fish with a powerful toxin. The species has created serious problems in North Carolina, the number one state in terms of toxic discharges into rivers.]", "algae: Photosynthetic, aquatic, nonvascular plants that range in size from simple unicellular forms to giant kelps several feet long.", "Satellite images taken in July 2010 revealed a massive algal bloom covering 377000 sqkm in the Baltic Sea. The area of the bloom extended from Germany and Poland to Finland. Researchers of the phenomenon have indicated that algal blooms have occurred every summer for decades. Fertilizer runoff from surrounding agricultural land has exacerbated the problem and led to increased eutrophication.", "嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 Sometimes referred to as slime or smear algae. This is actually an organism cyanobacteria which requires nitrogen, CO2 and a light source to live. There are many types of BGA and may come in many different colors. It forms thin slimy sheets and can spread rapidly throughout the entire aquarium. Sometimes giving off a swampy or musty odor. If left unchecked it can kill plants by smothering them and cutting off their access to light and oxygen. BGA can produce its own nitrogen, so depriving it of macro nutrients (N, P or K) through water changes usually has no effect on controlling it. Blue green algae can appear out of nowhere and even breakout in well maintained mature tanks. Early signs of BGA can been seen in small quantities on the aquarium glass below the top layer of the substrate (particularly in the front and side glass). BGA can be removed mechanically but is not a viable solution as it will return quickly.  嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾 嚙瑾", "If the HAB event results in a high enough concentration of algae the water may become discoloured or murky, varying in colour from purple to almost pink, normally being red or green. Not all algal blooms are dense enough to cause water discolouration.", "According to The Moscow Times and Vice (magazine), an increasing amount of an invasive species of algae thrives in the lake from hundreds of tons of liquid waste, including fuel and excrement, regularly disposed into the lake by tourist sites, and up to 25,000 tons of liquid waste disposed every year by local ships. ", "Minute plants suspended in water with little or no capacity for controlling their position int he water mass; frequently referred to as algae", "Some algae secret toxic compounds into the water. Such species cause large and recurrent fish mortalities.", "Slimy and disgusting algae have become a daily problem for holidaymakers along the Baltic shores. Industrial emissions and untreated municipal sewage water have over the last century left the sea suffocated. This is common knowledge and efforts are being made to cope with the problem. However, something quite appalling is about to happen, something that is not as widely known.", "The top picture shows the commonly occurring kelp called Furbelows, Saccorhiza polyschides(Lightfoot) Batters, washed up at Studland Bay, Dorset. It is one of the largest brown seaweeds or Phaeophyceae. It has long strap-like leathery fronds. The stalk is short, flat and typically has a wavy ruff or frill either side of it as you can see in the picture below. Sometimes the stalk is twisted at the base. The holdfast at the base frequently has a warty and bulbous hemispherical appearance as well as rootlets. Lots of plants and animals prefer to settle here on both stalk and holdfast. The specimen below has red seaweeds attached to it. ", "On three consecutive visits on the same day over three weeks the weed has grown more than noticeably. Not only is it growing up towards the suns nutritious rays, but it is also spreading out like wild fire. In one area the entire width of the lake has been filled with all sorts of varieties and it is quite simple un-fishable already. The spread has become so bad that literally the outer edge of the main body of weed had spread two hundred metres in a week and beyond that, the smaller beds are now growing up and joining together. At this rate I can see the majority of the water being un-fishable by the end of August.", "Boyle, R. H. 1996. Phantom. Natural History, 105(3): 16-19. [An unusual one-celled dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida, is an entirely new family in the order Dinamoebales. The organism killed more than ten million fish in the summer and fall of 1995 in the Neuse River in North Carolina. It releases a neurotoxin to stun the fish before it eats into them.]", "Blankenship, K. 1997. They're here: Harmful algae aren't new to Bay, so why are they a problem now? Bay Journal, 7(7): 1.", "The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established. For example: ", "The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established. For example:" ]

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[ "Agent Orange was a powerful mixture of chemical defoliants used by U.S. military forces during the Vietnam War to eliminate forest cover for North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops, as well as crops that might be used to feed them. The U.S. program of defoliation, codenamed Operation Ranch Hand, sprayed more than 19 million gallons of herbicides over 4.5 million acres of land in Vietnam from 1961 to 1972. Agent Orange, which contained the chemical dioxin, was the most commonly used of the herbicide mixtures, and the most effective. It was later revealed to cause serious health issues–including tumors, birth defects, rashes, psychological symptoms and cancer–among returning U.S. servicemen and their families as well as among the Vietnamese population.", "Vietnam, The Secret Agent [RA1242.T44 V53 1986] Looks at dioxin, the deadly contaminant of the defoliant code-named Agent Orange used during the Vietnam War. Focuses on the devastating effects of this chemical on American soldiers and the Vietnamese populace, and interviews impaired Vietnam veterans who feel they should be fully compensated. (53 minutes)", "Agent Orange, a chemical defoliant containing dioxin, was also manufactured by Dow in New Plymouth, New Zealand, and in the United States for use by the British military during the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. military during the Vietnam War. In 2005, a lawsuit was filed by Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange against Dow and Monsanto Co., which also supplied Agent Orange to the military. The lawsuit was dismissed. ", "* Defoliants and herbicides that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic or poisonous to human beings. Their use is classified as herbicidal warfare. Some batches of Agent Orange, for instance, used by the British during the Malayan Emergency and the United States during the Vietnam War, contained dioxins as manufacturing impurities. Dioxins, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious birth deformities.", "The defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the \"Rainbow Herbicides\"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11-12 million gallons (41.6-45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.", "Agent Orange got its name from the orange bands on its drums. It was a potent blend of two herbicides and was sprayed around U.S. military bases in Vietnam to keep perimeters clear. But that was just a small part of its use. For 10 years beginning in 1961, the U.S. Forces drenched Vietnam with the defoliant, using more than 12 million gallons to strip the enemy of its cover and its food, including rice. The problem is that the U.S. government didn't realize until the late 1960's that the compound could be lethal to more than just vegetation. It was contaminated by dioxin -- the most toxic chemical made by man.", "At the 1:34 mark in the video the discussion turns to defoliants and their classification as CBW’s (chemical biological weapons). Along with the video I was asked to look at a couple of pages of the Congressional Record (August 11, 1969 pages s-9519 through S-9524), regarding what Congress knew of herbicide use in Southeast Asia. IT WAS NO SECRET that our government was well aware of the consequences of using dioxin (the chief component of Agent Orange), and was openly discussed in Congress. From that day forward it became a primary duty to those at DOD and the VA to “deny, deny, until they all die”, as to the effects of dioxin on our own troops.", "Perhaps worst of all was the heritage of chemical war that the US waged against the Vietnamese people. During the Vietnam War, 80 million litres of herbicides with high concentrations of dioxin, known as Agent Orange, were repeatedly sprayed over 12 percent of the rainforest and mangroves of South Vietnam in an attempt to destroy the foliage that provided cover for the Vietcong guerrillas. The inheritors of this chemical war are thousands of Agent Orange children, victims of the poison clouds their parents inhaled. Recent research has linked Agent Orange to a third generation. The Vietnam War is long over, but its toxic legacy is still poisoning the food chain in \"hot spots\" close to former US bases, causing cancers and birth deformities. Writing in The Guardian thirty years later, Tom Fawthrop writes:", "Agent Orange—or Herbicide Orange (HO)—is one of the herbicides and defoliants used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. It was a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D.", "The names for the chemical defoliants come from the Vietnam War where the name signified the identifying bands that were used on the 55-gallon drums that contained the products. Herbicides used in Vietnam, as well as the best-known Agent Orange, were Agent White, Agent Blue, Agent Purple, Agent Pink and Agent Green.", "Vietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case. [341] They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . [342] As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard. [343]", "In 1969, it became widely known that the 2,4,5-T component of Agent Orange was contaminated with dioxin, a toxic chemical (chemical structure illustrated above) found to cause adverse health effects and birth outcomes in laboratory studies .  In April 1970, the US government restricted use of 2,4,5-T, and therefore Agent Orange, in both Vietnam and the US.", "Since the Vietnam War, both scientific and public concern has arisen over the dioxin compound 2,3,7,8-TCDD, a byproduct found in trace amounts from the manufacturing process used to produce 2,4,5-T. Research on Agent Orange has been conducted for decades and continues today.", "The U.S. began spraying herbicides on foliage in Vietnam to eliminate jungle canopy cover for Viet Cong guerrillas (a policy known as “territory denial”). The U.S. ultimately dropped more than 20 million gallons of such defoliants, sparking charges the United States was violating international treaties against using chemical weapons. Many of the herbicides, particularly Agent Orange, manufactured by Dow Chemical, Monsanto and others, were later found to cause birth defects and rare forms of cancer in humans.", "As for cancer, the air force doctors said in their report: \"At the end of 15 years of follow-up, the Ranch Hand Study has found no consistent evidence that dioxin exposure is related to cancer.\" While overall, the veterans exposed to Agent Orange had a six per cent increase in the risk of cancer compared to other Vietnam veterans, the study also found that \"enlisted ground crew, the subgroup with the highest dioxin levels and presumably the greatest herbicide exposure, exhibited a 22 per cent decreased risk of cancer.\" The study also found that veterans exposed to Agent Orange showed \"a loss of sensation in the feet, which increased with dioxin levels.\"", "One of the major problems of the US forces was the detection of the NLF hiding in the forests of Vietnam. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy approved Operation Ranch Hand . This involved the spraying of chemicals from the air in an attempt to destroy the NLF hiding places. In 1969 alone, Operation Ranch Hand destroyed 1,034,300 hectares of forest. 'Agent Orange', the chemical used in this defoliation programme not only destroyed trees but caused chromosomal damage in people.", "Agent Orange was a blend of tactical herbicides the U.S. military sprayed from 1962 to 1971 during the Vietnam War to remove the leaves of trees and other dense tropical foliage that provided enemy cover. The U.S. Department of Defense developed tactical herbicides specifically to be used in “combat operations.” They were not commercial grade herbicides purchased from chemical companies and sent to Vietnam.", "From 1961 to 1972, the U.S. military conducted a large-scale defoliation program aimed at destroying the forest and jungle cover used by enemy North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops fighting against U.S. and South Vietnamese forces in the Vietnam War . U.S. aircraft were deployed to spray powerful mixtures of herbicides around roads, rivers, canals and military bases, as well as on crops that might be used to supply enemy troops. During this process, crops and water sources used by the non-combatant peasant population of South Vietnam could also be hit. In all, Operation Ranch Hand deployed more than 19 million gallons of herbicides over 4.5 million acres of land.", "AGENT ORANGE used to flush out viet cong The U.S. military sprayed millions of gallons of Agent Orange and other herbicides on trees and vegetation during the Vietnam War. Several decades later, concerns about the health effects from these chemicals continue. Nuclear, biological, chemical suit This NBC suit is designed to enable the military to fight while exposed potentially to hazardous materials", "(D) Prisoners at the Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia are subjected to dioxin - the highly toxic chemical component of Agent Orange used in Viet Nam. The men are later studied for development of cancer which indicates that Agent Orange had been a suspected carcinogen all along.", "WASHINGTON - Evidence exists linking three cancers and two other health problems with chemicals used in herbicides in the Vietnam War, a committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) has concluded.  Those diseases are soft tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and Hodgkin's disease, as well as skin diseases chloracne and porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT).  The committee also concluded that new studies piecing together different types of information could help determine how much the risk of disease is increased in veterans who were exposed to such herbicides as Agent Orange.", "One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. [338] [339]", "* Documents are made public revealing the Dow Chemical Company continued to sell herbicides, including Agent Orange, contaminated with dioxin for years after it knew that the chemical could cause serious health problems and even death.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was one of the most important producers of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam.", "In 2004, a group of Vietnamese citizens filed a class-action lawsuit against more than 30 chemical companies, including the same ones that settled with the U.S. veterans in 1984. The suit, which sought billions of dollars worth of damages, claimed that Agent Orange and its poisonous effects left a legacy of health problems and that its use constituted a violation of international law. In March 2005, a federal judge in Brooklyn, New York , dismissed the suit; another U.S. court rejected a final appeal in 2008.", "About 17.8 percent—3100000 ha—of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium. The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely. Animal-species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and five species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals. ", "About 28 of the former U.S. military bases in Vietnam where the herbicides were stored and loaded onto airplanes may still have high level of dioxins in the soil, posing a health threat to the surrounding communities. Extensive testing for dioxin contamination has been conducted at the former U.S. airbases in Da Nang, Phu Cat and Bien Hoa. Some of the soil and sediment on the bases have extremely high levels of dioxin requiring remediation. The Da Nang Airbase has dioxin contamination up to 350 times higher than international recommendations for action. The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate. ", "U.S. veterans groups have compiled lists of areas where they believe the U.S. and allied military forces used chemical herbicides and defoliants. Some of the information has come from the U.S. Department of Defence and some of it from the veterans' own research.", "In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas. [340]", "Chemically, Agent Orange is an approximately 1:1 mixture of two phenoxyl herbicides – 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) – in iso-octyl ester form. ", "In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas. ", "File:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|A UH-1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta." ]

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[ "CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna) is an international agreement between governments across the world that aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Under this convention, export quotas are set to limit the numbers of plants and bulbs leaving a country and help prevent over-harvesting. As a result of heavy restrictions, reported trade in wild specimens of G. nivalis virtually ceased in 1995, with the reported end of exports from Hungary. Most nurseries now avoid the use of bulbs collected from the wild by selling stock raised from artificial propagation of bulb offsets, scale cuttings or seeds.", "National reporting is also a central component of monitoring the problem. Typically the secretariat for international agreements is small and has neither the funding nor capacity to conduct its own research; the few exceptions include the IWC and the IUCN (for the whaling and CITES cases, respectively), which are able to support a very limited amount of research related to monitoring. Because of limited international research capacity, national research programs, often conducted apart from the international agreement to control the problem, are usually the most important source of information. Consequently, most international environmental agreements include an under- standing that relevant national research results will be shared. Essentially every international environmental problem that has been “identified” by some scientific research program--the depletion of stratospheric ozone is the most notable--owes its origin to a few national research programs and free dissemination of the results.", "ENDANGERED SPECIES As with many issues of environmental preservation, extinction of species became an important issue with the 1960s environmental movement. Domestically many countries passed laws to protect species, primarily popular land mammals, and their habitats. The 1972 Stockholm conference reinforced these concerns at the international level. The main international legal instrument to control extinctions has been the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), negotiated with US leadership and pressure from environmental groups. We focus on CITES, although controlling loss of species involves other agreements, including whaling and others (39).", "Canada has a strong basis on which to meet the objectives of this Convention. It is party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which controls the trade of some 48,000 species of plants and animals and the products derived from them, and has signed a number of international agreements to protect habitat, the key to maintaining biodiversity. These agreements include: the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage Convention), by which natural and historical areas are permanently protected; the United Nations Biosphere Reserves Initiative, which preserves examples of all the earth's major ecological systems; the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention); the International Tropical Timber Agreement, which provides a framework for regulation in trade in tropical timber; the Tropical Forest Action Program, which encourages sustainable forestry practices in tropical countries; and the International Tropical Timber Organization, which promotes sustainable use and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources.", "As might be expected, the road to a formal treaty usually starts with much informal discussion: discussions between States, between private interest groups, scientists and others. States, through their foreign affairs offices (i.e., the U.S. State Department), may initiate discussion with any party they choose. Often the initial discussions may be done by a nongovernmental organization (NGO) until some preliminary consensus is found. A State then sponsors the final phase of the creation process. In the case of CITES, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) was the non-state party that did the initial drafting and consultation with States. The IUCN also prepared the draft of the Polar Bear Agreement discussed below. After a number of draft documents, the United States agreed to sponsor the CITES treaty by holding a formal negotiation session to which all interested States were invited. Thus, in 1973, the United States invited several dozen States to send their official representative to a plenipotentiary conference in Washington D.C. to decide on the final language of the proposed treaty.", "CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973. and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants. In order to ensure that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was not violated, the Secretariat of GATT was consulted during the drafting process. ", "Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands", "Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection", "Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution", "The way to do this is through CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). CITES is an international agreement between participating countries that sets the standard to regulate wildlife imports and exports among them.", "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), in full Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, international agreement adopted in March 1973 to regulate worldwide commercial trade in wild animal and plant species . The goal of CITES is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of any species . Since 1973 the number of state parties to the convention has grown to more than 170.", ". . \"CITES is not a forum for discussing climate change but decisions taken here do have an impact on species in a climatically challenged world. We will need robust species populations if they are to survive rising temperatures and more extremes.\"", "In environmental cooperation, Ethiopia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.", "Losses of biodiversity surely continue, though the magnitude and distribution of species loss are uncertain. The most important levers on species decline are domestic actions to preserve species and their habitats, which are outside the realm of CITES. Thus, the regime is unable to stop extinctions directly. Parties to the Convention are required to send annual reports, including trade records, to the secretariat but assessing compliance requires some estimate of how many international shipments circumvent the system, which appears impossible to determine. Some reports suggest that even in the United States, which has among the strictest domestic implementation of CITES, compliance is low. Both because CITES is implemented poorly in many countries and because the agreement controls only international trade, its effectiveness in stopping extinctions is probably low (46). However, for many species and in many countries, there is evidence of more stringent local regulations than would be the case if CITES were not in existence.", "Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94", "The United States has been involved in efforts to coordinate an international response to environmental issues that effect the worldwide environment. The most notable example is the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. Known as the Rio Conference, this meeting of international leaders addressed complex environmental problems. Although the participants did not reach binding agreements on all the issues raised, they made progress in a number of areas. The conference resulted in the adoption of the Framework Convention on Climate Change, an agreement to limit the amount of greenhouse gases that nations could emit. The conference also adopted nonbinding resolutions encouraging sustainable development throughout the world and urging industrialized nations to provide financial assistance to developing nations so that they could expand their economies with minimal environmental damage.", "Suggestions for improvement in the operation of CITES include: more regular missions by the Secretariat (not reserved just for high-profile species); improvement of national legislation and enforcement; better reporting by Parties (and the consolidation of information from all sources-NGOs, TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network and Parties); more emphasis on enforcement-including a technical committee enforcement officer; the development of CITES Action Plans (akin to Biodiversity Action Plans related to the Convention of Biological Diversity) including: designation of Scientific/Management Authorities and national enforcement strategies; incentives for reporting and timelines for both Action Plans and reporting. CITES would benefit from access to Global Environment Faculty (GEF), funds-although this is difficult given the GEFs more ecosystem approach-or other more regular funds. Development of a future mechanism similar to that of the Montreal Protocol (developed nations contribute to a fund for developing nations) could allow more funds for non-Secretariat activities.Reeve, Policing International Trade in Endangered Species: The CITES Treaty and Compliance. London: Earthscan, 2000.", ". . Pau brasil is among dozens of plants and animals threatened with extinction that are on the agenda of the 171-nation Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, or CITES, which opens its meeting Sunday. About 7,000 animals and 32,000 plant families now are regulated, including more than 800 species which are banned completely from commerce.", "The Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) restricts the import and export of most native birds species and are listed in the CITES Appendix I, II, & III.", "* party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Kyoto Protocol, Biodiversity, China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban 1963, Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 1994, Ramsar Convention, Whaling", "Karlsson-vinkhuyzen, S., and H. van Asselt. \"Introduction: exploring and explaining the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate.\" International Environmental Agreements : Politics, Law and Economics  9, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 195-211.  ", "party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands", "China is an active participant in the climate change talks and other multilateral environmental negotiations, taking environmental challenges seriously but pushing for the developed world to help developing countries to a greater extent. It is a signatory to the Basel Convention governing the transport and disposal of hazardous waste and the Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, as well as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and other major environmental agreements.", "party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling", "By design, CITES regulates and monitors trade in the manner of a \"negative list\" such that trade in all species is permitted and unregulated unless the species in question appears on the Appendices or looks very much like one of those taxa. Then and only then, trade is regulated or constrained. Because the remit of the Convention covers millions of species of plants and animals, and tens of thousands of these taxa are potentially of economic value, in practice this negative list approach effectively forces CITES signatories to expend limited resources on just a select few, leaving many species to be traded with neither constraint nor review. For example, recently several bird classified as threatened with extinction appeared in the legal wild bird trade because the CITES process never considered their status. If a \"positive list\" approach were taken, only species evaluated and approved for the positive list would be permitted in trade, thus lightening the review burden for member states and the Secretariat, and also preventing inadvertent legal trade threats to poorly known species.", "The paper addresses these questions seriatim. To illustrate the arguments, we first describe nine international environmental regimes. For each we provide a summary of the problem, a synopsis of the main legal agreements and approach to solving the problem, and an assessment (where possible) of compliance with the agreement(s). Second, we describe the functions and concepts related to verification of international environmental agreements. Third, we review domestic experience with compliance and enforcement of environmental laws, primarily in the United States, and offer some comparisons of that setting with the international. Fourth, we employ several theoretical perspectives to explore the patterns of verification observed in the nine cases and to explain the differences between environmental and arms control verification. In conclusion we apply some of these findings to prospective agreements. For the reader unaware of the related arms control literature, a brief review is provided in an appendix.", "U.S. negotiators, EPA officials, and scientists met extensively with foreign officials and scientists, and conducted live video discussions via satellite. Representatives of American environmental NGOs also travelled, encouraging European and Japanese NGOs to become active in the issue. Friends of the Earth U.K. ran an aggressive campaign through 1987, culminating in a boycott threat against twenty specific CFC-aerosol products. (Parson, 1993)", "Following the Leesburg workshop, in preparation for the upcoming UNEP negotiations on a control protocol to the Vienna Convention, and as outlined in the CAA, Secretary of State Schultz authorized his Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OIES) to establish an interagency process to set a U.S. position and negotiating strategy. This interagency process drew upon input from two dozen government agencies. Throughout this \"low-level interagency review\" (Parson, 1993), EPA and State Department representatives reported to a senior-level working group of the White House Domestic Policy Council (DPC)[18].", "Often political compromises can be found in the definition section. In the CITES treaty, \"species\" is defined an \"any species, subspecies or geographically separated population\". This is not a biological definition. Instead, it establishes a fundamental policy point negotiated by the parties. With this definition, the Party States will be able to list and protect population segments of a species even when the worldwide status of the species would not justify action under the treaty.", "Strengthen international cooperation to enforce trade bans through adherence to CITES resolutions (e.g., Res. Conf. 12.5) (Nowell 2007).", "Under the auspices of the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation and Management of Middle-European Populations of the Great Bustard was concluded and came into effect on June 1, 2001. The MoU provides a framework for governments, scientists, conservation bodies and others to monitor and coordinate conservation efforts in order to protect the middle-European populations of the great bustard.", "The IUCN is a global union of states, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species." ]

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[ "Earth’s atmosphere is an extremely thin skin surrounding our planet. What force keeps it from flying off into space?", "The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gas held in place by gravity, which prevents it from escaping into space. It protects life by absorbing UV radiation, by holding in heat to warm the Earth’s surface and by reducing temperature extremes between day and night. The gases that comprise the atmosphere are commonly referred to as air, which is what all living things on Earth breathe.", "The Earth's atmosphere is kept in place because of the gravitational pull the Earth exerts on particles in the atmosphere. But part of the Earth's atmosphere does float out into space. The part that is lost out into space is the extremely light particles like Hydrogen which can escape the Earth's gravity. But the Earth's atmosphere is also replenished by releases from planetary volcanism. So no worries!", "Earths magnetosphere is not considered part of the atmosphere. The magnetosphere, formed by the Earths magnetic fields, protects the atmosphere by preventing it from being blown away by powerful solar wind.", "The atmosphere surrounds Earth and protects us by blocking out dangerous rays from the sun. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%). More information can be found in our web page The Earth's Atmosphere and the links therein.", "Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.", "The outermost layer of Earth is the gas layer, better known as the atmosphere. The atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, but is also comprised of several trace gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor. All of these gases, which together form what is commonly called \"air\", are held to the Earth by the pull of gravity and each serves an important function. Carbon dioxide gas provides a barrier which keeps heat from escaping the Earth; this is known as the \"greenhouse effect.\" The \"greenhouse effect\" caused by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere serves to maintain a temperature on Earth great enough to sustain life. Yet, if the amount of carbon dioxide gas were to increase drastically, too much heat would be trapped in the atmosphere, making it too hot for many organisms to survive. This causes a frightful problem wherein a certain balance of CO2 gas must be maintained to ensure that life may be maintained on the planet. Carbon dioxide also serves as the lifeline to most plants, allowing them to breath by taking in the carbon dioxide and emitting oxygen gas. Another gas, ozone (O3) screens out the harmful ultraviolet rays emanating from the sun. One of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere, oxygen, is needed for animals to breath and live.", "90% of the Earth's atmosphere is in a thin band, only 10 km high. That 10 km is all that protects us from deep space.", "Earth's atmosphere is the layer of gases around the planet Earth. The atmosphere is held in place by Earth's gravity. It is made up of nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%), with small amounts of argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (~ 0.035%), water vapor, and other gases. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing (taking) ultraviolet radiation from the sun, and balancing the temperature on earth between day and night. Solid particulates, including ash, dust, volcanic ash, etc. are small part of atmosphere. They are important for the formation of clouds and fog.", "The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).", "The Earth's atmosphere is 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water. Earth has a magnetic field that, together with a primarily nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere, protects the surface from radiation that is harmful to life.", "Strapped to your rocket, whistling your way to the stars, you won't pass any road signs: \"Space: Population 0, Please drive carefully.\" There's no neat dividing line between the end of Earth and the beginning of space. That's because gravity (the force that sucks air molecules toward our planet, creating Earth's atmosphere) reaches out to infinity. In other words, Earth's atmosphere ends gradually, blurring invisibly with the start of space.", "The atmosphere is divided into five layers. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with height until it eventually merges with space. 1) The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half of the Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer. 2) Many jet aircrafts fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable. 3) Meteors or rock fragments burn up in the mesosphere. 4) The thermosphere is a layer with auroras. 5) The atmosphere merges into space in the extremely thin exosphere. This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. For more information visit our page a href=\"/earth/Atmosphere/layers.html\">Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere", "• Air: Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity. It contains roughly 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.97% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases, in addition to water vapor. This mixture of gases is commonly known as air. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.", "Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about at 100 km of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.", "In the vicinity of our heavier Earth, where gravity is stronger than on Mars, not all particles are equally likely to escape. Light ones, like hydrogen and helium, typically move faster than heavier ones, like oxygen and nitrogen. The light atoms are more likely to reach escape velocity and escape to space. That’s why light molecules are rare in our atmosphere, in contrast to their abundance in the universe at large.", "The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km. Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.", "And yet, although you might not realize it or think about it, Earth does continually lose some of its atmosphere to space. This loss occurs in the upper atmosphere, over billion-year time scales.", "An atmosphere ( ) is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if its gravity is high and the atmosphere's temperature is low.", "Atmosphere: Atmosphere is a very popular geography term. It is defined as an envelope of air, gases, and suspended particles which surrounds the earth. It has 78.09% of nitrogen, 20.95% of oxygen, and remainder 0.96% consists of 19 gases. The layers of the earth's atmosphere are divided into troposphere, stratosphere, and tropopause. The atmosphere stretches 1000 km above the sea level, but 99% of gases are trapped within the limit of 40 km.", "\"If that were the only effect, the Earth would indeed escape final destruction,\" said Robert Smith, emeritus reader at the U.K.'s University of Sussex. \"However, the tenuous outer atmosphere of the sun extends a long way beyond its visible surface, and it turns out the Earth would actually be orbiting within these very low density outer layers.\"", "Without the atmosphere, planet Earth would be much more like the Moon than like the planet we live on today. The Earth's atmosphere, along with the abundant liquid water on the Earth's surface, are keys to our planet's unique place in the solar system. Much of what makes Earth exceptional depends on the atmosphere. Let's consider some of the many reasons we are lucky to have an atmosphere.", "A. Because the earth is surrounded by air, which acts like a magnifying glass; and when the sun is near the horizon (as its rays pass through more of this air), it is more magnified.", "Earth’s atmosphere is only 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth itself. So it is a very thin skin surrounding our planet. How does Earth hold on to this thin skin of atmosphere?", "World-wide deposition of banded-iron formations fundamental to the gradual conversion of Earth atmosphere from CO2 to free oxygen, allowing development of an ozone layer to protect earth from deadly solar ultraviolet radiation.", "The atmosphere has a total mass of about 5 × 1015 metric tons [1] and about 80% of that mass is within about 12 kilometres (7.5 miles ) from the Earth's surface.", "And if the moon has an atmosphere then it has gravity which holds the atmosphere in place.", "Terrestrial radiation is trapped by certain atmospheric gases, allowing solar radiation to enter but trap outgoing heat energy", "This is the \"textbook\" case of the vertical motion of an object falling a small distance close to the surface of a planet. It is a good approximation in air as long as the force of gravity on the object is much greater than the force of air resistance, or equivalently the object's velocity is always much less than the terminal velocity (see below).", "It turns out that getting an atmosphere, and holding on to it, really comes down to how big and how close to the sun you are—or, for Titan, how close you are to a really big planet. For astrophysicists, it's infinitely more complex than that. But if you just want the quick and dirty answer, that's it, and here's why:", "Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference. This is another", "Suppose we represent Earth with a basketball. On this scale, most of the air in Earth's atmosphere would fit in a layer that is _________." ]

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[ "Through emissions of nitrogen oxides , cars and other road vehicles are major contributors to acidic emissions which cause acid rain. In all countries of the industrialised world, the number of vehicles on the roads has been continually increasing since the 1970s. With a large rise in traffic numbers, it becomes increasingly important to keep pollutant emissions to a minimum. There are presently a number of ways in which road traffic pollution can be reduced, including the use of emission control technology solutions.", "Acidic precipitation can be caused by natural (volcanoes) and man-made activities, such as from cars and in the generation of electricity. The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. The burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil) by power-production companies and industries releases sulfur into the air that combines with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2). Exhausts from cars cause the formation of nitrogen oxides in the air. From these gases, airborne sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) can be formed and be dissolved in the water vapor in the air. Although acid-rain gases may originate in urban areas, they are often carried for hundreds of miles in the atmosphere by winds into rural areas. That is why forests and lakes in the countryside can be harmed by acid rain that originates in cities.", "Air emissions of diesel exhaust are more than just another air pollution issue. Diesel exhaust can deposit onto water, soil, and vegetation, contaminating anything it comes into contact with. It contributes to global warming because it contains the greenhouse gases methane and carbon dioxide and fine carbonaceous PM. Diesel exhaust also contributes to acid deposition because it contains nitric and sulfuric acids and other substances which can be transformed to acidic PM in the atmosphere. The NOx portion of diesel emissions also contributes to ozone (O3) formation and eutrophication of coastal waters (spurring algae to bloom to such an extent that the algae blocks sunlight from aquatic life beneath the surface). The contribution of NOx to the formation of ozone is significant in the Houston-Galveston area because it is a non-attainment area for ozone air pollution standards. Ozone in the troposphere (caused by pollution), as opposed to stratospheric ozone (the good ozone) has been known to exacerbate asthmatics and increase hospital admissions on high ozone concentration days.", "Vehicle Emissions : Learn about ideal, lean, and rich conditions that lead to vehicle emissions. Also on the page, there is a list of pollutants that come from car exhaust, including hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide.", "The link between vehicle emissions and air pollution was first identified by studies that began in California during the early 1940s. By the end of that decade, researchers determined that the smog above California’s Los Angeles Basin was the result of hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen emissions from motor vehicles . As automobile manufacturers looked into isolating the source of these gases, they discovered that vehicle exhaust also contained carbon monoxide (CO). While not a component of smog, CO is a by product of the combustion process and a highly toxic gas. In this section, we will study the three primary pollutants; including how they are produced and the systems designed to control them.", "Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues.", "In 2005 the EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR; April 5, 2007, http://www.epa.gov/cair/) to address the transport of air pollutants across state lines in the eastern United States. CAIR puts permanent caps on emissions of SO2 and NOx in twenty-eight eastern states and the District of Columbia. It is expected to reduce SO2 emissions by more than 70% and reduce NOx emissions by more than 60% compared with 2003 levels. These measures should reduce the formation of acid rain and other pollutants, such as fine particulate matter and ground-level ozone.", "Diesel emissions have until recently been well within the air emission standards of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency without any modifications or accessories. [32] However, concerns over cancer from Diesel exhaust have made the issue quite complicated in recent years, but those concerns are only for long-term effects. In any event, Diesels have always produced far less than 1%/vol. carbon monoxide, which is still the CO standard for all internal combustion engines. Gasoline engines have only met the same standard after many years of intensive research and the addition of many engine modifications and complex accessories including catalytic converters.", "Mopeds can achieve fuel economy of over 100 mpg-US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg-imp). The emissions of mopeds have been the subject of multiple studies. Studies have found that two-stroke 50 cc mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emit ten to thirty times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the outdated Euro 3 automobile standards. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emitted three to eight times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the Euro 3 automobile standards. Approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a g/km basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Currently in the United States, the EPA allows motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds with engine displacements less than 280cc to emit ten times the NOx and six times the CO than the median Tier II bin 5 automobile regulations. An additional air quality challenge can also arise from the use of moped and scooter transportation over automobiles, as a higher density of motorized vehicles can be supported by existing transportation infrastructure.", "Cloud or rain droplets containing pollutants, such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, to make them acidic (eg. pH < 5.6).", "A car from 1985 emits approximately 38 times more carbon monoxide than a 2001 model. BMWs were the most environmentally friendly, while Chrysler and Mitsubishi were the worst polluters. Additionally, cars that get better gas mileage also pollute less.t", "Other pollutants in Diesel exhaust, besides carbon monoxide, are primarily aldehydes (OCHR), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxides (NOx, max. 0.1%), and hydrocarbons (CxHy). The smell or stench for which Diesel engines are notorious is caused by trace amounts of certain hydrocarbons and aldehydes which the most modern analytical instruments can barely identify, let alone measure. The sensitivity of the human nose to these compounds is, however, extremely high and out of all proportion to the actual quantities present. Some of the hydrocarbons are considered carcinogenic and thus represent a potential long-term hazard, but they are irrelevant to our study.", "Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g., smog) and in global effects (e.g., effect on the climate). Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from storage tanks, from spills, etc. As an example of efforts to control such leakage, many (underground) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens. ", "Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g., smog) and in global effects (e.g., effect on the climate). Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from storage tanks, from spills, etc. As an example of efforts to control such leakage, many (underground) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens.", "The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide (S O 2), which reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4). This sulfuric acid is a component of acid rain , which lowers the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require sulfur to be extracted from fossil fuels to prevent the formation of acid rain. This extracted sulfur is then refined and represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal fired power plants, the flue gases are sometimes purified. In more modern power plants that use syngas the sulfur is extracted before the gas is burned.", "13. Theory 1b – pollutant levels from SHS in cars?Theory 1b – pollutant levels from SHS in cars? In-car air quality measures (child substituted by portable air quality monitor) After three cigarettes (fine particulate levels – PM2.5) Peak PM2.5 = 3645 ug/m3 Mean PM2.5 = 2926 ug/m3 Ambient Air PM2.5 = 4 ug/m3 Highly significant, valid and reliable evidence on poor air quality. BUT evidence relates only to a single instance under experimental conditions. Health impact depends on actual prevalence, actual exposure, metabolic sensitivity in real conditions (the dose/response chain). Pollutant Prevalence Exposure Sensitivity Health Impact", "sulfur dioxide , sulphur dioxide - a colorless toxic gas (SO2) that occurs in the gases from volcanoes; used in many manufacturing processes and present in industrial emissions; causes acid rain", "Hydrocarbons react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. Ozone irritates the eyes, nose, throat and damages the lungs. A number of exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, some with the potential to cause cancer.", "Acid, Caustic, or Clay Treating. Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid treating process. Sulfuric acid treating results in partial or complete removal of unsaturated hydrocarbons, sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds, and resinous and asphaltic compounds. It is used to improve the odor, color, stability, carbon residue, and other properties of the oil. Clay/lime treatment of acid-refined oil removes traces of asphaltic materials and other compounds improving product color, odor, and stability. Caustic treating with sodium (or potassium) hydroxide is used to improve odor and color by removing organic acids (naphthenic acids, phenols) and sulfur compounds (mercaptans, H2S) by a caustic wash. By combining caustic soda solution with various solubility promoters (e.g., methyl alcohol and cresols), up to 99% of all mercaptans as well as oxygen and nitrogen compounds can be dissolved from petroleum fractions.", "Cars, trucks and SUVs are the biggest contributor to this ozone buildup. Engine exhaust creates nitrogen dioxide, so the more you drive, the more your vehicle creates. High gas prices aren't the only reason to leave the car in the garage.", "The burning of coal, oil and gas, automobiles have discharged enormous quantities of gaseous and solid matter into the atmosphere.", "It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and from stationary internal combustion engines), which can also include:", "California--which represents 10 percent of the nation's automobile market and is known for its struggles with air pollution--took the lead early in setting stricter fuel emissions standards than the federal government's. Assembly Bill (AB) 1493, which Davis signed into law in July 2002, was the first law in the nation to address the greenhouse gases emitted in automobile exhaust. The law required the California Air Resources Board (CARB) to regulate greenhouse gases under the state's motor vehicle program and gave automakers until the 2009 model year to produce cars and light trucks that would collectively emit 22 percent fewer greenhouse gases by 2012 and 30 percent fewer by 2016.", "An air pollution control device that removes organic contaminants by oxidizing them into carbon dioxide and water through a chemical reaction using a catalysis, which is a substance that increases (or decreases) the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed itself; required in all automobiles sold in the United State, and used in some types of heating appliances.", "Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United States, Russia, India Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides ", "• Cause or Contribute Finding: The Administrator finds that the combined emissions of these well-mixed greenhouse gases from new motor vehicles and new motor vehicle engines contribute to the greenhouse gas pollution which threatens public health and welfare.", "In 2015, Volkswagen admitted that it had installed pollution-cheating software in many of its cars to fool regulators that its cars met emissions standards when in fact they polluted at much higher-levels than government standards. 1.2 million Skoda cars worldwide were fitted with this emissions-cheating device. Skoda stated that Volkswagen would recall and cover refitting costs for all of the cars affected by the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal.", "No one knows. That’s part of what the EPA is investigating. The lab that tested the VWs also tested a diesel BMW X5, which passed.", "Like someone else pointed out, there are tons of pollutants and gases in our everyday life, so why not be concerned about that too? You're not going to stop driving your car are you?", "Image caption Buyers may start to wonder if they can believe carmakers' claims for emissions levels", "The catalytic converter perhaps epitomises the problems. For most people, such technological developments are seen as the solution to the environmental problems such as those created by the motor car. However, such 'fixes' either fail to solve the original problem, create new problems of their own or provide only a temporary respite before on-going growth in human numbers and artefacts swallows up any savings in resource consumption and pollution levels.", "The world’s most important air pollutants, their sources, and known or suspected environmental effects are listed in Table 1 (after" ]

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[ "Tuscany is central Italy's largest region with a population of over 3.75 million. Located on Italy's west coast, Tuscany borders the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Ligurian coast, the Apennine Mountains and the regions of Umbria, Emilia-Romagna and Lazio. Tuscany includes a range of coastlines, coves, valleys, hills and mountains. The rich soils produce world famous wines and the Alpi Apuane of the northwest are home to the renowned Carrara marble quarry.", "Carrara is a city located in Tuscany, Italy in the province of Massa Carrara. The city is located on the Carrione River, located close to Florence. Carrara is mainly famous for its marble quarries from which white and bluish grey marble is quarried.", "After the agreement between Michelangelo and the Medici Pope, the artist would spend much time in the quarries trying to obtain the marble to be used for the project, and making drawings for the facade. But, Michelangelo would work on the project for three years with little to no progress. This delay was mainly due to the fiasco of the marble and where it would be quarried from. According to Condivi the pope had heard that there was a place in Tuscany called Pietra Santa , that had marble of the same beauty and quality as those at Carrara, Michelangelo’s preferred quarry. The pope wrote to Michelangelo and asked him to verify that these statements were true. According to Condivi, Michelangelo responded to the pope saying:", "North of Pisa in the shadow of the Apuan Alps, Carrara is renowned for its white marble. Home to marble mines for over 2,000 years, it is here that Michelangelo spent years of his life personally quarrying stone for his sculptures, including David and the Pietà in Florence. Emperor Augustus even refashioned Rome from brick to marble, using the finely grained, hard stone that could withstand weather and discoloring.", "italy marble -- Over 1,000 stone quarries owner from all over the ... Provincia di Massa Carrara, Toscana [ Related Quarries: Marble Quarry,White Italy Quarry,Italy ...", "Another highlight is the incredible marble quarry in Carrara, a real place with what really is the best (seamless, pure, easily sculpted) marble in the world. Lucky it was nearby ancient and Renaissance Rome, both.", "The most popular types of marble stone employed in sculpture are Pentelic, Parian and Carrara marble. During Classical Antiquity, the most famous type was the close-grained, golden-toned Pentelic variety, quarried at Mount Pentelicon in Attica. The fragments of High Classical Greek sculpture obtained by the Earl of Elgin from the Parthenon in Athens, in 1801-3, known as the Elgin Marbles, were carved in Pentelic. Another popular variety was Parian marble, a coarser-grained but translucent white stone obtained from the Aegean islands of Naxos and Paros. This type was used to create the renowned Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. A third type, used for the masterpiece Apollo Belvedere (c.330 BCE), was the pure white Carrara marble, found at Carrara and Pietra Santa in Tuscany. It was a popular material in Italian Renaissance sculpture and the favourite of the Florentine artist Michelangelo.", "Carrara is a city located in Tuscany, Italy in the province of ... The marble quarries here were set up by the Romans first and the city was built so that the ...", "Tuscany is a traditionally popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto. The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited seaside destination in the region, with seaside tourism accounting for approximately 40% of tourist arrivals in Tuscany. Additionally, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val d'Orcia are also internationally renowned and particularly popular spots among travellers.", "We visited the marble quarries with Serena Giovannoni who gives personalized tours of the area through her company Wishversilia.She also took us to the town of Colonnata, where we had lunch and visited a lardo workshop, and to see artist studios in Pietrasanta. If you're looking for a Tuscany tour that takes you off the beaten path, Wishversilia is a good choice. Read about Serena and Wishversilia .", "Carrara within the province of Massa-Carrara is a town in the north of Italy famous for its hospitality and beach resorts, but most importantly its world-famous marble. Carrara is in fact deemed by many people to be the marble and granite capital on the planet.", "The classic marble, sought after the world over, Bianco Carrara remains a perennial favourite and is considered the marble “par excellence”.", "The city has no fewer than seventy-two public fountains. The stone quarries of Botticino, 8 km east of Brescia, supplied marble for the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II in Rome.", "The towns of Rutland and Barre are the traditional centers of marble and granite quarrying and carving in the U.S. For many years Vermont was also the headquarters of the smallest union in the U.S., the Stonecutters Association, of about 500 members. The first marble quarry in America was on Mount Aeolus overlooking East Dorset. The granite industry attracted numerous skilled stonecutters in the late 19th century from Italy, Scotland, and Ireland. Barre is the location of the Rock of Ages quarry, the largest dimension stone granite quarry in the United States. Vermont is the largest producer of slate in the country. The highest quarrying revenues result from the production of dimension stone. The Rock of Ages Quarry in Barre is one of the leading exporters of granite in the country. The work of the sculptors of this corporation can be seen 3 mi down the road at the Hope Cemetery, where there are gravestones and mausoleums.", "A separate branch, the Apuan Alps, goes to the southwest bordering the coast south of La Spezia. Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio, which running parallel to the coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa, separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition: marble. The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna, and is now active in Carrara.", "To the Northern Apennines belongs also a section of Tuscany, covering roughly half of the region, and coinciding approximately with the mountainous parts of the provinces of Massa-Carrara and Lucca, where is also located the outlying range of the Alpi Apuane – and there is much debate as to whether the Apuane are part of the Apennines or not (as a matter of fact, the Apuane have a different geology, since they are formed of marble, but they are separated by the main system only by the Serchio valley). The provinces of Prato, Firenze and Arezzo also include a large section of the Northern Apennines within their territories.", "Who hasn’t heard of Tuscany? The region has it all—seaside and countryside, food and wine, cities and small towns—and the tourism to match. The region’s stunning cities (including not only Florence, but Siena, Lucca, and Pisa) are considered the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance. The beautiful countryside is quintessentially Italian, with rolling hills, cypress trees, and lovely vineyards (in fact, the landscape of Tuscany’s Val d’Orcia was named a World Heritage Site in 2004). Tuscany is also famous for its food and wine, as the region produces Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Brunello di Montalcino, among others.", "If you're in the Carrara area of northern Tuscany (see map ), don't miss this experience.", "Tuscany : Tuscany is likely Italy's most famous region worldwide, both for tourists and wine lovers. The countryside Florence is full of wine producing appellations. Classically most famous for the wine practically synonymous with Italian wine, Chianti, there are many other sub-regions and styles of wine produced from Tuscany.", "Equipment working in a marble quarry near Madrid, Spain. In this quarry the marble is being sawn into blocks for the production of dimension stone. Photo © iStockphoto / vallefrias.", "Tuscany is the most enduringly famous of all Italian wine regions, thanks to the romantic glamor of its endless rolling hills, cypress-lined country roads and hilltop villages. But even without all of this, evaluated on the merits of its wines alone, Tuscany stands tall, its reputation founded on such iconic wines as Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano.", "Montalcino is Tuscany's second most famous wine zone, after Chianti. In terms of quality, however, it is the star.", "Between Florence and Siena, the Chianti region is Tuscany's wine-making powerhouse. Touring the area provides a chance to visit wine-makers for free tastings, stay at gorgeous agriturismi and dine at authentic trattorias", "In addition to the marble quarries, the city has academies of sculpture and fine arts and a museum of statuary and antiquities, and a yearly marble technology fair. The local marble is exported around the world, and marble from elsewhere is also fashioned and sculpted commercially here.", "Today, Tuscany is one of the most famous and prolific wine regions anywhere in Europe. Its vineyards produce an array of internationally recognized wines in various styles. These go far beyond the well-known reds, and include dry whites such as Vernaccia di San Gimignano and sweet wines both white (Vin Santo) and red (Elba Aleatico Passito). The region’s top wines are officially recognized and protected by a raft of DOC and DOCG titles.", "The alternating red and white marble is the signature finish on Romanesque in Italy. This style is rarely seen outside the country.", "Tuscany has a great variety of coastline. South of Leghorn the coast becomes rocky and full of promontories.", "The restaurant, nestled in a valley, is housed within an exquisite stone building fashioned after the farmhouses of the Italian countryside. Once inside, the menu is equally inviting, consisting of traditional yet creative Tuscan dishes with a special focus on roasted game. One signature dish is Pappardelle Pasta with wild boar sauce. Provincial soups, breads, and desserts are abundant. The selection of Italian wines is especially extensive. Siena Ristorante Toscana is quite a popular destination, and the clientèle generally arrives in business or evening attire appropriate for fine dining.", "Thus, the countless marvels of nature are accompanied, in this region, by the indelible records of the past that testify so eloquently to the guiding role that Tuscany played in European culture in the period of her greatest splendour. In every corner, even the remotest, we find an ancient chapel, a hilltop castle, a palace, or a tower Large cities, small cities, ancient cities: each has its treasure to show us, a fresco in the church, a piazza that has retained its original character; or celebrated museums, full of masterpieces, monumental cathedrals and palaces, massive walls and fortresses that attest to the artistic and economic splendour reached hy these cities.", "Granular dolomite: A specimen of coarsely crystalline dolomitic marble from Thornwood, New York. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (6.7 centimeters) across.", "Montalcino is a hill town and municipality famous for its Brunello di Montalcino wine. The town is located to the west of Pienza close to the Crete Senesi in the Val d’Orcia. It is 42 kilmetres from Siena, 110 from Florence and 150 from Pisa and Monte Amiata is close by.", "The geology of the Apennines is quite complex, and this complexity engenders different landscapes. The lower reaches of the range are formed mainly of sand and silts, giving the mountains a softer, more rounded aspect, while the backbone of the chain is formed of harder rocks such as limestone and granite." ]

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[ "Coal originally began to form during the Carboniferous period, which took place between 360 and 290 million years ago. Put simply, plant matter accumulated in swamps and peat bogs, and after being buried and exposed to high heat and pressure — largely due to the shifting of tectonic plates — it was transformed into coal.", "Coal formation began during the Carboniferous Period - known as the first coal age - which spanned 360 million to 290 million years ago. The build-up of silt and other sediments, together with movements in the earth's crust - known as tectonic movements - buried swamps and peat bogs, often to great depths. With burial, the plant material was subjected to high temperatures and pressures. This caused physical and chemical changes in the vegetation, transforming it into peat and then into coal.", "The Coal Measures formed during Westphalian and earliest Stephanian times in the European ('Heerlen') chronostratigraphical scheme (which is approximately equivalent to the Middle Pennsylvanian Series of the IUGS global chronostratigraphical scheme).", "The geology of the coalfield consists of the coal seams of the Upper, Middle and Lower Coal Measures, layers of sandstones, shales and coal of varying thickness, which were laid down in the Carboniferous period over 300 million years ago. The coal seams were formed from the vegetation of tropical swampy forests. The coal in Lancashire is bituminous with 30–40% volatile matter varying in hardness from seam to seam.", "The Carboniferous Period lasted from about 359.2 to 299 million years ago* during the late Paleozoic Era. The term \"Carboniferous\" comes from England, in reference to the rich deposits of coal that occur there. These deposits of coal occur throughout northern Europe, Asia, and midwestern and eastern North America. The term \"Carboniferous\" is used throughout the world to describe this period, although in the United States it has been separated into the Mississippian (early Carboniferous) and the Pennsylvanian (late Carboniferous) Subsystems. This division was established to distinguish the coal-bearing layers of the Pennsylvanian from the mostly limestone Mississippian, and is a result of differing stratigraphy on the different continents. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian, in turn, are subdivided into a number of internationally recognized stages based on evolutionary successions of fossil groups . These stages are (from early to late) Tournaisian, Visean, and Serpukhovian for the Mississippian and Bashkirian, Moscovian, Kasimovian, and Gzhelian for the Pennsylvanian.", "The Carboniferous takes its name from the widespread occurrence of coal deposits formed during this timespan in Europe and North America. Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of plant debris (and occasionally material from other creatues) that was deposited in abog or swamp that had little biological activity at its bottom. This led to preservation of the plant leaves, stems, pollen and other structures, although with continued burial these structures become much less distinct. Time and pressure combine with chemical changes to turn the plant material into coal. Fluctuating sea-levels during the Carboniferous contributed to the preservation of many coal environments.", "The Coal Measures is a lithostratigraphical term for the coal-bearing part of the Upper Carboniferous System. The Coal Measures Group consists of the Upper Coal Measures Formation, the Middle Coal Measures Formation and the Lower Coal Measures Formation. The group records the deposition of fluvio-deltaic sediments which consists mainly of clastic rocks (claystones, shales, siltstones, sandstones, conglomerates) interstratified with the beds of coal. In most places, the Coal Measures are underlain by coarser clastic sequences known as Millstone Grit, of Namurian age. The top of the Coal Measures may be marked by an unconformity, the overlying rocks being Permian or later in age. In some parts of Britain, however, the Coal Measures grade up into mainly coal-barren red beds of late Westphalian and possibly Stephanian age. Within the Pennine Basin these barren measures are now referred to as the Warwickshire Group, from the district where they achieve their thickest development. ", "British geologists dominated the process, and the names of the periods reflect that dominance. The \" Cambrian ,\" \" Ordovician ,\" and \" Silurian \" periods were named for ancient British tribes (and defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales). The \" Devonian \" was named for the British county of Devon, and the name \" Carboniferous \" was simply an adaptation of \"the Coal Measures,\" the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The \" Permian ,\" though defined using strata in Russia , was delineated and named by British geologist Roderick Murchison.", "Smith’s work set the stage for the naming and ordering of the geological periods, which was initiated around 1820, first by British geologists, and later by other European geologists. Many of the periods are named for places where rocks of that age are found in Europe, such as Cambrian for Cambria (Wales), Devonian for Devon in England, Jurassic for the Jura Mountains in France and Switzerland, and Permian for the Perm region of Russia. Some are named for the type of rock that is common during that age, such as Carboniferous for the coal- and carbonate-bearing rocks of England, and Cretaceous for the chalks of England and France.", "The Carboniferous, at least as seen in North American deposits, is really two distinct sets of condiions: marine dominated early Carboniferous environments charactrized by shallow seas, followed in time by terrestrial \"coal-swamp\" environments of the late Carboniferous. The supercontinent of Pangaea was assembled during this time, causing the uplift of seafloor as continental land masses collided to build the Appalachian and other mountains.", "The Silurian was followed by the Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian Periods (408–286 million years ago), the time interval when insects, reptiles, amphibians, and forests first appeared. A continental collision between Africa (Gondwanaland) and the North American plate formed a super-supercontinent (Pangaea) and raised the ancient Mauritanide mountain chain that once stretched from Morocco to Senegal . During the late Pennsylvanian Period , layer upon layer of fossilized plants were deposited, forming seams of coal in Morocco and Algeria.", "Geologists tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Early, and Middle parts of periods and other units—for example, \"Upper Jurassic \", \"Middle Cambrian \". Because geologic units occurring at the same time but from different parts of the world can often look different and contain different fossils, there are many examples where the same period was historically given different names in different locales. For example, in North America the Early Cambrian is referred to as the Waucoban series, which is then subdivided into zones based on trilobites. The same time span is split into Tommotian, Atdabanian, and Botomian stages in East Asia and Siberia. It is a key aspect of the work of the International Commission on stratigraphy to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.", "Calamites are commonly found stem fossils of the coal measures (Fig. 4a,b). These stems are ridged with divided segments, some reaching 60 centimetres across, and wide enough to suggest that in life the plants might have reached up to 20 m in height. The plants that formed these stems are close relatives of modern horsetails. The leaves were arranged in circular whorls and the plants grew in the wettest areas of the coal swamp, around lakes and river margins.", "Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that the Earth is about 4,570 million years old (expressed with m.y.a., i.e. million years ago, or \" Ma \" as in \"it dates from 4570 Ma\"). The geological or deep time of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period. Different spans of time on the time scale are usually delimited by major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions . For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the extinction event that marked the demise of the dinosaurs and of many marine species . Older periods which predate the reliable fossil record are defined by absolute age.", "Sedimentary rocks of Mississippian age in North America are dominated by marine limestones exposed throughout the mid continent, and Appalachian and Rocky Mountain regions. Mississippian rocks throughout these regions are host to many cavern systems (such as Mammoth Cave in Kentucky). Mississippian rocks are part of the Kaskaskia Sequence. The Redwall Limestone in the Grand Canyon region is part of the Kaskaskia Sequence (Figure 15-24). The unconformable boundary between the Kaskaskia Sequence and the overlying Absaroka Sequence is the boundary between sedimentary rocks Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age (see Figure 15-10).The Absaroka Sequence includes sediments deposited during Pennsylvanian, Permian and Triassic Periods (see below). It was during the Pennsylvanian Period that the world's continents assembled together to form the supercontinent of Pangaea . Pennsylvanian rocks are perhaps best know for their coal-bearing basin in the Appalachian and Mid continent region (Figure 15-25).", "American geologists have long considered the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian to be periods in their own right though the ICS now recognises them both as 'subperiods' of the Carboniferous Period recognised by European geologists. Cases like this in China, Russia and even New Zealand with other geological eras has slowed down the uniform organization of the stratigraphic record.", "The Permian Period extends from about 286 to 245 million years ago, and is the last geological period of the Palaeozoic Era. The Permian was named in the 1840s by Sir Roderick Murchison, a British geologist, from the extensive Permian exposures near Perm in Russia. The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology: the Permian-Triassic extinction event, where some 90% to 95% of marine organisms and 70% of all terrestrial organisms became extinct.", "- the period of geologic time from about 225 and 190 million years ago. The Permian is the first period of the Mesozoic era.", "But the coal deposits found in the United States and Europe reveal that parts of the ancient supercontinent near the equator must have been a lush, tropical rainforest, similar to the Amazonian jungle, Murphy said. (Coal forms when dead plants and animals sink into swampy water, where pressure and water transform the material into peat, then coal.)", "In geologic time , the Ordovician Period, the second period of the Paleozoic Era , covers the time roughly 505 million years ago (mya) until 438 mya. The name Ordovician derives from that of the Ordovices, an ancient British tribe.", "The Mendip Hills are the most southerly Carboniferous Limestone upland in Britain. The rock strata known as the Carboniferous Limestone were laid down during the early Carboniferous Period, about 320–350 million years ago. Subsequently, much of northwestern Europe underwent continental collision throughout the late Paleozoic Era, culminating in the final phases of the Variscan orogeny near the end of the Carboniferous, 300 million years ago. This tectonic activity produced a complex suite of mountain and hill ranges across what is now southern Ireland, south-western England, Brittany, and elsewhere in western Europe. ", "The earliest period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after Cambria, the Roman name for Wales, where rocks of this age were first studied.", "The hill is formed from Hangman Grits laid down during the Devonian a geologic period of the Paleozoic Era spanning from the end of the Silurian Period, about Mya (million years ago), to the beginning of the Carboniferous Period. ", "a large supercontinent that existed existed ~225 million years ago at the .. between the close of the Paleozoic and start of the Mesozois (at the Permo-Triassic).", "The Silurian was the third division of the Paleozoic era of the geologic time scale spanning from approximately 395 and 440 million years ago, preceded by the Ordovician and followed by the Devonian. Roderick Impey Murchison, a Scotsman, who eventually became the director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, was responsible for naming the period. The term Silurian comes from Silures, the name of a celtic tribe of people that lived along the border of England and Wales before the time of the Romans. In the early 1800s, British geologists recognized rocks in this area that contained a distinctive assemblage of fossils, different from the fossils in both underlying strata of the Ordovician and overlying strata of the Devonian. Silurian fossils, identical to those in Britain, were subsequently discovered in many other regions of the world, including the Great Lakes region of North America.", "The cliff exposures along the Dorset and East Devon coast provide an almost continuous sequence of rock formations spanning the Mesozoic Era, or some 185 million years of the earth's history. The area's important fossil sites and classic coastal geomorphologic features have contributed to the study of earth sciences for over 300 years.", "Note: The geologic timeline of the planet is divided into eons, eras and periods. The following guidelines are therefore presented to the reader to help keep track of how the Earth's geologic clock of time works, thus defining this trinity of age classification:", "Phacops genus of trilobites (an extinct group of aquatic arthropods) found as fossils in Silurian and Devonian rocks (between about 359 million and 444 million years old) in Europe and North America. Phacops is a common and easily recognizable form, with its...", "Many of the rocks comprising the present-day cordilleras are of great age. They began as sediments eroded from the Amazonia craton (or Brazilian shield)—the ancient granitic continental fragment that constitutes much of Brazil—and deposited between about 450 and 250 million years ago on the craton’s western flank. The weight of these deposits forced a subsidence (downwarping) of the crust, and the resulting pressure and heat metamorphosed the deposits into more resistant rocks; thus, sandstone, siltstone, and limestone were transformed, respectively, into quartzite, shale, and marble.", "Donaldson, A.C., and Eble, C.F., 1991, Pennsylvanian coals of central and eastern United States, in Gluskoter, H.J., Rice, D.D., and Taylor, R.B., eds., Economic geology, U.S.: Denver, Colo., Geological Society of America, The Geology of North America, v. P–2, p. 523–546.", "The Supai Group which rests atop the Redwall is dated at 300 million years ago and indicates that it was formed in an above water and coastal environment.", "Only samples that solidified from the molten state can be analyzed in this manner. Sedimentary rocks which contain potassium cannot be analyzed in this manner because there is no tightly bonded crystal lattice which can trap the gaseous atoms of argon. But sedimentary strata often can be followed to geological faults and other regions where volcanic activity occurred around the same time that the sedimentary rock was deposited. The placement of such volcanic or igneous deposits helps geologists to determine whether the fossil strata are younger or older than the rock which yields to potassium-argon dating methods and such strata can often be dated with underlying and overlying igneous deposits so that one can say with confidence that the strata have an age older than x years but younger than y years." ]

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[ "The Tropic of Cancer is an imaginary line in the northern hemisphere where the sun is directly overhead during the summer solstice on June 21st. In the southern hemisphere, this occurs on December 21st and the line is referred to as the Tropic of Capricorn. Each line is located at 23.5 degrees latitude, north or south respectively.", "THE TROPIC of Cancer is an imaginary line encircling the Earth at the parallel latitude of 23 degrees 30 minutes North of the equator. This is the northern boundary of the Torrid Zone and the most northerly latitude at which the sun can shine directly overhead. It is at this point that the sun’s midday rays are vertical at the summer solstice on June 21–22 and is the northern border of the tropics. It is the northern counterpart to the TROPIC OF CAPRICORN . The Tropic of Cancer is one of the five major circles of latitude.", "The Tropic of Cancer is the circle marking the latitude 23.5 degrees north, where the sun is directly overhead at noon on June 21, the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Capricorn is the circle marking the latitude 23.5 degrees south where the sun is directly overhead at noon on December 21, the beginning of winter in the northern hemisphere. When the lines were named 2000 years ago, the Sun was in the constellation of Capricorn during the winter solstice and Cancer during the summer solstice (hence the names). Now due to the precession of the equinoxes the Sun is no longer in these constellations during these times, but the names remain.", "tropics. The area between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The Tropic of Cancer is 23.5o north of the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn is 23.5o south of the equator.", "At the June solstice the subsolar point is further north than any other time: at latitude 23.44° north, known as the Tropic of Cancer. Similarly at the December solstice the subsolar point is further south than any other time: at latitude 23.44° south, known as the Tropic of Capricorn. The subsolar point will cross every latitude between these two extremes exactly twice per year.", "The Tropic of Cancer is a line at latitude 23½°N, and represents the northernmost point at which the sun may be seen on the zenith at noon (on the summer solstice). Similarily the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) is the southernmost point at which the winter solstice noon sun will be directly overhead.", "The Tropics is the name given to the region of the world that lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The Tropic of Cancer is the parallel of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Tropic of Capricorn is located at the parallel of latitude that is 23°30' south of the equator. These imaginary lines mark the boundaries of an area in which the Sun will appear to be directly overhead, or at a 90° angle from Earth, at noon. North or south of these lines, the angle of the Sun at noon appears to be less than 90°. The lines were named for the constellations that the Sun crosses during the solstices (Capricorn on December 21 or 22 and Cancer on June 21 or 22).", "At 23.5°N is the Tropic of Cancer. It runs through Mexico, Egypt, Saudi Arabia , India and southern China. The Tropic of Capricorn is at 23.5°S and it runs through Chile, Southern Brazil, South Africa , and Australia. These two parallels are significant because they receive direct sun on the two solstices . In addition, the area between the two lines is the area known as the tropics . This region does not experience seasons and is normally warm and wet in its climate .", "The tropics are the geographic region of the Earth centered on the equator and limited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere , at approximately 23° 26' (23.5°) N latitude, and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23° 26' (23.5°) S. This area includes all the parts of the Earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year .", "The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn each lie at 23.5 degrees latitude. The Tropic of Capricorn lies at 23.5(degrees) South of the equator and runs through Australia, Chile, southern Brazil, and northern South Africa. ChaCha! [ Source: http://www.chacha.com/question/what-latitude-is-the-tropic-of-capricorn ]", "1The parallel of latitude 23°26ʹ north (tropic of Cancer) or south (tropic of Capricorn) of the equator.", "Like the poles, some circles of latitude are named. The Tropic of Cancer, for instance, is 23 degrees 26 minutes 21 seconds N—23° 26' 21'' N. Its twin, the Tropic of Capricorn, is 23° 26' 21'' S. The tropics are important geographic locations that mark the northernmost and southernmost latitudes where the sun can be seen directly overhead during a solstice .", "The Tropic of Capricorn is the latitude that lies at 23° 26′ South of the Equator. It is the southern-most position on the globe, where the sun is directly overhead during the December Solstice .", "It should also be noted that because of the greater amount of land in the Northern Hemisphere the Tropic of Cancer passes through more cities than the equivalent Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere .", "3. The tropic of Cancer C, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Cancer in e, and the tropic of Capricorn D, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f; each 23½ degrees from the equinoctial circle.", "Capricorn. The Tropic of Capricorn, or Capricornus, takes its name from the 30-degree-long Capricorn constellation, which is the tenth of 12 zodiacal constellations situated in an 18-degree-wide swath of the heavens--known as the elliptic--that the sun traverses annually. Also known as the Sea Goat or Horned Goat, this faint, autumn constellation is located in the equatorial region of the southern hemisphere, directly overhead, between Aquarius and Sagittarius. The English term Capricorn is derived from the Latin term Capricornus, which originated from the Latin terms caper and cornu, meaning \"goat\" and \"horn,\" respectively.", "North of the tropic are the subtropics and the North Temperate Zone. The equivalent line of latitude south of the Equator is called the Tropic of Capricorn, and the region between the two, centered on the Equator, is the tropics.", "The Tropic of Capricorn is dictated by the earth's axis of rotation relative to it's place of orbit. The area along this line marks the most southerly latitude in which the sun can be directly above the earth.This happens during the December  Solstice when the earth is tilted towards the sun at it's maximum extent. Areas situated between this line and it's northern counterpart, the Tropic of Cancer, are known as the Tropics or Torrid Zone, countries where all twelve months of the year have a mean temperature exceeeding 18 degrees and their seasons are defined by a wet or dry season, rather than Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. ", "Did you know that the Tropic of Cancer divides India almost equally into two halves? Do you have an atlas or a globe? Otherwise, you can probably check in your school library for the appropriate resources. Check the latitude along with the states of India through which the Tropic of Cancer passes through India and the rest of the globe. The Tropic of Cancer is located at 23.5 degrees north of the equator. It is an imaginary latitudinal line in the northern hemisphere which specifies the regions where the sun appears to be directly overhead during the summer solstice in June. The solstice occurs due to the revolution of the earth occurring at a tilt and specifies when the earth appears closest to the sun. In India, the Tropic of Cancer passes through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand West Bengal, Mizoram and Tripura from west to east. A few countries through which the Tropic of Cancer passes include Mexico, Saudi Arabia and China.", "2. (Physical Geography) either of the two points on the ecliptic at which the sun is overhead at the tropic of Cancer or Capricorn at the summer and winter solstices", "The Tropic of Capricorn, named some 2,000 years ago, is so called because the sun reaches its highest point in the sky in the constellation Capricornus in December. The tropics are named for the Greek word “tropos,” meaning to turn, because the sun seems to turn and head in the opposite direction across the sky after the solstice.", "The Tropic of Capricorn cuts through three country-sized regions of Australia (Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Queensland). the vast wilderness of the Outback. This is not the Australia of Neighbours and Home and Away, it is the heart of Australia, a remote and spectacular place populated by extraordinary people and wildlife – and the scene of some intractable and unexpected social problems.", "What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle? (Beginner)", "In this lesson, you'll learn about the significance of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and how they help explain the hot weather in the tropical zone and the cold weather above and below the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, respectively.", "But what in the world are the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer? This lesson will tell you what they are, where they are, and what their significance is to the tropical zone and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.", "When the Tropic of Capricorn was named, the Sun was entering the constellation Capricorn at the Winter Solstice in December. In modern times the Sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius during this time.", "The following cities and landmarks are either located near the Tropic of Capricorn, or the tropic passes through them.", "File:Tropic of capricorn Australia.jpg|Road sign marking Tropic of Capricorn in Western Australia, Australia, 26 August 2008", "8.Mexico City is the capital of Mexico. Is Mexico City north or south of the Tropic of Capricorn?", "Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the Tropic of Capricorn passes through 10 countries:", "• 75.67% of the Tropic Capricorn passes over sea – mostly the Pacific Ocean. Of the 24.33% that covers land, the country with by far the biggest section is Australia at 2,350 miles.", "Health related question in topics Geography .We found some answers as below for this question \"What latitude is the Tropic of Capricorn\",you can compare them." ]

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[ "Latitude is the angular distance of a point on Earth's surface north or south of Earth's equator, positive north and negative south. The geodetic latitude (or geographical latitude),", "A specific location�s latitudinal coordinate is its northerly, or southerly, angular distance along the earth�s surface relative to the equator. It is measured as an arc, along a meridian of longitude, perpendicular to the equator, which is by convention the zero degree parallel.", "In cartography , the angular distance of a point on the surface of the earth (or another celestial body) above or below the equator, ranging from 90 degrees north (90+) to 90 degrees south (90-). The angle is measured at the center of the sphere between the plane of the equator and the radius to the point on the surface, in degrees, minutes, and seconds (example: 60°, 20', 15\" north). Latitude is usually indicated on a map by line s circling the earth perpendicular to its axis, called parallel s, the longest being the equator. On average, one degree of latitude is equivalent to about 60 miles (97 km) on the ground, but the distance varies slightly because the earth is not a perfect sphere. Click here to learn more about latitude, courtesy of Wikipedia . Compare with longitude .", "The latitude of a place on the Earth's surface is the angular distance north or south of the equator. Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with �) ranging from 0� at the Equator to 90� at the North and South poles. The latitude of the North Pole is 90� N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90� S.", "Latitude - The angular distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees, is latitude. Source: Linda Lutz-Ryan", "angular distance of any point on the surface of the earth north or south of the equator. The equator is latitude 0°, and the North Pole and South Pole are latitudes 90°N and 90°S, respectively. The length of one degree of latitude averages about 69 mi (110 km); it increases slightly from the equator to the poles as a result of the earth's polar flattening. Latitude is commonly determined by means of a sextant sextant,", "Angular distance along a great circle of reference reckoned from an accepted origin to the projection of any point on that circle. Longitude on the Earth's surface is measured on the Equator east and west of the meridian of Greenwich and may be expressed either in degrees or in hours, the hour being taken as the equivalent of 15° of longitude. Celestial longitude is measured in the ecliptic eastward from the vernal equinox. The mean longitude of a celestial body moving in an orbit is the longitude that would be attained by a point moving uniformly in the circle of reference at the same average angular velocity as that of the body, with the initial position of the point so taken that its longitude would be the same as that of the body at a certain specified position in its orbit. With a common initial point, the mean longitude of a body will be the same in whatever circle it may be reckoned.", "The circumference of Earth at the equator is about 24,874 miles (40,030 km), but from pole-to-pole — the meridional circumference — Earth is only 24,860 miles (40,008 km) around. This shape, caused by the flattening at the poles, is called an oblate spheroid.", "Angular distance east or west of the local celestial meridian ; the arc of the celestial equator , or the angle at the celestial pole, between the upper branch of the local celestial meridian and the hour circle of a celestial body , measured eastward or westward from the local celestial meridian through 180°, and labeled E or W to indicate the direction of measurement. See hour angle .", "Latitude is the measurement of distance north or south of the Equator . It is measured with 180 imaginary lines that form circles around the Earth east-west, parallel to the Equator. These lines are known as parallel s. A circle of latitude is an imaginary ring linking all points sharing a parallel.", "The rotation of the Earth on its axis presents us with an obvious means of defining a coordinate system for the surface of the Earth. The two points where the rotation axis meets the surface of the Earth are known as the north pole and the south pole and the great circle perpendicular to the rotation axis and lying half-way between the poles is known as the equator. Great circles which pass through the two poles are known as meridians and small circles which lie parallel to the equator are known as parallels or latitude lines.", "We draw a radius from that point to the center of the Earth. The latitude is the angle between that radius and the plane of the equator--or else, 90° minus the angle between the radius and the axis of the Earth.", "The shape of Earth approximates an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator. This bulge results from the rotation of Earth, and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km larger than the pole-to-pole diameter. Thus the point on the surface farthest from Earth's center of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador. The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12742 km, which is approximately (40,000 km)/pi|, because the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris, France.", "Often called parallels or circles of latitude, latitudes are imaginary circles parallel to the Equator. They are named after the angle created by a line connecting the latitude and the center of the Earth, and the line connecting the Equator and the center of the Earth.", "The equator divides the earth into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere is marks the location of 0 degrees latitude.  The equator marks the locations on earth that are equidistance from the North and South Poles.  The equator crosses 78.7% water and 21.3% land and is about 24,901 miles (40,075 km) long.", "Circumference of the Earth: The circumference of the Earth is 24,901.55 miles or 40,075.16 kilometers, when measured from the equator. If measured from the poles, the circumference measures to 24,859.82 miles or 40,008 kilometers.", "The mean radius of Earth is 3,959 miles (6,371 kilometers). However, Earth is not quite a sphere. The planet's rotation causes it to bulge at the equator. Earth's equatorial diameter is 7,926 miles (12,756 km), but from pole to pole, the diameter is 7,898 miles (12,714 km) — a difference of only 28 miles (42 km).", "The Equator is the imaginary line that runs around the circumference of the Earth equidistant from the Poles. It marks 0 degrees latitude. Much of the Equator runs through the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The Equator also passes through 13 countries, including Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati, Ecuador, Colombia and Brazil.", "The line along which that plane meets the surface of the Earth, on the side of the point P, is called the meridian of P, or its \"line of longitude. \" Divide the circle of the equator into 360 degrees, with zero at the point where the \"Prime Meridian\" of Greenwich, England (at the eastern edge of London) crosses it.", "When studying latitude, there are three significant lines to remember. The first of these is the equator. The equator, located at 0°, is the longest line of latitude on Earth at 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km). It is significant because it is the exact center of the Earth and it divides that Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . It also receives the most direct sunlight on the two equinoxes .", "Spherical latitude: the angle between the normal to a spherical reference surface and the equatorial plane.", "(b) Angle subtended (8\".79) by the equatorial radius of the Earth at a distance of 1 AU.", "In short, objects located along the equator are about 21 km further away from the center of the Earth (geocenter) than objects located at the poles. Naturally, there are some deviations in the local topography where objects located away from the equator are closer or father away from the center of the Earth than others in the same region.", "The equator is an imaginary line drawn right around Earth’s middle, like a belt. It divides Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere.", "Local topography also plays a role in the Earth's shape, but on a global scale its role is very small. The largest differences in local topography across the globe are Mount Everest , the highest point above sea level at 29,035 ft (8,850 m), and the Mariana Trench, the lowest point below sea level at 35,840 ft (10,924 m). This difference is only a matter of about 12 miles (19 km), which is very minor overall. If equatorial bulge is considered, the world's highest point and the place that is farthest from the Earth's center is the peak of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador as it is the highest peak that is nearest the equator. Its elevation is 20,561 ft (6,267 m).", "Once again, if Δφ may be read directly from an accurate latitude scale on the map, then the rhumb distance between map points with latitudes φ1 and φ2 is given by the above. If there is no such scale then the ruler distances between the end points and the equator, y1 and y2, give the result via an inverse formula:", "the angular distance in the sky between the center of that body and the center of the Sun , as seen from the center of the Earth", "Because Earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse, and Earth is not always the same distance from the sun, one AU is defined as _______________.", "An irregular, imaginary line around the Earth where the geomagnetic inclination angle is measured to be zero. It lies near the geographic equator.", "At which latitude is the distance around the world one-half of the equatorial distance? => 60°N or S", "Heat Equator: A line that goes around the Earth and joins all the highest mean annual temperature for their longitudes is called heat equator. It is also known as thermal equator.", "If the summit is measured from the center of the Earth its altitude is higher than Mount Everest. For this same reason, the summit of Chimborazo is also the point on the surface of the Earth nearest to the sun." ]

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[ "Laos ((or) ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR) (République démocratique populaire lao), is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Myanmar (Burma) and the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south, and Thailand to the west. [1]", "Laos is the least developed asian landlocked country, surrounded by China in the north, Burma (Myanmar) to the north-west, Thailand in the south-west, Cambodia (Kampuchia) in the south-east, and Vietnam to the east.", "Laos, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west. Its population was estimated to be 6.5 million in 2012.", "Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia , bordering Kazakhstan , China , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan . It lies between latitudes 39° and 44° N , and longitudes 69° and 81° E . It is farther from an ocean than any other country in the world although it does not contain the absolute farthest point from any ocean. That spot lies in the Xinjiang region of Northwestern China. The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as \"the Switzerland of Central Asia\", as a result), [48] with the remainder made up of valleys and basins.", "Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as \"the Switzerland of Central Asia\", as a result), with the remainder made up of valleys and basins.", "Laos is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, lying mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (a small area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E . Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, whereas the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands . There are two plateaux, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. The climate is tropical and influenced by the monsoon pattern. [17]", "Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as  the Switzerland of Central Asia , as a result),[13] with the remainder made up of valleys and basins. Lake Issyk-Kul in the north-western Tian Shan is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca. The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming the Chinese border. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,400 feet), is the highest point and is considered by geologists (though not mountaineers) to be the northernmost peak over 7,000 m (23,000 feet) in the world. Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring floods which often cause serious damage downstream. The runoff from the mountains is also used for hydro-electricity.", "Laos is a landlocked country in southeast Asia and the thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2817 m, with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, whereas the mountains of the Annamite Chain form most of the eastern border with Vietnam.", "Notice that China is missing from this chart—its composition data is unavailable— and India's proportion of \"other\" on its trash is unusually high, suggesting a different standard for sorting trash. (The percentage from Germany also doesn't add up to 100, possibly due to rounding.)", "Nov 14, 07: A record 30.5 billion tons of industrial, farming and human waste were dumped last year into China's Yangtze River, the country's longest, state media reported. The quantity was twice as much as two decades ago and an increase of 900 million tons, or 3.1%, from the previous year.", "China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi); Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku); Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Russian Federation (Kuril Is., Primoryi, Sakhalin)", "The world’s largest economy was also the biggest generator of solid waste, before giving up its position to China. Over the last few years, however, it has managed to increase its recycling rate and send less to landfills.", "China surpassed the US as the world’s largest waste generator in 2004. In 2030, China is likely to produce twice as much municipal solid waste as the United States.", "A Southeast Asian nation was trying to deal with countless tons of garbage, while at the same time employing a faulty infrastructure to do so. The cleanup, somewhat successful, was a lesson in the sheer perseverance of the human spirit. It was also a lesson in what too many people leave behind.", "ASIA SNAP RAP The Himalaya Mountains along China and Nepal Have Mount Everest, the tallest peak of all. So if you're going climbing, and you want to have a ball, Go to the Himalayas, but be careful not to fall! The Indus river snakes through lovely Pakistan Though the large Caspian Sea is just North of old Iran. The southern part of India boasts the great Deccan Plateau, and the island of Sri Lanka's at the tip, don't you know? Spreading from China to Mongolia is the dry Gobi Desert. And if you try to cross it, I'm afraid you'll go berserk! Irawaddy is a strange name for a river, don't you think? And even though it flows through Burma--don't you take a drink! The Malay Peninsula is the home of Malaysia. Wasn't that a fun way to remember the places of ASIA?", "* Much of the coastlines of Mainland China, Hong Kong, North Korea and South Korea. It is estimated that nearly 65% of tidal flats around the Yellow Sea have been reclaimed. ", "Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.", "Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.", "South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK) (Korean: 대한민국) and often referred to as Korea, is a country in East Asia, located on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula. Also known as the \"Land of the Morning Calm\", it is neighbored by China to the west and Japan to the east, bordering North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul, the second largest metropolitan city in the world and a major global city. South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 100,032 square kilometers and has a population of almost 50 million, making it one of the most densely populated regions in the world.", "Myanmar is the second largest country in Southeast Asia, bordering Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. With a total area of 677,000 m2, it is as large as the total area of the UK and France. Myanmar stretches 2,051 km from north to south and about 936 km from east to west, with 2243 km of coastline bordering the Indian Ocean. More than 50% of Myanmar is covered by forests and it boasts the tallest mountain in SE Asia (Hkakabo Razi topping over 5,800 meter/19,200 ft).", "Japan, island nation in East Asia, located in the North Pacific Ocean off the coast of the Asian continent. Japan comprises the four main islands of Honshû, Hokkaidô, Kyûshû, and Shikoku, in addition to numerous smaller islands. The Japanese call their country Nihon or Nippon, which means \"origin of the sun.\" The name arose from Japan's position east of the great Chinese empires that held sway over Asia throughout most of its history. Japan is sometimes referred to in English as the \"land of the rising sun.\" Tokyo is the country's capital and largest city.", "This argument is a subset of the first argument. Assuming the Google Maps border is correct, I found that Hkakabo Razi lies wholly within Burma (it is close to the border with China). Even if it shares the border with China, it wouldn’t matter. For example, Mt Everest is the highest mountain for both China and Nepal. On that premise, Hkakabo Razi rightfully claims the title of being the highest mountain South East Asia if Papua is excluded.", "6. Most of the Tibetan plataeu lies above 14,000 feet. Tibet is the source of five of Asia's greatest rivers, which over 2 billion people depend upon. Since 1959, the Chinese government estimates that they have removed over $54 billion worth of timber. Over 80% of their forests have been destroyed, and large amoutns nuclear and toxic waste have been disposed of in Tibet. ", "Since 2008, the Eco Everest Expeditions have collected and brought off the mountain nearly 12,000 kgs of garbage and over 300 kgs of human waste produced by Eco Everest Expedition. Also four died bodies recovered and brought down from the mountain for a dignified burial.", "* Nagoya, Japan (suspended on February 21, 2012 after Nanjing Massacre denialist statements by Mayor Takashi Kawamura)", "The reluctance of people to leave their homes despite danger is common in the sprawling archipelago nation. It has more volcanoes than any other country and is prone to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes because of its location on the \"Ring of Fire\" — a series of fault lines stretching from the Western Hemisphere through Japan and Southeast Asia.", "South Sudan, officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city. South Sudan is bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the southwest, and the Central African Republic to the west. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile and known locally as the Bahr al Jabal.", "3.00am Following the recent discussion on these pages about which country has been the most successful in Beijing so far (and, obviously, to make it a bit interesting, we had to make it per capita) I was wondering which country is the worst (per capita)?", "What do you mean by double landlocked? Is that like the ones which border the country don't have coastlines either?", "While Asia’s resource-hungry economies can secure fossil fuels and mineral ores from distant lands, they cannot import water, which is prohibitively expensive to transport. So they have been overexploiting local resources instead – a practice that has spurred an environmental crisis, advancing regional climate change and intensifying natural disasters like droughts.", "The mountainous Japanese archipelago stretches 3,000 km north to south off the east of the Asian continent at the convergence of four tectonic plates; it has about forty active volcanoes and experiences about 1,000 earthquakes a year. The steep, craggy mountains that cover two-thirds of its surface are prone to quick erosion from fast-flowing rivers and to mudslides. They thus have hampered internal travel and communication and driven the population to rely on transportation along coastal waters. There is great variety to its regions' geographical features and weather patterns, with a rainy season in most parts in early summer. Volcanic soil that washes along the 13% of the area that makes up the coastal plains provides fertile land and the mainly temperate climate allows long growing seasons, which with the diversity of flora and fauna provide rich resources able to support the density of the population.", "Satellite image of Asia: Koyos, from NASA images, public domain Asia is the largest continent and is home to more people than any other continent. You will have six assignments for Asia. These are:" ]

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[ "The layer of the atmosphere closest to the earth is the troposphere. This layer is where weather occurs. It begins at the surface of the earth and extends out to about 4-12 miles. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height. This layer is known as the lower atmosphere.", "‡ The troposphere is “the layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth’s surface. People live in the troposphere, and nearly all of Earth’s weather-including most clouds, rain, and snow-occurs there. The troposphere contains about 80 percent of the atmosphere’s mass and about 99 percent of its water.” [Article: “troposphere.” Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2004.]", "The Earth's atmosphere has several distinct layers, some of which are shown in the image above. The layer nearest the Earth's surface is called the troposphere. The troposphere is usually approximately 16 km (ten miles) thick and is the layer that contains most of the weather. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which stretches from ten miles to 30 miles high. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects the Earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The ionosphere is found above the stratosphere. This layer contains many free electrons and ions, which reflect radio waves. This reflection allows radio waves to travel much farther than they would without the ionosphere. The highest layer of the atmosphere is the exosphere. Here the air is extremely thin and some of the air molecules are lost to space.", "On the basis of temperature, the atmosphere is subdivided into different altitude regions like the layers of an onion (see Figure 1 ). Closest to the Earth's surface is the region called the troposphere . This region includes the air that we breathe and is where weather systems occur. The air pressure (and also the total number of molecules per unit volume) decreases almost exponentially with altitude so that roughly 90% of the mass of the atmosphere is in the troposphere and 50% of the mass is within the 5.5 km closest to the Earth.", "The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere . The troposphere starts at Earth's surface and goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km (4 to 12 miles, or 23,000 to 65,000 feet) above sea level. Most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Almost all weather occurs within this layer. Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near ground level. Higher up it gets colder . Air pressure and the density of the air are also less at high altitudes. The layer above the troposphere is called the stratosphere .", "The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere and site of all weather on Earth. The troposphere is bonded on the top by a layer of air called the tropopause, which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere, and on bottom by the surface of the Earth. The troposphere is wider at the equator (10mi) than at the poles (5mi).", "Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises, and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.", "Earth’s atmosphere has a layered structure. From the ground toward the sky, the layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , and exosphere . Another layer, called the ionosphere , extends from the mesosphere to the exosphere. Beyond the exosphere is outer space . The boundaries between atmospheric layers are not clearly defined, and change depending on latitude and season .", "The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located from about 50 km to 80-90 km altitude above Earth's surface.", "Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning \"turn\"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.", "The mesosphere (literally middle sphere) is the third highest layer in our atmosphere, occupying the region 50 km to 80 km above the surface of the Earth, above the troposphere and stratosphere, and below the thermosphere. It is separated from the stratosphere by the stratopause and from the thermosphere by the mesopause.", "Above the stratosphere , temperature begins to drop again in the next layer of the atmosphere called the mesosphere, as seen in the previous figure. This temperature decrease results from the rapidly decreasing density of the air at this altitude. Finally, at the outer reaches of Earth's atmosphere, the intense, unfiltered radiation from the sun causes molecules like O2 and N2 to break apart into ions . The release of energy from these reactions actually causes the temperature to rise again in the thermosphere, the outermost layer. The thermosphere extends to about 500 km above Earth's surface , still a few hundred kilometers below the altitude of most orbiting satellites.", "The layer above this is the Stratosphere, this is where the Ozone Layer is formed. The atmosphere above 10 km is called the stratosphere. The gas is still dense enough that hot air balloons can ascend to altitudes of 15 - 20 km and Helium balloons to nearly 35 km, but the air thins rapidly and the gas composition changes slightly as the altitude increases. Within the stratosphere, incoming solar radiation at wavelengths below 240 nm. is able to break up (or dissociate) molecular Oxygen (", "The thermosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. The thermosphere is directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere . It extends from about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above our planet.", "The stratosphere is the next layer of the atmosphere. It extends anywhere from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 km) above Earth's surface up to 31 miles (50 km). This is the layer where most commercial airliners fly and weather balloons travel to.", "The mesosphere a layer extending from approximately 30 to 50 miles (50 to 85 km) above the surface, is characterized by decreasing temperatures. The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere occur at the top of this layer, the mesopause, especially in the summer near the pole. The mesosphere has sometimes jocularly been referred to as the \"ignorosphere\" because it had been probably the least studied of the atmospheric layers. The stratosphere and mesosphere together are sometimes referred to as the middle atmosphere.", "Directly above the stratosphere, extending from 50 to 80 km above the Earth's surface, the mesosphere is a cold layer where the temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude. Here in the mesosphere, the atmosphere is very rarefied nevertheless thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky.", "1) The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains  70 to 80 per cent of the Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer. ", "Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere . It extends upward to a height of about 85 km (53 miles) above our planet. Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Unlike the stratosphere, temperatures once again grow colder as you rise up through the mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are found near the top of this layer. The air in the mesosphere is far too thin to breathe; air pressure at the bottom of the layer is well below 1% of the pressure at sea level, and continues dropping as you go higher.", "The next layer up is called the stratosphere . The stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles) above the ground. The infamous ozone layer is found within the stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher you go! That trend of rising temperatures with altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks the turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath. Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere, partly because this less-turbulent layer provides a smoother ride. The jet stream flows near the border between the troposphere and the stratosphere.", "Mesosphere The mesosphere extends from the upper boundary of the stratosphere up to 85 kilometers (280,000 feet) above the Earth. Shooting stars (meteors usually burn up in the part of the atmosphere. It is also the coldest place on Earth. At the boundary with the thermosphere the average temperature is -85 degrees Celsius. Water vapor is frozen in this layers forming ice clouds.", "Mesosphere The atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the thermosphere. Located at an average elevation between 50 and 80 km above the earth's surface.", "Atmosphere - The thin layer of gases above the Earth extends to about 800 kilometres deep with a temperature of -273°C (absolute zero) at its outer limits. Most of the atmosphere (about 80%) is actually within 16 km of the surface of the Earth. In, scale this would be equivalent to a generous coat of varnish on a desktop globe.", "The troposphere is the layer from the surface to an average altitude of about 7 mi. It is characterized by an overall decrease of temperature with increasing altitude. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude and seasons. It slopes from about 20,000 ft over the poles to about 65,000 ft over the equator; and it is higher in summer than in winter.", "The atmosphere can be split up into a variety of different layers according to their properties. As different aspects of science look at different properties there is no singlenomenclature for the layers. The system that is most widely used is that associated with.Lowest is the troposphere that extends to a height of 10 km. Above this at altitudesbetween 10 and 50 km is found the stratosphere. This contains the ozone layer at a heightof around 20 km. Above the stratosphere, there is the mesosphere extending from analtitude of 50 km to 80 km, and above this is the thermosphere whereThere are two main layers that are of interest from a radio viewpoint. The first is thetroposphere that tends to affect frequencies above 30 MHz. The second is the ionosphere.This a region which crosses over the boundaries of the meteorological layers and extendsfrom around 60 km up to 700 km. Here the air becomes ionised, producing ions and freeelectrons. The free electrons affect radio waves at certain frequencies, often bending themback to earth so that they can be heard over vast distances around the world.", "Thermosphere – The layer of the atmosphere of a planet lying above the mesosphere. The lower thermosphere is the ionosphere. The upper thermosphere is the exosphere", "Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. This is the relatively quiet, stable band of air in which the ozone layer is found and where our emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances go. There is no exact place where the atmosphere ends; it just gets thinner and thinner, until it merges with outer space.", "Thermosphere: Thermosphere is the outermost surface of the atmosphere, that lies above the mesosphere, and below the exosphere. It is a region where temperature increases steadily with altitude.", "The Thermosphere, the second highest layer of the atmosphere, is next to the mesopause. This layer extends from an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi) up to the thermopause, which is at an altitude of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi). The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometers (50 to 342 mi), contains the ionosphere – which is so named because it is here in the atmosphere that particles are ionized by solar radiation.", "Extending from 500 to 10,000 kilometres above the earth’s surface, what is the uppermost layer of the earth’s atmosphere called – beyond which there is only outer space?", "This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53 miles (85 km). The gases, including the oxygen molecules, continue to become more dense as one descends. As such, temperatures increase as one descends rising to about 5°F (-15°C) near the bottom of this layer.", "The _______ is the uppermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere where it gradually blends into the vacuum of space" ]

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[ "Weegy: The name of Earth's single, huge continent from over 250 million years ago is B.- Pangaea", "User: The name of Earth's single, huge continent from over 250 million years ago is (1 point) A.Megaland. B.Pangaea. C.Gondwanaland. D.Laurasia.", "The name of Earth's single, huge continent from over 250 million years ago is (1 point) A.Megaland. B.Pangaea. C.Gondwanaland. D.Laurasia.", "A shade more than 200 million years ago, the Earth looked far different than it does today. Most land on the planet was consolidated into one continent called Pangea. There was no Atlantic Ocean, and the rulers of the animal world were crurotarsans - creatures closely related to modern crocodiles.", "In the view above, we see Earth in the middle of the Jurassic Period, in mid-Mesozoic times (sort of a middle-middle view). The supercontinents Gondwanaland and Laurasia collided some time back to form a single super-super continent called Pangea (\"All-Earth\"). But plate tectonics continues its irresistible motions, and even as we look, Pangea is beginning to break up into the continents we know now. At upper left, North America is just breaking away from the northwest coast of Africa, and the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico are beginning to form. The Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States are a high, rugged mountain range, something like the Rocky Mountains of today. Over the next fifty million years or so, South America, India, and Antarctica will all break away from Africa and move toward their present positions.", "Pangaea is the most recent Super Continent that started to break up 200 - 250 million years ago", "Above: A map of the world as it might appear 250 million years from now. Notice the clumping of most of the world's landmass into one super-continent, \"Pangea Ultima,\" with an inland sea -- all that's left of the once-mighty Atlantic Ocean. Image courtesy of Dr. Christopher Scotese.", "Scientists are a step closer to solving part of a 165-million-year-old giant jigsaw puzzle: the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Finding the past position of Earth's continents is a finicky task. But pinning down their wanderings plays a key role in everything from understanding ancient climate to how Earth's mountains and oceans evolved. Through \"plate reconstruction\" models, geoscientists illustrate how Earth's continents crunch together and split apart. Before it cracked into several landmasses, Gondwana included what are today Africa, South America, Australia, India and Antarctica. The big continents - Africa and South America - split off about 180 million to 170 million years ago. In recent years, researchers have debated what happened next, as the remaining continents rocketed apart. For example, different Gondwana reconstruction models had a 250-mile (400 kilometers) disagreement in the fit between Australia and Antarctica, an error that has a cascading effect in plate reconstructions, said Lloyd White, a geologist at Royal Holloway University in Surrey, England.", "Pangea was surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa, and it was fully assembled by the Early Permian Period (some 299 million to 272 million years ago). The supercontinent began to break apart about 200 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic Period (201 million to 174 million years ago), eventually forming the modern continents and the Atlantic and Indian ocean s. Pangea’s existence was first proposed in 1912 by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener as a part of his theory of continental drift . Its name is derived from the Greek pangaia, meaning “all the Earth.”", "Some 300 million years ago all the world's land masses were beginning to form into one supercontinent, Pangaea, surrounded by a single universal sea, Panthalassa. Through the upheavals that we have since come to know as plate tectonics, the shifting of the Earth's crust tore the supercontinent asunder about the middle of the Mesozoic period (approximately 180 million years B.P.) and large bodies of land drifted across the surface of the Earth to ultimately become our present-day continents.", "Neuna was the Earth's first supercontinent and was formed around 1.9 billion years ago. We know that it broke up soon after it formed, but it is difficult to determine what form it took. The name Neuna was given to the continent by the Harvard University geologist Dr. Paul Hoffman, and is an acronym that derives from Northern Europe and North America. Traces of the orogenic activity of 1.9 billion years ago can still be found in various locations around the world, and on the basis of these it is thought that most of the landmass that currently makes up the continent of North America was once part of the Neuna supercontinent.", "�  Pangaea � A supercontinent that broke apart 200 million years ago to form the present continents.", "The most recent of these supercontinents was called Pangaea , which means \"all lands.\" It began to break up about 200 million years ago, first forming the two supercontinents Gondwana (in the Southern Hemisphere) and Laurasia (in the Northern Hemisphere). Eventually these two supercontinents also fragmented, forming the continents as we know them today.", "a large supercontinent that existed in the northern hemisphere before it began to break up ~200 million years ago, consisting of the modern day continents of North America, Europe and Asia.", "During the Early Permian, the northwestern coastline of the ancient continent Gondwana (a paleocontinent that would eventually fragment to become South America , India , Africa , Australia , and Antarctica ) collided with and joined the southern part of Euramerica (a paleocontinent made up of North America and southern Europe ). With the fusion of the Angaran craton (the stable interior portion of a continent) of Siberia to that combined landmass during the middle of the Early Permian, the assembly of Pangea was complete. Cathaysia, a landmass comprising the former tectonic plates of North and South China , was not incorporated into Pangea. Rather, it formed a separate, much smaller, continent within the global ocean Panthalassa.", "Despite the ancient and ubiquitous division of the earth into Europe, Asia, and Africa (with the Americas as a later addition), such \"parts\" of the earth were not necessarily defined explicitly as continents prior to the late nineteenth century. While the term continent--which emphasizes the contiguous nature of the land in question--was often used in translating Greek and Latin concepts regarding the tripartite global division, it was also employed in a far more casual manner. In fact, in early modern English, any reasonably large body of land or even island group might be deemed a continent. In 1599, for example, Richard Hakluyt referred to the West Indies as a \"large and fruitfull continent.\" Gradually, however, geographers excluded archipelagos and smaller landmasses from this category, adhering as well to a more stringent standard of spatial separation. By 1752 Emanuel Bowen was able to state categorically: \"A continent is a large space of dry land comprehending many countries all joined together, without any separation by water. Thus Europe, Asia, and Africa is one great continent, as America is another.\"", "So it is by mere accident of birth that we, the human race, live on a multi-continent Earth instead of on a planet dominated by a supercontinent, surrounded by a single ocean. How different would human history have looked, if we had shared a single continent? Well, for one, something as history-altering as the Discovery of America would have been impossible. No area that large could exist in a vacuum on a single-continent Earth. Would Pangea have been beneficial, enabling more trade and cultural exchanges? Or would it have been the death-knell of humankind itself, allowing war and disease to ravage the entire world in one fell swoop?", "A more recent supercontinent called Pangaea formed about 300 million years ago. Africa, South America, North America and Europe nestled closely together, leaving a characteristic pattern of fossils and rocks for geologists to decipher once Pangaea broke apart. The puzzle pieces left behind by Pangaea, from fossils to the matching shorelines along the Atlantic Ocean, provided the first hints that the Earth's continents move.", "Pangaea: the 300-million-year-old supercontinent that plate tectonics split 200 million years ago into what have become the current arrangements of continents. There seem to have been at least two other supercontinents before Pangaea.", "The super continent Pangaea was already formed in the Permian. In relatively short time, in a geological view, all the Earth's continents united in a single enormeous super-continent.", "By the start of the Triassic, all the Earth's landmasses had coalesced to form Pangaea, a supercontinent shaped like a giant C that straddled the Equator and extended toward the Poles. Almost as soon as the supercontinent formed, it started to come undone. By the end of the period 199 million years ago, tectonic forces had slowly begun to split the supercontinent in two: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south.", "As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia (600 to 540 million years ago), and then finally Pangaea – the last supercontinent, which broke apart 180 million years ago.", "Figure 6.5: The continents fit together like pieces of a puzzle. This is how they looked 250 million years ago.", "In the case of Pangea, the Earth's continents were eventually moved so much over millions of years that they combined into one large supercontinent.", "The breaking up and formation of supercontinents appears to have happened several times over Earth’s history with Pangaea being one among many. The next-to-last one, Pannotia, formed about 600 million years ago during the Proterozoic eon. Pannotia included large amounts of land near the poles and only a relatively small strip near the equator connecting the polar masses.", "The Great Unknown Southern Continent--Terra Australis Incognita, or Nondum Cognita--had for ages been the dream of geographers. The ancient cosmographers had formulated a theory as to the existence of a huge continent in the south, which they considered necessary to balance the large continents in the northern hemisphere. The discovery of North and South America only lent fresh weight to this conjecture, and it was commonly supposed in the 16th and 17th centuries--and indeed was almost an article of faith--that below the Equator there was a huge continent which had still to be discovered and explored.", "The continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist Eduard Suess, after the Gondwana region of central northern India which is derived from Sanskrit for \"forest of the Gonds\". The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by H.B. Medlicott in 1872. from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (Permian-Triassic) are also described.", "Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian \"shield\", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are \"high and dry\"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity. ", "A French scientist Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (1859) first proposed that all the continents were once connected together during the Pennsylvanian Period (314-280 million years ago). He used identical plant fossils found in coal beds of Europe and the U.S. to support his idea. He attributed the supercontinent break up to the great flood of the bible.", "a supercontinent older than Pangaea that formed about 1.1 billion years ago and began to break up about 750 million years ago", "What was the more northern of two supercontinents (the other being Gondwana) that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent around 300 to 200 million years ago?", "Rodinia (from the Russian \"Родина\", ródina, meaning \"The Motherland\") is a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that was assembled 1.3–0.9 billion years ago and broke up 750–600 million years ago. " ]

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[ "Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a family of chemical compounds developed back in the 1930's as safe, non-toxic, non-flammable alternative to dangerous substances like ammonia for purposes of refrigeration and spray can propellants. Their usage grew enormously over the years. One of the elements that make up CFCs is chlorine. Very little chlorine exists naturally in the atmosphere. But it turns out that CFCs are an excellent way of introducing chlorine into the ozone layer. The ultraviolet radiation at this altitude breaks down CFCs, freeing the chlorine. Under the proper conditions, this chlorine has the potential to destroy large amounts of ozone. This has indeed been observed, especially over Antarctica. As a consequence, levels of genetically harmful ultraviolet radiation have increased.", "When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to break apart and release chlorine atoms, which react with ozone, starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.", "a family of inert, nontoxic, and easily liquefied chemicals used in refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, or as solvents and aerosol propellants. Because CFCs are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, they drift into the upper atmosphere where their chlorine components destroy ozone.", "The stratospheric ozone layer shields life on Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. Chemicals that destroy ozone are formed by industrial and natural processes. With the exception of volcanic injection and aircraft exhaust, these chemicals are carried up into the stratosphere by strong upward-moving air currents in the tropics. Methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water are injected into the stratosphere through towering tropical cumulus clouds. These compounds are broken down by the ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Byproducts of the breakdown of these chemicals form “radicals”—such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and chlorine monoxide (ClO)—that play an active role in ozone destruction. Aerosols and clouds can accelerate ozone loss through reactions on cloud surfaces. Thus, volcanic clouds and polar stratospheric clouds can indirectly contribute to ozone loss. ", "As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). ", "destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer which shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation harmful to biological life. This destruction of ozone is caused by the breakdown of certain chlorine and/or bromine containing compounds (chlorofluorocarbons or halons) which break down when they reach the stratosphere and catalytically destroy ozone molecules.", "A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane, ethane, and propane. They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (e.g., R-410A) and R-134a ", "Compounds called chlorofluorocarbons are used in refrigeration systems. If released, these compounds destroy ozone in the atmosphere. Draw the electron dot diagram for CF2Cl2 in your Science Journal.", "UV light breaks down CFCs in the stratosphere, releasing chlorine atoms. This can be demonstrated by having a student with a flashlight shine a light on a group of students representing a molecule of CFC-11 or CFC-12. Let one student representing a freed chlorine atom move amidst groups of students representing ozone. The chlorine is involved in the breakdown of ozone as follows:", "The main ODS are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. Halons (brominated fluorocarbons) also play a large role. Their application is quite limited: they're used in specialized fire extinguishers. But the problem with halons is they can destroy up to 10 times as much ozone as CFCs can. For this reason, halons are the most serious ozone-depleting group of chemicals emitted in British Columbia.", "Scientists have been increasingly able to attribute the observed ozone depletion to the increase of man-made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds from CFCs by the use of complex chemistry transport models and their validation against observational data (e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS—Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere). These models work by combining satellite measurements of chemical concentrations and meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants obtained in lab experiments. They are able to identify not only the key chemical reactions but also the transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.", "Compounds containing C–H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.", "CFCs have been found to pose a serious environmental threat. Studies undertaken by various scientists during the 1970s revealed that CFCs released into the atmosphere accumulate in the stratosphere, where they had a deleterious effect on the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone shields living organisms on Earth from the harmful effects of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation; even a relatively small decrease in the stratospheric ozone concentration can result in an increased incidence of skin cancer in humans and in genetic damage in many organisms. In the stratosphere the CFC molecules break down by the action of solar ultraviolet radiation and release their constituent chlorine atoms. These then react with the ozone molecules, resulting in their removal.", "The unfiltered sunlight bombards the molecules of CFC refrigerants, and they are pushed towards the stratospheric clouds over the poles. Due to this the CFC molecules get disintegrated. The chlorine atom removed from CFCs reacts with ozone molecule (O3) and converts it into oxygen molecule (O2).", "A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (). On a per atom basis, bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, in the Earth's stratosphere, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.", "CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.", "The interim replacements for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which deplete stratospheric ozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs. Ultimately, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) will replace HCFCs. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0. DuPont began producing hydrofluorocarbons as alternatives to Freon in the 1980s. These included Suva refrigerants and Dymel propellants. Natural refrigerants are climate friendly solutions that are enjoying increasing support from large companies and governments interested in reducing global warming emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning. Hydrofluorocarbons are included in the Kyoto Protocol because of their very high Global Warming Potential and are facing calls to be regulated under the Montreal Protocol due to the recognition of halocarbon contributions to climate change. ", "Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs has been heavily regulated because of their destructive effects on the ozone layer. After the development of his electron capture detector, James Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the air, finding a mole fraction of 60 ppt of CFC-11 over Ireland. In a self-funded research expedition ending in 1973, Lovelock went on to measure CFC-11 in both the Arctic and Antarctic, finding the presence of the gas in each of 50 air samples collected, and concluding that CFCs are not hazardous to the environment. The experiment did however provide the first useful data on the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused by CFCs was discovered by Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina who, after hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's work, embarked on research resulting in the first publication suggesting the connection in 1974. It turns out that one of CFCs' most attractive features—their low reactivity— is key to their most destructive effects. CFCs' lack of reactivity gives them a lifespan that can exceed 100 years, giving them time to diffuse into the upper stratosphere. Once in the stratosphere, the sun's ultraviolet radiation is strong enough to cause the homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond.", "DuPont, along with Thomas Midgley working under Charles Kettering of General Motors, was the inventor of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). CFCs are ozone-depleting chemicals that were used primarily in aerosol sprays and refrigerants. DuPont was the largest CFC producer in the world with a 25 percent market share in the 1980s, totaling $600 million in annual sales.", "In December 1986, negotiations on a protocol to the Vienna Convention for controlling CFCs resumed. The new U.S. position, as outlined by EPA and the State Department, called for a near-term freeze on the production of CFCs and halons and a long-term phaseout. In February 1987, the United States called for freezing CFCs and halons at 1986 levels and then cutting back by 95 percent in 10-14 years.89 Richard Benedick, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State and chief U.S. negotiator in Montreal, and EPA Administrator Lee Thomas were instrumental in formulating the U.S. position, and promoting it both within the United States and internationally. The U.S. position was based on new research that pointed to a strong and growing consensus in the international scientific community concerning the serious threat that CFCs posed to the ozone layer,90 and on the recent EPA risk assessment that demonstrated that unacceptable risks were associated with ozone depletion.91", "A group of chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only. These chemicals (predominantly CF4 and C2F6) were introduced as alternatives, along with hydrofluorocarbons, to the ozone depleting substances. In addition, PFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases: CF4 has a global warming potential (GWP) of 7,390 and C2F6 has a GWP of 12,200. The GWP is from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). These chemicals are predominantly human-made, though there is a small natural source of CF4. See ozone depleting substance .", "A family of chemicals composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine whose principal applications are as refrigerants and industrial cleansers and whose principal drawback is the tendency to destroy the Earth's protective ozone layer.", "Ozone depletion has also been detected outside the Antarctic. Satellite data indicate a global reduction in ozone of about five percent since 1978, of which only half can be accounted for by current theories and models.24 However, the accuracy of these satellite measurements has been questioned.25 More recently, the Ozone Trends Panel26 using ground-based measurements for the period 1969-1986, has reported a global reduction of between 1.7 and 3.0 percent in the northern hemisphere for latitudes between 30 and 64 degrees.27 Decreases, however, have been as great as 6.2 percent during the winter months. The Ozone Trends Panel has attributed this decrease to CFCs and other atmospheric trace gases. The Ozone Trends Panel also concludes that these findings are \"broadly consistent\" with model calculations.28 It is important to note, however, that the results of the Ozone Trends Panel were released six months after the Montreal Protocol was signed, and thus did not influence the outcome in Montreal .", "The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (NOx) For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see: ", "EPA and the State Department based the U.S. position of a near-term freeze and eventual long-term phaseout of CFCs on the risk assessment and the other scientific studies. These studies also had considerable influence on European policymakers and on the chemical industry. The most current scientific research was conclusively pointing to the role of CFCs in depleting atmospheric ozone, and the serious threat that this posed to the global environment and the health and welfare of people in all nations.", "This paper analyzes the evolution of stratospheric ozone policy. The first section reviews the science behind the problem of CFC-induced stratospheric ozone depletion. The next two sections discuss the emergence of stratospheric ozone depletion as a national political issue in the United States during stage I, and its evolution to an international political issue during stage II. This is followed by a discussion of how the evolving scientific understanding of the problem, the catastrophic nature of the risks, and the availability of alternatives to CFCs influenced the final negotiations on an international agreement. The last section examines the Montreal Protocol and discusses its prospects for success.", "Chlorofluorocarbons are a group of inert, nontoxic, and nonflammable synthetic chemical compounds used as aerosol propellants, in refrigeration and air conditioning, in plastic foams for insulation and packaging, and as solvents for cleaning electrical components. There are many varieties of CFCs; CFC-11 and -12 are the most common compounds and CFC-113 has important industrial applications as a solvent. Production of CFCs has increased significantly since the 1960s, reaching a peak in 1974 before declining as a result of the decreasing use of CFCs as aerosol propellants. However, nonaerosol use continued to increase and by the mid-1980s CFC production again reached mid-1970 levels (see Figure 1 ). Atmospheric concentrations of CFC have also been increasing (see Figure 2 ). Once in the atmosphere, CFCs have a lifetime of about 100 years. It is this long lifetime that is the root of the problem with CFCs.", "protect the ozone by phasing out the production of a number of CFCs and other chemical compounds ", "The DuPont trade name for CFC, a chemical strongly associated with global warming (chlorofluorocarbon - containing carbon, chlorine, and fluorine - used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants, and whose manufacture is being phased out by the Montreal Protocol)", "In the stratosphere, CFCs come into contact with short wavelength ultraviolet radiation which is able to split off chlorine atoms from the CFC molecules", "On March 14 of the same year, scientists from the National Aeronautics and Space Agency announced the results of a study demonstrating a 2.3% decline in mid-latitude ozone levels between 1969 and 1986, along with evidence tying the decline to CFCs in the upper atmosphere. On March 24, DuPont reversed its position, calling the NASA results \"important new information\" and announcing that it would phase out CFC production. The company further called for worldwide controls on CFC production and for additional countries to ratify the Montreal Protocol. DuPont's change of policy was widely praised by environmentalists. In 2003, DuPont was awarded the National Medal of Technology, recognizing the company as the leader in developing CFC replacements. ", "A broad research community has a stake in this issue as well. The efforts of CFC producers and consumers (nearly everyone in the developed world) have created a problem that necessitates a substantial amount of research. Unfortunate as it may be, the threat of ozone depletion creates new and sometimes challenging employment in related research fields. First, second and third parties are found in this group, though more first and third (Burgess & Burgess, 1991)." ]

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[ "A barometer is a widely used weather instrument that measures atmospheric pressure (also known as air pressure or barometric pressure) -- the weight of the air in the atmosphere . It is one of the basic sensors included in weather stations .", "A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure , also called barometric pressure . The atmosphere is the layers of air wrapped around the Earth. That air has a weight and presses against everything it touches as gravity pulls it to Earth. Barometers measure this pressure. ", "- A barometer is a device that measures air (barometric) pressure. It measures the weight of the column of air that extends from the instrument to the top of the atmosphere. There are two types of barometers commonly used today, mercury and aneroid (meaning \"fluidless\"). Earlier water barometers (also known as \"storm glasses\") date from the 17th century. The mercury barometer was invented by the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608 - 1647), a pupil of Galileo, in 1643. Torricelli inverted a glass tube filled with mercury into another container of mercury; the mercury in the tube \"weighs\" the air in the atmosphere above the tube. The aneroid barometer (using a spring balance instead of a liquid) was invented by the French scientist Lucien Vidie in 1843.", "A BAROMETER measures air pressure. It tells you whether or not the pressure is rising or falling. A rising barometer means sunny and dry conditions, while a falling barometer means stormy and wet conditions. An Italian scientist named Torricelli built the first barometer in 1643.", "A: A barometer essentially measures the weight of the column of air that extends from the ground to the top of the atmosphere. A rising barometer reading coincides with rapidly dropping temperatures because cold air molecules are less energetic than warm air molecules and can pack more closely together, making cold air more dense than warm air.", "Barometers measure a specific type of pressure--atmospheric pressure. Because pressure differences can cause many major weather changes, meteorologists can use barometers to measure wind speeds and forecast storms. A barometer consists of a glass tube containing no air (a vacuum) connected to a small pool of mercury. The surrounding air pressure forces the mercury up through the tube, and meteorologists can calculate the air pressure based on the distance that the mercury travels.", "A barometer measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called atmospheres or bars. An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). ", "Derived from the Greek words ‘baros’ and ‘metron’, meaning weight and measure respectively, the barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure, and is extremely important in predicting weather patterns.", "Barometer An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure. The two most common barometer s are the mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer .", "Barometer : An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. There are three common types of barometer s used widely today: mercury barometer ; aneroid barometer ; electron ic barometer . See glossary entries for more on these types.", "If you imagined something a bit like a pair of scales that can measure the weight of the air in the tube, congratulations! That's pretty much the solution. A device that can measure air pressure (which we call a barometer) works by measuring how much the air is pressing down on it.", "A unit of pressure, equal to 105 pascal . One bar is roughly the same as the average pressure of the Earth's atmosphere (atm), which is 1.013 25 bar. A barometer an instrument for measuring barometric pressure of the atmosphere, usually in units of millibar (mbar) or as the height in millimetres, of a column of mercury ( mmHg ).", "Air pressure is often measured with a device called a barometer. Most barometers today measure air pressure in millibars.", "Barometer An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. Barometric pressure The actual pressure value indicated by a pressure sensor.Bitterly coldIn winter , bitterly cold or very cold, refers to more than seven degree s Celsius below normal .", "Aneroid barometers measure the air pressure when you knock their glass faces. When you first inspect them, the needle shows the pressure as it was when you last looked at them—however long ago that might have been. Give the glass a sharp tap and the needle will jump to a new position showing the pressure as it is now. The way the needle moves is important. If it moves clockwise, up the dial, the pressure is increasing so the weather is likely to be getting hotter, drier, and finer; if the needle turns counterclockwise, the pressure is decreasing and the weather is likely to get cooler, wetter, and poorer.", "Air pressure is measured by barometers.  In general, weather will improve when pressure increases and worsen when pressure decreases.", "Today, air pressure is often measured with a mercury or aneroid barometer . A mercury barometer measures the height of a mercury column in a vertical glass tube.", "A type of barometer that uses mercury to measure atmospheric pressure. The height of the mercury columm is a measure of atmospheric pressure", "If you watch the weather report frequently, you're sure to hear the weatherman talk about barometric pressure . Weather forecasters use a special tool called a barometer to measure air pressure .", "Let's look at how atmospheric pressure is measured. For a long time, atmospheric pressure has been measured by a mercury barometer. The first was invented in 1643 by one of Galileo's assistants. A mercurial barometer has a section of mercury exposed to the atmosphere. The atmosphere pushes downward on the mercury (see image). If there is an increase in pressure, it forces the mercury to rise inside the glass tube and a higher measurement is shown. If atmospheric pressure lessens, downward force on the mercury lessens and the height of the mercury inside the tube lowers. A lower measurement would be shown. This type of instrument can be used in a lab or a weather station, but is not easy to move! Measurements from a mercury barometer are usually made in inches of Mercury (in Hg).", "An altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures altitude. Meteorologists use an altimeter that measures the altitude with respect to sea level pressure.", "Glass – A marine barometer. (Older barometers used mercury-filled glass tubes to measure and indicate barometric pressure.)", "Wind speed can also be determine d by measuring air pressure . (Air pressure itself is measured by an instrument called a barometer .) A tube anemometer uses air pressure to determine the wind pressure, or speed. A tube anemometer measures the air pressure inside a glass tube that is closed at one end. By comparing the air pressure inside the tube to the air pressure outside the tube, wind speed can be calculated.", "In the experiment it is found that the mercury column in the barometer has a height of about 76 cm at sea level equivalent to one atmosphere (1 atm). This can also be obtained using the value of ρ in Eq. (10.8). A common way of stating pressure is in terms of cm or mm of mercury (Hg). A pressure equivalent of 1 mm is called a torr (after Torricelli). 1 torr = 133 Pa. The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine and physiology. In meteorology, a common unit is the bar and millibar. 1 bar = 105 Pa An open-tube manometer is a useful instrument for measuring pressure differences. It consists of a U-tube containing a suitable liquid i.e. a low density liquid (such as oil) for measuring small pressure differences and a high density liquid (such as mercury) for large pressure differences. One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and other end is connected to the system whose pressure we want to measure [see Fig. 10.5 (b)]. The pressure P at A is equal to pressure at point B. What we normally measure is the gauge pressure, which is P −Pa, given by Eq. (10.8) and is proportional to manometer height h.", "In the days of tall ships the barometer was a glass vessel with a thin stem. The fluid in the glass (in most cases water) would move up and down the stem as the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere changed. These movements were used to predict changes in the weather. also the seaman's name for a telescope.", "The weather ball barometer consists of a glass container with a sealed body, half filled with water. A narrow spout connects to the body below the water level and rises above the water level. The narrow spout is open to the atmosphere. When the air pressure is lower than it was at the time the body was sealed, the water level in the spout will rise above the water level in the body; when the air pressure is higher, the water level in the spout will drop below the water level in the body. A variation of this type of barometer can be easily made at home. ", "A rising111 barometer, on the other hand, is usually an indication of the fine weather associated with an anticyclone.", "Q. How can you tell (by looking at a barometer) what kind of weather it will be?", "An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers are important tools for meteorologist s, who study weather pattern s. They are also important to the work of physicist s, who study the way air moves.", "If you have a barometer on your boat check it every two to three hours. A rapid drop in pressure means a storm is approaching.", "A. Because long frost condenses the air very greatly; and the more air is condensed, the greater is its pressure on the mercury of the barometer.", "Barometer | Open Access articles | Open Access journals | Conference Proceedings | Editors | Authors | Reviewers | scientific events" ]

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[ "Malachite is a green copper carbonate hydroxide mineral with a chemical composition of Cu2(CO3)(OH)2. It was one of the first ores used to produce copper metal. It is of minor importance today as an ore of copper because it is usually found in small quantities and can be sold for higher prices for other types of use.", "Malachite is a copper carbonate with the chemical formula Cu2CO3(OH)2. This green mineral can form monoclinic crystals, but usually is found in massive form.", "Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous, or stalagmitic masses, in fractures and spaces, deep underground, where the water table and hydrothermal fluids provide the means for chemical precipitation. Individual crystals are rare but do occur as slender to acicular prisms. Pseudomorphs after more tabular or blocky azurite crystals also occur.", "Malachite is a copper bearing mineral, with as much as 58% copper content. The distinctive bright-green hydrous CARBONATE MINERAL malachite is a common but minor ore of copper. It is usually found in copper deposits associated with LIMESTONE, occurring with AZURITE as the weathering product of other copper ore minerals. Hardness is 3 1/2 to 4, streak is pale green, specific gravity is 3.9 to 4.1, and luster is adamantine to silky. Malachite forms needlelike prismatic crystals (monoclinic system) that are rarely distinct; it is usually found in granular, earthy, or fibrous masses and rounded, banded crusts. Malachite is used as a decorative stone when cut and polished, a semiprecious gem, and a green pigment.", "1. You will need a small piece of malachite (about 1 cubic inch), a greenish mineral whose formula can be written as Cu2CO3(OH)2 or CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2 . This can be purchased from science supply companies (10 pieces for under $10). As with most copper ores, the malachite does not contain pure copper (native copper), and will contain other minerals besides the malachite. Malachite, one of several minerals mined to obtain copper, is mined primarily in Arizona, the leading copper-producing state.", "One of the common copper ores, malachite, which is composed of mainly copper carbonate ... Microsoft Word - Extracting a metal from its ore.doc Author: …", "      The mineral malachite is a semi-precious stone and a common ore of copper. Its name is derived from the greek term malache, 'mallow', which refers to its leaf green color. Like azurite, malachite has been used for centuries as a pigment in dyes and as a semi-precious stone.", "The name Malachite may come from the Greek word malakee, or malache, signifying the resemblance of Mallow leaves, or from the Greek word malakos, meaning soft. [Fernie, 167][Simmons, 247] Being a carbonate of copper, Malachite is sometimes intergrown with Azurite, forming Malachite-Azurite, or with Chrysocolla, forming Malachite-Chrysocolla. [Simmons, 247]", "Malachite often results from weathering of copper ores and is often found together with azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), goethite, and calcite. Except for its vibrant green color, the properties of malachite are similar to those of azurite and aggregates of the two minerals occur frequently. Malachite is more common than azurite and is typically associated with copper deposits around limestones, the source of the carbonate.", "     Malachite is a rich green to dark green copper mineral.  It can occur on its own or", "Malachite is named after Greek word for \"mallow\" because of its resemblance to the leaves of the Mallow plant. It is a green, very common secondary copper mineral with a widely variable habit. Malachite shows a banding of light and dark layers with concentric rings, straight stripes and other figurative shapes caused by its shell-like formation.", "Copper ores come in a range of colours; Chalcopyrite (Copper Pyrites CuFeS2) is yellow, Bornite (Cuprous iron sulphide) comes in many colours, it is known as peackock ore, Cuprite is Cuprous Oxide and is ruby red, Malachite (basic carbonate) is bright green, Azurite (also a Basic Carbonate) as its name suggests is blue and Copper Glance is the reddish brown Copper Sulphide.", "A COPPER BEARING MINERAL WITH AS MUCH AS 50% COPPER, WHICH IS WHERE IT GETS ITS GREEN COLOR. The distinctive bright-green hydrous CARBONATE MINERAL malachite is a common but minor ore of copper. It is usually found in copper deposits associated with LIMESTONE, occurring with AZURITE as the weathering product of other copper ore minerals. Hardness is 3 1/2 to 4, streak is pale green, specific gravity is 3.9 to 4.1, and luster is adamantine to silky. Malachite forms needlelike prismatic crystals (monoclinic system) that are rarely distinct; it is usually found in granular, earthy, or fibrous masses and rounded, banded crusts. Malachite is used as a decorative stone when cut and polished, a semiprecious gem, and a green pigment.", "Origin and History: Malachite is found in many parts of the world in the upper oxidized zones of copper ore deposits, associated in nature with azurite, the native blue carbonate of copper, which contains less chemically bound water.  Geologically, azurite is the parent, and malachite a changed form of the original blue deposit. Malachite was first used in Egypt and China. In fact, Egyptians probably used the pigment as eye paint even before the first", "Azurite: Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2. Azurite and malachite are hydrous silicate form of copper and are found within the copper mines of Arizona. Azurite is the blue carbonate and malachite the green. The two stones are usually very closely associated, and the combination is known as azure-malachite. Malachite is most valuable when it shows rounded shapes and a silky lustre.", "Malachite's most striking physical property is its green color. All specimens of the mineral are green and range from a pastel green, to a bright green, to an extremely dark green that is almost black. It is typically found as stalactites and botryoidal coatings on the surfaces of underground cavities - similar to the deposits of calcite found in caves. When these materials are cut into slabs and pieces, the sawn surfaces often exhibit banding and eyes that are similar to agate .", "Malachite has a green color that does not fade over time or when exposed to light. Those properties, along with its ability to be easily ground to a powder, made malachite a preferred pigment and coloring agent for thousands of years.", "Malachite is believed to be a strong protector of children. It is said to protect the wearer from accidents and protects travelers. Malachite has been used to aid success in business and protect against undesirable business associations. It is a stone of balance in relationships. Malachite is always green, usually in banded tones varying from very dark green to a mellow green. Most malachite comes from Zaire, Chile and Australia. Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans used malachite for jewelry and ground it to use as eye shadow. It is used in amulets to protect against the evil eye. In the Middle Ages it was used to protect children from witches and other dangers. Malachite has been called the Mirror of the Soul. It reaches the inner feelings of the person and reflects what is there, negative or positive. Malachite will always reflect how you feel, if you feel negative don't normally wear it. It reminds us that we have a dual nature and it is up to each person to know and rule his own person.", "malachite - a green or blue mineral used as an ore of copper and for making ornamental objects", "As with most copper ores, the malachite does not contain pure copper (native copper), and will contain other minerals besides the malachite.", "). Azurite is royal blue or brilliant blue in color while malachite may be bright to dark green. The coloration in both species is idiochromatic and is due to the presence of copper, which is a chromophore and possesses a strong pigmenting effect. Malachite's green results from the fact that the copper which it contains is more highly oxidized than that of azurite.", "Malachite was used as a mineral pigment in green paints from antiquity until about 1800. The pigment is moderately lightfast, very sensitive to acids, and varying in color. The natural form was being replaced by its synthetic form, verditer, among other synthetic greens. It is also used for decorative purposes, such as in the Malachite Room in the Hermitage, which features a huge malachite vase, and the Malachite Room in Castillo de Chapultepec in Mexico City. \"The Tazza\", a large malachite vase, one of the largest pieces of malachite in North America and a gift from Tsar Nicholas II, stands as the focal point in the center of the room of Linda Hall Library.", "The principle use of malachite today is as a source for copper metal and as a green pigment for artists.", "Malachite personifies the deep healing green of nature and represents the innate beauty of flowers, trees, roots and plants. It manifests a deep Devic green which rules the material plane. [Raphaell, 144] It is a Stone of Transformation, assisting one in changing situations and providing for spiritual growth. [Melody, 395] It heals on physical and emotional levels, drawing out impurities and stimulating the Life Force throughout the aura and body. [Ahsian, 248]", "If possible, show the class a genuine sample of malachite ore and artefacts, such as paperweights or polished ‘eggs’ made from malachite, noting the green colour characteristic of many copper compounds. It contains copper , but how can copper metal be obtained from it? Heating will probably be suggested. This forms the first part of the experiment.", "Aniline Green [C23H25CIN2] Also known as Malachite Green. One of the many Anilinedyes. The green crystals are used in smoke formulas.", "Malachite is one the stones dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi. The association is so great, that legend claims Malachite, held in the hand or worn as a jewel, will enable one to understand the language of the animals, and if one regularly drinks from a cup made of Malachite, it is possible to communicate with them. [Megemont, 119]", "A usually colorless to pale-gray mineral composed mostly of a silicate of potassium and aluminum. Muscovite is one of the most common forms of mica.", "The aquamarine – also called the “poor man’s diamond” – is a form of the mineral beryl that also includes other gemstones such as the emerald, morganite, and heliodor. Beryl consists of four elements: beryllium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. Beryl occurs as free six-sided crystals in rock veins unaffected by shock and weathering that otherwise destroy gem deposits. It is a relatively hard gem, ranking after the diamond, sapphire, ruby, alexandrite, and topaz.", ". 1 Mineral, calcium magnesium carbonate, CaMg (CO3)2. It is commonly crystalline and is white, gray, brown, or reddish in color with a vitreous to pearly luster. The magnesium is sometimes replaced in part by iron or manganese.", "A latite is a fine-grained intermediate igneous rock dominated by essential alkali and plagioclase feldspar in almost equal abundance with mafic minerals. Latite can contain either quartz or feldspathoids. Those containing 10-20% quartz are termed quartz latite. Mafic minerals can include pyroxene , biotite , hornblende and olivine. Latites are usually porphyritic and have glassy or fine-grained groundmass. Latite is the fine-grained equivalent to monzonite . Trachyandesite is synonymous with latite. [Source: https://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/ ]", "The colors of sapphires and rubies are controlled by trace elements that are included in the crystal lattice in amounts usually not exceeding about three percent. Some of these are listed in the table below:" ]

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[ "�  Anticline � An arched fold in which the rock layers usually dip away from the axis of the fold.", "A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward (Figure 10l-4 and 10l-5). Both anticlines and synclines are the result of compressional stress.", "Rock layers crumple when the Earth’s crust is subject to stresses. These stresses may result in folds (warping or bending of rock layers, such as in the diagram below) or faults (fractures in the crust).", "The most basic geologic structures associated with rock deformation are folds (flat-lying sedimentary and volcanic rocks bent into a series of wavelike undulations) and faults (fractures in the crust along which appreciable displacement has occurred). The two most common types of folds are anticlines, formed by the upfolding, or arching, of rock layers, and synclines, which are downfolds, or troughs. Faults in which the movement is primarily vertical are called dip-slip faults. Dip-slip faults include both normal and reverse faults. In strike-slip faults, horizontal movement causes displacement along the trend, or strike, of the fault.", "an arch of stratified rock in which the layers bend downward in opposite direction from the crest.", "There are two layers in the Earth's crust and upper mantle that are described by this metaphor. The lithosphere – the hard, cooler part of the crust, including the plates themselves – and the asthenosphere, where molten rock moves up towards the lithosphere and sometimes breaks through at the mid-ocean ridges.", "A type of geologic structure where rock layers have been permanently bent by plastic strain. There are two main types of folds - anticlines & synclines.", "An upward fold is an anticline. A downward fold is syncline. Some folds are small enough to be seen in small rocks. Other folds are very large. You often can see anticlines and synclines in road cuts.", "Graben: It is the layer of Earth's crust which lies at the end of a rift valley due to subsidence of its two sides.", "In the second half of the 19th century concepts, were first enunciated of the existence of especially mobile belts of the earth’s crust—geosynclines (the American geologists J. Hall, 1857-59, and J. Dana, 1873; the French geologist G. Haug), which were juxtaposed to the stable regions, the platforms. At the end of the 19th century the French geologist M. Bertrand and the Austrian geologist E. Suess identified in the European area episodes of folding (the Caledonian, Hercynian, and Alpine) of different ages. Publication of the first multivolume description of the geological structure of the entire planet was begun (The Face of the Earth by the Austrian geologist E. Suess). In this work mountain building was viewed from the point of view of the contraction hypothesis. Detailed investigation of the tectonics of the Alps led to the identification of a new type of structure of the earth’s crust—overthrusts (the French geologist M. Lugeon, 1902). Subsequent works showed the extensive development of overthrusts in reference to many mountain systems.", "Surrounding the earth's core is the mantle, thought to be partly rock and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick. The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust, is not one continuous sheet of rock, like the shell of an egg, but is broken into pieces called plates. These slabs of continents and ocean floor drift apart and push against each other at the rate of about one inch per year in a process called continental drift.", "Earth is constantly moving, driven by forces beneath its surface. The interior of Earth itself is divided into three major sections: the crust, mantle, and core. The lithosphere is the upper layer of Earth's interior, including the crust and the brittle portion at the top of the mantle. Tectonism is the deformation of the lithosphere, and the term tectonics refers to the study of this deformation. Most notable among examples of tectonic deformation is mountain building, or orogenesis, discussed later in this essay.", "The plate movement created folds in the earth crust resulting in the vertical growth of rock, creating the mountain.", "When a continent-sized \"layer cake\" of rock is pushed, the upper layers move more readily than the lower layers. The layers separate from each other, and the upper few miles of rock move on ahead, floating on fluid pressure between the upper and lower sections of the crust like a fully loaded tractor trailer gliding effortlessly along an icy road. The flat surface where moving layers of crust slide along the top of the layers beneath it is called a thrust fault, and the mountains that are heaved up where the thrust fault reaches the surface are one kind of fault block mountains. The mountains of Glacier National Park slid along the Lewis thrust fault over younger rocks, and out onto the Great Plains .", "An unconformity below which older rocks dip at a different angle (usually steeper) than overlying strata", "Fold - A fold is a bend, foliation, cleavage, or other planar feature in rocks. A fold is usually a product of deformation but the definition does not specify manner of origin. Source: Katie KellerLynn", "a region of prolonged subsidence where thick sediments have accumulated during the phanerozoic, with layers dipping into the margins of the basin", "9. Geology The downward inclination of a rock stratum or vein in reference to the plane of the horizon.", "Figures 8.10 and 8.11 illustrate some of the characteristics of folded mountains and the extent to which the margins of continents have been deformed. The layers of rock shown in this photograph have been deformed by compression and are folded like wrinkles in a rug. Erosion has removed the upper part of the folds, so the resistant layers from zigzag patterns are similar to those that would be produced if the crests of wrinkles in a rug were cut off.", "It's not hard to see that this metamorphic rock, called gneiss, has been intensely folded! This rock had to have been under very high pressure and temperature to allow it to fold like this without breaking. Photo by Edward P. Klimasauskas, USGS.", "When we examine the continental crust in some detail, we see that in many areas (e.g. Texas) it consists of a thin surface cover of horizontally stratified sediments that is underlain by complexly deformed metamorphic rocks that have been intruded by granites.   In places where vast areas of this lower complex of rocks are exposed, we speak of a \"shield\".  In places where the shield material is covered by sediments we speak of a \"stable platform\".   This kind of situation is typical for large portions of continents, except along some of the margins where we have subduction and compression.  In the latter case mountain ranges develop end we have \"folded mountain belts\".", "The objective laws of development of the continental crust are not limited to transformation of tectonically mobile zones into platforms. Many geosynclinal systems, for example, in the Verkhoiansk-Kolyma region and in a significant part of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt, formed in the bodies of more ancient folded structures, including ancient platforms whose remnants are seen in certain internal masses. Along with such assimilation of the sections of neighboring platforms by geosynclinal systems, vast zones within the latter experienced occasional tectonic activation expressed in considerable relative vertical displacements of large blocks along fracture systems and general uplifts leading to the appearance of mountain relief in place of formerly level areas. Such epiplatform orogeny differs greatly from the epigeosynclinal orogeny described above by the absence of true folding and the phenomena of deep-seated magmatism that accompany folding, as well as by weak manifestation of volcanism.", "FOLDED MOUNTAIN BELTS are usually found along the margins of continents, and the folding and thrusting indicates that as much as 30% of crustal shortening has taken place during their formation. We know now that his shortening is a direct reflection of the compressive stress regime and subduction of oceanic crust along convergent plate margins, but before plate tectonics the missing crust was very troublesome thing to explain. The location of these fold belts along continental margins implies that by convergence of plates material is piled up along the continents, and finally becomes part of the continental crust. Fold belts that are terminated abruptly at the continental margin, such as the Appalachians and the Caledonides, suggest that he fold belts were once much longer, and have been separated when continents broke up by continental rifting.", "The crust and tectonic plates  are not the same thing. Plates are thicker than the crust and consist of the crust plus the shallow mantle just beneath it. This stiff and brittle two-layered combination is called the lithosphere (\"stony layer\" in scientific Latin). The lithospheric plates lie on a layer of softer, more plastic mantle rock called the asthenosphere (\"weak layer\"). The asthenosphere allows the plates to move slowly over it like a raft in thick mud. ", "The layer of rock that lies between the outer crust and the core of the earth. It is approximately 1,802 miles (2,900 kilometers) thick and is the largest of the earth's major layers. (PDC)", "The exact mechanism of rift formation is an on-going debate among geologists and geophysicists. One popular model for the EARS assumes that elevated heat flow from the mantle (strictly the asthenosphere) is causing a pair of thermal \"bulges\" in central Kenya and the Afar region of north-central Ethiopia. These bulges can be easily seen as elevated highlands on any topographic map of the area (Figure 1). As these bulges form, they stretch and fracture the outer brittle crust into a series of normal faults forming the classic horst and graben structure of rift valleys (Figure 3). Most current geological thinking holds that bulges are initiated by mantle plumes under the continent heating the overlying crust and causing it to expand and fracture. Ideally the dominant fractures created occur in a pattern consisting of three fractures or fracture zones radiating from a point with an angular separation of 120 degrees. The point from which the three branches radiate is called a \"triple junction\" and is well illustrated in the Afar region of Ethiopia (Figure 4), where two branches are occupied by the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and the third rift branch runs to the south through Ethiopia.", "a theory in geology: the lithosphere of the earth is divided into a small number of plates which float on and travel independently over the mantle and much of the earth's seismic activity occurs at the boundaries of these plates", "outer \"rind\" of the rock. Not static it moves. Rests on the asthenosphere along with the crust _____ oceanic crust and continental crust make up the _________", "a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone", "Although trenches would seem to be positionally stable over time, it is hypothesized that some trenches, particularly those associated with subduction zones where two oceanic plates converge, retrograde, that is, they move backward into the plate which is subducting, akin to a backward-moving wave. This has been termed trench rollback or hinge retreat (also hinge rollback). This is one explanation for the existence of back-arc basins.", "A deep valley that forms at the edge of a continent when an oceanic plate sinks underneath a continental plate.", "Transform Fault - a strike-slip fault characteristic of oceanic ridges and along which the ridges are offset." ]

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[ "Cloud base ranges from the surface to 10,000ft. These clouds always hide the sun or moon, and normally produce continuous precipitation which is often moderate to heavy.", "“High clouds, called cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus, are formed entirely of ice crystals. Other clouds are mainly water droplets. Cirrus clouds are the delicate wispy clouds that appear high in the sky, sometimes higher than 35,000 feet (10,700 meters).”", "Cirrus clouds are formed at very high altitude. When air masses reach these heights, the temperature drops drastically. These cold temperatures cause the moisture in the air masses to condense and actually freeze into ice crystals. This occurs above 8000m. Masses of ice crystals are visible to the human eye as a cirrus cloud. Because there is very little moisture at such high altitude, there are relatively few ice crystals, which gives these clouds their “thin” appearance.", "Clouds are mostly a feature of the troposphere. High clouds, above the tropopause, are always ice-crystal clouds. Cirrus clouds are sometimes seen up to a few kilometers above the tropopause, but above this the stratosphere is cloudless, mostly because of a lack of water. The curious noctilucent clouds are very much higher, and appear like thin, fibrous cirrus. They are called noctilucent because they can only be seen when the sun is below the horizon, for otherwise the sky is too bright. They remain illuminated while the sun is above -16°, but disappear when the sun goes lower. They are seen in summer, May to August, in high latitudes, 50° to 70°. Therefore, they are usually seen from Scandinavia, Scotland, Iceland and Northern Canada. They occur near the upper temperature minimum of about 166K at 80-90 km altitude. Some have supposed that they are dust clouds, but it is just as hard to get dust at that altitude as water. The vapor pressure of ice is 1.5 x 10-5 mmHg at -98°C (this is as far as the table goes). The total pressure at that height is about 7.5 x 10-3 mmHg, so a mixing ratio of no greater than 2 x 10-6 would be enough to cause ice to form. If any water gets up that high, it will condense to form clouds, so ice is at least as likely as dust.", "Altocumulus clouds usually form between 6,500 and 17,000 feet (2,000 and 5,000 metres) and are referred to as medium level clouds.", "This saying is false. Cirrus clouds are typical around 30,000ft (9km) in the sky and associated with bad weather. “The wind of the daytime wrestle and fight, longer and stronger than those of the night.”", "Cirrus (Ci) - the name derives from the Latin cirrus = curl of hair, tuft or wisp. Cirrus cloud is a member of the ten fundamental cloud types (or cloud genera) and are wispy white high-altitude cloud formations occurring between about 5 to 13km (16,600 to 40,000ft). In fact, they are the highest of the main cloud genera, popularly known as 'mares' tails they may even form in the upper troposphere .", "Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES, occasionally form far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.", "Low clouds (clouds with bases are around 6,500 feet or 2,000 meters), are usually of the nimbostratus, stratocumulus, stratus, cumulus and cumulonimbus type.", "Medium clouds are usually composed of water droplets or a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals, and have a base between 6,500 and 18,000 feet (2,000 and 5,500 metres).", "Clouds that are high and thin which appear as small white flakes or patches of cotton. Cirrocumulus clouds are sometimes called a mackerel sky. The bases of cirrocumulus clouds are above 16,000 feet AGL.", "Midlevel clouds form between 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) and cirrus level. They are referred to as \"alto-\" clouds and bear such names as altostratus or altocumulus, depending on their shape. (Altostratus clouds are flat; altocumulus clouds are puffy.) They frequently indicate an approaching storm. They themselves sometimes produce virga, which is rain or snow that does not reach the ground.", "In the intermediate range, from 6500 ft to 23000 ft in temperate regions, are the mid-étage clouds. They comprise two or three genera depending on the system of height classification being used: altostratus, altocumulus, and, according to WMO classification, nimbostratus. These clouds are formed from ice crystals, supercooled water droplets, or liquid water droplets. ", "The lowest part of the atmosphere from the Earth's surface to about 10 km in altitude in mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km in high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) where clouds and \"weather\" phenomena occur", "Clouds that form above the mesosphere have a generally cirriform structure, but are not given Latin names based on that characteristic. Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are given the Latin name noctilucent which refers to their illumination during deep twilight. They are sub-classified alpha-numerically according to specific details of their cirriform physical structure.", "Middle - Middle level clouds form between 6,500 and 20,000 feet high. They may be made up of water droplets or ice crystals. Medium level clouds usually have the word \"alto\" in their name.", "Rarely seen clouds of tiny ice particles that form approximately 75 to 90 kilometers above the earth's surface. They have been seen only during twilight (dusk and dawn) during the summer months in the higher latitudes. They may appear bright against a dark night sky, with a blue-silver color or orange-red.", "the portion of the atmosphere between seven and ten miles from the Earth's surface, where clouds form.", "Stratus clouds belong to the Low Cloud (surface-2000 m up) group. They are uniform gray in color and can cover most or all of the sky. Stratus clouds can look like a fog that doesn't reach the ground.", "Altitudes less than 2000m. Composed of liquid drops. Most commonly stratus clouds which blanket large areas ", "Middle cloud forms from 6,500 to about 23,000 ft (2 to 7 km) in temperate latitudes, and may be composed of water droplets or ice crystals depending on the temperature profile at that altitude range.", "Part of the CloudSat overpass over the ocean just off the coast of Virginia and North Carolina (denoted by blue line) reveals small pockets of shallow \"closed cell\" cumulus clouds less than 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) in height. Closed cell cumulus clouds generally represent more stable atmospheric conditions and occur on the back side of mid-latitude cyclones as is the case with Sandy moving onshore.", "These clouds are something of a mystery, since they are rare. Some are natural, others can be high-altitude aircraft or rocket contrails.", "Near the surface, the sun's heat act first on the ground, and is only slowly communicated to the cool air just above, so bubbles of warm, moist air ascend in invisibility (\"thermals\") until they reach the lifting condensation level (LCL) at perhaps a kilometer altitude. Then their moisture condenses, heating the bubble so that it boils up into a cottony cumulus humilis (Cu) until equilibrium obtains. The water content is about 1-3 g/m3. The cloud neither goes high enough for ice to form, nor is saturated enough to disturb the aerosol, so there is no precipitation. The name fair weather cumulus is well-deserved, since it happens when the weather is otherwise sunny and warm, and merely represents the transfer of a little water from the moist earth to the air. If a steady wind is blowing, successive bubbles may produce a line of clouds called a cloud street.", "You observe a cloud at an altitude of 3000m. This cloud name would have the prefix ", "When the 6/8th to 7/8ths of the sky is covered by with opaque (not transparent) clouds. Same as Considerable Cloudiness.", "The state of the sky when 7/10ths or more of the sky is covered by clouds.", "Clouds of the genus Stratus form in low horizontal layers having a ragged or uniform base. Ragged stratus often forms in precipitation while more uniform stratus forms in maritime or other moist stable air mass conditions. The latter often produces drizzle.", "Clouds of the genus stratus form in low horizontal layers having a ragged or uniform base. Ragged stratus often forms in precipitation while more uniform stratus forms in maritime or other moist stable air mass conditions. The latter often produces drizzle.", "PARTLY CLOUDY: Sky condition when between 3/10 and 7/10 of the sky is covered by clouds.", "Cloud cover The amount of the sky obscured by clouds when observed at a particular location.", "The adjective classification of the sky when 5/10 or less of the sky is obscured by clouds" ]

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[ "In soil science, podzols (known as spodosols in China and the United States of America and podosols in Australia) are the typical soils of coniferous, or boreal forests. They are also the typical soils of eucalypt forests and heathlands in southern Australia, while in Western Europe podzols develop on heathland, which is often a construct of human interference through grazing and burning. Many podzols in this region may have developed over the past 3000 years in response to vegetation and climatic changes. In some British moorlands with podzolic soils there are brown earths preserved under Bronze Age barrows (Dimbleby, 1962). Podzol means \"under-ash\", and is derived from the Russian под (pod) + зола́ (zola); the full form is \"подзо́листая по́чва\" (podzolistaya pochva, \"under-ashed soil\"). It likely refers to the common experience of Russian peasants of plowing up an apparent under-layer of ash (leached or E horizon) during first plowing of a virgin soil of this type.", "Podsol also Podzol, Spodosol (Russian подзо́л from под pod \"under\" and зол zol \"ash\") Any group of soils characterized by greyish-white leached and infertile topsoil and a brown subsoil, typically found in regions with a subpolar climate.", "Podzols cover about 4850000 km2 worldwide and are usually found under sclerophyllous woody vegetation. By extent podzols are most common in temperate and boreal zones of the northern hemisphere but they can also be found in other settings including both temperate rainforests and tropical areas.Spaargaren, Otto. Podzols. Encyclopedia of Soil Science, pp. 580–581. ", "The main process in the formation of podzols is podzolisation. Podzolisation is a complex process (or number of sub-processes) in which organic material and soluble minerals (commonly iron and aluminium) are leached from the A and E horizons to the B horizon. It involves mobilization and precipitation of dissolved organic matter, together with aluminum and iron as they leach down from the A and E horizons to the B horizon. Through this process the overlying eluvial horizons are bleached. The complexes move to the brown, red or black horizon, which consist of cemented sesquioxides and/or organic compounds. Podzolisation occurs under low pH values. ", "Other mycologists are interested in how fungi cause disease. Fungi are widely distributed disease causing organisms which can infect plants, animals, and people. A mycologist who is interested in this particular branch of the field may study how fungi infect people, what kinds of toxins they produce and how they work, and how to prevent or treat fungal infections . Fungal infections range from infections of the nail, which can cause cosmetic damage, to devastating plant infestations which can ruin crops. There is a great deal of room for research in this field.", "An opsimath is a person who begins, or continues, to study or learn late in life.", "Mycologists study fungi and often teach at universities or colleges. They may also conduct research to better understand the health benefits of fungi. Both mycology professors and pharmacological mycologists must have a Ph.D.", "Some mycologists are interested in fungal genetics. They study the DNA of molds, mushrooms, and other members of the fungi kingdom to learn more about them. A genetic mycologist may use this information to assist people with taxonomy, the classification of organisms. Genetics can also be valuable to understanding how some fungi produce toxins, when and why some fungi evolved, and how fungi have adapted to their environments. Geneticists work primarily in lab environments, using samples of fungi to study with the assistance of gene sequencing equipment.", "Today as in the years past, many people love to collect shells for their beauty and interesting shapes. People who study the shells are called Conchologists. Those scientists that study the molluscan animal are called Malacologists", "podsol - noun. Soil Science. an infertile acidic soil having an ash-like subsurface layer)from which minerals have been leached) and a lower dark stratum, occurring typically under temperate coniferous woodland.", "There are also botanists who choose to specialize in one group of plant, such as the lichenologists, who study lichens. These scientists can be further distinguished by the specific types of plants studied within the group. For example, there are botanists who study algae in general, but also botanists who study only algae found in oceans.", "macroverbumsciolist           a person who is ignorant of large words; a person who pretends to know a word, then secretly refers to a dictionary", "Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, pedon, \"soil\"; and λόγος, logos, \"study\") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification, while edaphology studies the way soils influence plants, fungi, and other living things.", "Are they \"experts\"? Yes! At least, they are experts on the edible wild mushrooms they know. Either their parents or grandparents taught them how to identify morels, or puffballs, or meadow mushrooms, or they have a good field guide and they read it... or both.", "Bretz was a complete geologist. He was obsessed with his work, and he was true to wholly geological things, like multiple working hypotheses and looking in the field for evidence as opposed to theorizing from an armchair. He formed strong opinions. He loved working with students, but he pressed those students hard by making them think for themselves. He was a Socratic teacher, where you don't tell people, you let them figure it out for themselves. You're more like a guide in their process of understanding.", "Ask students to share and compare their mushroom prints with each other. Ask questions to show that they know the parts and life cycle of a mushroom.", "He also investigated the composition of petroleum and worked on capillarity of liquids phenomenon. In the field of physical chemistry he investigated the expansion of liquids with heat and devised a formula similar to Gay-Lussac's law. He invented pyrocollodion, a kind of smokeless powder based on nitrocellulose.", "Scientists often divide fungi into four groups: club fungi, molds, sac fungi, and imperfect fungi. Some of the more common fungi that you are likely to see or use everyday are described below.", "Unusually for women at that time, Marya took an interest in Chemistry and Biology. Since opportunities in Poland for further study was limited, Marya went to Paris, where after working as a governess she was able to study at the Sorbonne, Paris. Struggling to learn in French, Marya threw herself into her studies, leading an ascetic life dedicated to studying. She went on to get a degree in Physics finish top in her school. She later got a degree in Maths, finishing second in her school year.", "More research is needed before the true Morchella place in nature is revealed. It is now widely accepted that morels can play the role of both saprotroph and mycorrhizal partner.", "In the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder produced an extensive discussion of minerals and metals. In addition to properly identifying the origin of amber as a fossilized resin, based on the observations of insects trapped within some pieces, he also laid the basis of crystallography by recognizing the habit of diamonds to form into octahedrons.", "Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold Neurospora crassa to test their biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and the yeasts Saccaromyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have more recently emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include Candida albicans, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea, a plant pathogen, and Pichia pastoris, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production.", "• In what scientific kingdom would you find Pixie's Parasol, Devil's Tooth and Shaggy Inkcap? Fungi", "The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej) established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education. The education of Polish society was a goal of the nation's rulers as early as the 12th-century. The library catalogue of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that in the early 12th-century Polish academia had access to European and Classical literature. The Jagiellonian University was founded in 1364 by King Casimir III in Kraków—the school is the world's 19th oldest university.", "for thousands of years. Tracing the history, folklore, and traditional associations of each one, Hidden Histories: Mushrooms highlights fungi’s many uses to humankind— culinary, medicinal, cosmetic, and sometimes magical.", "In 1843, only one year after the first Pilsner Urquell was brewed, the Bohemian chemist Carl Joseph Napoleon Balling invented the hydrometer. His gravity spindle measured the amount of dissolved substances in the wort--mostly sugars, but also proteins, minerals, vitamins and aromatics--and thus allowed for the quantitative determination of extract strength and of the progress of fermentation (which brewers call attenuation).", "The search was on in the mid-1700s, when chemists began experimenting with alum, a class of abundant chemical compounds. Alum compounds, such as potassium aluminium sulphate, were well known, going back at least to the Ancient Greeks and Romans, who used them as an astringent to close wounds and a mordant to bind dye to cloth. Early chemical investigation of alum suggested that the compound included an unknown metal.", "Education has been of prime interest to Poland since the early 12th century. The catalog of the library of the Cathedral Chapter in Kraków dating from 1110 shows that Polish scholars already then had access to literature from all over Europe. In 1364 King Casimir III the Great founded the Kraków Academy, which would become Jagiellonian University, one of the great universities of Europe.", "* University lecturer of long standing at Opole, Gliwice and Częstochowa, researcher at the Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Gliwice;", "Kraków's large and prestigious Jagiellonian University is the home of the Polonia Institute, which offers year-round courses in Polish language, history, and culture. Private tutoring in music and language is also available.", "Krakowskie Przedmie?cie 66, near Warsaw's Old Town (in the distance). At a lab here, in 1890–91, Maria Sk?odowska did her first scientific work.", "Encyclopædia Britannica , [36] Encyclopedia Americana , [37] and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia [38] identify Copernicus as Polish." ]

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[ "But the predictions didn’t match up with real-world numbers. Estimating regional and global fluxes of atmospheric nitrous oxide levels a few years ago, researchers pegged the microbial conversion of fertilizer to gas at somewhere between 1.75 and 5 percent. Either the initial calculations were off or there were unknown sources of nitrous oxide, says biogeochemist Phil Robertson of Michigan State University in East Lansing. The latter was unlikely, he adds.", "Soil microbes have long been known to convert nitrogen-rich crop fertilizers, including manure and synthetic fertilizers, into nitrous oxide. After more than 1,000 field experiments, climate scientists calculated in the mid-2000s that the dirt dwellers spew about one kilogram of the greenhouse gas for every 100 kilograms of fertilizer, or roughly 1 percent. Researchers generally thought that emissions would scale up linearly: doubling fertilizer would double the emissions of gas.", "“Microbes on a spa weekend can afford to discriminate against nitrogen-15, so the fingerprint of N2O from a fertilized field is a greater proportion of nitrogen-14,” Boering said. “Our study is the first to show empirically from the data at hand alone that the nitrogen isotope ratio in the atmosphere and how it has changed over time is a fingerprint of fertilizer use.”", "Fixation: In order for organisms to use atmospheric nitrogen (N2), it must be \"fixed\" or converted into ammonia (NH3). This can happen occasionally through a lightning strike, but the bulk of nitrogen fixation is done by free living or symbiotic bacteria. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia. It is then further converted by the bacteria to make their own organic compounds. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the root nodules of legumes where they produce ammonia in exchange for sugars. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is manufactured in chemical plants for fertilizer .", "Tracking the origin of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, however, is difficult because a molecule from a fertilized field looks identical to one from a natural forest or the ocean if you only measure total concentration. But a quirk of microbial metabolism affects the isotope ratio of the nitrogen the N2O microbes give off, producing a telltale fingerprint that can be detected with sensitive techniques.", "The Nitrogen cycle (fig. 2) is the process in which nitrogen is converted into different forms. The majority of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere where it is unusable by plants, but through the processes of microbes, such as nitrification and denitrification, it can be converted into a form plants can consume. Nitrification is performed by Nitrospira is the oxidation of ammonia into nitrate. Denitrification is performed by Flexibacter converts nitrate in to nitrogen gas. It is important to note that Nitrospira is a type of Betaproteobacteria, and Flexibacter is a type of Bacteroidetes (Krivtsov 2005).", "The isotope ratios also revealed that fertilizer use has caused a shift in the way soil microbes produce N2O. The relative output of bacteria that produce N2O by nitrification grew from 13 to 23 percent worldwide, while the relative output of bacteria that produce N2O by denitrification – typically in the absence of oxygen – dropped from 87 to 77 percent. Although the numbers themselves are uncertain, these are the first numerical estimates of these global trends over time, made possible by the unique archived air dataset of this study.", "“Before atmospheric nitrogen can be used by plants, it must be “fixed,” that is, split and combined with other chemical elements. This process requires a large input of energy and can occur either biologically, within the cells of various bacteria, or chemically, in fertilizer factories or during lightning storms.", "One approach, for example, is to time fertilizer application to avoid rain, because wet and happy soil microbes can produce sudden bursts of nitrous oxide. Changes in the way fields are tilled, when they are fertilized and how much is used can reduce N2O production.", "Some microbes respire in the cattle gut by an anaerobic process known as methanogenesis (producing the gas methane ). Cattle emit a large volume of methane , 95% of it through burping (eructation), not flatulence . [43 ] As the carbon in the methane comes from the digestion of vegetation produced by photosynthesis , its release into the air by this process would normally be considered harmless, because there is no net increase in carbon in the atmosphere — it is removed as carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis and returned to it as methane.[ citation needed ] Methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, having a warming effect 23 to 50 times greater, and according to Takahashi and Young \"even a small increase in methane concentration in the atmosphere exerts a potentially significant contribution to global warming\". [45 ] Further analysis of the methane gas produced by livestock as a contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases is provided by Weart. [46 ] Research is underway on methods of reducing this source of methane, by the use of dietary supplements , or treatments to reduce the proportion of methanogenetic microbes, perhaps by vaccination . [47 ] [48 ] In 2010, a diet was proposed to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases by cattle. The diet was conceived by Alexander Hristov of the Pennstate University. [49 ]", "Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia and methanol . Ammonia is used to make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate.", "Usable nitrogen may be lost from soils when it is in the form of nitrate, as it is easily leached. Further losses of nitrogen occur by denitrification, the process whereby soil bacteria convert nitrate (NO3−) to nitrogen gas, N2 or N2O. This occurs when poor soil aeration limits free oxygen, forcing bacteria to use the oxygen in nitrate for their respiratory process. Denitrification increases when oxidisable organic material is available and when soils are warm and slightly acidic. Denitrification may vary throughout a soil as the aeration varies from place to place. Denitrification may cause the loss of 10 to 20 percent of the available nitrates within a day and when conditions are favourable to that process, losses of up to 60 percent of nitrate applied as fertiliser may occur.", "In the realm of microbiology, certain bacteria have developed the ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil as well as in nodules at the roots of legumes and other plants. These bacteria have evolved an elaborate strategy that allows them to convert nitrogen gas into ammonia at much lower temperatures and pressures than the Haber process.", "nitrogen (N2) in atmosphere, nitrates (NO3-) in soil, plants, consumers, bacteria of decay, AMMONIA in soil", "Although atmospheric nitrogen gas(N2) makes up approximately 78% of the air, it cannot be directly used by plants. Instead, atmospheric N2 only becomes available to plants through three unique processes. The final product of each of these processes is ammonium, which is then available for plant uptake.", "Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice paddy fields) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas. ", "Through chemosynthesis, it turns out. Vent species rely not on photons from the sun but on chemicals from the Earth's interior. Tiny microbes oxidize the hydrogen sulfide that diffuses out of the vents, providing nutrients for animals higher up the food chain. Some creatures, such as the mollusks known as gastropod snails, feast on the bacteria directly; others, including predatory fish, dine on animals that have eaten or otherwise made use of the microbes; still others, like tubeworms, host the microorganisms in their tissues in exchange for organic compounds that the bacteria fashion from the vent chemicals and seawater. (The only element from above that these microbes require for their artistry is oxygen, which is abundant in seawater and was originally produced, of course, by plants. So when it comes right down to it, even these life forms ultimately rely on sunlight.", "Nitrogen Metabolism Nitrogen is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms. Whereas eukaryotes can obtain nitrogen from only a limited group of nitrogen compounds, prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in a wide variety of forms. For example, some cyanobacteria and some methanogens covert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, a process called nitrogen fixation. The cells can then incorporate this \"fixed\" nitrogen into amino acids and other organic molecules. In terms of their nutrition, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are some of the most self-sufficient organisms, since they need only light, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water and some minerals to grow. Nitrogen fixation by prokaryotes has a large impact on other organisms. For example, nitrogen -fixing prokaryotes can increase the nitrogen but can use the nitrogen compounds that the prokaryotes produce from ammonia.", "Nitrogen Fixation - Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) in the atmosphere to nitrogen-containing organic compounds in soil. Source: Kohnke and Franzmeier (1995)", "Plants on Earth convert carbon dioxide to O2 - the gas that humans (and other mammals) breath in the Earth's atmosphere.", "Additionally, on the Earth, we know that plant and animal life process the gas in the atmosphere. For example, humans breathe oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, while plants use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Because of these biological processes on the Earth, our atmosphere has evolved significantly from its original content. The Earth's atmosphere may have once been much like Venus' atmosphere is now, however, as plant life on the Earth arose, the process of photosynthesis contributed to the removal of carbon dioxide and the increase in oxygen content.", "Enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to nitrate in nitrogen-fixing bacteria and archaea.", "F. Plants – While methane can be consumed in soil before being released into the atmosphere, plants allow for direct travel of methane up through the roots and leaves and into the atmosphere. Plants may also be direct producers of methane.", "Methane is a very strong greenhouse gas. Since 1750, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are: rice cultivation; domestic grazing animals; termites; landfills; coal mining; and, oil and gas extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy flooding results in the formation of methane gas. However, an accurate estimate of how much methane is being produced from rice paddies has been difficult to ascertain. More than 60% of all rice paddies are found in India and China where scientific data concerning emission rates are unavailable. Nevertheless, scientists believe that the contribution of rice paddies is large because this form of crop production has more than doubled since 1950. Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of herbaceous digestion. Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has more than quadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane through similar processes. Land-use change in the tropics, due to deforestation, ranching, and farming, may be causing termite numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct, the contribution from these insects may be important. Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas and oil drilling. Landfills produce methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal, oil, and natural gas deposits release methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or drilled.", ". As this occurs very near the Earth’s surface, biogenic gas is usually released directly into the atmosphere. Reservoirs of it are small and rare, and so rarely extracted.", "Microorganisms that require free oxygen, or air, to live, and that which contribute to the decomposition of organic material in soil or composting systems.", "Name the gas released from landfills, decaying organic matter under shallow water in marshes and bogs, flooded paddy fields, by ruminant animals & termites, and by the burning of biomass. A molecule of this gas has 21 times more global warming potential than a molecule of CO2.", "a heavy odorless colorless gas formed during respiration and by the decomposition of organic substances; absorbed from the air by plants in photosynthesis", "organism that can produce its own food and nutrients from chemicals in the atmosphere, usually through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.", "The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.", "Plants like West Fertilizer Co. in Waco, Texas, where the April 18 explosion occured, manufacture fertilizer for commercial use. Producing fertilizer involves treating raw materials to either purify them or increase their concentration, changing them into plant-available forms, and frequently combining materials so they contain multiple nutrients, according to IFIA.", "In the late 1950s I was thinking of becoming an astronomer; but I became a molecular biologist instead. This expertise, in reality, was much more practical because of the advent of Biotechnology in the 1970s. Being a molecular biologist has better equipped me to think about the prospects for finding life on Mars; but then I started wondering about the prospect of delivering life to Mars by stowaways on Curiosity. Could a bacterial or fungal spore, or a photosynthetic microorganism survive the trip and then find an ecological niche on the surface of Mars? I don’t know this answer but this is the same issue being pondered by the EPA on Earth with the development of recombinant microorganisms and plants. On Earth these new microorganisms have to compete with natural microbial populations which have mechanisms to defend their niches. This barrier does not appear to exist on Mars but the harsh environment is surely a barrier." ]

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[ "Traveling deeper within the Earth, we next would encounter the Earth’s outer core, which extends to a depth of around 3000 miles beneath the surface. It is believed that this outer core is made up of super-heated liquid molten lava. This lava is believed to be mostly iron, and nickel.", "Similar to the other terrestrial planets, Earth’s interior is believed to consist of three components: a core, a mantle, and a crust. At present, the core is thought to be comprised of two separate layers&#8212an inner core composed of solid nickel and iron, and an outer core composed of molten nickel and iron. The mantle is very dense and almost entirely solid silicate rock; its thickness is roughly 2,850 km. Finally, the crust is also composed of silicate rock and varies in thickness. While the continental crust ranges from 30 to 40 km in thickness, the oceanic crust is much thinner at only 6 to 11 km.", "19. Inner core - Deepest layer of earth, believed to be made up of solid iron and nickel.", "Nickel is one of the primary elements of the Earth's core which is thought to be made mostly of nickel and iron. It is also found in the Earth's crust where it is about the twenty-second most abundant element.", "The outermost part of Earth�s core, believed to be liquid and composed mainly of nickel and iron.", "The differentiation between these layers is due to processes that took place during the early stages of Earth’s formation (ca. 4.5 billion years ago). At this time, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron, along with nickel and some lighter elements, whereas less dense elements migrated to the surface along with silicate rock.", "On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth's outer and inner cores. Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite, the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5, although impurities (such as cobalt or carbon) may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites. ", "Nickel makes up about 0.01 to 0.02 percent of the Earth 's crust. It ranks about 22nd among the chemical elements in terms of abundance in the Earth's crust. Nickel is thought to be much more abundant in the Earth's core. In fact, many experts believe that the core consists almost entirely of iron and nickel.", "Thought to be composed mainly of iron and nickel, the dense (c.11.0 g/cc) core of the earth lies below the mantle. The abrupt disappearance of direct compressional earthquake waves, which cannot travel through liquids, at depths below c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) indicates that the outer 1,380 mi (2,200 km) of the core are molten. The inner 780 mi (1,260 km) of the core are solid, and the innermost 190 mi (300 km) of that may be almost pure iron; the crystals of the innermost portion appear to be aligned along the plane of the equator, but those of the rest of the inner core appear to be aligned along the plane of the axis. The outer core is thought to be the source of the earth's magnetic field: In the \"dynamo theory\" advanced by W. M. Elasser and E. Bullard, tidal energy or heat is converted to mechanical energy in the form of currents in the liquid core; this mechanical energy is then converted to electromagnetic energy, which we see as the magnetic field. The magnetic field undergoes periodic reversals of its polarity on a timescale that ranges from a few thousand years to 35 million years. The last reversal occurred some 780,000 years ago.", "Earth's Core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. This composition is assumed based upon calculations of its density and upon the fact that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the interior of a planetary body) are iron-nickel alloys. The core is earth's source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat as they break down into more stable substances.", "The high-pressure phases of iron are important as endmember models for the solid parts of planetary cores. The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to be an iron-nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. ", "The innermost layer of the earth, an extremely hot, solid sphere of mostly iron and nickel. The inner core is 3,200 to 3,960 miles (5,150 to 6,378 km) below the surface and about 750 miles (1,200 km) thick.", "The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2886 km. The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which makes up about 15% of Earth's volume. Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface. Information about the structure and composition of the mantle has been obtained from geophysical investigation and from direct geoscientific analyses of Earth mantle-derived xenoliths and mantle that has been exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.", "Based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System, the theory of planetary formation, and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth's volume, the inner core is believed to consist primarily of a nickel-iron alloy. The iron-nickel alloy under core pressure is denser than the core, implying the presence of light elements in the core (e.g. silicon, oxygen, sulfur). ", "Below the mantle is the core, the center of the earth. It makes up nearly one third the mass of the earth. The core is also divided into two regions, the inner core and the outer core. From seismic or earthquake waves, scientists believe the outer core is a liquid and the inner core is a solid. The outer core is made of iron and is very dense. Scientists hypothesize that the circulation of the outer core causes the magnetic field around the earth. It is believed to be circulating in the counter-clockwise direction giving us the north pole in its present location. It switches about every million years. A record of this \"switching\" is recorded in the rocks both on land and in the ocean crust. See \" Go west young man! But which way is north? \"The inner core is made of solid iron and nickel. Many scientists believe it is kept in the solid state because of the extreme pressure from the other layers.", "The earth itself has a hot, dense core made largely of iron and nickel. At the temperatures characteristic of the Earth's core, iron and nickel form a giant natural magnet which creates the Earth's magnetic field. This magnetic field blocks dangerous radiation that would kill life on the Earth.", "Core - The central part of Earth is the core, beginning at a depth of about 4,666 miles (2,900 km), probably consisting of iron-nickel alloy; it is divisible into an outer core that may be liquid and an inner core about 2,092 miles (1,300 km) in radius that may be solid. Source: Bates and Jackson (1984)", "core—based on geophysical studies, the innermost part of the earth is believed to consist of a 758 mile thick magnetic metallic core overlain by a 1400 mile thick zone of molten material. This is overlain by the Earth's mantle.", "Nickel is quite rare in the Earth's crust. It is 100 times more likely to be found in the Earth's core, where it is the second most abundant element behind iron.", "Iron is the planet's most common element, forming large portions of both the inner and outer core of Earth. Beads dating from 3500 BC found in Egypt contained a relatively large percentage of nickel. The presence of nickel indicates that the iron was of meteoric origin, which was revered because it came from the heavens. Believed to be a blessed metal, this iron was commonly used to create tools use in both religion and war. Weapons made of iron were superior to those made of bronze because of their higher durability and rust resistance.", "The central part of Earth below a depth of 2900 kilometers. It is composed largely of iron and is molten on the outside, with a solid central region.", "Earth's mantle is a rocky shell about 2,900 km (1,800 miles) thick, which constitutes about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid and encloses the iron-rich hot core, which occupies about 15% of Earth's volume. Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface, upon which we live. Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner astheno sphere composed of plastic flowing rock about 200 km thick and the lower most part of the lithosphere composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km thick. A thin crust, the upper part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick. In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust; to over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the boundary with the core.", "According to contemporary theory, Earth was never in a completely molten state during its formation. Instead, Earth was formed from a mixture of the minerals that are now found segregated into the core, mantle, and crust. Then, as heat accumulated through radioactivity, melting occurred deep within Earth. By about 3.8 billion years ago, this melting had resulted in the layering of materials according to their density: the densest elements formed the core of Earth, while the lightest materials floated to the planet's surface and cooled, forming a solid crust. In between the core and crust was the largely molten mantle.", "As we have seen the only part of the earth that is liquid is the outer core.  But the core is not likely to be the source of magmas because it does not have the right chemical composition.  The outer core is mostly Iron, but magmas are silicate liquids.  Thus magmas DO NOT COME FROM THE MOLTEN OUTER CORE OF THE EARTH.  Thus, since the rest of the earth is solid, in order for magmas to form, some part of the earth must get hot enough to melt the rocks present. We know that temperature increases with depth in the earth along the geothermal gradient.  The earth is hot inside due to heat left over from the original accretion process, due to heat released by sinking of materials to form the core, and due to heat released by the decay of radioactive elements in the earth.  Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient is not high enough to melt rocks, and thus with the exception of the outer core, most of the Earth is solid.  Thus, magmas form only under special circumstances.  To understand this we must first look at how rocks and mineral melt.", "composed of low-density silicates, which are rich in aluminum and potassium, from the higher density silicates of the mantle, which contain more magnesium and iron, a boundary, the thin outer layer of Earth, averaging about 8km thick under the oceans to about 40km thick under the continents, melt at relatively low temperatures", "View image of Earth's heart is a solid core surrounded by molten rock (Credit: Johan Swanepoel / Alamy)", "Use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral. The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), that personified the fact that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper. An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickel's other important ore minerals include garnierite, and pentlandite. Major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin), New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk in Russia.", "Use of nickel (as a natural  meteoric  nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by  Axel Fredrik Cronstedt , who initially mistook the  ore  for a  copper   mineral . The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to  Old Nick ), that personified the fact that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper. An economically important source of nickel is the  iron  ore limonite , which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickel's other important ore minerals include  garnierite , and  pentlandite . Major production sites include the  Sudbury region in  Canada  (which is thought to be of  meteoric  origin),  New Caledonia  in the  Pacific , and  Norilsk  in  Russia .", "Until well into the 20th century, most scientists believed Earth had a liquid iron core. The evidence seemed clear: Seismic maps of Earth’s interior revealed an absence of S-waves at the center of the Earth, presumably because the waves hit a liquid zone through which they could not travel. Seismic studies also revealed that all earthquakes created a P-wave “shadow zone” on Earth’s surface where primary waves didn’t arrive at some seismic stations; the location of the P-wave shadow zone varied with the point of origin of the earthquake. To explain the shadow zone, scientists reasoned that Earth’s presumed liquid core deflected P-waves from their expected trajectories, so they wouldn’t be recorded at all seismographic stations. ", "An area where material from deep within earths mantle rises to the crust     And melts to form magma", "The crystallized melt products near the surface, upon which we live, are typically known to have a lower magnesium to iron ratio and a higher proportion of silicon and aluminum. These changes in mineralogy may influence mantle convection, as they result in density changes and as they may absorb or release latent heat as well.", "30. To form the present structure of Earth, which of the following mechanisms is most likely to have taken place while Earth was molten?" ]

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[ "The word rhinoceros is derived through Latin from the , which is composed of (rhino-, \"nose\") and (keras, \"horn\"). The plural in English is rhinoceros or rhinoceroses. The collective noun for a group of rhinoceroses is crash or herd. The name has been in use since the 14th century. ", "Groups of alligators or crocodiles are called congregations, and groups of Komodo dragons are called banks. Both a group of hippopotami and a group of rhinoceri can be called a crash. A group of hippopotami also can be called a bloat.", "RHINOCEROS- Rhinoceros, often abbreviated as rhino, is a group of five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. Two of these species are native to Africa and three to Southern Asia.", "The Rhino, officially Rhinoceros, is one of the six surviving species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae of the Perissodactyla. The Black Rhino and the White Rhino are native to Africa, while the Indian Rhino , Sumatran Rhino and the Javan Rhino occur in Asia. '", "A rhinoceros (, meaning \"nose horn\"), often abbreviated to rhino, is one of any five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae, as well as any of the numerous extinct species. Two of these extant species are native to Africa and three to Southern Asia.", "A pride of lions, a murder of crows, a crash of rhinos, and every other collective noun for animals. This is a listing of every animal congregation I could find after scouring the web. If you see any missing, let me know.", "The word rhinoceros literally means \"nose horn\", derived from the Greek rhis, meaning nose, and keros, meaning horn. All rhinos have horns, but two species, the Indian rhino and Javan rhino, have but one horn, while the black rhino, white rhino, and Sumatran rhino have two horns. Rhino \"horns\" are not true horns. True horns consist of a bony core, covered by a keratin sheath. Rhinoceros horns are composed of keratin, but lack a bony core. They are simply a group of highly compacted keratin fibers on a roughened area of the skull.", "Tribe one - Sumatran Rhinoceros: The critically endangered Sumatran Rhinoceros is the only surviving representative of the most primitive group, the Dicerorhinini, which emerged in the Miocene (abut 20 million years ago). The extinct Woolly Rhinoceros of northern Europe and Asia was also a member of this tribe.", "Animal Scoop - Rhinoceroses - White - Black - Indian - Sumatran - Javan - BillyBear4Kids.com", "The Black rhino's scientific name is Diceros bicornis, which means \"two-horned, two-horn\".  The Black rhinoceros is a member of the rhino family, Rhinoceridae in the Mammalian Order of Perissodactyla. All other living species of rhino are also members of Rhinoceridae. Other Perissodactyls include tapirs and horses. ", "Danger to man: Rhinoceros, despite being herbivorous, are dangerous animals. In India and Nepal, the Indian rhinos cause the greatest number of human deaths each year, surpassing those caused by tigers and leopards. They have been known to charge even working elephants carrying tourists through the jungles.", "Rhinoceroses are the largest land mammals after the elephant. There are five species of rhinos, two African and three Asian. The African species are the white and black rhinoceroses, and both species have two horns. Asian rhinos include the Indian (or great one-horned rhinoceros) and the Javan, each with one horn, and the Sumatran, which has two.", "Another source for the concept may have originated from the translation of the Hebrew word re'em into Greek as μονόκερως, monokeros, in the Septuagint. In Psalm 22:21, the word karen, meaning horn, is written in singular. The Roman Catholic Vulgata and the Douay-Rheims Bible translated re'em as rhinoceros; other translations are names for a wild bull, wild oxen, buffalo, or gaur, but in some languages a word for unicorn is maintained. The Arabic translation alrim is the most correct choice etymologically, meaning 'white oryx'. ", "Rhinoceroses get their name from their most famous feature: their hornsGrowths on the head of an antelope, cow, sheep, or goat that are never shed.. The word rhinoceros comes from the Greek rhino (nose) and ceros (horn).", "Members of the rhinoceros family are characterized by their large size (they are some of the largest remaining megafauna, with all of the species able to reach one tonne or more in weight); as well as by an herbivorous diet; a thick protective skin, 1.5–5 cm thick, formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure; relatively small brains for mammals this size (400–600 g); and a large horn. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter, if necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their lips to pluck food.", "The rhinoceros also got its name from two Greek words, Tinos, which means “nose” and keras, which means “horn.” And “horn on the nose” is a good description of this animal which has just that, a horn on its nose.", "There are two subspecies of white rhinoceros: the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) and the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni). As of 2013, the southern subspecies has a wild population of 20,405 – making them the most abundant rhino subspecies in the world. However, the northern subspecies is critically endangered, with as few as three known individuals left in captivity. There is no conclusive explanation of the name white rhinoceros. A popular theory that \"white\" is a distortion of either the Afrikaans word wyd or the Dutch word wijd (or its other possible spellings whyde, weit, etc.,) meaning wide and referring to the rhino's square lips is not supported by linguistic studies. ", "The Indian rhinoceros, or greater one-horned rhinoceros, (Rhinoceros unicornis) has a single horn 20 to 100 cm long. It is nearly as large as the African white rhino. Its thick, silver-brown skin forms huge folds all over its body. Its upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps, and it has very little body hair. Grown males are larger than females in the wild, weighing from 2500 –. Shoulder height is . Females weigh about 1,900 kg and are 3–4 m long. The record-sized specimen was approximately 3,800 kg.", "Real World: The kimodo rhinoceros resembles both its namesake and certain ceratopsid dinosaurs. Native to Africa and Asia, the rhinoceros family consists of five species, all large, plant-eating mammals that can be recognized by the large horns above their noses. This horn is not bone; it is keratin, or densely matted hair. The rhino's thick skin is divided into several plates that cover its body and serves as natural armor.", "Collective animals  antelopesherd apesshrewdness assespace or herd badgerscete bearssloth beesswarm or grist birdsflock, congregation, flight, or volery bitternssedge or siege boarssounder bucksbrace or lease buffaloesherd capercailziestok catsclowder cattledrove or herd choughschattering coltsrag cootscovert cranesherd, sedge, or siege crowsmurder cubslitter curlewsherd curscowardice deerherd dolphinsschool dovesflight or dule duckspaddling or team dunlinsflight elkgang fishshoal, draught, haul, run, or catch fliesswarm or grist foxesskulk geesegaggle or skein giraffesherd gnatsswarm or cloud goatsherd or tribe goldfinchescharm grousebrood, covey, or pack gullscolony haresdown or husk hawkscast hensbrood heronssedge or siege herringsshoal or glean houndspack, mute, or cry insectsswarm kangaroostroop kittenskindle lapwingsdesert larksexaltation leopardsleap lionspride or troop mallardssord or sute maresstud martensrichesse moleslabour monkeystroop mulesbarren nightingaleswatch owlsparliament oxenyoke, drove, team, or herd partridgescovey peacocksmuster pheasantsnye or nide pigeonsflock or flight pigslitter ploversstand or wing pochardsflight, rush, bunch, or knob poniesherd porpoisesschool or gam poultryrun pupslitter quailsbevy rabbitsnest racehorsesfield or string ravensunkindness roesbevy rooksbuilding or clamour ruffshill sealsherd or pod sheepflock sheldrakesdopping snipewalk or wisp sparrowshost starlingsmurmuration swallowsflight swansherd or bevy swiftsflock swineherd, sounder, or dryft tealbunch, knob, or spring whalesschool, gam, or run whelpslitter whitingpod wigeonbunch, company, knob, or flight wildfowlplump, sord, or sute wolvespack, rout, or herd woodcocksfall", "Fit for safari: A group of rhinos is called a ... ? – blog – Rhulani", "Rhinos are in the same family as horses, and are thought to have inspired the myth of the unicorn.", "The wildebeest ( or , plural wildebeest, wildebai, or wildebeests, wildebeesties (juv)), also called the gnu ( or ) is an antelope of the genus Connochaetes. Wildebeest is Dutch for \"wild beast\" or \"wild cattle\" in Afrikaans (bees \"cattle\"), while Connochaetes derives from the Greek words κόννος, kónnos, \"beard\", and χαίτη, khaítē, \"flowing hair\", \"mane\". Some sources claim the name \"gnu\" originates from the Khoikhoi name for these animals, t'gnu. Others contend the name and its pronunciation in English go back to the word !nu: used for the black wildebeest by the San people.", "Rodney: And what about all the others? The people in offices, the people in caffs, the people sitting on the tops of buses? It's a rhino, Del!", "Monocerus ( Medieval bestiaries ) - One-horned stag-horse-elephant-boar hybrid, sometimes treated as distinct from the unicorn", "The Black Rhino has two horns, and is from the Eastern and Southern part of Africa. They like to eat bushes, leaves, seedlings, and fruit. They like to graze in bushy plains, and rugged hills. They are 10-12.5 feet long 4.5-6 feet tall at the shoulders, and weigh between 2195-3000 pounds. There are only 2707 of these types of Rhino's left.", "The word \"hippopotamus\" is derived from the ancient Greek , hippopotamos, from , hippos, \"horse\", and , potamos, \"river\", meaning \"horse of the river\". In English, the plural is hippopotamuses, but \"hippopotami\" is also used; \"hippos\" can be used as a short plural. Hippopotamuses are gregarious, living in groups of up to thirty animals. A group is called a pod, herd, dale, or bloat.", "Not just that, but how many people know that rhinos also live in Asia? Or that two species have just one horn? Or that the horn is not used as an aphrodisiac? We have even heard some people say that they are carnivores!", "A white rhino can stand 6 feet tall at the shoulder and weigh almost 8 thousand pounds or the same as 50 average-sized men!", "\"...those animals which are called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of the appearance, colour, and shape of a bull. Their strength and speed are extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast which they have espied. These the Germans take with much pains in pits and kill them. The young men harden themselves with this exercise, and practice themselves in this sort of hunting, and those who have slain the greatest number of them, having produced the horns in public, to serve as evidence, receive great praise. But not even when taken very young can they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape, and appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our oxen. These they anxiously seek after, and bind at the tips with silver, and use as cups at their most sumptuous entertainments.\"", "dassie: The rock hyrax, a small herbivore that lives in mountainous habitats and is reputed to be the species mostly closely related to the elephant. The name comes from the Afrikaans das, meaning “badger”.", "The ungainly gnu earned the Afrikaans name wildebeest, or \"wild beast,\" for the menacing appearance presented by its large head, shaggy mane, pointed beard, and sharp, curved horns. In fact, the wildebeest is better described as a reliable source of food for the truly menacing predators of the African savanna: lions, cheetahs, wild dogs, and hyenas." ]

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[ "Basalt — Volcanic rock formed by rapidly cooling lava. Found on the moon and the earth.", "Basalt - volcanic rock with small crystals formed by rapid cooling of lava on the Earth's surface", "EXTRUSIVE (or VOLCANIC) - a descriptive term for igneous rocks that formed through the crystallization of lava, which is molten rock that reaches the earth's surface. Because of the rapid rate of cooling, extrusive rocks have tiny crystals, or if cooled very rapidly, have no crystals at all (as in a volcanic glass, or obsidian).", "Basalt Volcanic rock formed by rapidly cooling lava. Found on the moon and the earth.", "Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian). If the cooling of the lava happened more slowly, the rocks would be coarse-grained.", "An igneous rock is formed by the cooling and crystallization of molten rock. The term igneous is derived from ignius, the Latin word for fire. Scientists have divided igneous rocks into two broad categories based on where the molten rock solidified.", "Igneous rocks are formed when magma (molten rock deep within the earth) cools and hardens. Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and other times it erupts onto the surface from volcanoes (in this case, it is called lava). When lava cools very quickly, no crystals form and the rock looks shiny and glasslike. Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock.", "When molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface, it cools quickly, freezing the growth of existing minerals and preventing the development of new minerals. Such rapid cooling will typically produce lava rocks with a few small minerals suspended in a groundmass of volcanic glass. Molten rock that remains below the ground, however, cools very slowly so that existing minerals continue to grow and many new minerals develop. A slow rate of cooling will produce a coarse-grained plutonic rock that consists entirely of large crystals. Different names are given to such slow-cooling plutonic rocks on the basis of chemical composition and mineral proportions (for example, plutonic rocks of basaltic composition are called gabbro).", "Igneous rock forms when magma (molten rock) cools and solidifies. Extrusive igneous rocks are those formed when magma reaches the surface (at which point it is called lava), cooling and solidifying quickly. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma slowly cools deep below the surface of the earth. Different sized grains form, depending on the conditions of the rock formation. Intrusive rocks are generally more coarse-grained than extrusive. Coarse grains are more than 3/16 of an inch; medium grains, 1/64-3/16; and fine grains, less than 1/64 of an inch. Granite, Rhyolite, Obsidian, Diorite, Felsite, Basalt, and Pumice are all examples of igneous rocks. All these characteristics are key in identifying igneous rocks.", "Magma that erupts at the much cooler surface cools and solidifies very rapidly. The minerals thus have little or no chance to grow. The rocks that form may be fine-grained, with minerals so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope. Basalt is an example of this type of rock. If there are no minerals present, the rocks are glassy, such as in obsidian and pumice. Rocks that form from magma at the surface are known as extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks. They form from molten lava that spreads in sheets and hardens or from fragments of magma ejected from vents by violent gaseous explosions.", "Lava rock is rock formed from the cooling and solidification of lava issued from volcanoes. Most lava rock in the North American continent is located in the western half. • Molten rock beneath the earth’s surface is referred to by geologists as magma. Once this molten material is expelled through volcanic eruption onto the earth’s surface, it is then referred to as lava.", "Igneous rocks are formed from lava or magma. Magma is molten rock that is underground and lava is molten rock that erupts out on the surface. The two main types of igneous rocks are plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks. Plutonic rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies underground. Volcanic rocks are formed from lava that flows on the surface of the Earth and other planets and then cools and solidifies.", "Lava rock, also known as igneous rock, is formed when volcanic lava or magma cools and solidifies. It is one of the three main rock types found on Earth, along with metamorphic and sedimentary. Typically, eruption occurs when there is an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure or a change in composition. There are over 700 types of igneous rocks, all of which have diverse properties; however, they can all be classified into three categories.", "Lava is molten rock that spews from an erupting volcano. It is extremely hot, reaching temperatures as high as 1,300 to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (704 to 1093 degrees Celsius). In a volcanic eruption, lava is in liquid form. When it solidifies, it forms igneous rock. However, it can take quite a long time to cool, traveling great distances before becomes solid.", "Over 700 different types of igneous rocks have been discovered to date. These vary in terms of appearance, grain size and amount of time that it takes for the lava to cool. A common igneous rock rule is that if lava cools at a faster rate, the rock formed will have finer grains and have a glassy appearance; if rock cools at a slower rate, the grains will be larger and more coarse. Porphyritic rock is a type that has a combination of large and small grains; this occurs when a rock has a mixed cooling history.", "Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire) is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.", "occurs on land in extensive lava flows.. Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of The", "During a volcanic eruption the magma that leaves the underground is called lava. Lava cools and solidifies relatively quickly compared to underground bodies of magma. This fast cooling does not allow crystals to grow large, and a part of the melt does not crystallize at all, becoming glass. Rocks largely composed of volcanic glass include obsidian, scoria and pumice.", "obsidian—a dark, glasslike volcanic rock formed by the rapid solidification of lava without crystallization (natural glass).", "      Pumice is pyroclastic igneous rock that was almost completely liquid at the moment of effusion and was so rapidly cooled that there was no time for it to crystallize. When it solidified, the vapours dissolved in it were suddenly released, the whole mass swelling up into a froth that immediately consolidated. Had it cooled under more pressure, it would have formed a solid glass, or obsidian ; in fact, if fragments of obsidian are heated in a crucible until they fuse, they will change to pumice when their dissolved gases are set free. Any type of lava, if the conditions are favourable, may assume the pumiceous state, but basalts and andesite do not occur as often in this form as do trachytes ( trachyte ) and rhyolites ( rhyolite ).", "Igneous rock that forms from the magma extruded onto Earth's surface by volcanic eruption is called volcanic and because it cools quite rapidly it is fine-grained like basalt and sometimes glassy like obsidian.", "2. Magma that pours onto Earth’s surface (lava) hardens very quickly to form extrusive igneous rocks.", "Lava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. The resulting rock after solidification and cooling is also called lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets, including Earth, and some of their satellites. The source of the heat that melts the rock within the earth is geothermal energy. When first erupted from a volcanic vent, lava is a liquid usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 °C (1,292 to 2,192 °F).", "Extrusive and Intrusive Rocks. Magma extruded at the Earth's surface solidifies on cooling to form extrusive rocks. Vastly greater quantities of magma than ever reached the surface have remained within the crust, however, and have solidified there under a cover consisting of the rocks of the upper part of the Earth's crust. This magma moved upward from the place where it originated : it is an intruder in the place it now occupies, hence the resulting rocks are termed intrusive Manifestly, such bodies of intrusive rock have become accessible to view only after they have been uncovered by erosion. Intrusive rocks were formed in a geologic environment that differs greatly from that in which extrusive rocks have formed. In an intrusive mass the magma cools under an insulating cover of rocks; hence its dissolved gases tend to be held until a late stage of solidification and it loses heat sIowly, and therefore it solidifies slowly. In extrusive bodies, such as a lava flow the magma, becomes drastically chilled by exposure to the atmosphere even more so, by flowing into water and solidifies rapidly. As a result, most intrusive rocks differ greatly in appearance from extrusive rocks.", "The temperature of erupting lava can range from between 700 and 1,200 degrees Celsius (1,292 and 2,192 degrees Fahrenheit). However, upon contact with the surface it will immediately begin to cool. At first this cooling is extremely rapid and causes a hardened crust to form on top of the lava, which insulates the still liquid lava below. Because the lava is insulated this cooling becomes increasingly slow over time. While you could probably walk on the lava’s crust after about half an hour, thick lava flows can take many years to cool completely and become totally solid.", "Molten rock that comes from a volcanic explosion and the rock that results after it has hardened and cooled", "An igneous rock is one that has crystallized from a liquid magma, or has been formed by diffusion and recrystallization below the melting point. The mantle of the earth (the thick layer between the crust and the core that makes up most of the volume of the earth) is not composed of melted rock, as was once assumed, but rather magmas are created locally by the grindings of plate tectonics, which also provides active fluids that dissolve and modify rocks. Old magmas are exposed by erosion as batholiths here and there, and their rocks have intruded surrounding rocks, dissolving and wedging into every crack. Rocks that show evidence of later modification by heat, pressure and the action of these active fluids are separately classified as metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are quite distinct in structure from those that are composed of material weathered from pre-existing rocks, and deposited in the ocean or on dry land, where they have become cemented, hardened and consolidated into sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale and limestone. Sandstone and shale are mostly silica, but the limestone represents the carbon dioxide that was once present in the atmosphere.", "n. A light, porous type of pyroclastic igneous rock, formed during explosive volcanic eruptions when liquid lava is ejected into the air as a froth containing masses of gas bubbles. As the lava solidifies, the bubbles are frozen into the rock.", "a coarse-grained igneous rock formed from magma that intrudes into country rock deep in Earth's crust and cools slowly", "Ultramafic lavas such as komatiite and highly magnesian magmas that form boninite take the composition and temperatures of eruptions to the extreme. Komatiites contain over 18% magnesium oxide, and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of 1600 °C. At this temperature there is no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid with viscosity as low as that of water. Most if not all ultramafic lavas are no younger than the Proterozoic, with a few ultramafic magmas known from the Phanerozoic. No modern komatiite lavas are known, as the Earth's mantle has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas.", "Mafic or basaltic lavas are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures in excess of 950 °C. Basaltic magma is high in iron and magnesium, and has relatively lower aluminium and silica, which taken together reduces the degree of polymerization within the melt. Owing to the higher temperatures, viscosities can be relatively low, although still thousands of times higher than water. The low degree of polymerization and high temperature favors chemical diffusion, so it is common to see large, well-formed phenocrysts within mafic lavas. Basalt lavas tend to produce low-profile shield volcanoes or \"flood basalt fields\", because the fluidal lava flows for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a basalt lava, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving lava flow at any one time, because basalt lavas may \"inflate\" by supply of lava beneath a solidified crust. Most basalt lavas are of ʻAʻā or pāhoehoe types, rather than block lavas. Underwater they can form pillow lavas, which are rather similar to entrail-type pahoehoe lavas on land.", "A type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption." ]

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[ "Groundwater is water located beneath the earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology. Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also include soil moisture, permafrost, immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to the Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.", "Water which is present in porous rocks such as sandstones and limestones. It may originate from percolated surface waters (meteoric water), from water present when the sedimentary rock was originally deposited (connate water), or from igneous intrusions (juvenile water). The water table is the level below which the rocks are saturated, and springs develop where this reaches the Earth's surface. …", "Most of the void spaces in the rocks below the water table are filled with water. Wherever these water-bearing rocks readily transmit water to wells or springs, they are called aquifers.", "Connate Water: The trapped water between breaks or interstices of rocks during its formation is called connate water.", "Regardless of the source of the water, the local geology needs to be right to retain water. A layer of clay, a dome of basalt, or an underlying granite foundation, for example, will prevent water from percolating away.", "Cave formations are rarely created on the earth's surface, because wind and rain erode the soft calcium carbonate faster than it can be created through evaporation. There are a few locations where the calcium in the water may be deposited outside a cave or spring. The most-visited such site is Mammoth Hot Springs at Yellowstone National Park. At Falling Springs near Covington, at Falls Ridge Preserve in Montgomery County, and at Natural Bridge in Rockbridge County, water emerges from a spring still loaded with dissolved limestone. It deposits travertine (a form of calcium carbonate) along the edge of the pools and on the streambed just below the spring, and can coat sticks and leaves with a film of rock within just a few months.", "Water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth’s surface. Spring water must be collected at the spring or through a borehole tapping the underground formation (aquifer) feeding the spring. Examples: Arrowhead Mountain Spring Water (Nestlé), Evian.", "This park's strange and beautiful rock formations were formed by the Yellowstone River and various streams that have cut through the rock over millions of years, carving out hoodoos, spires and caprocks. The name Makoshika comes from a Lakota word for badlands.", "Over time, the water table dropped and the caves became air-filled voids in which stalactites and stalagmites could form. Water from the surface percolating through cracks in the dolomite absorbed calcium carbonate. On reaching the cavern ceiling, carbon dioxide was released, and a thin film of calcium carbonate was deposited. The deposits built up over time to form stalactites and other formations.", "The Colorado River within the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park drains an area of approximately 41,070 square miles. The major perennial streams feeding into the Colorado (such as Kanab and Havasu creeks, the Little Colorado River and the Paria River) are related to large perennial spring systems on both the north and south sides of the Canyon. However, the majority of water sources are intermittent or ephemeral in nature. The availability of water in these individual systems is closely related to geologic structure, seasonality and annual precipitation. Knowledge of all water sources within Grand Canyon is incomplete. A partial inventory was done in 1979 over a 1,881 square mile area of the park which found 57 perennial water sources, 21 of which are streams and 36 which are seeps. Specific geologic layers, such as the Muav limestone, are the most common sources for these perennial waters.", "Known for its dramatic canyons and whitewater rapids, the Colorado is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas in much of the southwestern desert lands of North America. The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts, which in most years divert its entire flow to furnish irrigation and municipal water supply for almost 40 million people both inside and outside the watershed. The Colorado's large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. This intensive consumption has dried up the lower 100 mi of the river, such that it has reached the sea only a few times since the 1960s. ", "The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite. Geyserite—mostly silicon dioxide (SiO2), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.", "One way of classifying them is based upon their location in the landscape, and their source of water. ", "The carbon dioxide comes from decaying organic matter in soil, and also directly from the atmosphere. This slightly acidic water dissolves the rock, forming cavities which can enlarge and join up to make larger cave systems of interconnected chambers. An underground water flow can develop when many rain-fed subsurface drainages join up, or a river can be captured by an open cavity collapse structure (sink hole or doline) and flow underground. This leads to further enlarging and sculpturing of the caves by chemical and physical weathering. Gravel, sand, silt and clay can be deposited in the caves from outside, or fine sediments from internal springs may build up. This dissected and dissolved landform with a complex groundwater system is called karst.", "Several geological factors have played a vital role in the formation and existence of these subterranean water bodies. The underground ocean, discovered in 2007, has been formed when the plate carrying the Pacific Ocean bottom gets dragged and ends up under the continental plate. Water at such depths would normally escape upwards but the unusual conditions that exist along the eastern Pacific Rim allow the moisture to remain intact. In the case of the Hamza, the porous and permeable sedimentary rocks behave as conduits for the water to sink to greater depths. East-west trending faults and the karst topography present along the northern border of the Amazon basin may have some role in supplying water to the river. If the impermeable rocks stop the vertical flow, the west to east gradient of the topography directs it to flow towards the Atlantic Ocean. Unlike the Hamza, the 153 km-long underground river in Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and the 8.2 km-long Cabayugan River in the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park in the Philippines have come into being thanks to the karst topography. Water in these places drills its way downward by dissolving the carbonate rock to form an extensive underground river system.", "At this point the Yellowstone shrinks to half its usual size, losing itself among huge granite [28] boulders, which choke up the stream and create alternate pools and rapids, crowded with trout. Worn into fantastic forms by the washing water, these immense rock masses give an aspect of peculiar wildness to the scenery. But the crowning wonder of this region is the group of hot springs on the slope of a mountain, four miles up the valley of Gardiner's River. The first expedition passed on without seeing them, but they could not escape the vigilance of the scientific company that followed.", "Often the top layer of the water table becomes acidic because rain water and melting snow absorb carbon dioxide as they seep through surface soils. The water combines with the carbon dioxide to form a weak carbonic acid, which can dissolve limestone and create cavities in the rock. When a major crack lets large amounts of acidic water into the limestone below the water table, large amounts of rock dissolve along this crack. This is what happened at Cave of the Mounds. The cave was formed along a major crack which can be seen today. This crack is called the \"lifeline\" of the cave.", "a) Multiple ancient water cisterns, hewn out of the bedrock have been discovered. These would have stored a significant amount of water which could be used to maintain a garden.", "            “The cisterns which he mentions [i.e. Diodorus (fl. 1 cent. BCE), in his Biblioteca historica] are the wells known today as mḳûr. These are usually dug out in the rocky soil to a depth of about four meters. They are pear-shaped and have a narrow neck which is generally covered with a large stone. The rain water from the surrounding rocky areas flows into this neck and falls through the cavities beneath the stone into the cistern. A stranger not properly acquainted with the region and with the habits of the natives will ride round such a rain well without noticing it. Fragments of dry plants and sand are apt to drift up against one side of the stone, so that it looks as if it has always been lying there.” Musil (1926), pp. 309-310.", "The history of this tremendous chasm is not hard to read. Ages ago this whole region was the basin of an immense lake. Then it became a centre of volcanic activity; vast quantities of lava was erupted, which, cooling under water, took the form of basalt; volumes of volcanic ash and rock-fragments were thrown out from the craters from time to time, forming breccia as it sunk through the water and mingled with the deposits from silicious springs. Over this were spread the later deposits from the waters of the old lake. In time the country was slowly elevated, and the lake was drained away. [83] The easily eroded breccia along the river channel was cut out deeper and deeper as the ages passed, while springs and creeks and the falling rain combined to carve the sides of the ca�on into the fantastic forms they now present, by wearing away the softer rock, and leaving the hard basalt and the firmer hot-spring deposits standing in massive columns and Gothic pinnacles. The basis material of the old hot spring deposits in silica, originally white as snow, are now stained by mineral waters with every shade of red and yellow—from scarlet to rose color, from bright sulphur to the daintiest tint of cream. When the light falls favorably on these blended tints the Grand Ca�on presents a more enchanting and bewildering variety of forms and colors than human artist ever conceived.", "A quarter of a mile east of the mud-springs, at the northwestern base of a mountain-spur and extending a thousand yards up a ravine, is a group of springs occupying a space five hundred yards wide. One of these, the Fissure Spring, is a hundred feet long and from four to ten feet wide. Quite a large stream flows from this spring. Many of the surrounding springs remain full to the rim, and are in constant ebullition, yet no water flows from them. Others discharge great quantities of water. In this group are three sulphur springs, the only ones in the region: the sulphur present however is not very abundant. Silica and iron seem to be the dominant constituents of nearly all the deposits. Some of the springs send forth a disagreeable odor, and deposit a curious black sediment like fine gunpowder. Near the centre of the group is a small lake 600 feet long and 150 wide. By its eastern shore is a geyser which spouts very regularly to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. West of the lake are two small geysers cones incrusted with a cauliflower-like formation; near them in a fissure are balls of geyserite coated in the same manner.", "The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or 'Lion's Mouth', a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash , and is marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens . There are several other tributaries nearby which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senger Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River which flows into the Indus in Ladakh has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point. [5]", "* Artesian water – this is water that originates from a confined aquifer that has been tapped and in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer.", "Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes from wells and from water galleries (Horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources. These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas or carbon dioxide, causing rapid death. ", "a hollow in bare rock, narrow at the opening and wider at the bottom, into which water collects", "Rock-cut terraces and depositional terraces can be distinguished by certain properties that reflect their mode of origin. Rock-cut surfaces are usually capped by a uniformly thin layer of alluvium, the total thickness of which is determined by the depth of scour of the river that formed the terrace tread. In addition, the surface eroded across the bedrock or older alluvium is remarkably flat and essentially mirrors the configuration of the tread. In contrast, alluvium beneath the tread of a depositional terrace can be extremely variable in thickness and usually exceeds any reasonable scouring depth of the associated river; moreover, the eroded surface in the bedrock beneath the fill can be very irregular even though the surface of the terrace tread is flat. The most difficult terrace to distinguish by these criteria are erosional terraces that are cut across a thick, unconsolidated valley fill.", "The Great Himalayas, which normally would form the main water divide throughout their entire length, function as such only in limited areas. That situation exists because the major Himalayan rivers, such as the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej, and at least two headwaters of the Ganges—the Alaknanda and the Bhagirathi—are probably older than the mountains they traverse . It is believed that the Himalayas were uplifted so slowly that the old rivers had no difficulty in continuing to flow through their channels and, with the rise of the Himalayas, acquired an even greater momentum, which enabled them to cut their valleys more rapidly. The elevation of the Himalayas and the deepening of the valleys thus proceeded simultaneously. As a result, the mountain ranges emerged with a completely developed river system cut into deep transverse gorges that range in depth from 5,000 to 16,000 feet (1,500 to 5,000 metres) and in width from 6 to 30 miles (10 to 50 km). The earlier origin of the drainage system explains the peculiarity that the major rivers drain not only the southern slopes of the Great Himalayas but, to a large extent, its northern slopes as well, the water divide being north of the crest line.", "There are huge subterranean water reserves beneath parts of the Kalahari; the Dragon's Breath Cave for example is the largest documented non-subglacial underground lake on the planet. Such reserves may be in part the residues of ancient lakes; the Kalahari Desert was once a much wetter place. The ancient Lake Makgadikgadi dominated the area, covering the Makgadikgadi Pan and surrounding areas, but it drained or dried out some 10,000 years ago. It may have once covered as much as 275000 km2.", "Seemingly patterned arrangements or concentrations of large rocks at sites in Europe and Africa may mark the foundations of huts or windbreaks, but in each case the responsible agent could equally well be stream flow, or any other natural process.", "Rimstone Dams - are steplike terraces along streams and on cave floors that contain pools of calcium carbonated water.", "The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailas) mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500–5,200 metres (15,000–17,000 feet) deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the Satnad River (sat = \"seven\", nadī = \"river\"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.", "In his article, \"The River Runs Dry,\" James Sauer describes how satellite images have detected an underground riverbed along the Wadi al Batin (wadi means the same thing as arroyo, a dry riverbed). 4 Sauer identified this river as the Pishon River of the Bible, a river which flowed at a time when the climate was wetter than it is today." ]

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