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[ "Bonnie Elizabeth Parker (October 1, 1910 – May 23, 1934) and Clyde Chestnut Barrow a.k.a. Clyde Champion Barrow (March 24, 1909 – May 23, 1934) were American criminals who traveled the central United States with their gang during the Great Depression, robbing and killing people. At times, the gang included Clyde's older brother Buck Barrow and his wife Blanche, Raymond Hamilton, W. D. Jones, Joe Palmer, Ralph Fults, and Henry Methvin. Their exploits captured the attention of the American public during the \"Public Enemy Era,\" between 1931 and 1935. Though known today for their dozen-or-so bank robberies, the two preferred to rob small stores or rural gas stations. The gang is believed to have killed at least nine police officers and several civilians. The couple were eventually ambushed and killed by law officers near the town of Sailes, in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Their reputation was revived and cemented in American pop folklore by Arthur Penn's 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde, in which they were played by Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty.", "Bonnie Elizabeth Parker (October 1, 1910 – May 23, 1934) and Clyde Chestnut Barrow (March 24, 1909 – May 23, 1934) were well-known outlaws, robbers, and criminals who traveled the Central United States with their gang during the Great Depression . Their exploits captured the attention of the American public during the \" public enemy era \" between 1931 and 1934. Though known today for his dozen-or-so bank robberies, Barrow in fact preferred to rob small stores or rural gas stations. The gang is believed to have killed at least nine police officers and committed several civilian murders. The couple themselves were eventually ambushed and killed in Louisiana by law officers. Their reputation was cemented in American pop folklore by Arthur Penn's 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde . [1] Testing Nearby from Ft Worth.", "Possibly the most famous and most romanticized criminals in American history, Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow were two young Texans whose early 1930s crime spree forever imprinted them upon the national consciousness. Their names have become synonymous with an image of Depression-era chic, a world where women chomped cigars and brandished automatic rifles, men robbed banks and drove away in squealing automobiles, and life was lived fast because it would be so short.", "1934: Bonnie (Parker) and Clyde (Baron), the young US outlaws, died in a hail of bullets on a lonely stretch of road in Louisiana where they were trapped by the police. During their four-year partnership, they killed at least 12 people as they robbed banks, petrol stations and diners.", "Arthur Penn's Depression-era road-gangster film Bonnie and Clyde (1967) began in West Dallas, Texas, where Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway) fatefully met Clyde Barrow (producer/star Warren Beatty) and the couple began a bank-robbing spree that ended in their bloody ambush deaths in Gibsland, Louisiana", "Part two of the research guide explores Bonnie and Clyde’s existence in American memory and consists of three sections. The first section covers Bonnie and Clyde’s depiction in film. Arthur Penn’s famous 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde revivified the story of Bonnie and Clyde through a glamorous and romantic depiction of the outlaw couple, but not without controversy. Included along with the movie are a number of reviews of the film and articles discussing its relationship to history and to the memory of Bonnie and Clyde. Another film included in this section is The Bonnie Parker Story, a film that focuses on the figure of Bonnie Parker. The second part of this section covers Bonnie and Clyde’s existence in music. Among popular depictions of the pair in music is a modern day Broadway musical as well as a concert tour by Beyoncé and Jay-Z inspired by the story of Bonnie and Clyde. The third and final section of part two is an examination of Bonnie and Clyde in modern local memory. For this exploration, I have included two news articles describing the monuments, museums, and festivals recalling the story of Bonnie and Clyde.", "I to have been told that our family of Parkers is also related to Bonnie and Butch Cassidy. Relatives claim to have remembered when young, that Bonnie and Clyde were plotting bank robberies in their attic. Many of the towns were action took place are locations where relatives lived, such as Atoka, Oklahoma, and Wellington, Texas.", "Bonnie Parker was the female half of the notorious crime duo, Bonnie and Clyde. She was born on October 1, 1910, in Rowena, Texas. She and partner Clyde Barrow died in a hail of machine gun fire from law enforcement officers on May 23, 1934.", "Steele, Phillip, and Marie Barrow Scoma. The Family Story of Bonnie and Clyde. (Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing Company, 2000.) ISBN 1-56554-756-X [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].", "1967/--/-- 19 - Warren Beaty and Faye Dunaway star in Arthur Penn's film Bonnie and Clyde.", "Barrow, Blanche Caldwell and John Neal Phillips. My Life with Bonnie and Clyde. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004.) ISBN 978-0-8061-3715-5 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].", "Bonnie and Clyde were among the first celebrity criminals of the modern era, and their legend has proven durable. Certainly Bonnie knew how to enhance the pair's popular appeal by manipulating the media, and newspapers were quick to publish her poem \"The Story of Bonnie and Clyde\". Her other poems, especially \"Suicide Sal,\" show her flair for an underworld vernacular that owes much to the detective magazines she read avidly. According to Geringer, Bonnie appealed to the out of work and generally disenfranchised third of America shattered by the Depression, who saw the duo as Robin Hood-like. Milner put their appeal this way: \"By the time Bonnie and Clyde became well known, many had felt the capitalistic system had been abused by big business and government officials... Now here were Bonnie and Clyde striking back.\" [25] In an A&E Network -produced Biography on the two bandits, historian Jonathan Davis expresses a similar thought, pointing out that \"Anybody who robbed banks or fought the law were really living out some secret fantasies on a large part of the public.\" [26]", "Bonnie Elizabeth Parker (1910 - 1934) The female half of the notorious crime duo, Bonnie and Clyde. Born in Rowena, TX (797)", "On a beautiful morning, May 23, 1934 the careers of a notorious criminal duo, the scourge of stores and banks across the country, came to an abrupt end. Six lawmen took them down in an ambush that’s still talked about today, marking the end of Bonnie and Clyde, criminal superstars. They were the best of the worst in their time, robbing any and everyone where they found an opportunity, and responsible for at least 13 deaths...", "This source is a news article describing the events surrounding the 75th anniversary of Bonnie and Clyde’s deaths in the town of Gibsland, Louisiana. The author describes a festival that is to be held to commemorate the event. The festival’s attractions include “four re-enactments planned for the festival… a pancake breakfast, parade and Bonnie and Clyde look-alike contest.” The article describes the memory of Bonnie and Clyde in the town of Gibsland as mysterious, romantic, and, importantly, as a source of income for the tiny town. Says the town’s mayor, Pat White, “‘For us it’s timber, oil and Bonnie and Clyde’.”", "Bonnie and Clyde were killed on May 23, 1934, on a desolate road in Bienville Parish, Louisiana . [67] [94] The couple appeared in daylight in an automobile and were shot by a posse of four Texas officers and two Louisiana officers. [95] Questions about the way the ambush was conducted, and the failure to warn the duo of impending death, have been raised about the incident.[citation needed]", "2.) Milner, E.R.. The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003.", "Bonnie and Clyde were killed on May 23, 1934, on a desolate road in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. The couple appeared in daylight in an automobile and were shot by a posse of four Texas officers and two Louisiana officers.", "Milner, E.R. The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996.) ISBN 0809325527.", "Through the decades, many historians have struggled to explain Bonnie and Clyde's enduring appeal to the public imagination. E.R. Milner, a historian, writer, and expert on Bonnie and Clyde and their era, put the duo's enduring appeal to the public, both during the depression and continuing on through the decades, into historical and cultural perspective. To those people who, as Milner says, \"consider themselves outsiders, or oppose the existing system,\" Bonnie and Clyde represent the ultimate outsiders, revolting against an uncaring system. \"The country's money simply declined by 38 percent,\" explains Milner, author of The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde. \"Gaunt, dazed men roamed the city streets seeking jobs... Breadlines and soup kitchens became jammed. (In rural areas) foreclosures forced more than 38 percent of farmers from their lands (while simultaneously) a catastrophic drought struck the Great Plains... By the time Bonnie and Clyde became well known, many had fe!", "Treherne, John. The Strange History of Bonnie and Clyde. (New York: Stein and Day, 1984.) ISBN 0-8154-1106-5.", "Narrator: In mid-May, Bonnie and Clyde were in Louisiana. They had plans to meet Henry Methvin at his parents’ home on Wednesday, May 23rd, at 9am; the trap was set.", "Guinn, Jeff. Go Down Together: The True, Untold Story of Bonnie and Clyde. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.) ISBN 1-4165-5706-7 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].", "1.) Guinn, Jeff. Go Down Together: The True Untold Story of Bonnie and Clyde. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.", "Narrator: The legend of Bonnie and Clyde was born. With the photos, the duo went from two-bit Texas hoods to mythic outlaws.", "* Arthur Penn directed the best-known version of the tale, Bonnie and Clyde (1967), which starred Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway.", "Families can talk about the real Bonnie and Clyde. Who were they? Why did their exploits gain notoreity during the Great Depression? How did the public view the pair? How did the public viewpoint change over time, and why?", "Ramsey, Winston G., ed. On The Trail of Bonnie and Clyde. (London: After The Battle Books, 2003). ISBN 1870067517.", "Ramsey, Winston G. , ed. On The Trail of Bonnie and Clyde. (London: After The Battle Books, 2003). ISBN 1-870067-51-7 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].", "LYDEN: Jeff Guinn. He's the author of \"Go Down Together: The True, Untold Story of Bonnie and Clyde.\"", "Narrator: The posse sorted through Bonnie and Clyde’s possessions: Bonnie’s makeup case, several suitcases, roadmaps and true crime magazines. Hamer claimed their guns and fishing tackle as a reward. Word spread quickly and people began to crowd highway 154; souvenir hunters scavenged through the carnage.", "In conjunction with the premiere of Lifetime's 'Bonnie and Clyde,' we're separating myth from reality by looking at nine facts of the outlawed duo." ]

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[ "The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two Americans who are generally credited [1] [2] [3] with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight , on December 17, 1903. They are also officially credited worldwide through the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , the standard-setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics, as \"the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight\". In the two years afterward, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed wing flight possible.", "The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who are generally credited [1] [2] [3] with inventing, building, and flying the world’s first successful airplane . They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17, 1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina . In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft . Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible.", "The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who were credited [1] [2] [3] with inventing and building the world’s first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight , on December 17, 1903. In the two years afterward, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft . Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible.", "The plaque reads: \"THE ORIGINAL WRIGHT BROTHERS AEROPLANE: The world's first power-driven, heavier-than-air machine in which man made free, controlled and sustained flight, invented and built by Wilbur and Orville Wright flown by them at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina December 17, 1903. By original scientific research the Wright Brothers discovered the principles of human flight as inventors, builders, and flyers they further developed the aeroplane, taught man to fly, and opened the era of aviation.\"", "Orville Wright (1871-1948) and Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) are known Worldwide for the invention of Aeroplane. Though various types of Flying Machines had been designed and tested before them but their invention was the one which was the first successful controlled, powered and which sustained heavier-than-air human flight. Their invention also marked a revolution in the aeronautical industry. It was on December 17, 1903, that the Wright brothers (Orville Wright is credited with the first flight) tested their aircraft which soared to an altitude of 10 feet, travelled 120 feet and landed safely.", "The Wright Brothers - In the late 19th century, transportation took enormous time and effort, and it was often dangerous. With this being said, it was time for someone to shine. The creative minds in world began to come out, and, finally, the world met a breakthrough. In Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, an alarming invention would change the way humans transport forever. In 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright had succeeded in a lifelong adventure of creating a flying machine. The Wright brothers grew up in West Dayton, Ohio, and ever since they were children they were destined for greatness....   [tags: invention, first airplane]", "However, the most widely accepted date is December 17, 1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft. Previous flights were gliders (control but no power) or free flight (power but no control), but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Following this, the widespread adoption of ailerons rather than wing warping made aircraft much easier to control, and only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions.", "Born four years apart, brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright grew up in a small town in Ohio. They shared an intellectual curiosity and an aptitude for science, at a time when the possibility of human flight was beginning to look like a reality. Together, the Wright brothers developed the first successful airplane in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina—and together they became national heroes. Considered the fathers of modern aviation, they developed innovative technology and inspired imaginations around the world.", "1903: The Wright brothers aircraft made the first flight of a heavier-than-air machine. It made four flights from Kitty Hawke, North Carolina, the longest lasting just under a minute, and all piloted by younger brother Orville.", "Aviation pioneer who, with his brother Orville, invented the aeroplane that demonstrated the first controlled, powered flight. The Wright brothers established a bicycle repair shop and in 1896 began building bicycles. They became interested in aeronautics after reading about glider trials, and built their own gliders between 1900 and 1902. In 1903 they successfully flew a powered aeroplane, the Flyer I, which used a wing warp method to control flight. This control system was based on the idea of manoeuvring the aircraft by banking, similar to the technique used in cycling. The brothers were awarded a patent in 1906.", "A few Americans, notably the engineer Octave Chanute and the scientist Samuel Pierpont Langley, conducted experiments in aeronautics in the late nineteenth century. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, designed a steam-powered model that made the first sustained flight of a heavier-than-air machine in May of 1896. His work continued into the early 20th century with a full-sized flying machine, which Langley named \"Aerodrome A.\" It crashed into the Potomac River nine days before the Wright brothers' first successful flights on December 17, 1903. Flights by Wilbur and Orville were manned, powered, controlled, and sustained, and culminated their years of theoretical and experimental research. The Wright brothers developed the airplane as a practical flying machine, and they built the world's first military airplane in 1908 for the United States Army Signal Corps.", "The Wright brothers flights in 1903 are recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as \"the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight\". By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major inspiration for their decision to pursue manned flight.", "In the US, bicycle manufacturers, Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville Wright (1871-1948) inspired by Lilienthal’s work, made a fabric-covered wooden bi-plane. This was driven by a petrol engine and on 17 December 1903, the Wright brother’s made the worlds first powered controlled sustained flight – it lasted 59 seconds. By 1905, the brothers had built a flying machine with controls that was completely manoeuvrable. In 1904, French Captain Ferdinand Ferber (1862-1909), refined the Wright’s earlier aircraft by adding a stabilising fixed tail-plane.", "The brothers’ success became a worldwide phenomenon and they started taking passengers on board their flights.  The world’s longest flight at the time lasted 2 hours and 19 minutes. The first fatal air crash took place in 1908 in a flight manned by Orville which he survived, but the passenger did not. In 1909, the US Government bought its first plane manufactured by the Wright Brothers for $25,000 with a bonus of $5,000 because the speed of the plane exceeded 40 mph. The Wright Brothers’ planes also became the world’s first military airplanes. Both brothers remained unmarried; Wilbur died at the age of 45 from typhoid and Orville of a heart attack at the age of 77. They remained friends and partners throughout their lives and never tried to discredit the other from the amazing and seemingly impossible feats that they accomplished together.", "The brothers' fundamental breakthrough was their invention of  three-axis control , which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. [4]  This method became standard and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. [5] [6]  From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving \"the flying problem\". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines. [7]  Using a small homebuilt  wind tunnel , the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers that were more efficient than any before. [8] [9]  Their first U.S. patent, 821,393, did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather, the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces. [10]", "The brothers’ fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control , which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. [4] This method became standard and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. [5] [6] From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving “the flying problem”. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines. [7] Using a small homebuilt wind tunnel , the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers that were more efficient than any before. [8] [9] Their first U.S. patent, 821,393, did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather, the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine’s surfaces. [10]", "The brothers' fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. This method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving \"the flying problem\". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small homebuilt wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers that were more efficient than any before. Their first U.S. patent, 821,393, did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather, the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces. ", "The Wright brothers wrote their 1903 patent application themselves, but it was rejected. In January 1904 they hired Ohio patent attorney Henry Toulmin, and on May 22, 1906, they were granted U.S. Patent 821393 for a \"Flying Machine\".", "A name which everyone has heard is that of the Wright Brothers, who in 1902 developed the first form of an aircraft which was a three-axis control system. The possibility to fly over 9000 kilometers in 8 hours is nothing but remarkable. But, this ability to fly and touch the sky could not have been made possible had it not been for the Wright Brothers and had aircrafts not been invented,", "During 1902, the brothers flew numerous test glides using their new glider. Their studies showed that a movable tail would help balance the craft and the Wright Brothers connected a movable tail to the wing-warping wires to coordinate turns. With successful glides to verify their wind tunnel tests, the inventors planned to build a powered aircraft.", "They gained the mechanical skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. [14] From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first airplane engine in close collaboration with the brothers.", "[Octave Chanute, early flight, Progress in Flying Machines, Wright Brothers, Wilbur Wright, Robert Thurston, engineering, entrepreneurs, gliders, flight, aeroplanes]", "The Wright brothers always presented a unified image to the public, sharing equally in the credit for their invention. Biographers note, however, that Wilbur took the initiative in 1899–1900, writing of \"my\" machine and \"my\" plans before Orville became deeply involved when the first person singular became the plural \"we\" and \"our\". Author James Tobin asserts, \"it is impossible to imagine Orville, bright as he was, supplying the driving force that started their work and kept it going from the back room of a store in Ohio to conferences with capitalists, presidents, and kings. Will did that. He was the leader, from the beginning to the end.\" [23]", "The Wright brothers made no flights at all in 1906 and 1907. They spent the time attempting to persuade the U.S. and European governments that they had invented a successful flying machine and were prepared to negotiate a contract to sell such machines. They also experimented with a pontoon and engine setup on the Miami River (Ohio) in hopes of flying their airplane from the water. These experiments proved unsuccessful. In May 1906 they were finally granted a patent for their flying machine.", "Using a methodological approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their 19th-century predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested. [54] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three-axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-tunnel testing of airfoils and flight testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft, the Wright Flyer , but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering.", "Following a step by step method, discovering aerodynamic forces then controlling the flight, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their 19th century predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested. [17] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a larger aspect ratio and true three-axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. In the end, by establishing their rigorous system of designing, wind-tunnel testing of airfoils and flight testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering.", "Orville piloted the first flight, which lasted just 12 seconds. On the fourth and final flight of the day, Wilbur flew for 59 seconds. Both brothers survived that morning, December 17, 1903. That day they became the first people to demonstrate sustained flight of a heavier-than-air machine under the complete control of the pilot. What did the brothers do after their exciting success?", "This research paid off and in 1902 they returned to Kitty Hawk with what they, by the end of the trip, believed to be the first working airplane. This airplane, the first of its kind, had thirty two foot wings and vertical tales. The brothers flew this craft upwards of 1000 times in 1902 and had them ready for success upon their return to Kitty Hawk in 1903 (Crouch).", "They gained the mechanical skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first airplane engine in close collaboration with the brothers.", "They gained the mechanical skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first airplane engine in close collaboration with the brothers.", "In 1902 , they returned to Kitty Hawk with a new aircraft based on their new data. This aircraft was even larger than the 1901 aircraft; it had a 32 foot wing span, a five foot chord, the canard elevator, a new movable rudder at the rear, and it weighed about a hundred and fifteen pounds without the pilot. The rudder was installed to overcome the adverse yaw problem. The movable rudder was coordinated with the wing warping to keep the nose of the aircraft pointed into the curved flight path. With this new aircraft, the brothers completed flights of over 650 feet. This machine was the first aircraft that had active controls for all three axis; roll, pitch and yaw . At the end of 1902, all that remained for the first successful airplane was the development of the propulsion system.", "Between 1903 and 1905, the brothers built a series of aircraft which would eventually lead to the first practical airplane. Based on the success of their 1902 glider , the brothers decided to build a larger, powered version of the aircraft upon their return to Dayton in late 1902. The brothers made inquiries with many automobile manufacturers to procure an engine which would meet their requirements for both light weight (less than 200 pounds) and moderate horsepower (8-10 horsepower). When all the replies came back negative, they built their own 4 cylinder, 12 horsepower, internal combustion engine in a period of just six weeks. They also designed and built highly efficient aircraft propellers using their wind tunnel results and realizing that they must be shaped as a rotating airfoil." ]

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[ "The Titanic had 4 funnels (smokestacks). Each was 62 feet tall and had a diameter of 22 feet.", "Titanic had three functional funnels: The fourth was purely aesthetic to make the ship look more imposing.", "Construction of the RMS Titanic, funded by the American J.P. Morgan and his International Mercantile Marine Co., began on 31 March 1909. The Titanic's hull was launched on 31 May 1911, and her outfitting was completed by 31 March the following year. Her length overall was 882 feet 9 inches (269.1 m), the moulded breadth 92 feet 0 inches (28.0 m),[12] the tonnage 46,328 GRT, and the height from the water line to the boat deck of 59 feet (18 m). She was equipped with two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one low-pressure Parsons turbine, which combined drove three propellers. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). Only three of the four 62 feet (19 m) funnels were functional: the fourth, which served only for ventilation purposes, was added to make the ship look more impressive. The ship could carry a total of 3,547 passengers and crew.", "In what is now an iconic image, the side view of the Titanic clearly shows four cream and black funnels. While three of these released the steam from the boilers, the fourth was just for show. The designers thought the ship would look more impressive with four funnels rather than three.", "General view of Titanic in the fitting-out berth following her launch; the final stages of construction and outfitting were carried out here. Here the final coat of paint has begun to be applied starting at the sternThe interiors of the Olympic-class ships were subdivided into sixteen primary compartments divided by fifteen bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency.[66] The ships' exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation.[68] The superstructure consisted of two decks, the Promenade Deck and Boat Deck, which were about 500 feet (150 m) long. They accommodated the officers' quarters, gymnasium, public rooms and first-class cabins, plus the bridge and wheelhouse. The ships' lifeboats were carried on the Boat Deck, the uppermost deck.[14] Standing above the decks were four funnels, though only three were functional - the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes - and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for loading cargo. A wireless aerial was slung between the masts.[69]", "A four funnel liner, four funnelled liner or four stacker is an ocean liner with four funnels. The SS Great Eastern, launched on 31 January 1858 (a full 40 years ahead of any comparable ships), was the only ocean liner to sport five funnels. As one funnel was later removed, the Great Eastern, by default, became the first ocean liner to have four funnels. The SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, launched on 4 May 1897, was the next ocean liner to have four funnels and was one of the first of the golden era of ocean liners that became prominent in the early- to mid-20th century. The most famous four funnel liners are the RMS Titanic, which sank after striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage on 14 April 1912, and the RMS Lusitania, which was torpedoed on 7 May 1915 during the First World War.", "Titanic was 882 ft 9 in (269 m) long and 92 ft 6 in (28 m) at its beam, it had a Gross Register Tonnage of 46,328 tons, and a height from the water line to the boat deck of 60 ft (18 m). It contained two reciprocating four- cylinder, triple-expansion, inverted steam engines and one low-pressure Parsons turbine. These powered three propellers. There were 25 double-ended and 4 single-ended Scotch-type boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23  knots (43 km/h). Only three of the four 63 foot (19 m) tall funnels were functional; the fourth, which served only as a vent, was added to make the ship look more impressive. Titanic could carry a total of 3,547 passengers and crew and, because she carried mail, her name was given the prefix RMS (Royal Mail Steamer) as well as SS (Steam Ship).", "Construction of RMS Titanic, funded by the American J.P. Morgan and hisInternational Mercantile Marine Co., began on 31 March 1909. Titanic's hull was launched on 31 May 1911, and her outfitting was completed by 31 March the following year. Her length overall was 882 feet 9 inches (269.1 m), the moulded breadth 92 feet 0 inches (28.0 m), the tonnage 46,328 GRT, and the height from the water line to the boat deck of 59 feet (18 m). She was equipped with two reciprocatingfour-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one low-pressure Parsons turbine, each driving a propeller. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). Only three of the four 62 feet (19 m) funnels were functional: the fourth, which served only for ventilation purposes, was added to make the ship look more impressive. The ship could carry a total of 3,547 passengers and crew.", "Britannic II is launched, and because of the alterations and modifications made to her after the Titanic disaster, she is now the world's largest four funnelled ship.", "Claim: Titanic had 14 bow portholes. Olympic had 16 bow portholes. The ship photographed departing Southampton has 16 bow portholes. It is the Olympic, not Titanic.", "Two hours and forty minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates.[125] As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship split apart between the third and fourth funnels due to the immense strain on the keel.[126] The stern remained afloat for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it.[127] At 2.20 am, it sank, breaking loose from the bow section. The remaining passengers and crew were plunged into lethally cold water with a temperature of only 28 °F (â�'2 °C). Almost all of those in the water died of hypothermia, cardiac arrest, or drowning within minutes.[128] Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats though these had room for almost 500 more occupants.[129]", "Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people—considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one-third of Titanic total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.", "Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning of 15 April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton, UK, to New York City, US. Two hours and forty minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels due to the immense strain on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before plunging into the murky depths. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully split in two.", "Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle 4 lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people—considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one-third of Titanic‘s total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade’s regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.", "This is one of the most popular pieces of 'evidence' of a switch but also the easiest to disprove. Quite simply, Titanic had 14 portholes on the port side C deck (bow) when launched, but in the following months she got 2 extra for better light and air. In fact both Olympic and Titanic were launched with 14 portholes on the port side forecastle on C-Deck and 15 portholes on the starboard side of the same area. However, in December 1911, during Titanic's fit out, she had 2 added to light the crews galley and wash room which resulted in a total of 16 as seen in the maiden voyage photographs. Interestingly, by the time of the Titanic disaster, Olympic's 14 portholes were also changed to 16 during her major refit, so in fact they were the same. Hence post-Titanic-sinking images of Olympic also have this 16 porthole configuration.", "Titanic was considered a pinnacle of naval architecture and technological achievement, and was thought by The Shipbuilder magazine to be \"practically unsinkable.\" She was divided into 16 compartments by doors held up, i.e. in the open position, by electro-magnetic latches and which could be allowed to fall closed by means of a switch on the bridge. However, the watertight bulkheads did not reach the entire height of the decks, only going up as far as E-Deck. Titanic could stay afloat with any two of her compartments flooded, or with eleven of fourteen possible combinations of three compartments flooded, or with the first/last four compartments flooded: any more and the ship would sink.", "No single aspect regarding the huge loss of life from the Titanic disaster has provoked more outrage than the fact that the ship did not carry enough lifeboats for all her passengers and crew. This is partially due to the fact that the law, dating from 1894, required a minimum of 16 lifeboats for ships of over 10,000 tons. This law had been established when the largest ship afloat was RMS Lucania. Since then the size of ships had increased rapidly, meaning that Titanic was legally required to carry only enough lifeboats for less than half of its capacity. Actually, the White Star Line exceeded the regulations by including four more collapsible lifeboats—this gave a total capacity of 1,178 people (still only around a third of the Titanic's total capacity of 3,547).", "On the night of 14 April 1912, during her maiden voyage, Titanic hit an iceberg and sank two hours and forty minutes later, early on 15 April 1912. The sinking resulted in the deaths of 1,517 people, making it one of the most deadly peacetime maritime disasters in history. The high casualty rate was due in part to the fact that, although complying with the regulations of the time, the ship did not carry enough lifeboats for everyone aboard. The ship had a total lifeboat capacity of 1,178 persons even though her maximum capacity was 3,547 people. A disproportionate number of men died also, due to the women-and-children-first protocol that was followed.", "     The hulls were divided into 16 watertight compartments. The forward, or \"collision\" bulkhead was carried to C deck, whereas those from the forward end of the reciprocating engines and aft were carried to D deck. The remainder of these bulkheads terminated at E deck, with the top of the lowest of these—the bulkhead between boiler rooms 1 and 2—being 10 ft, 9 in. above the maximum-load waterline. This arrangement allowed the Olympic and Titanic to easily withstand a breach of two adjacent compartments amidships, typical of the damage sustained through a collision with other ships. Furthermore, each ship was capable of remaining afloat with all of the first four compartments flooded, providing ample protection if the ship rammed a floating body in her path.", "By the turn of the 20th century larger ships meant more people could travel, but safety rules regarding lifeboats remained out of date: for example, British legislation concerning the number of lifeboats was based on the tonnage of a vessel and only encompassed vessels of \"10,000 gross register tons (grt) and over\". It was not until after the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15, 1912, that a broader movement began to require a sufficient number of lifeboats on passenger ships for all people on board. The Titanic, with a gross tonnage of 46,000 tonnes and carrying 20 lifeboats, exceeded the regulations laid down by the Board of Trade, which required a ship of her size (i.e. over 10,000 grt) to carry boats capable of carrying a total of 1,060 people. The Titanic′s boats had a capacity of 1,178 people on a ship capable of carrying 3,330 people.", "- The Titanic's hull had only a single wall on each side!.. And even though the hull was divided in fifteen sections, which were designed to be sealed on a moments notice, \"the bulkheads between those sections were riddled with access doors to improve luxury service\"", "There are three main pieces of wreckage within the Titanic debris field: 1) the bow  located at 41 degrees 43′ 57″ North, 49 degrees 56′ 49″ West, 2) the stern  located at 41 degrees 43′ 35″ North, 49 degrees 56′ 54″ West, 3) a pile of heavier wreckage located at 41 degrees 43′ 32″ North, 49 degrees 56′ 49″ West (note ‘ is pronounced “minutes, and ” is pronounced “seconds”, so the bow is at 41 degrees 43 minutes 57 seconds North).", "Titanic was launched at 12:15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers.22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship’s passage into the River Lagan In keeping with the White Star Line’s traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting-out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.", "One of Titanics most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. This descended through seven decks of the ship, from the Boat Deck to E deck in the elegant style depicted in photographs and movies, and then as a more functional and less elegant staircase from there down to F deck. [45] It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls lit by gold-plated light fixtures. [46] At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of \"Honour and Glory Crowning Time\" flanking the clock face. [45] The Grand Staircase was destroyed in Titanics sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. [47] During the filming of James Cameron's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome. [48]", "Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m).She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.", "In the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century the number of funnels became associated with speed and reliability. For this reason a number of the great liners carried additional false funnels that they did not need. Examples included the White Star Lines , and ; Hamburg America Line's (which became Berengaria under Cunard) and later the Cunard's and its rival the French Line's . In most cases the false funnel was the aftermost of the funnels. The false funnels did have their uses however - a stoker who survived the sinking of the Titanic escaped the boiler room by ascending the false funnel and the aft funnel of Normandie housed the passengers' dog kennels.", "The sinking of the Titanic also changed the way passenger ships were designed, and caused many existing ships, like the RMS Olympic, to be refitted for increased safety. Besides increasing the number of lifeboats on board, improvements included extending the height of the watertight bulkheads. The bulkheads on the Titanic extended 10 feet (3 m) above the waterline, and after Titanic sank the bulkheads on other ships were extended higher to prevent the water from spilling into other watertight compartments as it did on Titanic. In addition, the Titanic had a double–plated bottom, but the rest of ship's hull was not reinforced. Some older steamships had double hulls, which could prevent water from flowing into a ship after being damaged, but many modern ships at the time had just a single hull which saved costs and space. After the Titanic sank, many existing ships' double bottoms were extended up the sides of the hull to a point above the waterline, and newer ships were designed with double hulls.", "The primary purpose of funnels on steamships were to allow smoke, heat and excess steam to escape from the boiler rooms. As liners became larger, more boilers were used. The number of funnels became symbolic of speed and safety, so shipping companies sometimes added false funnels (like the one sported by the Olympic-class ocean liner) to give an impression of power. ", "A funnel is the smokestack or chimney on a ship used to expel boiler steam and smoke or engine exhaust. They are also commonly referred to as stacks.", "Once the passengers realized the Titanic had no chance to stay afloat, there was a great deal of panic.  First and second-class passengers had easy access to the lifeboats with staircases that led right up to the boat deck, but third-class passengers found it much harder. Many found the corridors leading from the lower sections of the ship difficult to navigate and had trouble making their way up to the lifeboats. Some gates separating the third-class section of the ship from the other areas, like the one leading from the aft well deck to the second-class section, are known to have been locked.", "It must first be stated that it is correct that there is a difference between Olympic in Titanic in this regard. According to Steve Hall and Bruce Beveridge's book \"Titanic or Olympic, Which Ship Sank?\" Olympic had an \"overlap of the plates, or strakes\" forward of the bow anchors (described as \"the doubler forward at the bower anchors), while Titanic was different in that \"the strake butted up against the doubler and did not overlap it.\"", "In September of 1911, Olympic suffered flooded compartments and a twisted propeller shaft when she and HMS Hawke collided at sea. She received Titanic's propeller shaft." ]

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[ "Dick Turpin is one of the best remembered highwaymen who operated in this area, although he was often to be found in North London, Essex and Yorkshire . Turpin was born in Hempstead in Essex in 1706 and trained as a butcher. Turpin frequently used the Old Swan Inn at Wroughton-on-the-Green in Buckinghamshire as his base. He was finally imprisoned in York and was later hanged and buried there in 1739. His grave can be seen in the churchyard of St. Denys and St. George in York .", "You may know him better as a highwayman extraordinaire. But in actual fact Richard ‘Dick’ Turpin was hanged for stealing horses on this day in 1739.", "This lecture will focus on the life and subsequent legend of Dick Turpin, the famous English highwayman who was executed at York in April 1739. Despite the associations which the city has built with him, most recently through the heritage industry, Turpin was born in Essex, and came north under an assumed name when things got too hot for him in the London area. His early career, which is well documented, took place in the south, but he was arrested for horse theft while living in East Yorkshire, and was subsequently executed for that offence.", "On 7th April, 1739, Dick Turpin was hanged at the Tyburn, which is on the modern day York Race Course otherwise known as the Knavesmire.", "Also imprisoned in the tower was the notorious highwayman, Dick Turpin, captured under the alias 'Palmer'. However a letter he wrote from the tower allowed his true identity to be revealed, through his handwriting, and he was executed in York on 7 April 1739.", "Travel in the 18th century was made dangerous by highwaymen. The most famous is Dick Turpin (1705-1739). Originally a butcher Turpin does not deserve his romantic reputation. In reality he was a cruel and brutal man. Like many of his fellow highwaymen he was hanged. Smuggling was also very common in the 18th century. It could be very profitable as import duties on goods like rum and tobacco were very high.", "His hand-writing was recognised and he was revealed as Dick Turpin and sentenced to death. On 19th April 1739 Turpin rode through York in an open cart bowing to the crowds. After chatting to the guards with his head in a noose he then boldly threw himself off the ladder to his death.", "Dick Turpin, probably the famous most English highwayman, is hanged for horse theft at York Knavesmire. At around the same time, a formalised system of mail coaches is being brought onto existence, while Europe is plunged into the War of Jenkins' Ear against Spain . That descends into the War of the Austrian Succession, and in 1743 George II enthusiastically leads his troops into battle at Dettingen, the last British monarch to do so.", "Son of an alehouse keeper, Turpin was apprenticed to a butcher, but, having been detected at cattle stealing, he joined a notorious gang of deer stealers and smugglers in Essex. When the gang was broken up, Turpin in 1735 went into partnership with Tom King, a well-known highwayman, whom he accidentally killed while firing at a constable (or, by some accounts, an innkeeper). To avoid arrest he finally left Essex for Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, where he set up under an assumed name (John Palmer) as a horse dealer. He was finally convicted at York assizes of horse stealing and hanged in 1739.", "Dick Turpin (1705 � 1739), probably the world�s most notorious highwayman, as a fugitive lived for many years in a cave at High Beach. Previously he was a member of the notorious Essex Gang, but then went out on his own. According to an article from Britannia.com he wasn�t very successful until he made a major error in trying to rob the wrong person. The quote below is from the Britannia website.", "Turpin's involvement in the crime for which he is most closely associated—highway robbery—followed the arrest of the other members of his gang in 1735. He then disappeared from public view towards the end of that year, only to resurface in 1737 with two new accomplices, one of whom he may have accidentally shot and killed. Turpin fled from the scene and shortly afterwards killed a man who attempted his capture. Later that year, he moved to Yorkshire and assumed the alias of John Palmer. While he was staying at an inn, local magistrates became suspicious of \"Palmer\" and made enquiries as to how he funded his lifestyle. Suspected of being a horse thief, \"Palmer\" was imprisoned in York Castle , to be tried at the next assizes . Turpin's true identity was revealed by a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law from his prison cell, which fell into the hands of the authorities. On 22 March 1739, Turpin was found guilty on two charges of horse theft and sentenced to death; he was executed on 7 April 1739.", "Dick Turpin was a butcher's son, born in Hempstead, Essex in 1705. He was also a violent highwayman who was executed in York, after being charged for murder.", "Richard (Dick) Turpin (born September 21, 1705 in Hempstead, Essex – died April 7, 1739 in York) was a legendary English rogue and a famous historical highwayman.", "Probably the most famous client of the York Tyburn gallows was Dick Turpin . On Saturday the 7th April 1739, having been found guilty of horse-theft, he was taken from the York castle's condemned cell and driven in a horse drawn cart through the imposing gateway of the castle and along Castlegate. Crowds would line the route as they made their way over Ouse Bridge, the only road bridge across the river at that time. Along Ousegate and continuing up the steep slope of Micklegate, they would have driven through Micklegate bar and onto Blossom Street, The Mount, and finally to the Knavesmire, the site of the gallows.", "Richard \"Dick\" Turpin was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft. Turpin may have followed his father's profession as a butcher early in life, but by the early 1730s he had joined a gang of deer thieves, and later became a poacher, burglar, horse thief and murderer.…  Read More", "Turpin is no hero to James Sharpe, who sets out to cut him down to size, just another ‘callous, brutal and violent’ criminal, an ‘unpleasant thug’, hardly distinguishable from so many others, so that when The Lives of Noted Highwaymen was published around 1750 he was not deemed worthy of inclusion. Within the limits he sets himself, Sharpe’s book is admirable: in the first two-thirds he provides an account of Turpin’s life, of 18th-century highwaymen and of the criminal justice system of the day which could scarcely be bettered. Before he became a highwayman Turpin belonged to a gang of poachers in Essex. When they robbed a 70-year-old farmer, Joseph Lawrence, in 1735, they beat him on the bare buttocks, poured boiling water over him, and sat him on the fire in order to force him to say where his money was kept. Turpin played an active part in torturing Lawrence, though not in raping his maidservant, Dorothy Street. When he was eventually arrested, four years later, he was living in Yorkshire under the pseudonym of John Palmer. He came to the attention of the authorities only because, returning one day from hunting, he had shot a tame bird; reprimanded by a bystander, he replied that if the man would only stay while he charged his piece, he would shoot him too.", "The spurious legend of Dick Turpin was established in 1739 with the book Life of Richard Turpin, and sealed with the novel Rookwood (1834) by Harrison Ainsworth in which the highwayman 'Dauntless Dick Turpin' with his horse Black Bess is a secondary character. Ainsworth's description of an epic ride from Westminster to York caught the popular imagination and turned a fairly average pot-boiler into a runaway best-seller. During the next 50 years, replays of the Turpin story, as told by Ainsworth, appeared in magazines, cheap novels, and ballads, not just in Great Britain but around the world. History, romance, and legend rapidly blurred and, eventually, the fictional ride of Ainsworth's Turpin totally eclipsed the villain's real exploits. The metamorphosis of Dick Turpin, house-breaker, torturer, murderer, horse-stealer and all-round real nasty piece of work into Dick Turpin, Highwayman and Knight of the Road was complete.", "With the Essex gang now smashed by the authorities, Turpin turned instead to the crime he became most noted for — highway robbery. Although he may have been involved in earlier highway robberies on 10 and 12 April, he was first identified as a suspect in one event on 10 July, as \"Turpin the butcher\", along with Thomas Rowden, \"the pewterer\". Several days later the two struck at Epping Forest, depriving a man from Southwark of his belongings. With a further bounty of £100 on their heads they continued their activities through the latter half of 1735. In August they robbed five people accompanying a coach on Barnes Common, and shortly after that they attacked another coach party, between Putney and Kingston Hill. On 20 August the pair relieved a Mr Godfrey of six guineas and a pocket book, on Hounslow Heath. Fearing capture, they moved on to Blackheath in Hertfordshire, and then back to London. On 5 December the two were seen near Winchester, but in late December, following the capture of John Jones, they separated. Rowden had previously been convicted of counterfeiting, and in July 1736 he was convicted of passing counterfeit coin, under the alias Daniel Crispe. Crispe's true name was eventually discovered and he was transported in June 1738. Jones also suffered transportation, to the Thirteen Colonies.", "With the Essex gang now smashed by the authorities, Turpin turned instead to the crime he became most noted for—highway robbery. Although he may have been involved in earlier highway robberies on 10 and 12 April, he was first identified as a suspect in one event on 10 July, as \"Turpin the butcher\", along with Thomas Rowden, \"the pewterer\". Several days later the two struck at Epping Forest, depriving a man from  Southwark  of his belongings. With a further bounty of £100 on their heads they continued their activities through the latter half of 1735. In August they robbed five people accompanying a coach on  Barnes Common . Shortly after they attacked another coach party, between  Putney  and  Kingston Hill . On 20 August the pair relieved a Mr Godfrey of six guineas and a pocket book, on  Hounslow Heath . Fearing capture, they moved on to Blackheath in  Hertfordshire , and then back to London. On 5 December the two were seen near  Winchester , but in late December, following the capture of John Jones, they separated. Rowden had previously been convicted of  counterfeiting , and in July 1736 he was convicted of passing counterfeit coin, under the alias Daniel Crispe. Crispe's true name was eventually discovered and he was transported in June 1738. Jones also suffered transportation, to the Thirteen Colonies.", "The famous highwayman and murderer of the 1730s is the subject of many famous stories and ballads which romanticise his name and lifestyle - but few are true to his real life story. Turpin was certainly no romantic. He was a horse thief whose gang (known as the Essex Gang) wreaked havoc throughout London, Essex and other areas of England, stealing horses and money, often by violent means. His gang often used Epping Forest, in east London, as their hideout, and it was here that Turpin killed Thomas Morris, who had attempted to capture the wanted criminal. This shooting merely fuelled the quest for Turpin's eventual capture and execution.", "The Dick Turpin of legend is a bold and gallant highwayman, famed for a breathless ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess to escape the law. The truth is far grubbier.", "Turpin had an illustrious career not only as a highwayman but as a cattle rustler. Originally, he was a butcher from where he progressed to cattle thievery, joining a gang of criminals in Essex. By the time he was 30, Turpin had committed many crimes of cattle rustling and highway robbery and had a price on his head of �200. Unfortunately, Turpin accidentally shot the gang leader and was obliged to leave England to avoid arrest and retribution from fellow gang members.  ", "Turpin's famous ride from London to York was almost certainly not made by him but by another highwayman, 'Swift Nicks' Nevison during the reign of Charles II. Nevison also ended up on the gallows at York and the leg-irons which held him while in prison there before his execution can be seen in York Castle Museum .", "Several newspapers suggested that on 6 and 7 May, he committed two highway robberies near Epping. Turpin may also have lost his mount; on 7 May Elizabeth King attempted to secure two horses left by Matthew King, at an inn called the Red Lion. The horses were suspected as belonging to \"highwaymen\" and King was arrested for questioning, but she was released without charge. Morris's murder unleashed a flood of Turpin reports, and a reward of £200 was offered for his capture.", "This is a long way to travel, especially for the convicted knowing the fate that awaited at the other end! He carried himself with much dignity to the last and, after speaking a few words, he turned and threw himself from the ladder and died after a few minutes. His body was then taken back to York and kept in the Blue Boar Inn in Castlegate overnight. In those days a public house often had a room that was used as a temporary mortuary, or as a courtroom. John Palmer, or better known as Dick Turpin, is buried in St. George's churchyard, where a stone can still be seen.", "Moll Cutpurse – Real name Mary Frith. Mary was the first woman highwayman ,a female version of Dick Turpin, even though she pre-dated him by 50 years. She wore men’s clothing when she raided horse and carts.", "^ This may be unlikely; Turpin the Highwayman may have been confident enough to remain in the area, but Turpin the Murderer would, Barlow suggests, be far more likely to put as much distance between himself and the body of Morris as was possible. [56]", "'Richard Turpin is one of the most infamous highwaymen in the world, but interestingly very little information on what he actually looked like survives. There are no drawings or paintings of Turpin created during his lifetime. All we have to go on are the descriptions from newspapers which were issued to aid his capture.   ", "On his own Turpin turned to highway robbery, teaming up with �Captain� Tom King, whose gallantry and flattery to his female victims has somehow transferred to the rougher Turpin, who by this time had killed to avoid capture. In a fight with the law Turpin accidentally shot his partner. The mortally wounded King told the constables all Turpin�s secrets, his hideouts and friends. To evade justice Turpin rode to York on a stolen horse of legendary speed, though the 15 hour ride is a myth, and borrowed from the exploits of an earlier highwayman at that.", "'Captain' Tom King - a swashbuckling highwayman who worked with Turpin later in his career. Killed accidentally by Turpin during a raid.", "‘Whereas it has been represented to the King, that Richard Turpin did, on Wednesday the Fourth Day of May last, barbarously murder Thomas Morris, Servant to Henry Tomson, one of the Keepers of Epping Forest; and that the said Richard Turpin hath, at divers Times, committed several notorious Felonies and Robberies in and near the said Forest, and other Places near the Cities of London and Westminster; His Majesty, for the better discovering and bringing the said Richard Turpin to Justice, it pleased to promise his most gracious Pardon to any one of the Accomplices of the said Richard Turpin, who shall discover him, so that he may be apprehended and convicted of any of the said Offences.", "Nowadays Turpin is often remembered as a swashbuckling sort of loveable rogue, but familiarise yourself with the particulars of his crimes and it soon becomes apparent that he was an awful, awful man. We like to picture Turpin stood in the middle of roads, wielding dual pistols with a scarf tied round his face, patiently awaiting a carriage of rich folk who he’d order to stand and deliver. The truth, however, is a lot less romantic and a lot more violent and distressing." ]

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[ "Gladiator is a 2000 British-American epic historical drama film directed by Ridley Scott, and starring Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen, Ralf Möller, Oliver Reed (in his final film role before his death), Djimon Hounsou, Derek Jacobi, John Shrapnel, and Richard Harris. Crowe portrays the fictional character, loyal Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius, who is betrayed when Commodus, the ambitious son of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, murders his father and seizes the throne. Reduced to slavery, Maximus rises through the ranks of the gladiatorial arena to avenge the murders of his family and his emperor.", "Gladiator is the story of one man, Maximus Decimus Meridius (Russell Crowe). Maximus is a general of the Roman Empire, one who has never even been to Rome yet he controls the respect of the entire army and the people.", "In Ridley Scott's \"Gladiator\" (2000), Russell Crowe played the Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius, who is reduced to slavery and to battling in gladiatorial combat for the entertainment of his fellow Romans.", "now his stepfather, as the murderer married his mother and King Hamlets’ wife named Claudius. Gladiator is a 2000 historical drama film directed by Ridley... Scott where a loyal Roman general named Maximus Decimus Meridius is betrayed when the Emperor Marcus Aurellus’s son, Commodus murdered his father and seizes the throne. Between this play and the movie, they are quite similar within the character yet, there are differences as the character of the play and the movie, in terms of both dramas, various...", "Maximus is a powerful Roman general, loved by the people and the aging Emperor, Marcus Aurelius. Before his death, the Emperor chooses Maximus to be his heir over his own son, Commodus, and a power struggle leaves Maximus and his family condemned to death. The powerful general is unable to save his family, and his loss of will allows him to get captured and put into the Gladiator games until he dies. The only desire that fuels him now is the chance to rise to the top so that he will be able to look into the eyes of the man who will feel his revenge. Written by Chris \"Morphy\" Terry", "sake and that of his father's. This is very similar in Gladiator when Commodus kills his father, the Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurelius. Maximus,... a Roman General, was very close with Marcus who told Maximus \"he [was] the son [he] should have had...\" and wanted Maximus to carry on as Emperor instead of his son Commodus. Maximus seeks vengeance on Commodus not only for murdering Marcus, but also because he murdered Maximum's wife and eight-year-old son. In both cases Claudius and Commadus wanted to reign...", "As Maximus, a general in the army of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (Richard Harris, who looks as if he went mano a mano with too many Bombay martinis), Mr. Crowe has the keen, repressed rage of a man devoted to his flag, or of a movie star who doesn't have the patience for stupidity. There have been numerous reports that the badly behaved Mr. Crowe turned the shooting of ''Gladiator'' into his own version of the Fall of the Roman Empire. But his temperament gives the picture a center: Maximus looks as if he has a thousand things on his mind, most of them unpleasant.", "“ Gladiator ” has one of the strongest characters I have ever seen. Watching this movie recently after staying away from it for years because I knew it too well was a great re-awakening to the genius that is Russell Crowe and Ridley Scott . As we discussed the movie in class further revelations made. One of them was the fact that none of the main characters have much of an arc. Every single one of them are solid and stagnate in who they are, they will not change.  That is one of the main themes of this movie, how to stay true to yourself in overwhelming circumstances. The other theme I found was the concept of battle and how it can be fought. Maximus plays with both of these themes throughout this movie in such a way that it doesn’t seem unnatural, but realistic, enchanting, and powerful.", "After escaping and finding that his wife and son have been murdered, Maximus finds his way to the deserts of North Africa, where he is sold as a slave to Proximo (the late Oliver Reed ), a manager of gladiators. When Commodus lifts his late father's ban on gladiators in Rome, in an attempt to distract the people from hunger and plagues, Maximus slashes his way to the top, and the movie ends, of course, with the Big Fight.", "In AD 180, Hispano-Roman General Maximus Decimus Meridius leads the Roman army to a decisive victory against the Germanic tribes near Vindobona, ending a long war on the Roman frontier and winning the favor of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Maximus, weary of battle, desires to retire to his Spanish farm estate, but the Emperor tells him that his own son and heir to the throne, Commodus, is unfit to rule and so appoints Maximus as regent to help save Rome from corruption. Marcus Aurelius tells Commodus that he will not be emperor; Commodus murders him in a fit of rage and becomes the Emperor of Rome. ", "Spartacus is a 1960 American epic historical drama film directed by Stanley Kubrick and based on the novel of the same name by Howard Fast. The life story of the historical figure Spartacus and the events of the Third Servile War were adapted by Dalton Trumbo as a screenplay.", "When general Maximus (Russell Crowe) is chosen by Emperor Aurelius (Richard Harris), a jealous Commodus (Joaquin Phoenix) kills Maximus' family. Maximus is enslaved to fight in the gladiatorial arenas, while he plots his revenge against Commodus. Winner of five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor.", "All of this is going along exactly as Maximus wants. He wants only one thing - to face Commodus and get revenge. That single focus on revenge is really the core of the movie, as it centers mainly on Maximus.", "* Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius: The old and wise emperor of Rome who appoints Maximus, whom he loves as a son, with the ultimate aim of returning Rome to a republican form of government. He is murdered by his son Commodus before his wish can be fulfilled.", "King Arthur (2004) advances the controversial theory that Arthur wasn't a native Briton with a contingent of knights in shining armor, but instead a Eurasian horseman pressed into military service by the Romans in the sixth century A.D. At the end of his 15-year hitch in Britannia, Arthur and his fellow conscripts must carry out a final mission to earn their discharges and return home. In the process, they begin to rethink their loyalty and their destiny. This questionable retelling of Arthurian legend is hampered by a predictable plot and some historical inaccuracies, such as Saxons armed with crossbows, battle axes hacking through stone walls, and Romans using saber tactics with long swords. Somehow, though, the earthiness of this film seems more realistic than the flashier portrayals of King Arthur and his knights.", "In the 1964 movie The Fall of the Roman Empire he was portrayed by Alec Guinness and in the 2000 movie Gladiator he was portrayed by Richard Harris. Both movie plots posited that Marcus Aurelius was assassinated because he intended to pass down power to Aurelius' adopted son, a Roman general, instead of his biological son Commodus.", "Spartacus — Gladiator and rebellion leader, resembling Kirk Douglas in Spartacus . Appears in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea although in the album he is a Greek named Spartakis, and is accompanied by a group of multi-national slaves after stealing Caesar's own galley. By the end the slaves have decided to stay in Atlantis , and become children like most of the other inhabitants due to the magic of the Priest there.", "Joaquin Phoenix (with his first nomination) as Commodus - the aging Emperor Marcus Aurelius' (Richard Harris) scheming, arrogant son and evil heir in Gladiator", "He is a highly fictionalised enemy figure in the film \"Amazons and Gladiators\", played by Patric Bergin- he's known as 'Marcus Crassius'. They mention his defeating Spartacus, that Caesar exiles him due to his popularity, to a poor province- where he's very cruel to the populace; he conquers the Amazons, under Queen Zenobia (who apparently rules a tribe of Amazons in the same province, Pannae [Pannonia, one assumes]. In this film, he's killed by a young girl whose family he killed.", "Count Dooku / Darth Tyranus was the leader of the Separatist movement. A former Jedi who was trained by Yoda and was master to Qui-Gon Jinn, he went to the dark side as a Sith serving Darth Sidious. He cuts off part of Anakin Skywalker’s arm but is driven away by Yoda in “Attack of the Clones.” In “Revenge of the Sith,” he and Gen. Grievous kidnap Palpatine. Anakin kills him at Palpatine’s urging. Played by Christopher Lee .", "Two films, the 1964 The Fall of the Roman Empire , and the 2000 Gladiator start with a fictional account of a final battle of the Marcomannic Wars.", "Gladiator was based on an original pitch by David Franzoni, who wrote the first draft. Franzoni was given a three-picture deal with DreamWorks as writer and co-producer on the strength of his previous work, Steven Spielberg's Amistad, which helped establish the reputation of DreamWorks. Not a classical scholar, Franzoni was inspired by Daniel P. Mannix's 1958 novel Those About to Die, and he chose to base his story on Commodus after reading the Augustan History. In Franzoni's first draft, dated April 4, 1998, he named his protagonist Narcissus, a wrestler who, according to the ancient sources Herodian and Cassius Dio, strangled Emperor Commodus to death. ", "The character of Maximus had a similar career (and personality traits as documented by Herodian) to Claudius Pompeianus (a Syrian) who married Marcus Aurelius' daughter Lucilla following the death of Lucius Verus. It is believed Aurelius may have wanted Pompeianus to succeed him as Caesar in preference to Commodus but was turned down. Pompeianus had no part in any of the many plots against Commodus. He was not depicted in the film.", "Drama documentary about the king who united the \"barbarian\" tribes and became the scourge of the Roman Empire. The CGI battle scenes are hugely impressive.", "Marcus Aurelius was, as well as emperor from 161 to 180 CE, a stoic philosopher. He really did wage battles along the frontier as depicted in the film, and is remembered by historians of his time as a competent ruler, whom they favour. His name in full was Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, and these are the titles to which he would have been referred, not the anachronistic \"sire\" and \"my lord\" as in the film.", "After a brief introduction to the principal characters, the film follows Asterix as he encounters a group of Roman legionaries in the forest. Despite being significantly outnumbered, Asterix leaves the Romans beaten and bruised for daring to interrupt his wild boar hunt. Their state upon their return to camp prompts the leader Phonus Balonus to seek the secret behind the Gauls' seemingly superhuman strength. Phonus selects a volunteer (by means of a single round of musical chairs) to pose as a Gaul in order to infiltrate the village; the unlucky loser is a short, slack-tongued misfit named Caligula Minus. He is dressed in a wig, false moustache and traditional Gaulish dress and led in chains through the forest as a prisoner, awaiting rescue by the Gauls. Sure enough, Asterix and Obelix free Minus and believe his flimsy cover story that he is a Gaul from Belgium.", "Commodus ruled for 12 years, a much longer period than alluded to in the film. Dio Cassius wrote that Commodus was \"a greater curse to the Romans than any pestilence or any crime.\"", "Rome is under threat from a Balkan-type community called the Volscians, against whom the professional soldier Caius Martius (Ralph Fiennes) gains a celebrated victory over the city of Corioles, thus being rewarded with the surname \"Coriolanus\". This leads naturally to his appointment as a consul, but \"honest to a fault\", he refuses to conceal his contempt for the people. His political enemies play on this to get him banished, which of course turns him from a loyal supporter of Rome to a man bent on revenge.", "Aside: Of the types of gladiators, it is believed Spartacus was a murmillo who carried 35-40 pounds of arms and armour, wearing a bronze helmet, various arm and leg guards, large oblong shield and a broad straight bladed sword (a gladius – see the sword in the film poster above). His opponent in the film (played by Woody Strode) was a retiarius who fought with a trident and a nest. In ‘real Roman life’ a murmillo usually fought a thraex who was also heavily armoured but had a short Thracian curved sword and a small round or square shield. A retiarius, usually fought a secutores who was very similar to a murmillo but with a special helmet to protect against the trident.", "Julius Caesar is celebrating his victory over all of Gaul, but Lucius Detritus has kept from him the setback that one small village is holding out against the invaders. Detritus travels to the garrison near the village where Crismus Bonus, the garrison's commanding Centurion , explains that the Gauls have a magic potion brewed for them by their Druid which makes them invincible. Detritus decides he must capture the potion for himself, and hearing that the clever Asterix and permanently invincible Obelix are the backbone of the Gaulish forces, attempts to eliminate them, though his first attempt fails.", "        Another character that was shoe-horned into the movie was Gracchus. Not to be confused with any of the real Roman Gracchi, Gracchus is a character with no historical record of existing. In the film, Gracchus plays a noble and member of the Roman senate. With plenty of jokes, a friendly demeanor, and his efforts to help Spartacus and Varinia, he is a foil character to Crassus' coldness.  The inclusion of this character is most likely to paint Crassus as evil rather than the entirety of Rome and its nobles. So that means that Gracchus never opposed Crassus in the senate, he never purchased Varinia to annoy Crassus, and he never got all of the necessary papers needed in order to help Varinia and her baby escape, two other characters who were created by the director of the film. Gracchus, like Varinia, were created as tools to make the plot of the movie more appealing, and as characters to build the overall atmosphere the film was trying to achieve. While it's understandable why they were included, neither Gracchus or Varinia were real people.", "Batiatus receives a visit from the Roman senator Marcus Licinius Crassus (Laurence Olivier), who aims to become dictator of Rome. Crassus buys Varinia on a whim, and for the amusement of his companions arranges for Spartacus and three others to fight in pairs. When Spartacus is disarmed, his opponent, an African named Draba (Woody Strode), spares his life in a burst of compassion and attacks the Roman audience, but is killed by an arena guard and Crassus. The next day, with the school's atmosphere still tense over this episode, Batiatus takes Varinia away to Crassus's house in Rome. Spartacus kills Marcellus, who was taunting him over this, and their fight escalates into a riot. The gladiators overwhelm their guards and escape into the Italian countryside." ]

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[ "After ''From Here to Eternity,'' Sinatra's movie career boomed, with the roles many and varied. He played the perennial gambler Nathan Detroit in the film adaptation of the Broadway musical ''Guys and Dolls'' (1955), a heroin addict in ''The Man With the Golden Arm'' the same year and an Army investigator tracking a would-be assassin in the political thriller ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962).", "Guys And Dolls was taken from Damon Runyon’s short stories that captured the rogue gangsters and gamblers of the 1920s and ’30s. In the 1955 movie, Nathan Detroit (Sinatra) has a town full of captive gamblers and wants to set up a floating crap game but needs money to do it. He bets his pal Sky Masterson (Brando) that Sky can’t get the wholesome Sarah Brown (Jean Simmons) — who runs a mission — to go with him to Havana. Frank Loesser wrote the music and lyrics, and Jo Swerling and Abe Burrows wrote the book. The musical won the Tony for Best Musical when it premiered in 1950, and won the 1951 Pulitzer for Drama, until the troubles Burrows was having with the House Un-American Activities Committee caused the Trustees of Columbia University to veto the selection. Guys And Dolls was then turned into the 1955 movie. The classic Loesser songs included “Luck Be a Lady” and “Sit Down, You’re Rockin’ The Boat.”", "Guys and Dolls (1955), the screen adaptation of Frank Loesser's 1950 Broadway hit (based upon Damon Runyon's stories) with Marlon Brando cast in the unlikely lead role as Sky Masterson, and Frank Sinatra as Nathan Detroit", "On November 3, 1955 the film version of the musical was released, starring Marlon Brando as Sky, Frank Sinatra as Nathan Detroit, and Jean Simmons as Sarah, with Vivian Blaine reprising her role as Adelaide. The film was directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and produced by Samuel Goldwyn.", "Francis Albert \"Frank\" Sinatra (; December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer, actor, and producer who was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century. Sinatra's music has been considered timeless by many. He is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, having sold more than 150 million records worldwide. Born in Hoboken, New Jersey, to Italian immigrants, he began his musical career in the swing era with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey. He found success as a solo artist after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943, becoming the idol of the \"bobby soxers\". He released his first album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra, in 1946. Sinatra's professional career had stalled by the early 1950s, and he turned to Las Vegas, where he became one of its best known performers as part of the Rat Pack. His career was reborn in 1953 with the success of From Here to Eternity and his subsequent Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He signed with Capitol Records and released several critically lauded albums, including In the Wee Small Hours (1955), Songs for Swingin' Lovers! (1956), Come Fly with Me (1958), Only the Lonely (1958) and Nice 'n' Easy (1960).", "Samuel Goldwyn was so deeply impressed that he offered Loesser $1,000,000 for the film rights, (a sum which in the year 2000 would be worth $6.8 million), and when the film was made in 1955, paid another $4.5 million. The film starred Frank Sinatra (Nathan Detroit), Vivian Blane (Sarah), and Marlon Brando (Sky Masterson), and Loesser wrote three more songs, including \"A woman in love,\" \"Pet me, Poppa,\" and \"Adelaide,\" largely to show off Sinatra's talents. ( Gene Kelly was originally part of the planned cast, but when he was unavailable, the studio made the unlikely substitution of Brando.)", "In 1955, the actor starred as a warmhearted butcher in Marty, the film version of the television play of the same name. He gained an Academy Award for Best Actor over Frank Sinatra, James Dean (who had died by the time of the ceremony), and former Best Actor winners Spencer Tracy and James Cagney.", "Francis Albert \"Frank\" Sinatra ( / s ɨ ˈ n ɑː t r ə / ; December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) [6] was an American singer and film actor. Beginning his musical career in the swing era as a boy singer with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey , Sinatra found unprecedented success as a solo artist from the early to mid-1940s after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943. Being the idol of the \" bobby soxers \", he released his first album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra in 1946. His professional career had stalled by the early 1950s, but it was reborn in 1953 after he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here to Eternity . He signed with Capitol Records in 1953 and released several critically lauded albums (such as In the Wee Small Hours , Songs for Swingin' Lovers! , Come Fly with Me , Only the Lonely and Nice 'n' Easy ). Sinatra left Capitol to found his own record label, Reprise Records in 1961 (finding success with albums such as Ring-a-Ding-Ding! , Sinatra at the Sands and Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim ), toured internationally, was a founding member of the Rat Pack and fraternized with celebrities and statesmen, including John F. Kennedy .", "Sinatra’s career took a downturn in the early 50s. He left Columbia Records for Capitol, and after leaving MGM he had trouble getting decent movie roles. Some credit second wife Ava Gardner with convincing Columbia Pictures chief Harry Cohn to cast Sinatra in Fred Zinnemann’s film version of From Here to Eternity ; perhaps the mogul didn't take much convincing, because the actor so wanted the role of Maggio that he agreed to do it for a mere $8,000. As the scrappy army private who meets a tragic end, Sinatra was very engaging—still boyish at 37, but with more than a hint of defiant swagger. He won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar, and never looked back.", "Meanwhile, Sinatra had begun working with arranger/conductor Nelson Riddle, a pairing that produced notable chart entries in February 1954 on both the singles and albums charts. \"Young-at-Heart,\" which just missed hitting number one, was the singer's biggest single since 1947, and the song went on to become a standard. (The title was used for a 1955 movie in which Sinatra starred.) Then there was the 10\" LP Songs for Young Lovers, the first of Sinatra's \"concept\" albums, on which he and Riddle revisited classic songs by Cole Porter, the Gershwins, and Rodgers and Hart in contemporary arrangements with vocal interpretations that conveyed the wit and grace of the lyrics. The album lodged in the Top Five. In July, Sinatra had another Top Ten single with Styne and Cahn's \"Three Coins in the Fountain,\" and in September Swing Easy! matched the success of its predecessor on the LP chart. By the middle of the '50s, Sinatra had reclaimed his place as a star singer and actor; in fact, he had taken a more prominent place than he had had in the heady days of the mid-'40s. In 1955, he hit number one with the single \"Learnin' the Blues\" and the 12\" LP In the Wee Small Hours, a ballad collection later inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "The premiere on Broadway was in 1950. It ran for 1200 performances and won the Tony Award for Best Musical. The musical has had several Broadway and London revivals, as well as a 1955 film adaptation starring Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra and Vivian Blaine.", "Francis Albert \"Frank\" Sinatra (December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer, actor, director, and producer. Beginning his musical career in the swing era as a boy singer with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey, Sinatra found success as a solo artist from the early to mid-1940s after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943. Being the idol of the \"bobby soxers\", he released his first album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra, in 1946. His professional career had stalled by the early 1950s, but it was reborn in 1953 after he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here to Eternity. He signed with Capitol Records in 1953 and released several critically lauded albums (such as In the Wee Small Hours, Songs for Swingin' Lovers!, Come Fly with Me, Only the Lonely and Nice 'n' Easy). Sinatra left Capitol to found his own record label, Reprise Records in 1961 (finding success with albums such as Ring-a-Ding-Ding!, Sinatra at the Sands and Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim), toured internationally, was a founding member of the Rat Pack and fraternized with celebrities and statesmen, including John F. Kennedy.", "Pal Joey (Columbia, 1957). Dir.: George Sidney. Cast: Rita Hayworth, Frank Sinatra, Kim Novak. (111 min., sd., col., 35mm; LC Coll., courtesy Columbia).", "With direction from multi-award-winning director and musical star Maria Friedman, High Society is based on the Philadelphia Story and the 1956 MGM film musical starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly and Frank Sinatra. High Society features hit songs including 'True Love', 'You're Sensational', 'Well Did You Evah!' and of course 'Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?'", "Pal Joey is a 1957 American Technicolor musical film, loosely adapted from the musical play of the same name, and starring Rita Hayworth, Frank Sinatra, and Kim Novak. Jo Ann Greer sang for Hayworth, as she had done previously in Affair in Trinidad and Miss Sadie Thompson. Kim Novak's singing voice was dubbed by Trudy Erwin. George Sidney directed, with the choreography managed by Hermes Pan. Nelson Riddle handled the musical arrangements for the Rodgers and Hart standards \"The Lady is a Tramp\", \"I Didn't Know What Time It Was,\" \"I Could Write a Book\" and \"There's A Small Hotel.\"", "Director: John Frankenheimer. Cast: Frank Sinatra, Janet Leigh, Laurence Harvey, Angela Lansbury, Henry Silva, James Gregory, Leslie Parrish, John McGiver, Khigh Dhiegh, James Edwards, Douglas Henderson, Albert Paulsen.", "Beginning his musical career in the swing era as a boy singer with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey, Sinatra found success as a solo artist from the early to mid-1940s after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943. Being the idol of the \"bobby soxers\", he released his first album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra in 1946. His professional career had stalled by the early 1950s, but it was reborn in 1953 after he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here to Eternity. He signed with Capitol Records in 1953 and released several critically lauded albums. Sinatra left Capitol to found his own record label, Reprise Records in 1961, toured internationally, was a founding member of the Rat Pack and fraternized with celebrities and statesmen, including John F. Kennedy.", "The movie is unusual for a musical in that there are no real dancing scenes, but there are some marvellous songs by Cole Porter, including \"True Love\", sung by Crosby and Grace Kelly, \"\"Well, Did you Evah\" sung inimitably by Crosby and Sinatra, \"Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?\" by Sinatra and Celeste Holm, and a wonderful duet between Crosby and Louis Armstrong, \"Now You Has Jazz\". Unlike her co-stars, Grace Kelly was not a singer and \"True Love\" was written to accommodate her narrow vocal range. The song lost its Oscar to Doris Day's \"Que Sera Sera\" which became a massive chart hit in 1956.", "On this day in 1956, the movie-musical High Society, starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly and Frank Sinatra, opens in theaters around the United States. The film’s tag line–”They’re all together for the first time”–referenced High Society’s all-star cast. High Society marked the last feature film Grace Kelly made before marrying Prince Rainier of Monaco and retiring from acting. High Society, which also featured the musician Louis Armstrong playing himself, was nominated for two Oscars, including Best Song, for Cole Porter’s “True Love.”", "'An American in Paris' (1951) – This MGM musical with Gene Kelly as an aspiring artist who falls for Leslie Caron in the City of Light faced stiff competition at the Oscars. But \"An American in Paris\" scored a major upset when it beat dramatic heavyweights \"A Place in the Sun\" and \"A Streetcar Named Desire\" for best picture.", "It Happened in Brooklyn (1947) and The Kissing Bandit (1949) were big flops, but those hurt Frank Sinatra's career more than hers, as she was paired with Mario Lanza, with whom she didn't get along all that well, in the more successful That Midnight Kiss (1949) and The Toast of New Orleans (1950). She also played another former Irene Dunne role in Lovely to Look At (1952), MGM's glitzy remake of RKO 's Roberta (1935).", "Directed by Vincente Minnelli. Cast: Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Shirley MacLaine, Martha Hyer, Arthur Kennedy, Nancy Gates, Leora Dana. Dave Hirsch, a writer and army veteran, returns to 1948 Parkman, Indiana, his hometown. His prosperous brother introduces him to Gwen French, a local teacher. But the more flamboyant Ginny has followed him to Parkton, where he also meets gambler Bama Dillert. Eventually Dave must come to terms with his roots and with his future. Based on a novel by James Jones. 136 min. DVD X1494", "This film was Robert Evans' first big hit running Paramount Pictures. He was closely involved in the production, and numerous times had to deal with Mia Farrow's precarious relationship with then-husband Frank Sinatra. Farrow and Sinatra divorced soon after the film was completed.", "Frank Sinatra plays Joe E. Lewis, a famous comedian of the 1930s-50s. When the movie opens, Lewis is a young, talented singer who performs in speakeasies. When he bolts one job for another,... See full summary  »", "As Martin's solo career grew, he and Frank Sinatra became friends. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Martin and Sinatra, along with friends Joey Bishop, Peter Lawford, and Sammy Davis, Jr. formed the Rat Pack, so-called after an earlier group of social friends, the Holmby Hills Rat Pack centered on Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, of which Sinatra had been a member (The Martin-Sinatra-Davis-Lawford-Bishop group referred to themselves as \"The Summit\" or \"The Clan\" and never as \"The Rat Pack\", although this has remained their identity in popular imagination). The men made films together, formed part of the Hollywood social scene, and were politically influential (through Lawford's marriage to Patricia Kennedy, sister of President John F. Kennedy).", "A running joke in the movie is that there is a code between people who \"shook Sinatra's hand.\" Frank Sinatra played the character of Danny Ocean in the 1960s version of the film.", "In 1945, Sinatra starred in his first film alongside Gene Kelly, 'Anchors Aweigh'. This film was an instant success, sparking a string of movies in which he co-starred with Kelly. His singing career was also booming, and by 1946, he was performing as many as 45 shows a month at some periods.", "In 1992, CBS aired a TV mini-series about the entertainer's life titled, Sinatra, directed by James Steven Sadwith and starred Philip Casnoff as Sinatra. Opening with his childhood in Hoboken, New Jersey, the film follows Sinatra's rise to the top in the 1940s, through the dark days of the early 1950s and his triumphant re-emergence in the mid-1950s, to his status as pop culture icon in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. In between, the film hits all of the main events, including his three marriages, his connections with the Mafia and his notorious friendship with the Rat Pack. Tina Sinatra was executive producer. Casnoff received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance.", "The 1955 film adaptation starred Gordon MacRae, Shirley Jones (in her film debut), Rod Steiger, Charlotte Greenwood, Gloria Grahame, Gene Nelson, James Whitmore and Eddie Albert. It was the only musical film directed by Fred Zinnemann, and Agnes de Mille choreographed. It was the first feature film photographed in the Todd-AO 70 mm widescreen process. ", "Based on the true events surrounding Frank Sinatra's tour of Australia. When Sinatra calls a local reporter a \"two-bit hooker\", every union in the country black-bans the star until he issues an apology.", "Directed by Michael Curtiz. Cast: James Cagney, Joan Leslie, Walter Huston, Richard Whorf, Jeanne Cagney, Frances Langford, George Tobias, Irene Manning. Lyrics and music, George M. Cohan. A rousing musical depicting the life of George M. Cohan, famed playwright, entertainer and composer of patriotic songs. Special features: Documentaries chronicling the movie's making and James Cagney's career: audio commentary: John Travolta remembers James Cagney: Leonard Malton hosts Warner night at the movies 1942 with trailer, newsreel, dramatic short, cartoon and Cagney in wartime short \"You, John Jones\": more vintage cartoons: galleries of art/photo/publicity materials and James Cagney's trailers: audio-only extras: Radio show and prerecording session outtakes/rehearsals. 127 min. DVD 2038", "Williams called Stubbs \"our black Frank Sinatra. Frank not only had the voice but what made Sinatra unique was the way he'd phrase the song. Levi had that same kind of talent; whatever he was singing he would phrase it so uniquely that you would just stand there in awe.\"" ]

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[ "Home Alone 2: Lost in New York is a 1992 American Christmas comedy film written and produced by John Hughes and directed by Chris Columbus. It is the second film in the Home Alone series and the sequel to Home Alone. Macaulay Culkin reprises his role as Kevin McCallister, while Joe Pesci and Daniel Stern reprise their roles as the Wet Bandits, now known as the Sticky Bandits. Catherine O'Hara, John Heard, Tim Curry, Donald Trump and Brenda Fricker are also featured.", "Macaulay Carson Culkin (born August 26, 1980) is an American actor and musician. He became famous as a child actor for his role as Kevin McCallister in the family comedy Home Alone (1990) and its sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). He is also known for his roles in Uncle Buck (1989), My Girl (1991), The Good Son (1993), The Pagemaster (1994), Richie Rich (1994), Party Monster (2003), and the music video for Michael Jackson's \"Black or White\". At the height of his fame, he was regarded as the most successful child actor since Shirley Temple. Culkin ranked at number two on VH1's list of the \"100 Greatest Kid-Stars\" and E!'s list of the \"50 Greatest Child Stars\".", "Macaulay Carson Culkin (born August 26, 1980) is an American actor and musician. He became famous as a child actor for his role as Kevin McCallister in the family comedy Home Alone (1990) and its sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). He is also known for his roles in Uncle Buck (1989), My Girl (1991), The Good Son (1993), The Pagemaster (1994), Richie Rich (1994), Party Monster (2003), and the music video for Michael Jackson's \"Black or White\". At the height of his fame, he was regarded as the most successful child actor since Shirley Temple. Culkin ranked at number two on VH1's list of the \"100 Greatest Kid-Stars\" and E!'s list of the \"50 Greatest Child Stars\".", "A fourth sequel, Home Alone: The Holiday Heist, was released during ABC Family's Countdown to 25 Days of Christmas in November of 2012. Much like Home Alone 3, it focuses on a completely different family, but sticks to the standard formula. While not a great film by any means, it was at least a step up from the previous film.", "Chris Columbus (Director/Producer) is perhaps best known for directing one of the highest grossing motion picture comedies of all time, \"Home Alone\" and its smash hit follow-up \"Home Alone 2: Lost in New York.\" Recent credits include his direction of last year's heartwarming drama, \"Stepmom\" with Julia Roberts and Susan Sarandon; his box office hit \"Mrs. Doubtfire\" with Robin Williams and Sally Field; the popular comedy \"Nine Months\" which he wrote, produced and directed; the Arnold Schwarzenegger comedy \"Jingle All The Way,\" which he produced, and \"Monkeybone\" starring Brendan Fraser, directed by Henry Selick to be released Thanksgiving 2000 which he is producing.", "Pesci also co-starred in the blockbuster Home Alone in 1990, playing Harry Lime, one of two bumbling burglars (along with good friend Daniel Stern) who attempt to burgle the house of the young character played by Macaulay Culkin. In the film's climactic scene, Pesci accidentally bit one of Culkin's fingers, giving him a scar. Two years later, Pesci reprised his role in the sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York.", "Macaulay Carson Culkin (born August 26, 1980) is an American actor. . He reprised the role of Kevin in the 1992 sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. Culkin . In the same month he also appeared in the music video for Stamp Your Name On It . and the younger version of Macaulay's character (in Ri¢hie Ri¢h ( 1994)).", "Homeward Bound II is a sequel to the 1993 film on the same name about 2 dogs and a cat who go missing in a Home Alone style scenario and have to try and find there way back home. This time the family and the 2 dogs and the cat Sassy are off to Canada but one of the dogs(voiced by Micheal J Fox called Chance)ends up freaking out and Shadow(Ralph White) and Sassy(Sally Fields) also free themselves from the cages they were in and end up getting lost in San Francisco. Of course Chance ends up falling for Deliah later on in the movie and two men who are up to no good are after the dogs. So will they or won't they get back home in time to be reunited with their families again?", "In the second film, Home Alone 2: Lost In New York, MacCaulay Culkin’s character goes through even more trauma after accidentally queuing up for the wrong flight.", "Hughes wrote the massively influential and successful \"Home Alone\" (1990) for him, which crystallized Culkin as the star of the era. Its sequel (1992) as well as .", "* Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992), takes place in Central Park, and in a townhouse on 95th St. as well as other locations throughout New York.", "On the film's tenth anniversary, Varèse Sarabande released a two-disc special edition soundtrack entitled Home Alone 2: Lost in New York – The Deluxe Edition. The soundtrack contains John Williams' cues found on the previous releases as well as additional compositions that were left out from the final film. This release is also known for resolving a mastering error that caused the music to be inaccurately pitched. ", "Kevin gets to some much needed “R&R” in both ‘Home Alone’ and ‘Home Alone 2: Lost in New York’ by watching a very adult gangster movie from the fictional ‘Angels with Filthy Souls’ series.", "A fourth made-for-TV film followed in 2002, Home Alone 4. This entry features some of the same characters who were in the first two films, but with a new cast and a storyline that does not fall into the same continuity. Hughes did not write the screenplay for the TV film.", "* In 1992, the film Home Alone 2: Lost in New York has some scenes in Central Park.", "John  Hughes loved Macaulay’s “angelic brattiness” and wanted to use him in another movie with a bigger part . That film became ‘Home Alone.’ Director Chris Columbus auditioned other kids for the main role out of fairness, but it ultimately went to Macaulay, who earned $100,000 for his performance. The movie quickly became one of the top grossing comedies of all time. So when Fox wanted a sequel, little Mac’s paycheck was bumped up to $5 million and 5 percent of the movie’s profits.", "The overwhelming success of 'Home Alone' (it spawned two sequels), is enough to guarantee that most people will love this story of a family that departs for Paris on the Christmas holidays, mistakenly leaving an eight-year old boy to fend for himself. And fend he does, when burglars threaten to break in unless he can rig enough booby-traps to keep them out.", "After securing Culkin, Joe Pesci and Daniel Stern for Home Alone (1990), Chris Columbus felt confident enough to cast actors who were his heroes growing up like Catherine O'Hara after seeing her work on SCTV (1976) as well as John Heard and then Tim Curry and Rob Schneider on Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992) because they were all open to the films.", "Home Alone is a 1990 feature film written and produced by John Hughes and directed by Chris Columbus .", "'Home Alone' has succeeded in establishing itself as a Christmas tradition, spawning off three sequels (including a made-for-television flop), and a whole franchise in and of it.", "Mr. Hughes's other popular hits included \"Ferris Bueller's Day Off\" (1986), starring Matthew Broderick as a high-schooler who liberates himself from school for a day of adventure in Chicago. But Mr. Hughes's greatest achievement from a box-office standpoint was as writer and producer of \"Home Alone,\" about an 8-year-old boy (played by Macaulay Culkin) stranded at his home one Christmas after his family forgets to take him on vacation.", "The idea for Home Alone occurred to John Hughes during the making of Uncle Buck, which also starred Macaulay Culkin. Always game to play the precocious one, there’s a scene in which Culkin’s character interrogates a potential babysitter through a mail slot. In Home Alone, Culkin has a similar confrontation with Daniel Stern, this time via a doggie door.", "Apr 13, 2013 . Home Alone star Macaulay Culkin surprises Bristol gig goers with Beach Boys rendition . Culkin, famous for playing the cult film's main character Kevin McCallister, was confirmed as . Little Mix: \"US fans don't get our name\" .", "Give your holiday a little laughter with Home Alone, the beloved comedy favorite featuring renowned composer John Williams’ charming and delightful score performed live to picture. Macaulay Culkin stars as Kevin McCallister, an 8-year-old boy who’s accidentally left behind when his family leaves for Christmas vacation, and who must defend his home against two bungling thieves. Home Alone is must-see hilarious holiday fun for the entire family!", "*November 16 – Home Alone is released to theaters. It would become the highest grossing live-action family comedy film of all time.", "It’s been 25 years since the McCallister family went to Paris for Christmas, leaving little Kevin home alone to fend off the Wet Bandits, Old Man Marley and that terrifying basement furnace. Thanks to John Hughes’ trademark “kid’s perspective” viewpoint and a feel-good ending, ‘Home Alone’ has become a Christmas classic, with countless families gathering around the television to watch the movie year after year. We know you’re curious, so read on to find out what the McCallister clan (and other film favorites!) are up to now.", "On the set of Home Alone (1990), Culkin would jokingly direct the film for Chris Columbus .", "Coca-Cola products make several appearances in the film, including in scenes when Kevin rides a limousine and when Kevin's cousin Fuller wakes up at the Plaza Hotel. Notably, Pepsi products appeared in the first Home Alone film instead.", "Macaulay Culkin in 1990's 'Home Alone.' 20th Century Fox Film Corp. All rights reserved./Courtesy Everett Collection", "On Rotten Tomatoes, Home Alone holds an approval rating of 55%, based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"Home Alone is frequently funny and led by a terrific starring turn from Macaulay Culkin, but an uneven script and a premise stretched unreasonably thin make it hard to wholeheartedly recommend.\" On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, it has a score of 63 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". ", "Under the Trailers banner, we get three promos for Home Alone. Of great interest to fans, we get 15 Deleted Scenes/Alternate Takes. These fill a total of 16 minutes, 31 seconds. These extend the segments in the house before the family leaves, and Marv tells us why he hates Christmas. We also get to meet the relatives in Paris and see much more of the family as they sit around there.", "Another video game titled Home Alone was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2006. It was not released in the United States." ]

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[ "American film actor and producer Tom Cruise, born Thomas Cruise Mapother IV, had a relationship with his co-star in Risky Business actress Rebecca De Mornay from 1983 to 1985, also on the same year, singer and actress Cher claimed that she dated Cruise. On May 9, 1987, Cruise married actress Mimi Rogers, also introduced Cruise to Scientology, but their marriage lasted two years, and their divorce was finalized on February 4, 1990. In 1989, Cruise met his second wife, actress Nicole Kidman, on the film Days of Thunder set, and got married on December 24, 1990. Cruise and Kidman adopted two children, Isabella Jane, born December 1992 and a black baby, Connor Antony, born January 1995. Cruise filed for divorce from Kidman in February 2001, unknowingly she was pregnant, however it ended with a miscarriage.Kidman clarified rumors in 2007 about her miscarriage during her marriage to Cruise, stated in an interview, “It was wrongly reported,” and explained that she had an ectopic pregnancy, before her next marriage, to musician Keith Urban. Tom Cruise began dating actress Katie Holmes in April 2005. Cruise and Holmes announced on October 6, 2005, that they were expecting a child, and in April 2006, their daughter, Suri, was born. Holmes and Cruise were married on November 18, 2006 at the 15th-century Odescalchi Castle in Bracciano, Italy, in a Scientology ceremony. Katie Holmes filed for divorce from Cruise on June 29, 2012, after five and a half years of marriage.", "Cruise met Nicole Kidman on the set of their film Days of Thunder . The couple married on December 24 , 1990 and divorced on August 8 , 2001 . [1] He and Kidman adopted two children, Isabella (born 1993) and Connor (born 1995). [1] They separated when Kidman was three months pregnant, just shy of their 10 year wedding anniversary; she later miscarried. [11]", "Top Gun director Tony Scott's Days of Thunder (1990), a high-concept film described simply as \"Top Gun on wheels,\" starred Tom Cruise as a NASCAR stock-car racer, who became romantically involved with hospital brain specialist (Australian actress Nicole Kidman in her first American feature film) following a car accident; as a result of their acquaintance on the set, the couple were married soon after filming wrapped", "Cruise met his second wife, actress Nicole Kidman, on the set of their film Days of Thunder (1990). The couple married on December 24, 1990. Cruise and Kidman adopted two children, Isabella and Connor Antony. In February 2001, Cruise filed for divorce from Kidman while she was unknowingly pregnant. The pregnancy ended with a miscarriage. In 2007, Kidman clarified rumors of a miscarriage early in her marriage to Cruise, saying in an interview, \"It was wrongly reported,\" and explaining that she had actually had an ectopic pregnancy. Before her next marriage, to Keith Urban, Kidman spoke of how much she still loved Cruise, saying in 2006: \"He was huge; still is. To me, he was just Tom, but to everybody else, he is huge. But he was lovely to me. And I loved him. I still love him.\" ", "After meeting Cruise on the set of the 1990 film Days of Thunder, Kidman, then a 23-year-old up-and-coming Australian actress, wed the superstar in 1991. The couple — parents to adopted kids Connor, now 20, and Isabella, 22 — famously divorced in 2001.", "He has been married three times. His first marriage was to actress Mimi Rogers, a fellow Scientologist, from 1986-1990. While filming one of Days of Thunder (1990), he met his second wife Nicole Kidman. He and Kidman were married in 1990. They adopted two children: Isabella (in 1993) and Connor (in 1995). In 2000, Cruise and Kidman separated. Their divorce was finalized in 2001. He began dating actress Katie Holmes in 2005 and proposed to Holmes at the Eiffel Tower after a highly-publicized whirlwind romance. He came in for a ribbing from pundits after he hopped up and down on the talk-show couch of Oprah Winfrey while proclaiming his love for Holmes. Dubbed \"TomKat\" by the tabloids, they had a daughter, Suri, on 18 April 2006, and were married in Italy on 18 November 2006.", "5. SOT Mark Frith, Editor, Heat Magazine: \"The biggest stories of the year have all been relationship stories. Probably the biggest of the lot was the surprise spilt of Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman, and that has kind of kept people captivated throughout the year actually. Because as well as the split and the divorce and who gets what, the stories then after that were obviously their new partners. You had Tom Cruise and Penelope Cruz, who met on the set of Vanilla Sky, and there is clearly chemistry there as you can tell from the footage we have already seen from the film, and they became a real life couple.\"", "Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman collaborated on four films together, including the controversial \"Eyes Wide Shut,\" during their 11-year marriage. The couple split in 2001.", "This was also the year that Stanley Kubrick’s final feature film made its debut. (He died that March.) Eyes Wide Shut caused a stir due to rumored real-life sex scenes between then husband and wife Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise. The Chuck Palahniuk adaptation Fight Club directed by David Fincher also hit theaters and made waves due to the movie’s violent tone.", "She and Cruise then disappeared into a notoriously long, secretive shoot for Stanley Kubrick’s sexual thriller Eyes Wide Shut (1999). The couple’s on-screen shenanigans prompted an increase in public speculation about their sex life (rumors had long been circulating that their marriage was a cover-up for Cruise’s homosexuality); tired of denying tabloid attacks, they successfully sued The Star for a story alleging that they needed a sex therapist to coach them through love scenes. Family life has always been a priority for Kidman. Born to social activists (mom was a feminist; dad, a labor advocate), Nicole and her little sister, Antonia Kidman, discussed current events around the dinner table and participated in their parents’ campaigns by passing out pamphlets on street corners. When her mother was diagnosed with breast cancer, 17-year-old Nicole stopped working and took a massage course so that she could provide physical therapy (her mom eventually beat the cancer). She and Cruise adopted two children: Isabella Jane (born in 1993) and Connor Antony (born 1995). Despite their rock-solid image, the couple announced in early 2001 that they were separating due to career conflicts. Her marriage to Cruise ended mid-summer of 2001.", "Nicole Kidman admits she had to be 'coaxed' into sex scenes with Tom Cruise for Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut", "Cruise has a penchant for actresses marrying Mimi Rogers and Nicole Kidman before tying the knot with Holmes in 2006.", "7. Frenzied tabloids ran reports that Cruise and Kidman's marriage was crumbling in late '90s. If anything, that notion was only enhanced by their \"Eyes Wide Shut\" dynamic. Kubrick coaxed the couple into sharing their personal reservations about the marriage with him, in turn transferring those troubles onto their characters, Bill and Alice. Kidman called it a kind of \"brutally honest\" anti-therapy , as no one asked how they felt about each other's criticisms.", "Nicole Kidman and Tommy Lee Jones still have successful careers with Nicole Kidman even winning an Academy Award for Best Actress for The Hours in 2002. Nicole Kidman did have a public split with Tom Cruise, but has landed better off of the two with a good marriage to New Zealand-Australia country music star Keith Urban. Tommy Lee Jones has now totaled four Oscar nominations and is since been an avid San Antonio Spurs fan.", "Kelly McGillis, the actress who won the heart of Tom Cruise in the 1986 movie \"Top Gun,\" wed her girlfriend of ten years, Melanie Leis, in a civil union ceremony in Collingswood, New Jersey, on Sept. 15, 2010. (Mike Coppola / FilmMagic) Share Back to slideshow navigation", "In 1990, Cruise remarried, to his previous co-star, Nicole Kidman. The pair adopted two children, Isabella and Connor. Kidman later became pregnant with their first child, but the couple separated months before their 10th anniversary and Kidman suffered a miscarriage shortly after the split.", "Cruise proposed in June of 2005 and he and Katie married in November of 2006, in a Scientology ceremony held in an Italian castle. Some believe that Katie Holmes was chosen for Cruise by members of the Church of Scientology under the guise of casting auditions. She got the part, and then some.", "A nominee for best actor, Tom Cruise, accompanied by his wife, Nicole Kidman, waves to fans as they arrives at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on March 24, 1997, for the 69th Academy Awards ceremony.", "-Nicole Kidman has congratulated Katie Holmes after she gave birth to daughter Suri on Tuesday -- but made no mention of her ex-husband Tom Cruise, who is the baby's father. Kidman reportedly had a heated argument with Cruise after he expressed his desire to have their adopted children Isabella, 13, and Connor, 11, present in the delivery room. Kidman allegedly refused to allow it, fearing the experience could traumatize the youngsters. In a statement released through her publicist, Kidman says, \"I hope both mother and baby are doing well.\" Kidman and Cruise married in 1990 but divorced in 2001 after the actor ended the relationship. Kidman suffered a miscarriage one month later.", "* Connor Cruise is the adopted son of actors Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman. In addition to Kidman, Tom Cruise has also been married to Mimi Rogers and Katie Holmes. Tom Cruise is also the first cousin of actor William Mapother.", "Nicole Kidman says her marriage to Tom Cruise was \"intoxicating,\" but calls her current husband Keith Urban her \"great love.\"", "Became good friends with Nicole Kidman , after they worked together on The Invasion (2007), and The Golden Compass (2007).", "Cast: Tom Cruise, Nicole Kidman, Sydney Pollack, Marie Richardson, Sky Dumont, Todd Field, Vinessa Shaw, Thomas Gibson, Rade Sherbedgia, Alan Cumming, Julienne Davis, Leelee Sobieski", "Urban met American-born Australian actress Nicole Kidman at G'Day LA, a Hollywood event honoring Australians, in January 2005, but they reportedly did not begin dating until six months later. Kidman and Urban were married on Sunday, 25 June 2006, at the Cardinal Cerretti Memorial Chapel in the grounds of St Patrick's Estate, Manly in Sydney.", "** Nicole was married to actor, Tom Cruise (see Mapother), and is currently married to country singer, Keith Urban.", "The foreplay: Fleeing the emotional wreck of his marriage to Nicole Kidman, the Cruiser sets out into the mean streets of Manhattan in search of thrills. He finds them at a remote country party out on Long Island.", "Weeks after her relationship with Klein ended, Holmes began dating actor Tom Cruise. Holmes, who was raised a Catholic, began studying Scientology shortly after the couple began dating. They got engaged in June 2005. On November 18, 2006, Holmes and Cruise were married in a Scientologist ceremony at the 15th-century Odescalchi Castle in Bracciano, Italy. The actors' publicist said the couple had \"officialized\" their marriage in Los Angeles the day before the Italian ceremony. The couple's daughter, Suri, was born on April 18, 2006. The name derives from the Persian meaning \"Red Rose\" and the Hebrew as a derivative of [http://articles.latimes.com/2006/apr/21/entertainment/et-suri21 \"Sarah\"] meaning princess. ", "Cast: Tom Cruise, Winnie Holzman, Bonnie Hunt, Diana Jordan, Susan Norfleet, Susan Pingleton, Cha-Cha Sandoval, Renée Zellweger", "In an on-stage interview by Tina Brown at the 2015 Women in the World (WITW) conference, Kidman stated that she turned her attention to her career after her divorce from Tom Cruise: \"Out of my divorce came work that was applauded so that was an interesting thing for me\", and led to her Academy Award in 2002.", "In 2006, Cruise married the actress Katie Holmes. They have a daughter, Suri together. The couple divorced in 2012 though the exact terms have not been reported.", "Along with his girlfriend Jenny McCarthy , he was among the guests at Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes 's wedding.", "Starring: Tom Cruise, Colin Farrell, Samantha Morton, Max von Sydow, Lois Smith, Tim Blake Nelson, Kathryn Morris, Neal McDonough, Peter Stormare, Steve Harris" ]

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[ "In Metropolis, Clark Kent works as a reporter at the Daily Planet, \"a great metropolitan newspaper\" which allows him to keep track of ongoing events where he might be of help. Largely working on his own, his identity is easily kept secret. Fellow reporter Lois Lane became the object of Clark's/Superman's romantic affection. Lois's affection for Superman and her rejection of Clark's clumsy advances have been a recurring theme in Superman comics, television, and movies.", "In Metropolis , Superman (as Clark Kent) works as a reporter at the Planet, \"a great metropolitan newspaper\" which allows him to keep track of ongoing events where he might be of help. Largely working on his own, his identity is easily kept secret. He sees his job as a journalist as an extension of his Superman responsibilities, bringing truth to the forefront and fighting for the little man. [1] Fellow reporter Lois Lane became the object of Clark's/Superman's romantic affection. Lois' affection for Superman and her rejection of Clark's clumsy advances have been a recurring theme in Superman comics, television, and movies.", "The character, created by Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel for National Comics (today DC Comics), subsequently appeared in various radio serials, television programs, films, and video games. Superman was born Kal-El on the planet Krypton and, as an infant, was rocketed to Earth by Jor-El, his scientist father, moments before Krypton exploded. The rocket landed on Earth outside the town of Smallville, where young Kal-El was discovered and adopted by the amiable Jonathan and Martha Kent. As he grew, he discovered that he possessed powers far beyond those of mortal men. When not fighting the forces of evil as Superman, he lives amongst humanity as Clark Kent, a \"mild-mannered reporter\" for the Daily Planet. Clark works alongside reporter Lois Lane, with whom he is romantically involved. In current comics continuity, they are married, however, the character has had several other relationships throughout his years in comics. The character's adventures are today published in a number of comic books.", "Clark Kent's newspaper is now called the Daily Planet in Superman #4. It was the radio show that first changed the name of the newspaper to the Daily Planet, and called the editor Perry White.", "When Superman first appeared in 1938, his alter ego Clark Kent and Lois Lane worked for the Daily Star, under editor George Taylor . However, DC later had its named changed to the Daily Planet , to avoid confusion with real-life newspapers. When DC brought back the Golden Age Superman, they had his Clark Kent be the Editor-In-Chief of the Daily Star.", "When Superman first appeared in comics, in June 1938's Action Comics #1, his alter ego, Clark Kent, worked for the \"large metropolitan daily\" newspaper (Action #7, Dec 1938) the Daily Star under editor George Taylor (Superman #2, Fall 1939). With the exception of Action Comics #2, when Kent (and Taylor) inexplicably worked for the Cleveland Evening News, the above arrangement remained unchanged through March 1940 (Action #22).", "That dual identity would provide an ongoing sense of tension for the saga. Upon reaching adulthood, the mild-mannered Clark Kent moves from Smallville to urban Metropolis , where he works as a reporter for the Daily Planet. There he develops a romantic interest in fellow reporter Lois Lane (a character modeled in part on Siegel’s future wife, Joanne). She, however, dazzled by the courageous crime-fighting exploits of Superman and unaware of his dual identity, continually rejects Kent’s overtures. The audience, privy to the secret that continually eluded Lois, identified with Clark as a downtrodden “everyman,” while Superman served as a beacon of hope during the depths of the Great Depression .", "Metropolis' premier newspaper is the Daily Planet , one of the most renowned news organisations in the DC Universe. The city is additionally home to the national Newstime magazine, where Clark Kent held the position of editor throughout the Eradicator storey arc until he was fired by his superior, Collin Thornton, in Adventures of Superman #465, for his increasingly strange behaviour due to the Eradicator (including firing of a few employees).", "Childhood friends, Lana Lang and Pete Ross , round out his supporting cast and give him a connection to Earth beyond his parents. When Jonathan and Martha Kent both die of a disease for which even Superboy cannot cure, Clark moves to Metropolis and attends Metropolis University, continuing his adventuring throughout his college career. He eventually changes his name to Superman upon graduating with a degree in journalism and gets a job at the Daily Planet soon after ward. Silver Age Superman is famous for being incredibly powerful and for his ability to gain new powers that Superman had never had before.", "This 192-page Superman collection revolves around the Daily Planet newspaper and its staff. Featuring classic stories with reporters Clark Kent and Lois Lane, photographer Jimmy Olsen, Editor-in-chief Perry White, and many more – showing how far they will go to get a great story!This volume reprints select stories from ACTION COMICS #211, 429, 436, and 461, SUPERMAN (first series) #280, SUPERMAN'S GIRLFRIEND, LOIS LANE #17, 24, 45, and 56, SUPERMAN'S PAL, JIMMY OLSEN #42, 63, 75, and 124.", "Narrator Bill Kennedy intoned at the start of each program: \"Faster than a speeding bullet. More powerful than a locomotive. Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound. Look! Up in the sky. It's a bird. It's a plane. It's Superman! Yes, it's Superman - strange visitor from another planet who came to Earth with powers and abilities far beyond those of mortal men. Superman - who can change the course of mighty rivers, bend steel with his bare hands, and who, disguised as Clark Kent, mild-mannered reporter for a great metropolitan newspaper, fights a never ending battle for Truth, Justice, and the American Way.\"", "Clark Kent, Superman's secret identity, was based partly on Harold Lloyd and named after Clark Gable and Kent Taylor. Creators have discussed the idea of whether Superman pretends to be Clark Kent or vice versa, and at differing times in the publication either approach has been adopted. Although typically a newspaper reporter, during the 1970s the character left the Daily Planet for a time to work for television, whilst the 1980s revamp by John Byrne saw the character become somewhat more aggressive. This aggressiveness has since faded with subsequent creators restoring the mild mannerisms traditional to the character.", "Superman has found his sidekick. Sam Huntington has been cast as Daily Planet cub reporter Jimmy Olsen in Bryan Singer 's Superman Returns movie. The cast includes Brandon Routh as Clark Kent/Superman, Kevin Spacey as Lex Luthor, Hugh Laurie as Daily Planet editor-in-chief Perry White and James Marsden as Richard White. Kate Bosworth is in negotiations to play Lois Lane. Olsen was a wide-eyed photographer who even had a watch with a Superman signal. Olsen had his own comic in the 1960s and '70s titled Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen. Since the late '80s, the comics have portrayed Olsen in a more serious light. »", "Between the early 1970s and mid-1980s, both Clark Kent and Lois Lane worked for WGBS after Galaxy Communications purchased the Daily Planet in a 1971 storyline, with Clark as the anchorman for the WGBS evening news. He was eventually joined by Lana Lang as a co-anchor. After John Byrne's revamp of Superman's origins, though, Clark and Lois were reverted to working at the Daily Planet once again. Galaxy Broadcasting and WGBS-TV still exist post-Crisis , however, and are most of the time used in any storey where a television station or network is needed or shown. Post-Crisis, Clark, Lois and Lana never worked for the station. During the 1990s however, both Jimmy Olsen and Cat Grant did work there.", "Clark Kent sees that Superman is still making news everywhere as he enters the Daily Planet offices and sees reports of his heroic acts throughout the whole world reported on television networks. He is called into Perry White's office, where Lois is debating Perry's decision for her to cover Superman instead of what she thinks are the bigger stories: the mysterious blackout and the museum robbery. Clark also discovers that Luthor was released from prison following a court appeal in which Superman failed to show up as a witness. Lois is less than pleased when Perry assigns the blackout story to Clark while she gets stuck with Superman coverage. She vents her frustrations out on Richard, who suggests that she could find a way to interview Superman without him coming back into her life.", "Clark Kent of Earth-2 advanced his reporting career to become Lead Investigative Reporter for the Daily Star. But, always mindful of his dual persona, he largely maintained a retiring manner. In the meantime, Kent (and Superman) befriended Jimmy Olsen , who'd started as a pre-teen office boy at the Daily Star in the 1930s but became a cub reporter when he published the story of Superman's defeat of the Archer (Superman #13).", "After graduating college, Clark later moved to Metropolis full time, where he began working as a journalist for the world renowned newspaper, the Daily Planet. A rivalry with his co-worker Lois Lane eventually blossomed into a romance and marriage.", "After attending college, Clark Kent moved to the big city of Metropolis, where he began his dual careers as a mild-mannered newspaper reporter and as a costumed superhero called \"Superman.\" The general public does not know that Clark Kent and Superman are one and the same, and throughout his life, Clark/Superman goes to great lengths to keep his dual identity a secret, even from those closest to him.", "In the earliest Golden Age comics, Lois was featured as an aggressive, career minded reporter for the Daily Star (the paper's name was changed to the Daily Planet in Action Comics #23 in 1940). After Clark Kent joined the paper and Superman debuted around the same time, Lois found herself attracted to Superman, but displeased with her new journalistic competition in the form of Kent. Starting as early as the early 1940s, Lois began to suspect that Clark Kent was Superman, and started to make various attempts at uncovering his secret identity, all of which backfired usually thanks to Superman's efforts.", "The next day, Lois writes an article about Superman's decision to remain as Metropolis's hero. The article saves the Daily Planet from bankruptcy. Lois finds a note in her desk and goes to the rooftop. There, she finds Superman repairing the old Daily Planet globe. Superman thanks Lois for helping him think that he belongs in Metropolis. Lois replies that Superman showed her that the world doesn't have to be an unfair and dangerous place. Just as Superman and Lois are about to kiss, Jimmy comes in and tells them that the Daily Planet is the number one newspaper in Metropolis. Superman then puts the Daily Planet globe to spin once again, and Lois asks him if he is a man or an alien. His answer, \"I'm Superman, Lois.\".", "In the Daily Planet, editor-in-chief Perry White reads an article by Lois Lane about Superman thwarting Lex Luthor's attempts to level most of California. When Jimmy Olsen remarks to Lois Lane that Clark Kent has not been around to see Superman in action, Lois suspects that Clark is Superman and even teases him, when he arrives, that she knows his true identity. She even tries to prove it by jumping out of a window in his presence to call his bluff. But Clark simply races outside at instant speed and seeing Lois still falling, uses his super-breath and heat vision to slow her fall and open roof curtains to act as a trampoline. Lois bounces off them and lands in a fruit stand. By the time she looks up, Clark has already raced back up to the window and looks down, appearing not to have done anything at all.", "After graduating from Metropolis University with a degree in journalism, Clark Kent went to work at the Planet, and quickly met Lois Lane (who had been working there for some time already). After Clark was hired, Jimmy Olsen joined the paper's staff. ", "As the paper continued to struggle, the Planet's owner Franklin Stern sold the paper to Lex Luthor. Luthor, acting out of pure malice, dismantled the paper. He fired everyone except Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, and two others who were relocated to Lexcom, Lex's new Internet-based news company. Fortunately, shortly thereafter, Lex sold the Planet to Bruce Wayne for $1 (thanks to a secret deal with Lois Lane). White was hired back as editor-in-chief, and the entire former staff was hired back as well. Though Perry's knowledge of Clark's alter ego is uncertain, it is known that he has found a dusty suit of his star reporter's clothes in a supply closet, including his passport. For this reason, Perry may well suspect that Clark and Superman are the same person, but due to his personal admiration for both Clark and Superman, he has never confided this suspicion or knowledge to anybody. Bruce Wayne believes that because of White's superior skill as a reporter, he knows that Clark is Superman (\"Perry White is too good of a reporter not to have discovered Clark's identity, but he acts otherwise. It reminds me of Commissioner Gordon back home...\" -Batman: Hush).", "A few days later, Clark is reading the paper at the Daily Planet where Luthor is being investigated over the weapons he tried to sell. Lana then appears to him and informs him that she is heading off to Paris to continue her job while also informing him that she has learned her lesson after her ordeal. Clark reveals that he does indeed care about her even saying she is like a sister to him. Lana thanks Clark and tells him that he will find that special someone someday, however they are soon interrupted when Lois calls out to Clark informing him of a new assignment. Lana takes her leave and Clark heads to Lois.", "You'll recall that according to the story, the baby Kal-El was sent in a spaceship to Earth by his parents, who knew that Krypton would soon be destroyed. As an adult in the city of Metropolis, he disguises himself as Clark Kent, a reporter fighting a never-ending battle for truth, justice and the American way. But he also has feelings. In the newest comic, out this week, Tyson is seen helping the homesick Superman trace his roots.", "Afterwards, we go to the Daily Planet, where they’ve just put out the story about how Luthor tried to nuke California and Superman saved the day. While looking at her own article, Lois suddenly gets a crazy look of realization in her eyes, and she begins to doodle a hat and glasses on the picture of Superman. So without much buildup, it seems Lois has already figured out Clark is Superman.", "Shortly before Superman's debut in Metropolis, the Daily Planet was having financial problems. Lex Luthor owned every media in Metropolis and used it to enforce his public image as a wealthy benefactor, and the Planet was the only media source not controlled by Luthor and condemned his actions with an outrageous editorial written by Perry White himself. Lois, as the Planet's best reporter, had also written several articles against Luthor. However, this had let the Planet to the brink bankruptcy, forcing White to stop attacking Luthor.", "Clark Kent turns in his press pass in the latest issue of the Superman comic book series.", "Halfway through the 1970s, two major events occurred: DC joined forces with competitor Marvel Comics to copublish the best-selling crossover Superman vs. the Amazing Spider-Man, and Alexander and llya Salkind signed a deal to produce a live-action Superman film. The potential windfall promised by the forthcoming film inspired Adams, a strong advocate for creators’ rights, to lobby DC to provide financial restitution to Siegel and Shuster, both of whom were teetering on the brink of destitution at the time. DC and parent company Warner Brothers bowed to public pressure, establishing pensions for both and inserting their names into all Superman comics as the creators of the character. In 1977, as part of a promotional campaign for the upcoming motion picture, the Superman newspaper strip was revived.", "(Thor I#476) - Clark and Lois were seen reading a newspaper outside of the Brighton and Associates Office.", "A newspaper strip featured a reference to the movie in a panel where Superman flies past a movie theatre where the marquee is advertising the premiere of Superman: The Movie.", "\"Target Superman!\" part 1 \"The Irresistible Clark Kent!\" part 2 written by Leo Dorfman, penciled and inked by Jim Mooney (Superman, Lois, Perry White, Superman robots, Lana Lang (cameo) ." ]

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[ "Gold carats are always denoted in twenty-fourths. Thus pure gold (Au) has 24 carats - that is 24/24 parts by mass is gold. You tend to find pure 24 carat gold only in gold bullion slabs. You never get 24 carat jewelry because it is so soft the particles would rub off on your skin the more you wore it, and it would thin after prolonged usage.", "The purity of gold is measured in units called karats.  Pure gold is 24 karat.  An alloy that is 92% gold is 22 carat (92% of 24), 18 carat gold is 75% gold, 12 karat is 50% gold, and so on.  Gold in jewelry is often alloyed with silver or copper, with a small amount of zinc to harden it.  Gold can be given a range of colors depending on the metal with which it is alloyed:  white gold contains 10% nickel, red gold contains 50% copper, blue gold contains 54% indium, purple gold contains 20% aluminum, green gold (also known as electrum) contains 27% silver, and black gold contains 25% cobalt.", "Gold measurements can be a bit confusing. The weight of gold is measured in troy ounces (1 troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams), but its purity, or \"fineness\" has been measured in a few different ways: \"parts fine,\" \"% gold\", and karats. (A major point of confusion is between \"carat,\" which is a measure of weight for precious stones, and \"karat\", which is a purity measure for gold. The terms are used distinctly, even if they have the same derivation.) According to at least one source, the terms karat and carat derive from Arabic and Greek words meaning \"the fruit of the carob tree.\" Apparently, the seeds of the fruit, remarkable for their consistency, were used to balance the scales used by merchants at ancient bazaars[ 1 ]. Karats now refer to the ratio of gold found in a sample. There are 24 karats, so pure gold is 24 karats. The percentage of gold in a piece is therefore the number of karats/24. Thus 96.5% gold is 23 karat (23.16 to be exact).", "The amount of gold in an alloy is expressed in carats. Pure gold metal (mixed with no other metal) is said to be 24-carat gold. An alloy that contains 20 parts of gold and 4 parts of silver is 20-carat gold. The \"20-carat\" designation means the alloy contains 20 parts of gold and 4 parts of something else (silver, in this case).", "The purity of gold is measured in Carats. A Carat was originally a unit of mass (weight) based on the Carob seed or bean which was used by ancient merchants in the Middle East. The Carat is still used for the weight of gem stones where 1 carat = 200mg. For gold is is used to measure the purity where pure gold is 24 carats.", "Karat, also spelled Carat, a measure of the fineness (i.e., purity) of gold . It is spelled carat outside the United States but should not be confused with the unit used to measure the weight of gems, also called carat . A gold karat is 1/24 part, or 4.1667 percent, of the whole, and the purity of a gold alloy is expressed as the number of these parts of gold it contains. Thus, an object that contains 16 parts gold and 8 parts alloying metal is 16-karat gold, and pure gold is 24-karat gold.", "Karat - Karat is another way of stating the fineness or purity of gold or another precious metal. Pure gold, at .9999 fine, is 24 karats, while ..9167 is 22 karats. The term is spelled “carat” in most European countries and when applied to precious stones.", "Gold's one drawback for use in industry is that it is a relatively soft metal (sectile). To combat this weakness, gold is usually alloyed with another member of the metal family such as silver, copper, platinum, or nickel. Gold alloys are measured by karats (carats). A karat is a unit equal to 1/24 part of pure gold in an alloy. Thus, 24 karat (24K) gold is pure gold, while 18 karat gold is 18 parts pure gold to 6 parts other metal.", "Since ancient times, gold has been associated with the Sun. Its name is believed to be derived from a Sanskrit word meaning \"to shine,\" and its chemical symbol (Au) comes from aurum, Latin for \"glowing dawn.\" Pure gold has an exceedingly attractive, deep yellow color. It is soft enough to scratch with a fingernail, and it is the most malleable of metals. A block of gold about the size of a sugar cube can be beaten into a translucent film some 27 feet (8 meters) on a side. Gold's purity is expressed either as fineness (parts per 1,000) or in karats (parts per 24). An alloy (mixture of two or more metals with properties different from those of the metals of which it is made) containing 50 percent gold is 500 fine or 12 karat. Gold resists corrosion by air and most chemicals, but it can be dissolved in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, a solution called aqua regia because it dissolves the \"king of metals.\"", "Gold purity is measured in units known as carats. 24 carat gold is the most expensive gold type, as it is 100% pure gold, with no impurities. The lower the number of carats, the more impurities you will find in that gold.", "No, the carat of gold just describes the amount of pure gold in the metal, in parts per 24 (i.e., 18 carat = 18/24 parts = 75% pure gold). The carat of a diamond is a measurement of the weight of the stone and is not related to the gold at all.", "9.Most jewels made of \"pure gold\" are an alloy containing a standard proportion of gold and other metals for increasing hardness. The number of carats (K) defines how many mass parts of pure gold are found in 24 parts of the alloy.", "Carat (Karat) – Unit of gold fineness (and gemstone weight). Pure gold is 24k. 18k gold is 75% pure.", "The weight of gold is measured in troy ounces (1 troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams), however its purity is measured in ‘carats’.", "The answer \"no\" would be equally correct but a four-nines bar (99.99% pure), is \"only\" 23.9976 carats, as shown in our table above. As 23.9976 is not the same as 24, then the negative answer is correct.", "A measure of the purity of gold, indicating how many parts out of 24 are pure. For example: 18-karat gold is 3/4 pure. Sometimes spelled carat.", "The fractional value of 14 carats gold. On a mathematical standpoint, this simply means that the purity of your gold is around 14/24 in value or roughly around 58-59% pure gold. This connotes that there are mixes of different alloys that support the solidification of the fractional content of your gold.", "Nine carat gold contains only half as much actual gold as 18 carat gold. It is 9 / 24 = 37.5% gold by weight, the rest is varying amounts of silver, copper and other elements to give different colours. The standards of 12 and 15 carat gold were very little used and were replaced in 1932 by a 14 carat standard.", "24 carat is pure gold with nothing added. This is the purest gold available. Also has a fineness of 1000. Sometimes this is expressed as 999 being 999 parts per 1000. This is because it is very difficult to get pure gold with absolutely no impurities and possibly is for legal reasons also. This applies to gold coins a lot. Canadian Maples, for example, are listed as 99.999% pure gold.", "Perhaps you’ve heard of karat (abbreviated K or kt), which is the most widely used measure of gold purity. Karat is measured on a scale from 0 to 24.", "Twenty-two carat gold is 22/24 parts gold by mass or 91.6% gold. This means that the jewelry has only 8.4% other metal. Twenty-two carat gold jewelry is the most expensive as it is nearly pure.", "When you buy gold jewelry, it isn’t pure gold. The purity or fineness of gold in the jewelry is indicated by its karat number. 24-karat (24K or 24 Kt) gold is as pure as gold for jewelry gets. 24K gold is also called fine gold and it is greater than 99.7% pure gold. Proof gold is even finer, with over 99.95% purity, but it is only used for standardization purposes and is not available for jewelry.", "a traditional measure of proportion equal to 1/24, used by U.S. jewelers to express the purity of gold alloys. Thus \"14-karat gold\" is legally required to be at least 14/24, or 58.3%, gold. In Britain this unit is spelled carat, like the weight unit for diamonds and other precious stones. American jewelers apparently spell the unit of gold purity with the \"k\" and the weight unit with the \"c\" in order to distinguish more clearly between them. (In German, both units are spelled with the \"k\".)", "Both the US and England rate gold according to carat (karat in the US). Pure gold (24K) is extremely soft, and jewelry made from it is dented easily; thus, it was often mixed with another metal or alloy, to give the gold more strength.", "Karat (as distinguished from Carat) is a measure of the purity of gold. Most gold jewelry is actually made from a gold alloy containing gold and another metal or metals. 18K gold, for example, is 75% pure gold.", "Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (Latin: aurum) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.", "Gold ( IPA : /ˈgold/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal which, for many centuries, has been used as money , a store of value and in jewelery . The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, underground \"veins\" and in alluvial deposits . It is one of the coinage metals . Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile of the known metals. Pure gold has an attractive bright yellow color and is one of only two colored metal elements, the other being copper . All other metals are silver or gray.", "Gold is malleable, ornamental, inert, and easily alloyed. It is estimated that at the end of 2005, the stock of mined gold was approximately 171,000 tons, of which 64 percent had been mined since 1950. World production in 2005 was 2,770 tons. There is a considerable amount of gold in the ocean, but retrieval costs are prohibitive.", "( countable ) A former unit of gold purity, also known as carat grain, equal to", "Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum, meaning shining dawn) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal which, for many centuries, has been used as money, a store of value and in jewelry. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, underground veins and in alluvial deposits. It is one of the coinage metals. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile of the known metals. Pure gold has a bright yellow color traditionally considered attractive.", "Chemically, gold is a trivalent and univalent transition metal. Gold does not react with most chemicals, but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine, aqua regia and cyanide. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve silver and base metals, and this is the basis of the gold refining technique known as inquartation and parting. Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term acid test, referring to a gold standard test for genuine value.", "An unparalleled combination of chemical and physical properties make gold invaluable to a wide range of everyday applications. One of the most important of these properties is gold's virtual indestructibility. Gold is the most non-reactive of all metals. It is called a \"noble\" metal (an alchemistic term) because it does not oxidize under ordinary conditions, meaning that it will never rust and never tarnish.It will, however, dissolve in aqueous mixtures containing various halogens such as chlorides, bromides, or some iodides. It will also dissolve in some oxidizing mixtures, such as cyanide ion with oxygen, and in aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids." ]

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[ "The boiling point of water is 373.15 degrees Kelvin (K). Using the Fahrenheit scale, water’s boiling point is 212 degrees. This is also equivalent to 100 degrees Celsius.", "Answer: The boiling point of water is 100°C or 212° F at 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level).", "For pure water, the boiling point is 100 degrees Celsius (212 Fahrenheit) at one atmosphere of pressure, and the melting point is 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) at one atmosphere of pressure. At lower pressures (at high altitudes, for example, in Denver, Colorado), the boiling point will be perhaps a couple of degrees lower.", "The boiling temperature of water is 100 degree Celsius(212 degree Fahrenheit). The temperature of lukewarm water is 35 degree Celsius(95 degree Fahrenheit).", "Fahrenheit - Fahrenheit relates to the international thermometric scale on which, under standard atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is at 212 degrees above zero of the scale, the freezing point is at 32 degrees above zero, and the zero point approximates the temperature produced by mixing equal quantities by weight of snow and common salt. Source: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.)", "32°F was the freezing point of water and 212°F was the boiling point of water, set by Fahrenheit himself.", "In an article on the boiling points of various liquids, Fahrenheit reported that the boiling temperature of water was 212° on his thermometric scale. This figure was actually several degrees higher than it should have been. After Fahrenheit’s death it became standard practice to graduate Fahrenheit thermometers with the boiling point of water (set at 212°) as the upper fixed point. As a result, normal body temperature became 98.6° instead of Fahrenheit’s 96°. This variant of the Fahrenheit scale became standard throughout Holland and Britain. Today it is used for meteorological purposes in most English-speaking countries.", "-Quick reference to Water boiling point (Not Steam Temp) at different pressures- The boiling point of water raises 3 degrees F per each pound of square inch pressure added. For example: at sea level, water will boil at 212 degrees F (100 deg C). +1 PSI over sea level it will raise the boiling point 3 degrees F, to 215 degrees F (1.7 deg C, to 101.7 deg C). At +5 PSI over sea level the boiling point of water will be 227 degrees F (108.3 deg C). And so on. This is why directions for boiling noodles and baking goods at high altitudes require longer cook times, and/or more water added to mixture.", "Essentially, boiling water is water than is changing from a liquid to a gas. During that change, it can be used for a variety of purposes like cooking and sterilization. As noted above, the standard temperatures for boiling are 212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius, but those numbers differ in certain conditions.", "Traditionally slow to adopt the metric system and other accepted units of measurements, the United States more commonly uses the Fahrenheit temperature scale. A thermometer can be calibrated using the Fahrenheit scale in a similar manner as was described above. The difference is that the normal freezing point of water is designated as 32 degrees and the normal boiling point of water is designated as 212 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. As such, there are 180 divisions or intervals between these two temperatures when using the Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit scale is named in honor of German physicist Daniel Fahrenheit. A temperature of 76 degree Fahrenheit is abbreviated as 76°F. In most countries throughout the world, the Fahrenheit scale has been replaced by the use of the Celsius scale.", "The Celsius scale is defined as 0 Celsius is the freezing temperature of pure H2O at 1 atmosphere of pressure, while the boiling point of pure H2O is 100 Celsius, also at standard pressure. The Fahrenheit scale uses 32 as the freezing point, and 212 as the boiling point.  212 - 32 = 180.  Therefore, the diffwrence between the freezing point and boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius (sometimes called Centigrade) or 180 degrees Fahrenheit. ", ": temperature scale devised in 1717 by G. D. Fahrenheit and denoted by °F. The normal freezing point of water is 32°F and the normal boiling point of water is 212°F.", "The most commonly used temperature scale in the US today is the Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated F. In this scale, water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees. (This only holds strictly when atmospheric pressure equals the average sea level pressure. At high altitudes, water boils at a lower temperature, as anyone who cooks in the mountains knows.)", "Fahrenheit - A temperature scale with 32� as the freezing point of water and 212� as its boiling point..", "The degree Fahrenheit ( o F) is the unit of temperature used by most people in the United States in describing weather. The scale derives its name from a German-born physicist, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, who is recognized as having invented it. At standard Earth-atmospheric sea-level pressure, pure water freezes at 32 o F and boils at +212 o F.", "Water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees on the Fahrenheit temperature scale. Compare the size of a degree of the Fahrenheit scale to the size of a degree on the Celsius scale.", "The Fahrenheit scale is used mostly by non-scientists. Pure water at one atmosphere (the average sea-level pressure) freezes at +32 degrees Fahrenheit (F); pure water at one atmosphere boils at +212 degrees F. Absolute zero is -459.67 degrees F. One Fahrenheit degree increment is 5/9 (0.55555) times the size of a kelvin or centigrade degree. If C is the centigrade temperature, the Fahrenheit temperature F is given by F = (1.8 x C) + 32. The Fahrenheit and centigrade scales agree at -40.", "A system of temperature where the freezing point of pure water is 32o�and the temperature of boiling water is 212o. It was developed by the physicist Fahrenheit where his standards were the coldest liquid he could produce in his laboratory was 0o�and 100o�was approximately the temperature of the human body.", "Fahrenheit is the standard temperature scale used in the United States. The scale ranges from the freezing point at 32 degrees to the boiling point at 212 degrees, which places the two points exactly 180 degrees apart.", "Romer had decided that the boiling point of water should be 60 degrees, which at least had the strength of numerological tradition behind it (60 minutes in an hour, right?). But zero was arbitrary, the main consideration apparently being that it should be colder than it ever got in Denmark. (Romer didn't like using negative numbers in his weather logbook.) In addition to the boiling point of water, the other landmarks on Romer's scale were the freezing point of water, 7.5 degrees, and body temperature, 22.5 degrees.", "* The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the ambient pressure. For example, on the top of Mount Everest water boils at 68 °C, compared to 100 °C at sea level at a similar latitude (since latitude modifies atmospheric pressure slightly). Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.", "Clean fresh water boils at about 100 C at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. This is why cooking at high elevations requires adjustments to recipes. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.", "At standard Earth-atmospheric sea-level pressure, water freezes at 0 o C or +273.15 K, and boils at +100 o C or +373.15 K. A temperature of 0 K thus corresponds to -273.15 o C. A temperature of 273.15 K corresponds to 0 o C. To convert a kelvin temperature figure to Celsius, subtract 273.15. To convert a Celsius temperature figure to kelvin, add 273.15.", "A temperature scale on which the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C.", "The standard fixed point of the absolute temperature scale is known as the triple point of water. The significance of this point can be seen in Figure 13, which shows some of the conditions of temperature and pressure under which a fixed quantity of water will exist as a solid (ice), a liquid or a gas (water vapour). Notice that the graph shows low pressures, around 1% of normal atmospheric pressure. As you can see, at these low pressures the temperature at which water boils (i.e. the temperature on the line that separates liquid from vapour) is remarkably low; it’s about 15 °C at 1500 Pa and declines rapidly with falling pressure. But you can also see that the melting temperature, at which water makes the transition from solid (ice) to liquid, increases slightly as the pressure falls. As a consequence, the two lines meet at a temperature of 0.01 °C when the pressure is 600 Pa. Under these unique conditions water vapour, liquid water and solid ice can all coexist in equilibrium.", "By [http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/2-1-1/kelvin.html international agreement], the unit kelvin and its scale are defined by two points: absolute zero, and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (water with a specified blend of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes). Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The triple point of water is defined as being precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 °C. This definition does three things:", "The triple–point temperature of water (defined as 273.16 K) is about one hundredth of a degree above the measured normal freezing point of water.", "Fahrenheit knew that the boiling temperature of water varied with the atmospheric pressure, and on this Principle he constructed a hypsometric thermometer that enabled one to determine the atmospheric Pressure directly from a reading of the boiling point of water. He also invented a hydrometer that became a model for subsequent developments.", "The International System of Units (SI) defines a scale and unit for the kelvin or thermodynamic temperature by using the reliably reproducible temperature of the triple point of water as a second reference point (the first reference point being 0 K at absolute zero). The triple point is a singular state with its own unique and invariant temperature and pressure, along with, for a fixed mass of water in a vessel of fixed volume, an autonomically and stably self-determining partition into three mutually contacting phases, vapour, liquid, and solid, dynamically depending only on the total internal energy of the mass of water. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment.", "At high pressures the boiling point of water can be many degrees higher than the sea level", "What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale whose unit interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?", "degrees Fahrenheit).  At higher pressures, such as in a tea kettle or a pressure cooker, water" ]

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[ "The physically-challenged and wheelchair-bound British theoretical physicist and Professor of Mathematics at (Cambridge, Dr. Stephen Hawking is the author of the international best-seller A Brief History of Time and is an important force in the development of the science of cosmology. Widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time who has redefined scientific research and broadened the horizons of human understanding.", "A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes is a 1988 popular-science book by British physicist Stephen Hawking. It became a bestseller and sold more than 10 million copies in 20 years. It was also on the London Sunday Times bestseller list for more than four years and was translated into 35 languages by 2001. ", "Professor Stephen Hawking is a British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author. His key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding gravitational singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein–Hawking radiation). He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. He is the former Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge and author of A Brief History of Time which was an international bestseller.", "Stephen Hawking, one of the most brilliant theoretical physicists in history, wrote the modern classic A Brief History of Time to help non-scientists understand fundamental questions of physics and our existence: where did the universe come from? How and why did it begin? Will it come to an end, and if so, how? ", "He wrote a sequel to Cosmos, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times. Carl Sagan also wrote an introduction for the bestselling book by Stephen Hawking , A Brief History of Time.", " Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time , New York: Bantam Books, 1998, p. 9.", "Stephen Hawking, 1942 is a British theoretical physicist, cosmologist. Hawking was the first to set forth a cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. A brief History of Time.", "Physicist Stephen Hawking set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics . His 1988 book A Brief History of Time appeared on The Sunday Times best-seller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. [328]", "Stephen Hawking's ability to make science understandable and compelling to a lay audience was established with the publication of his first book, A Brief History of Time, which has sold nearly 10 million copies in 40 languages. Hawking has authored or participated in the creation of numerous other popular science books, including The Universe in a Nutshell, A Briefer History of Time, On the Shoulders of Giants, The Illustrated On the Shoulders of Giants, and George's Secret Key to the Universe.", "After being given 2 years to live in 1963, he's beaten \"motor neurone disease\" to a pulp and made titanic discoveries in the world of theoretic physics. Regarded as one of the most brilliant theoretical physicists since Einstein, his book \"A Brief History of Time\" has sold over 25 million copies, and has been translated in 40 languages.", "Stephen Hawking is probably the most famous living scientist. The tenth anniversary edition of his book, A Brief History of Time, is available in paperback and I strongly recommend it. The book has sold in excess of 10 million copies. For such a book to sell so many copies is essentially unheard of in the history of science writing. For the past five years I have used A Brief History of Time as the centerpiece of a course that I teach for a select group of 15 University of Georgia freshman. For balance, the class also studies the novel That Hideous Strength, the third book in the C. S. Lewis space trilogy. My course falls in the \"Get to know the professor\" category that is becoming popular in large public universities to offset the sense of anonymity that many entering freshmen feel.", "Stephen William. Born 1942, British physicist. Stricken with a progressive nervous disease since the 1960s, he has nevertheless been a leader in cosmological theory. His publications intended for a wide audience include A Brief History of Time (1987) and The Grand Design (2010)", "The reason the book has sold more than 10 million copies, i.e., the reason for Hawking's success as a popularizer of science, is that he addresses the problems of meaning and purpose that concern all thinking people. The book overlaps with Christian belief and it does so deliberately, but graciously and without rancor. It is an important book that needs to be treated with respect and attention. There is no reason to agree with everything put forth in A Brief History of Time and you will see that I have a couple of areas of disagreement. It has been argued that this is the most widely unread book in the history of literature. I first began to prepare this material for a lecture in December 1992, because I was asked by a friend (John Mason) in Australia to come and speak on the subject. John wrote to me, \"A great many people in Sydney have purchased this book. Some claim to have read it.\" So I encourage you to join the students in my University of Georgia class and become one of those who have actually read A Brief History of Time.", "Now the Dennis Stanton Avery and Sally Tsui Wong-Avery director of research at the department of applied mathematics and theoretical physics and founder of the Center for Theoretical Cosmology at Cambridge, his other books for the general reader include \"A Brief History of Time,\" the essay collection \"Black Holes and Baby Universes\"and \"The Universe in a Nutshell.\"", "Was there a beginning of time? Could time run backwards? Is the universe infinite or does it have boundaries? These are just some of the questions considered in an internationally acclaimed masterpiece by one of the world's greatest thinkers. It begins by reviewing the great theories of the cosmos from Newton to Einstein, before delving into the secrets which still lie at the heart of space and time, from the Big Bang to black holes, via spiral galaxies and strong theory. To this day A Brief History of Time remains a staple of the scientific canon, and its succinct and clear language continues to introduce millions to the universe and its wonders. show more", "Stephen William Hawking, ( born 8 January 1942) is an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist, author and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University of Cambridge. His scientific works include a collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation. Hawking was the first to set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. He is a vigorous supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. ", "In 14 pieces, the author of A Brief History of Time examines astrophysics, current events and his own life.", "A Short History deviates from Bryson's popular travel book genre, instead describing general sciences such as chemistry, paleontology, astronomy, and particle physics. In it, he explores time from the Big Bang to the discovery of quantum mechanics, via evolution and geology.", "These arguments often center around what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally believe that time is as real as space—though others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called 'platonia' by Barbour. ", "** Often synonymous with Logical Determinism are the ideas behind Spatio-temporal Determinism or Eternalism: the view of special relativity. J. J. C. Smart, a proponent of this view, uses the term \"tenselessness\" to describe the simultaneous existence of past, present, and future. In physics, the \"block universe\" of Hermann Minkowski and Albert Einstein assumes that time is a fourth dimension (like the three spatial dimensions). In other words, all the other parts of time are real, like the city blocks up and down a street, although the order in which they appear depends on the driver (see Rietdijk–Putnam argument).", "A brief history of time , A briefer history of time, The edge of the space.", "The 2007 print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman , astronomer Carl Sagan , and surgeon Michael DeBakey . [47] Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 ( Alfred North Whitehead ), while another quarter are retired or emeritus . Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford , who contributed 24 articles on particle physics .", "The description of the Big Bang, from one second through three minutes (when the helium was formed), was popularly described in 1977 in Steven Weinberg's well-known book, 'The First Three Minutes.' Since 1977 the field has driven closer and closer to the creation event itself. By current standards, three minutes is now relatively late in the history of the universe.", "Q11 B4 P 112 / Q12 Catholiceducation.Org Q13 B1 P 64/ Q14 explanation based on “A Brief History of Time.”", "When you heard the name Clifford A. Pickover , you might think of the website Clifford Pickover's Reality Carnival . Or you might think of the book The Math Book: Milestones in the History of Math , which we featured here a couple of years ago. Pickover has done it again, with a new book called The Physics Book: From the Big Bang to Quantum Resurrection, 250 Milestones in the History of Physics.", "(9) Martin Gardner. Relativity for the Millions. Publisher and date not available at this time. Reference was sent to me by a friend who lost publisher, date and page.", "A utopian novel in which theories of time in mathematical physics (\"chronotopology\", \"sequency and simultaneity\", \"general temporal theories\") play an important role. . In brief, it is a gem of... ( more )", "By Stuart Sherman. Stuart Sherman is an associate professor of English at Fordham University and author of \"Telling Time: Clocks, Diaries, and English Diurnal Form, 1660-1795,\" which is mostly about S", "Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). \"Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi\", \"Transactions of the American Philosophical Society\" 56 (5), p. 1-69.]", "Craig, W.L. (forthcoming-b) The Tenseless Theory of Time: a Critical Examination, Synthese Library, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.", "Likewise, the world was also discovering that time itself was not a continuous entity. It does not flow as it appears to, without interruption, as a stream running down to the sea. But it is rather like the pebbles that line the stream bed. Time, and therefore reality itself, is quantum in nature . It exists for an infinitesimally small fraction of a fraction of a second, and then it ceases to exist for approximately the same fraction of a second (according to certain principles of expansion and contraction). The universe is flashing on and off, creating and uncreating itself millions of times a second. We cannot see it because it is happening too fast.", "The clock paradox, p.15-19. A discussion of three definitions with reference to various writings on the subject." ]

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[ "16. What did Nicholas Copernicus argue was at the centre of our universe, and what was the common belief before then?", "...Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus, who lived from 1473 until 1543, is known for his idea that the sun is motionless at the center of the universe and that the earth and other planets all revolve around it. This Polish astronomer revolutionized beliefs involving the universe, making his thoughts controversial in his time, but common knowledge in our own (Westman). Before the time of Copernicus, people had...", "Nicolaus Copernicus was a mathematician and astronomer who theorised that the sun, rather than the earth, was at the centre of the universe.", "Nicholas Copernicus (1473 - 1543) was an astronomer who wrote a book in which he claimed and gave evidence that all planets including the Earth orbit around the Sun (the heliocentric world view ) instead of all (other) planets and the Sun orbiting around the Earth (the geocentric world view ) like most people believed until then. Copernicus did still assume (like his predecessors) that all motions in the Universe were along circular orbits. Johan Kepler showed later that the orbits of the planets are far closer to ellipses than to circles. The work of Copernicus and Kepler caused most people to start believing in the heliocentric world view.", "Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543, Polish) began a new era of astronomy when he concluded that the Sun was the center of the universe instead of the Earth. Copernicus felt that the Ptolemaic system was contrived, but in his revisions of that model, he kept the orbits circular. The revolutionary idea was not popular with the Church, but several other astronomers such as Brahe and Galileo helped to eventually prove that this model of the universe more accurately portrayed reality.", "Nicolaus Copernicus: Stated that the sun was the centre of the universe and the Earth revolved around it annually.", "Of course, not everyone accepted the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy. In 1543 Nicholas Copernicus published a fundamentally different concept that placed the Sun at the center of the universe with Earth and other planets moving in orbits around it. It was a radical departure most authorities continued to accept the Ptolemaic system.", "The earliest scientific models of the Universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing the Earth at the center of the Universe. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Sir Isaac Newton (NS: 1643–1727) built upon Copernicus's work as well as observations by Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) and Johannes Kepler's (1571–1630) laws of planetary motion. Further observational improvements led to the realization that our Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy and is one of many solar systems and galaxies. It is assumed that galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the Universe has neither an edge nor a center. Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the Universe had a beginning and that it is expanding at an increasing rate. The majority of mass in the Universe appears to exist in an unknown form called dark matter.", "Copernicus is most famous for inventing the Copernican system , which is also known as the heliocentric theory. The Copernican system is a model for our Solar System in which the Earth and all other planet s orbit around the Sun and the Sun is the center of the universe.", "Birthday - Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was born in Torun, Poland. Considered the founder of modern astronomy, he theorized that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system.", "Galileo’s discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers. More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than the Earth dealt a blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system . This held that the Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies revolved around it. That Jupiter has four moons while Earth has only one further undercut the near-universal belief that the Earth was the center of the universe both in position and in importance. Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), which announced celestial observations through his telescope, does not mention Copernican heliocentrism , a theory that placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Nevertheless, Galileo believed in the Copernican theory. [2]", "By 1514, Copernicus had given up becoming a cleric, instead devoting his time to astronomy, which he excelled at. But even as powerful leaders including the pope turned to Copernicus for astronomical advice, he was formulating a theory that would turn the Renaissance world on its head. That same year, he passed around handwritten pamphlets to his close friends that outlined his theories, including that it was the sun, not the Earth, that sat at the center of the universe, according to a BBC biography .", "Nicolaus Copernicus , who was the first to propose a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology , displacing the Earth from the centre of the universe, also made numerous observations of Spica while researching precession .", "In the Christian world prior to Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed either to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the earth was the center of the universe and that all heavenly bodies revolved around the Earth, or the Tychonic system that blended geocentricsm with heliocentrism. Nevertheless, following the death of Copernicus and before Galileo, heliocentrism was relatively uncontroversial; Copernicus's work was used by Pope Gregory XIII to reform the calendar in 1582. ", "Copernicus's theory that the sun rather than the Earth was the center of all motion had moved the Earth into the realm of heavenly bodies. However, Copernicus's theory went against fundamental beliefs of the time, and therefore was dismissed by most learned people. One of the unacceptable notions was that of the imperfect Earth existing in the realm of the perfect heavens.", "Viewpoint: No, later scientists such as Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo correctly realized that Earth moves around the Sun, not vice versa, and thus cannot be the center of the universe.", "One of the most influential proponents of the Sun-centered universe was astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , who finally saw his thoughts published his thoughts on the matter in a treatise called De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres).", "Copernicus's cosmology placed a motionless sun not at the centre of the universe, but close to the centre, and also involved giving several distinct motions to the Earth. The problem that Copernicus faced was that he assumed all motion was circular so, like Ptolemy , was forced into using epicycles (see for example [ 78 ]). It was consequently considered implausible by the most of his contemporaries, and by most astronomers and natural philosophers until the middle of the seventeenth century. In the intended Preface of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium Copernicus showed that he was fully aware of the criticisms that his work would attract:-", "The simple matter is the general science community of that time frame (and even going back to Plato and Aristotle) common taught the earth was the center of the universe. This common teaching was not limited by any means to church members, but that of educated people in that time frame.", "..... Click the link for more information. , the earth rotates on its axis and, with all the other planets, revolves around the sun. The assertion that the earth is not the center of the universe was to have profound philosophical and religious consequences. Copernicus's principal claim for his new system was that it made calculations easier. He retained the uniform circular motion of the Ptolemaic system, but by placing the sun at the center, he was able to reduce the number of epicycles. Copernicus also determined the sidereal periods (time for one revolution around the sun) of the planets and their distance from the sun relative to the sun-earth distance (see astronomical unit astronomical unit", "The geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the universe was almost universally accepted until the work of astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There were, however, a few radicals who proposed alternatives to the geocentric model in ancient times. For instance, followers of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras (to whose school the Pythagorean theorem is attributed) proposed that Earth revolved around a \"central fire.\" Although this central fire was not the Sun, Pythagoras' theory was one of the earliest expressions of the novel idea that Earth might not be the center of the universe. Later, a few other Greek philosophers followed suit. In the fourth century", "Before the telescope came along, most educated people still accepted concepts about the universe first popularized by Aristotle and his contemporaries in the 4th century BC. In their view, Earth sat motionless at the center of the universe, with the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars affixed to nested crystalline spheres like the layers of an onion. The spheres spun at various rates, such that the Sun completely encircled Earth in just one day while the stars took an entire year. And, unlike earthly matter, the spheres and all they contained consisted of a perfect, changeless, and eternal “aether.” In the 2nd century AD, the influential astronomer-geographer Ptolemy introduced an even more elaborate crystalline-clockwork scheme that prevailed unchallenged for nearly 1,500 years.", "• The first European scientist, who refuted the belief that the earth was the centre of the universe, was Copernicus.", ", historically the most influential of the geocentric cosmological theories, i.e., theories that placed the earth motionless at the center of the universe with all celestial bodies revolving around it (see cosmology).", "During the Middle Ages the universe was regarded as finite, with the earth at its centre. The idea was abandoned during the Scientific Renaissance , and the universe came to be pictured as an indefinitely large number of stars scattered throughout infinite Euclidean space. This conception appeared to be a necessary consequence of the theory of gravitation; for, as Newton pointed out, a finite material universe in infinite space would tend to concentrate in one massive lump.", "Just as primitive astronomy influenced early religious concepts, during the eighteenth century, advancements in astronomy caused significant changes in Western scientific and theological concepts based upon an unchanging, immutable God who ruled a static universe. During the course of the eighteenth century, there developed a growing scientific disregard for understanding based upon divine revelation and a growing acceptance of an understanding of Nature based upon the development and application of scientific laws. Whether God intervened to operate the mechanisms of the universe through miracles or signs (such as comets) became a topic of lively philosophical and theological debate. Concepts of the divine became increasingly identified with the assumed eternity or infinity of the Cosmos. Theologians argued that the assumed immutability of a static universe, a concept shaken by the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, offered proof of the existence of God. The clockwork universe viewed as confirmation of the existence of God of infinite power who was the \"prime mover\" or creator of the universe. For many scientists and astronomers, however, the revelations of a mechanistic universe left no place for the influence of the Divine, and they discarded their religious views. These philosophical shifts sent sweeping changes across the political and social landscape.", "Geocentrism is an astronomical theory, central to the astronomy of Ancient Greece that posits that the Earth lies at the centre of the universe.", "Throughout history people have always looked up at the sky and wondered about the universe. Some just wonder while others attempt to solve this mystery. One of the people who had endeavored to solve it was Nicolaus Copernicus.", "In order to put Copernicus' work into historical perspective let us first review the cosmology to which Copernicus was exposed as a student. We will then give a description of how the concept of the Copernican universe evolved, and end with a short history of the writing and publication of the book, its initial criticism and its final recognition.", "What were the major differences between Copernicus' theory and the beliefs of most astronomers of his time?", "Funny, a few thousands years ago everyone knew the Earth was the centre of the universe.", "In the development of his general theory, Einstein had held on to the belief that the universe was a fixed, static entity, aka a \"cosmological constant,\" though his later theories directly contradicted this idea and asserted that the universe could be in a state of flux.  Astronomer Edwin Hubble deduced that we indeed inhabit an expanding universe, with the two scientists meeting at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles in 1930." ]

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[ "Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, nitrous, nitro, NOS or hippy crack, [1] is an inorganic molecule and chemical compound with the formula N2O. It is an oxide of nitrogen. At room temperature, it is a colorless and non-flammable gas with a slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anesthetic and analgesic effects. It is known as \"laughing gas\" due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as an atypical dissociative anesthetic . The duration of these effects is approximately 2 - 5 minutes in length. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocketry and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen.", "Nitrous oxide, commonly known as happy gas or laughing gas, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula N2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless non-flammable gas, with a pleasant, slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anesthetic and analgesic effects. It is known as \"laughing gas\" due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative drug.", "Nitrous oxide , commonly known as \"laughing gas\", is a chemical compound with the chemical formula N2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless non-flammable gas, with a pleasant, slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anesthetic and analgesic effects. It is known as \"laughing gas\" due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as an inhalant drug [Wikipedia].", "Commonly known as ‘laughing gas’ and currently used both in anaesthetics and as a ‘legal high’, nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas produced in the soil by micro-organisms, especially so on land grazed by animals.", "The gas was first synthesized by English natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley in 1772, who called it phlogisticated nitrous air (see phlogiston). [2] It was first used as an anesthetic drug in the treatment of a patient when dentist Horace Wells demonstrated insensitivity to pain from a dental extraction on 11 December 1844. [3] Today it is used worldwide by hospitals and dentists alike as a general anesthetic. The recreational use of nitrous oxide began at \"laughing gas parties\" primarily arranged for the British upper class in 1799 and has continued into modern times as the gas has become cheaper and more accessible to the masses.", "Davy discovered nitrous oxide after testing the effects of hydrogen and carbon dioxide on himself. (He liked to use himself as a human guinea pig!) Nitrous oxide is a gas consisting of nitrogen and oxygen. While studying nitrous oxide gas, he discovered that its effects often made him feel very happy or very sad. The feeling of happiness eventually gave nitrous oxide another name: laughing gas. Most importantly, though, Davy recognized that it could be used as an anesthetic. An anesthetic is a chemical used to dull pain during minor surgery.", "Laughing Gas - Nitrous oxide. An odorless inhalation agent that produces relative analgesic ( dental sedation ), and reduces anxiety and creates a state of relaxation.", "Nitrous oxide (N2O), a relatively long-lived gas, has increased in atmospheric concentration due mainly to agriculture. Nitrate (NO3-) and ammonia (NH4+) are used as fertilizers. Bacteria convert a small amount of this nitrate and ammonia into the form of nitrous oxide. Internal combustion engines also produce nitrous oxide.", "One other event of 1844 was the first use of Nitrous Oxide (laughing gas) as an anaesthetic. It was used by an American dentist by the name of Horace Wells who had seen it being used in a travelling side-show, sadly Mr. Wells continued his experiments with anaesthetics, became addicted to chloroform and died in prison at the age of twenty eight. It was another American dentist, by the name of William Morton, who popularised the use of anaesthetics (specifically ether) in dentistry and hence in medicine in general.", "Nitric Oxide was discovered in 1772 by a British man named Joseph Priestly, who referred to it as “nitrous air.” When he discovered this, it was a colorless and gas and a toxic gas. Nitric Oxide continued to recieve the label of being a toxic gas and an air pollutant until over two hundred years later, in 1987, when it was proven to be naturally produced by the body of mammals, including humans.", "Nitrous oxide is a gas with interesting properties that can be used in different ways, these include an anaesthetic in hospitals, the same as laughing gas, and they’re also used to increase the power of engines in motor racing.", "mid-14c., verbal noun from laugh (v.). Laughing matter (usually with negative) is from 1560s. Nitrous oxide has been called laughing gas since 1842 (for its exhilarating effects). Davy, experimenting with the gas, discovered these as far back as 1779: \"When I took the bag from my mouth, I immediately laughed. The laughter was involuntary, but highly pleasurable, accompanied by a thrill all through me.\"", "In racing, nitrous oxide (often referred as \"nitrous\" or \"NOS\" from the acronym NOS which is the brand Nitrous Oxide Systems) allows the engine to burn more fuel and oxygen, resulting in a more powerful combustion.", "An English chemist Joseph priestly discovered nitrous oxide in 1772 when running nitrogen through water to removed toxins. He’d hoped to use it as a preserving agent, but it yielded no such effects. In 1798, another English Chemist Humphry Davy began experimenting with its physiological effects in the hopes of using it for patients at his workplace, Thomas Beddoes’s Pneumatic Institution. He officially named it, and also dubbed it “laughing gas” after using it himself for a toothache and in social situations as entertainment.", "Nitrous oxide is a safe and effective sedative agent that is mixed with oxygen and inhaled through a small mask that fits over your nose to help you relax.", "Nitric oxide, a toxic industrial gas, is occasionally mistaken for nitrous oxide. Users should be careful they know what they are inhaling. Inhaling Nitric Oxide can permanently damage the lungs or kill.", "Like amyl nitrite, nitrous oxide (N2O) is a medical drug with tons of history -- this time dating back to the 18th Century.", "Nitrous oxide be discovered (1772) by Joseph Priestley, who called it “diminished nitrous air”; he prepared it from “nitrous air” (nitric oxide, NO) by treatment near iron powder or a mixture of iron and sulfur powders. Its properties were further studied (1799) by Sir Humphry Davy.", "However, despite this observation, for the next 40 years or so the primary use of N2O was for recreational enjoyment and public shows. So called nitrous oxide capers took place in travelling medicine shows and carnivals, where the public would pay a small price to inhale a minute's worth of the gas. People would laugh and act silly until the effect of the drug came to its abrupt end, when they would stand about in confusion. Many famous people (of their time) and dignitaries from Clifton and Bristol came to inhale Davy's purified nitrous oxide for recreational purposes.", "However, despite this observation, for the next 40 years or so the primary use of N2O was for recreational enjoyment and public shows. So called nitrous oxide capers took place in traveling medicine shows and carnivals, where the public would pay a small price to inhale a minute's worth of the gas. People would laugh and act silly until the effect of the drug came to its abrupt end, when they would stand about in confusion. Many famous people (of their time) and dignitaries from Clifton and Bristol came to inhale Davy's purified nitrous oxide for recreational purposes.", "The modern recreational use of nitrous oxide has of course created its own cultural context and set of expectations, with resonances both of the Pneumatic Institution's experiments and of the ‘laughing gas’ craze that followed it in the early decades of the nineteenth century. It has mostly developed in ‘party’ situations where other drugs are being used socially; in this context it heightens feelings of dissociation and excitement, and is typically taken as a cue for disinhibited behaviour and exuberant laughter. But although this culture may seem to be recapitulating the experiments of 1799 on a global scale, it also reveals a telling distinction. Another factor in nitrous oxide's current popularity, along with a more practical delivery system, is the increase in the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis and ecstasy, with which it is almost always taken in conjunction. The modern cultural consensus seems to be that a balloon of nitrous oxide requires an underlying intoxication to achieve its desired effects, and that without this it produces only a mild disorientation, curious but not worth pursuing further.", "       The exhilarating effects of inhaling nitrous oxide were noted by English chemist Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829). \"Whenever I have breathed the gas,\" he wrote, \"the delight has been often intense and sublime.\" \"Sublime\" may not be quite le mot juste: Davy found that inhaling the compound made him want to giggle uncontrollably until he passed out. So the illustrious scientist dubbed it \" laughing gas \". Regrettably, such a frivolous nickname probably discouraged the idea that the gas might serve a serious medical purpose. In like manner today, the racy street slang of short-acting recreational drugs belies the clues they offer to a post-genomic era of mental superhealth.", "Nitrous oxide can cause analgesia, depersonalisation, derealisation, dizziness, euphoria, and some sound distortion. Research has also found that it increases suggestibility and imagination. Inhalation of nitrous oxide for recreational use, with the purpose of causing euphoria and/or slight hallucinations, began as a phenomenon for the British upper class in 1799, known as \"laughing gas parties\". Until at least 1863, a low availability of equipment to produce the gas, combined with a low usage of the gas for medical purposes, meant it was a relatively rare phenomenon that mainly happened among students at medical universities. When equipment became more widely available for dentistry and hospitals, most countries also restricted the legal access to buy pure nitrous oxide gas cylinders to those sectors. Despite only medical staff and dentists today being legally allowed to buy the pure gas, a Consumers Union report from 1972 found that the use of the gas for recreational purpose was [then] still taking place, based upon reports of its use in Maryland 1971, Vancouver 1972, and a survey made by Dr. Edward J. Lynn of its non-medical use in Michigan 1970.", "Because nitrous oxide is stable and is a non-flammable gas, many motor sports cars as well as rockets use the gas as an oxidizer. An oxidizer adds oxygen to the mix when an engine fires and increases the power output of the engine. Motor sports use it for extra power, while rockets use oxidizers primarily because there is no oxygen in space, and oxygen is required during combustion.", "[20] This \"nitrous acid\" must be nitrous anhydride, N2O3. The reaction actually involves four times as much \"nitrous gas\" as oxygen, not three as stated:", "Nitrous oxide found a more scientific use as an anesthetic in clinical dentistry and medicine in the early 1840s. It is a very safe and popular agent still utilized by dentists today. It is much less toxic than alternatives, such as chloroform, with far less risk of explosion than ether. The main use for N2O is usually as a mild sedative and analgesic. It helps to allay anxiety that many patients may have toward dental treatment, and it offers some degree of painkilling ability. However, when inhaled in pure form in large quantities it will cause death by asphyxiation because at atmospheric temperatures and pressure, the oxygen in nitrous oxide is not available to the body.", "One of the biggest casualties in the recent upsurge in use of nitrous oxide has been its long-held reputation for safety. Because as use has ballooned throughout the United States, so have reports of serious, even life-threatening risks linked to misuse.", "In the United Kingdom, nitrous oxide is used by almost half a million young people at nightspots, festivals and parties. In August 2015, the London Borough of Lambeth Council banned the use of the drug for recreational purposes, making offenders liable to an on-the-spot fine of up to £1,000. ", "\"As nitrous oxide in its extensive operation appears capable of destroying physical pain, it may probably be used with advantage during surgical operations in which no great effusion of blood takes place\".", "Nitrous Oxide | Fort Worth Dentist | 7th Street District | H. Peter Ku, D.D.S. PA", "The UK government is moving to ban the sale of nitrous oxide to clubbers and partygoers because of its dangers, but some users are protesting that the move is unfair. Exactly how dangerous is the gas?", "a colourless nonflammable slightly soluble gas with a sweet smell: used as an anaesthetic in dentistry and surgery. Formula: N2O Systematic name dinitrogen oxide Also called laughing gas" ]

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[ "Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: Albert_Einstein_german.ogg [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n] ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was an ethnically Jewish,[1][2] German-born, theoretical physicist of the 20th century who is best known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially his treatment of Brownian motion, his resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon.[3]", "Albert Einstein (German pronunciation ) (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German -born theoretical physicist widely known as one of the greatest physicists of all time. [1] [2] He formulated the special and general theories of relativity. In addition, he made significant advancements to quantum theory and statistical mechanics. While best known for the Theory of Relativity (and specifically mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2), he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his 1905 (his \"wonderful year\" or \"miraculous year\") explanation of the photoelectric effect and \"for his services to Theoretical Physics\". In popular culture, the name \"Einstein\" has become synonymous with great intelligence and genius.", "Albert Einstein ( Ulm , March 14, 1879 – Princeton , April 18, 1955) was a German -born theoretical physicist . Popularly regarded as the most important scientist of the 20th century, he formulated the special and general theories of relativity, and made important contributions to both quantum theory and statistical mechanics . While best known for the Theory of Relativity (and specifically mass-energy equivalence , E = mc² ), he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 (his \" wonderful year \" or \"miraculous year\") and \"for his services to Theoretical Physics\".", "Albert Einstein 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist and philosopher of science. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). He is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory.", "Albert Einstein, (born March 14, 1879, Ulm , Württemberg, Germany—died April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.), German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect . Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.", "Albert Einstein, born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany, was one of the most well-known and influential physicists of the 20th century. On November 9, 1922, he was named the winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.\"", "Albert Einstein was born in Ulm , in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879. [13] His parents were Hermann Einstein , a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch . In 1880, the family moved to Munich , where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current . [13]", "Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14 1879. His mother noticed that the back of her baby’s head was unusually large, and for a moment thought there was something wrong. With her encouragement Albert was taught to play the violin when still very young, and he became an excellent musician. (As an adult he would take his fiddle everywhere: he found that playing it relaxed him.) He learned to sail, too, which he loved. And he knew by the age of 12 what he wanted to spend his life studying: nothing less than the behaviour of the universe.", "Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, Wuerttemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. His boyhood was spent in Munich, where his father, who owned electro-technical works, had settled. The family migrated to Italy in 1894, and Albert was sent to a cantonal school at Aarau in Switzerland. He attended lectures while supporting himself by teaching mathematics and physics at the Polytechnic School at Zurich until 1900. Finally, after a year as tutor at Schaffthausen, he was appointed examiner of patents at the Patent Office at Bern where, having become a Swiss citizen, he remained until 1909.", "Albert Einstein lived in Switzerland, Germany and America. He was born 14 March 1879 and died 18 April 1955.", "18/4/1955. Albert Einstein, born 14/3/1879, died in Princeton, New Jersey, of a stroke. He was born to a middle class German family of Jewish ancestry. Einstein graduated in 1900 from the Federal institute of technology in Zurich; he worked hard in the laboratory but skipped lectures. He completed his general theory of relativity in 1915 and received the Nobel Prize in 1922. He became an American citizen in 1940.", "Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany, but he grew up and obtained his early education in Munich, Germany. He was a poor student, and some of his teachers thought he might be retarded (mentally handicapped); he was unable to speak fluently (with ease and grace) at age nine. Still, he was fascinated by the laws of nature, experiencing a deep feeling of wonder when puzzling over the invisible, yet real, force directing the needle of a compass. He began playing the violin at age six and would continue to play throughout his life. At age twelve he discovered geometry (the study of points, lines, and surfaces) and was taken by its clear and certain proofs. Einstein mastered calculus (a form of higher mathematics used to solve problems in physics and engineering) by age sixteen.", "Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass-energy equivalence, E = mc2. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for...", "Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in the city of Ulm in Württemberg , Germany , about 100 km east of Stuttgart . His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman who later ran an electrochemical works, and his mother was Pauline, née Koch. They were married in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. Albert's family members were all non-observant Jews and he attended a Catholic elementary school . At the insistence of his mother, he was given violin lessons. Though he initially disliked the lessons, and eventually discontinued them, he would later take great solace in Mozart 's violin sonatas .", "Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879–April 18, 1955) may have eventually bequeathed some excellent advice on the secret to learning anything , but the great scientist himself didn’t learn one of the most basic human skills — speaking — until he was nearly four years old. On a Beam of Light: A Story of Albert Einstein ( public library ) by Jennifer Berne, illustrated by Vladimir Radunsky — the talent behind Mark Twain’s irreverent Advice to Little Girls — tells the tale of how an unusual and awkward child blossomed into becoming “the quintessential modern genius” by the sheer virtue of his unrelenting curiosity.", "18/4/1955. Albert Einstein, born 14/3/1879, died in Princeton, New Jersey, of a stroke. He became an American citizen in 1940 after having signed a famous letter to President F D Roosevelt warning that Germany might try and build an atomic bomb.", "Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist and winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. ", "On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910. Hans Albert became a professor of hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, having little interaction with his father. Eduard, the younger brother, intended to practice as a Freudian analyst but was institutionalized for schizophrenia and died in an asylum.", "Albert Einstein – a physicist with a sense of humour Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass– energy equivalence. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. He gained Swiss citizenship on 21 February 1901. Einstein became a citizen of the United States in 1940 and remained there the rest of his life, although he retained his Swiss citizenship. In 1915 Einstein had published his general theory of relativity in the form that is still used today. This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of space-time by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter.", "Albert Einstein – Physiker mit Sinn für Humor Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) war der bekannteste deutsche Physiker, dessen Beiträge zur theoretischen Physik maßgeblich das physikalische Weltbild veränderten. Am 21.Februar 1901 wurde er Schweizer Staatsbürger. 1940 leistete Einstein den Eid auf die amerikanische Verfassung und wurde somit auch Amerikaner. Er blieb es bis zu seinem Tod am 18.April 1955. Einsteins Hauptwerk ist die Relativitätstheorie, die das Verständnis von Raum und Zeit revolutionierte. Für seine Erklärung des Photoelektrischen Effekts (1905) wurde ihm 1921 der Nobelpreis für Physik verliehen.", "Albert Einstein was born in Germany in 1879 to Jewish parents. Einstein attended a public German school, and he was also taught Judaism and given violin lessons at his home.", "Albert Einstein is born in Ulm (Germany) on 14 March. He is the first child of Hermann and Pauline Einstein-Koch.", "Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. He was the author of the general theory of relativity and made important contributions to the special theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and cosmology. He was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 (his \"miracle year\") and \"for his services to Theoretical Physics.\"", "Albert Einstein was the son of a middle-class Jewish businessman. Einstein was born in Germany, a country that had been unified into a single state only eight years before his birth. Previously, a group of kingdoms, of which Prussia was the largest, had occupied the territory brought together into a single kingdom in 1870. When he was a boy, Einstein's father, Hermann, moved his family to Munich, where he and a brother opened a factory manufacturing electrical equipment. The family later moved to Milan, Italy, in 1894, before Einstein had graduated from high school.", "Albert Einstein a German-born theoretical physicist and philosopher of scienceIn was in 1921 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics", "After the war he urged control of atomic weapons and was one of the first people in the United States to protest about McCarthyism and the activities of the House of Un-American Activities Committee . Albert Einstein, who spent his final years trying to establish a merger between between quantum theory and his general theory of relativity, died in 1955.", "He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.", "The Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews . Albert attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later. [14] Contrary to popular suggestions that he had struggled with early speech difficulties, the Albert Einstein Archives indicate he excelled at the first school that he attended. [15] He was right-handed; [15] [16] there appears to be no evidence for the widespread popular belief [17] that he was left-handed.", "Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. [50] :432", "Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity is born and formulates famous equation E=mc^2 | World History Project", "Hermann Einstein relocated the family to Milan, Italy, in the mid-1890s after his business lost out on a major contract. Albert was left at a relative's boarding house in Munich to complete his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Faced with military duty when he turned of age, Albert allegedly withdrew from classes, using a doctor’s note to excuse himself and claim nervous exhaustion. With their son rejoining them in Italy, his parents understood Einstein's perspective but were concerned about his future prospects as a school dropout and draft dodger.", "The Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later." ]

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[ "The Monopoly game board consists of 40 spaces containing 28 properties (22 colored streets, four railway stations and two utilities), three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, (In) Jail/Just Visiting, Free Parking , and Go to Jail. [14]", "24. There are 40 spaces on the Monopoly board and 28 properties (22 colored streets, four railroads, and two utility spaces).", "The Monopoly  gameboard  consists of 40 spaces containing 28 properties (22 colored streets, four railway stations and two utilities), three  Chance  spaces, three Community Chest  spaces, a  Luxury Tax  space, an  Income Tax  space, and the four corner squares: GO, (In) Jail/Just Visiting,  Free Parking , and Go to Jail. [14 ]", "25. There are three chance spaces, three community chest spaces, a luxury tax space, and an income tax space on the Monopoly board.", "This is the original version produced by Charles Darrow, and later by Parker Brothers. The board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties, three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, Jail, Free Parking , and Go to Jail. In the U.S. versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, as of September 2008, the layout of the board has been modified to more closely match the foreign-released versions, as shown in the two board layouts below. The notable changes are the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changing from purple to brown, the colors of the GO square from red to black, and the adaptation of the flat $200 Income Tax (formerly the player's choice of 10% of their total holdings OR $200; players had to make a decision before calculating their total holdings) and increased $100 Luxury Tax (upped from $75) amounts. Similar color/amount changes are used in the U.S. Edition of the \"Here And Now: World Edition\" game , and are also used in the most recent version of the McDonald's Monopoly promotion.", "The name of \"Monopoly\", however, comes from an elemnt in good strategy that few players appreciate. The complete set contains 32 green houses, and once those have been used up, no more properties may be developed until they are converted to hotels, or sold back to the bank. So one consequence is that if, for example, a player builds four houses on each of the three properties of two colour sets, it will use up 24 houses in all, leaving only eight to be fought over by the other players. You can take a large step towards bankrupting the other players by gaining a virtual monopoly over the housing market. That is why it is generally a mistake to build hotels. Four houses earn less rent, but considerably restrict the opponents' possibilities", "Our next throw will give us the chance of landing on what serious Monopoly players believe to be among the most lucrative slots on the board – the orange run of Bow Street, Marlborough Street and Vine Street. They're valuable because of their proximity to jail, which means players get more chances to land on them, and because six and eight are two of the three most likely throws, which take you from jail on to Bow Street or Marlborough Street respectively (seven, the most likely throw of all, with six possible combinations, takes you to Community Chest). Conversely, the expensive properties on the fourth side of the board are least likely to be landed on, because they come after Go To Jail. Oh, and another tip while we're on the subject – don't race to build hotels. Get to three houses, because of the huge increase in income between two and three, and stop at four houses, because there are only 32 in each game, and you want to stop your opponents building.", "The Mega Edition has been expanded to include fifty-two spaces (with more street names taken from Atlantic City), skyscrapers (to be played after hotels), train depots, the 1000 denomination of play money, as well as \"bus tickets\" and a speed die. Shortly after the release of Mega Monopoly in 2006, Hasbro adopted the same blue version of the speed die into a special \"Speed Die Edition\" of the game. By 2008, the die, now red, became a permanent addition to the game, though its use remains optional there. In 2009's \"Championship Edition\", use of the speed die is mandatory, as it also became mandatory in most of 2009's Monopoly tournaments.", "In order to put a cap on total development of property sets in the game, there are only 12 hotels and 32 houses. This limitation is in place to ensure that property sets cannot be developed unless there are houses or hotels available to purchase from the bank. This cap allows a certain amount of dominance to be developed by some players, because if every set of property were fully developed there would be enough rent collected between different players to allow the game to drag on for an extended period. This limitation on numbers of houses and hotels leads to an advantage for one player. Simply building each lot out to a maximum of 4 houses and then refusing to upgrade to hotels ensures that nearly the maximum amount of rent is collected for each property, and the monopolization of the houses from the game prevents opponents from developing their property. It is conceivable that a single player could end up owning all 32 houses near the end of the game, and the refusal to upgrade to hotels makes these houses unavailable for opponents to purchase for any property they may own.", "These properties begin the journey around the Monopoly Board. In a traditional US board , the first is Mediterranean Avenue , followed by Community Chest and Baltic Avenue . It is impossible to land on Mediterranean Avenue on a player's first turn. Baltic Avenue is the better of the 2 brown properties.", "44. The highest rent property on the Monopoly game board varies by region. In the U.S., it is named “Boardwalk” after a street in Atlantic City. In Spain, it is named “Paseo del Prado” after a street in Madrid, and in France, “Rue de la Paix” is the name of the most coveted property space.", "22 streets, divided into 8 color groups of two or three streets. A player must own all of a colour group (have a monopoly) in order to build houses or hotels. A player can also be considered to have a monopoly by having both utilities and/or all four railroads (or stations) during gameplay. However, the utilities and railroads cannot be improved or have houses and/or hotels built on them.", "* Twenty-Two streets, divided into eight color groups of two or three streets; a player must own all of a color group in order to build houses or hotels. Once achieved, color group properties must be improved or \"broken down\" evenly. See the section on Rules.", "built on one property in a monopoly until the others have one house. No merges between players are allowed. All developments must be sold before a property can be mortgaged. The player", "Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. In 2014, Hasbro determined five popular house rules by public Facebook vote, and released a \"House Rules edition\" of the board game. Rules selected include collecting paid fines on free parking, forcing players to traverse the board once before buying properties, and awarding money for players rolling a  double-1  on the dice. [39 ]", "[board game] ==Gameplay== ===Rules=== The board consists of 61 circular spaces arranged in a hexagon, five on a side. Each player has 14 marbles that rest in the spaces and are initially arranged as shown at left. Play alternates between the players one move at a time, with the black marbles moving first. For each move, a player moves a lin...", "Monopoly is one of the best-selling commercial board games in the world. Players compete to acquire wealth through stylised economic activity involving the purchase, rental and trading of real estate using play money , as players take turns moving around the board according to the roll of the dice . The game is named after the economic concept of monopoly , the domination of a market by a single seller.", "For two to six players, from 7 to 8 years upwards. We have played this game on many occasions since childhood. If you have never played it, it consists of landing on property which you buy and then when others land on it charge rent to that person depending on how much money you have improved the site with houses and later hotels. There are chance cards, railway stations and utilities that pay fixed rents and you can mortgage your properties to pay rent, go to jail or if really unlucky go bankrupt. Monopoly brings out the best and worst aspects of people characters. The game can last an unpredictable amount of time. Monopoly is probably the best known board game ever though each household probably plays to it's own slightly different rules!", "As a starting point, let’s reacquaint ourselves with the Monopoly Board … and then an actual map of where those squares are in real life.", "Monopoly involves a substantial portion of luck, with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents. Even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage, because one is more likely to land on property which has already been purchased, and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property. There are, however, many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled. For details, see Monopoly strategy .", "Children play MONOPOLY all over the world, but where they live may determine what they call the highest rent property on the game board. In the U.S., it is named “Boardwalk” after a street in Atlantic City. In Spain, it is named “Paseo del Prado” after a street in Barcelona and in France, “Rue de la Paix” is the name of the most coveted property space.", "All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. A standard set of Monopoly pieces includes:", "* Monopoly City: Game-play retains similar flavor but has been made significantly more complex in this version. The traditional properties are replaced by “districts” mapped to the previously underutilized real estate in the centre of the board.", "Monopoly City : Gameplay retains similar flavor but has been made significantly more complex in this version. The traditional properties are replaced by “districts” mapped to the previously underutilized real estate in the center of the board.", "66. Complete the set of Green properties in the game of Monopoly: Oxford Street, Regent Street and ?", "Houses are the little green buildings (that look like houses) that are used in Monopoly .", "Mr. Monopoly, known by some as Rich Uncle Pennybags, is perhaps the most famous fictional real estate mogul in history. Dressed to impress with a top hat and cane, the board game mascot is easy to bring to life. Just don’t expect your “get out of jail free” card to actually do anything.", "Monopoly Streets : A video game played for the Xbox 360, Wii, and PS3. The video game includes properties now played on a street.", "U-Build Monopoly (2010): A variant of Monopoly City using separate game tiles that allow for construction of custom game board configurations.", "U-Build Monopoly  (2010): A variant of Monopoly City using separate game tiles that allow for construction of custom gameboard configurations.", "Square Mile - A 1962 board game from Milton Bradley with a real estate development theme.", "Which property group colour gives the best ROI , undeveloped or fully developed, in Monopoly? - Board & Card Games Stack Exchange" ]

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[ "FLAG: The flag consists of a red stripe at the top and a white stripe on the bottom. On the red stripe, at the hoist, are a white crescent opening to the fly and five white stars.", "The Flag of the United States of America consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states and the 13 stripes represent the original Thirteen Colonies that rebelled against the British crown and became the first states in the Union. Nicknames for the flag include “the Stars and Stripes”, “Old Glory”, and “the Star-Spangled Banner”.", "The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States of America. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the \"union\") bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the US. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and The Star-Spangled Banner.", "The American flag has thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small white five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars.", "The national flag of the United States of America, is of 10:19 ratio and consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain and became the first states in the Union.", "Often called “The Stars and Stripes” or “Old Glory,” the American flag features 13 stripes representing the original 13 colonies: Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. The 50 stars denote the 50 individual states of the nation. While the red color signifies hardiness and valor, the blue represents vigilance and justice, and the white signifies purity and innocence. The flag was adopted on June 14, 1777. ", "As of now, the USA flag comprises 13 horizontal stripes, where seven red stripes and six white stripes are arranged horizontally. The stripes that you find in the American flag symbolize the thirteen colonies and the stars symbolize the fifty Union States. Besides, the red and the white colors that have been used in the flag have their own significance. For instance, the red color represents valor and hardiness while the white color stands for innocence and purity. Last, but not the least, the blue color symbolizes justice, insistence, and alertness.", "FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of three horizontal stripes—red, white, and black—with the national emblem in the center white stripe.", "As for the U.S. Flag, it was not really settled officially until 1916 that there would be more red stripes than white ones, and that official act is only binding on the Executive Department and the Military. There are plenty of examples of more white stripes than red ones on old U.S. Flags, although tradition had established the red dominance of the stripes by the mid 19th century.", "Today the flag consists of thirteen horizontal stripes, seven red alternating with 6 white. The stripes represent the original 13 colonies, the stars represent the 50 states of the Union. The colors of the flag are symbolic as well: Red symbolizes Hardiness and Valor, White symbolizes Purity and Innocence and Blue represents Vigilance, Perseverance and Justice.", "flag of the United States has thirteen stripes of red and white, they represent the original thirteen American colonies", "The current official U.S. flag is a 50 star flag, born of the need for a more practical design to accommodate new states entering the union. On April 4, 1818, Congress established the number of stripes at seven red and six white, and provided the addition of one star for each new state. The thirteen stripes represent the original 13 colonies. The 50 star flag has been in use since July 4, 1960 when Hawaii officially joined the union.", "The American Flag is symbolic in many ways. The alternating red and whites stripes represent the 13 British colonies that settled in America, while the stars represent each individual state. But what about the colors – why is the American Flag red, white and blue?", "flag of the United States : thirteen stripes of red and white, they represent theoriginal thirteen American colonies;", "White is a common color in national flags, though its symbolism varies widely. The white in the flag of the United States and flag of the United Kingdom comes from traditional red St George's Cross on a white background of the historic flag of England. The white in the flag of France represents either the monarchy or \"white, the ancient French color\" according to the Marquis de Lafayette.", "The red and white stripes of the shield represent the states united under and supporting the blue, which represents the President and Congress. The color white is a symbol of purity and innocence; red represents hardiness and valor; and blue signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice.", "The flag of the United States also follows this pattern; early flags of the American Revolution were modified Red Ensigns. The Grand Union Flag added six white stripes to the Red Ensign; this flag was used during the fight for independence until the Union Flag in the corner was replaced by the current stars in 1777.", "The symbol in the middle white stripe, which is one-and-a-half times the size of the red and green stripes, is a crown symbol surrounded by seven stars. The red represents the unity of the nation; the white represents cotton and the unity of the people; and green represents the nature of the country.", "The French flag contains three vertical stripes of equal width. From the flagstaff to the end, these colors are blue, white, and red. More than 20 countries use these three colors in their flag, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.", "FLAG: The national flag, introduced in 1916, consists of a red cross (with an extended right horizontal), bordered in white, on a blue field.", "Sentimental writers and orators sometimes ascribe meanings to the colors in the flag, but this practice is erroneous, as are statements on this subject attributed to George Washington and other founders of the country. The colors red, white, and blue were clearly derived from British sources; many English flags had red and white stripes. The book Our Flag published in 1989 by the House of Representatives states:", "The colors used in the flag represent ideals cherished by the constitution of the country. Saffron, the color topmost in the flag represents courage, sacrifice, valor, and the spirit of renunciation. White represents truth, peace, and purity of thought. The green stripe symbolizes culture, fertility, and faith.", "I will play devil's advocate aand note that there is no provision nor hint determining that the two red stripes are of the same width. If someone has access to the original wording (and language skills to understand it), I wonder if there is such a hint there – if the flag with, say, top red stripe being half the lower would still be legally acceptable, as long as the white would remain double the size of the two red together...", "The colors have specific meanings. The colors red, white and blue did not have a meaning for the flag when adopted in 1777, but do have meaning in the seal.", "Flag description: Two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the St. George Cross, edged in red", "FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of green, yellow, and red vertical stripes; at the center of the yellow stripe is a green star.", "According to Frederick Hulme (1841�1909) this flag, briefly used in 1776, was derived from the New England Red Ensign (1686-1707) by simply adding 6 white stripes to the existing red field. The design also suggests that it might have been modeled after the Continental Colors of 1775.", "A horizontal bi-color of red over white, with the arms of the state (land), in the center.", "FLAG: A red triangle divides the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue. A gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle.", "In the mid or late 1950s, (if I'm not mistaken), the US government intentionally \"darkened\" the shade of red used in American flags. Before this, the color of red used in US flags was sometimes referred to as \"Chinese\" red. Well, with anti-communist sentiment being rather high at the time, it simply wouldn't do to have Chinese red stripes on the American flag and thus the change. To most folks who even pay attention it's a very subtle thing.", "US Army used red with a white rectangle (when signaling with a light colored background behind the sender) or", "American flag is the national flag of United States of America. It is also known as “Stars and Stripes”, “Old Glory” and “The Star-Spangled Banner”. American flag has stripes and stars on it. How many stripes are there on the American Flag?" ]

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[ "\"Peter Piper\" is an English-language nursery rhyme and well-known tongue-twister. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19745.", "\"Peter Piper\" is a well-known Mother Goose nursery rhyme and tongue twister. \"Peter Piper\" was first published in 1813 as part of the book \"Peter Piper's Practical Principles of Plain and Perfect Pronunciation\" by John Harris. The entire tongue twister is \"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers; a peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?\"", "The earliest version of this tongue twister was published in Peter Piper's Practical Principles of Plain and Perfect Pronunciation by John Harris (1756–1846) in London in 1813, which includes one name tongue-twister for each letter of the alphabet in the same style. However, the rhyme was apparently known at least a generation earlier. Some authors have identified the subject of the rhyme as Pierre Poivre, an eighteenthcentury French horticulturalist and government administrator of Mauritius, who once investigated the Seychelles' potential for spice cultivation.", "Poivre's travelogue, Voyages d'un Philosophe, was published in London in 1769. It was read widely enough to make its way to the British colonies, where Thomas Jefferson was reportedly intrigued by its description of Vietnamese mountain rice (Appalachia-appropriate!). So the story of \"Peter Pepper,\" a man famous for his garden of spices, is a likely candidate for the inspiration of our pickly tongue-twister, first published in London in 1813. The transformation of \"Pepper\" to \"Piper\" makes linguistic sense (the Latin for \"black pepper\" is piper negrum) and sense as a British name (\"Piper\" is a common surname, and the Old English word for \"pepper\"), but it also just makes the tongue twister work. Repeating \"pepper\" one more time wouldn't be quite as fun.", "Psmith, Journalist by Pelham Grenville Wodehouse - BRITISH COMEDY CLASSICS - Rupert Psmith (or Ronald Eustace Psmith, as he is called in the last of the four books in which he appears) is a recurring fictional character in several novels by British comic writer P. G. Wodehouse, being one of Wodehouse's best-loved characters. The P in his surname is silent (\"as in pshrimp\" in his own words) and was added by himself, in order to distinguish him from other Smiths. A member of the Drones Club, this monocle-sporting Old Etonian is something of a dandy, a fluent and witty speaker, and has a remarkable ability to pass through the most amazing adventures unruffled. Wodehouse said that he based Psmith on Rupert D'Oyly Carte (1876-1948), the son of the Gilbert and Sullivan impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte, as he put it \"the only thing in my literary career which was handed to me on a silver plate with watercress around it.\" Carte was a school acquaintance of a cousin of Wodehouse at Winchester College, according to an introduction to Leave it to Psmith. Rupert's daughter, Bridget D'Oyly Carte, however, believed that the Wykehamist schoolboy described to Wodehouse was not her father but his elder brother Lucas. Lucas was also at Winchester. Full Synopsis", "We may never know which woodchuck hypothetically chucked wood or which unspecified Sally sold seashells down by the seashore, but one of our tongue-twisting icons, Peter Piper (of the peck of pickled peppers), might have been an actual person.", "She is unusual in that with each Harry Potter book, she seemed to pick a particular unusual word to use multiple times, though generally usage of the word is not restricted to just one of the books. For example, in Half Blood Prince, she uses the word \"surreptitiously\" about seven or eight times. And just try and count how many times a character \" ejaculates \".", "The Seven aren't as humourless as they are made out to be. Colin is one of the jokers; once he makes up a funny (and rather rude) song about Susie's best friend Binkie, in which he describes her rabbit teeth and woffly nose. On another occasion, he elicits a chuckle by describing how his grandmother's foreign maid sat on a bag of eggs that he had left on a chair. But it's often Susie who provides comic relief, mostly at Peter's expense. The wild goose chase she leads them on in Secret Seven Mystery is a prime example of her resourcefulness.", "(c) Recurrence, figured through the heavy use of recurrent initials ( HCE , ALP ), recurrent digits (1132, 566), recurrent imagery (giants, towers, heaps and mounds), recurrent characters from jokes and literature (a Russian general who gets shot in the ass, Swift’s Vanessa), recurrent historical figures (Parnell, Napoleon, Saint Patrick), recurrent dyads (Adam and Eve, Mutt and Jeff), trinities (the Trinity), quartets (the Evangelists) and duodectets (jurors, apostles), recurrent snatches and snippets of balladry, recurrent garbled quotations from Swift, the Duke of Wellington, Mark Twain, etc.", "Humpty Dumpty has become a highly popular nursery rhyme character. American actor George L. Fox (1825–77) helped to popularise the character in nineteenth-century stage productions of pantomime versions, music, and rhyme. The character is also a common literary allusion, particularly to refer to a person in an insecure position, something that would be difficult to reconstruct once broken, or a short and fat person. Humpty Dumpty has been used in a large range of literary works in addition to his appearance as a character in Through the Looking-Glass, including L. Frank Baum's Mother Goose in Prose (1901), where the rhyming riddle is devised by the daughter of the king, having witnessed Humpty's \"death\" and her father's soldiers' efforts to save him. In Neil Gaiman's early short story The Case of the Four and Twenty Blackbirds, the Humpty Dumpty story is turned into a film noir-style hardboiled crime story, involving also Cock Robin, the Queen of Hearts, Little Bo Peep, Old Mother Hubbard, and other characters from popular nursery rhymes. Robert Rankin used Humpty Dumpty as one victim of a serial fairy-tale character murderer in The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse (2002). Jasper Fforde included Humpty Dumpty in his novels The Well of Lost Plots (2003) and The Big Over Easy (2005), which use him respectively as a ringleader of dissatisfied nursery rhyme characters threatening to strike and as the victim of a murder.", "? S � 8^��0X��0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0���0��8^��0�^ Eje6f48?D � �(m.5�B�M XFaSe6f579:;<=>@ABC6f6�8�@ �����������0�( � ��B �S � ��� ?�4]:]�]�]�]�]8^ ��) . �5^8^33��� ����++X1^1MFNFVF�F�G�GO�O�Z�Zg]g]8^jrY ��tl���������3�*��v����������� �`�l�<����������������^��`���o(.h �������^��`���o(�h�H.� �� �L��� ^�� `�L��h�H.� �\\ ����\\ ^�\\ `����h�H.� �,����,^�,`����h�H.� ���L���^��`�L��h�H.� �������^��`����h�H.� �������^��`����h�H.� �l�L��l^�l`�L��h�H.h �����^�`����h�H.�h �� ����� ^�� `����h�H.�h �� �L��� ^�� `�L��h�H.�h �w����w^�w`����h�H.�h �G����G^�G`����h�H.�h ��L��^�`�L��h�H.�h �������^��`����h�H.�h �������^��`����h�H.�h �� �L��� ^�� `�L��h�H.h �h����h^�h`����h�H.�h �8����8^�8`����h�H.�h ��L��^�`�L��h�H.�h �� ����� ^�� `����h�H.�h �� ����� ^�� `����h�H.�h �x�L��x^�x`�L��h�H.�h �H����H^�H`����h�H.�h �����^�`����h�H.�h ���L���^��`�L��h�H.3�*jrY � �`����������������ؗt9 �~, Ff7�E8^�@�&k 6^P@��Unknown������������G��: �Times New Roman5��Symbol3&� �: �Arial\"q���hd�f���F'P0�'P0�!������24d^^2�q����HP ��?�������������������~, 2��MIDSOMER MURDERS Andrew HarrisJohnMant �������Oh��+'��0�������� $ D P \\hpx�� MIDSOMER MURDERS Andrew Harris normal.dot JohnMant 8 Microsoft Office Word@�V�@T��s��@�9����'P����՜.��+,��0 hp���� ���� � �� Howes Percival�0^' MIDSOMER MURDERS Title !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDE����GHIJKLM����OPQRSTUVWXYZ[\\����^_`abcd����fghijkl��������o��������������������������������������������������������������������Root Entry�������� �FP����q�Data ������������F1Table����N� WordDocument����.�SummaryInformation(������������]DocumentSummaryInformation8��������eCompObj������������q������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ���� �F Microsoft Office Word Document MSWordDocWord.Document.8�9�q", "Voiced by Matt Stone [6] , Pip Pirrup was featured mostly during the first few seasons of the series, having later been relegated to being a background character. Pip is originally from Britain , and shares his name with the main protagonist of the Charles Dickens novel Great Expectations . Wearing a bow tie and flat cap , he is often teased by his fellow classmates. [22] While largely passive, Pip is prone to becoming infuriated when fellow students mistake him for being French. He is very good at dodgeball when in this mood. The show's official website has noted that this is in reference to the hatred shared between some natives of Britain and France. [23] Pip was the central figure of an eponymous episode during the show's fourth season . The episode, which did not feature any of the show's other characters, was a comedic retelling of Great Expectations , with Pip assuming the role of his character's namesake. [24] [25]", "  Through the Looking Glass alice crosses chessboard and queen disappears in soup, Humpty Dumpty, Tweedledum, Tweedledee. Jabberwocky\" is a nonsense poem. Mad hatter and the march hare spoken during crazy tea party. Tenniel's illustrations of the unicorn & the man in white paper represent Disraeli Victorian prime minister", "As well as being defined by their appearance, many characters in the novel are defined by a catchphrase - just as, in a cartoon, a character is defined by one or two distinguishing characteristics, like a big nose or prominent ears. Mrs. Gummidge can be summed up by her catchphrase, \"I am a lone lorn creetur...and everythink goes contrairy with me.\" She remains loyal to her catchphrase until late in the novel, where she surprises everyone by turning into its opposite - but the catchphrase still rules supreme, even as she defies it.", "We have 1 possible answer for the clue Author who published under the pseudonym Ellis Bell which appears 1 time in our database.", "Scottish owner of a hotel who speaks and acts like an Elizabethan fantasy character, even though he is often seen speaking and behaving perfectly normally. He answers questions from customers in a diffident manner using riddles, \"spells\", and a (intentionally badly dubbed) flute, which he refers to as a 'piccalillo'. He also refers strangely to ordinary objects, such as the radio, which he calls the \"talking noisy box\". His eccentric behaviour often annoys and confuses his guests. However, in his final appearance, two officers from the Inland Revenue service used it against him, tricking Ray into making overdue tax payments. His hotel is opposite IKEA.", "Tom Tom the Piper's Son is an English nursery rhyme which has been around since at least 1795.", "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Did Peter Piper pick a peck of pickled peppers? If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?", "Scottish owner of a hotel who speaks and acts like an Elizabethan fantasy character, even though he is often seen speaking and behaving perfectly normally. He answers questions from customers in a diffident manner using riddles, \"spells\", and a (intentionally badly dubbed ) flute, which he refers to as a ' piccalillo '. He also refers strangely to ordinary objects, such as the radio, which he calls the \"talking noisy box\". His bizarre behaviour often irritates and confuses his guests. However, in his final appearance, two officers from the Inland Revenue service used it against him, tricking Ray into making overdue tax payments. His hotel is opposite IKEA .", "Idle's work in Python is often characterised by an obsession with language and communication: many of his characters have verbal peculiarities, such as the man who speaks in anagrams , the man who says words in the wrong order, and the butcher who alternates between rudeness and politeness every time he speaks. A number of his sketches involve extended monologues (for example the customer in the \"Travel Agency\" sketch who won't stop talking about his unpleasant experiences with holidays), and he would frequently spoof the unnatural language and speech patterns of television presenters. Additionally, like Palin , Idle is said to be the master of insincere characters, from the David Frost -esque Timmy Williams, to small-time crook Stig O'Tracy, who tries to deny the fact that organized crime master Dinsdale Piranha nailed his head to the floor.", "Idle's work in Python is often characterised by an obsession with language and communication: many of his characters have verbal peculiarities, such as the man who speaks in anagrams, the man who says words in the wrong order, and the butcher who alternates between rude and polite every time he speaks. A number of his sketches involve extended monologues (for example the man who won't stop talking about his previous and unpleasant experiences with holidays), and he would frequently spoof the unnatural language and speech patterns of television presenters. Additionally, like Michael Palin, Idle is said to be the master of insincere characters, from the David Frost -esque Timmy Williams, to Stig O'Tracy, who tries to justify the fact that organized crime master Dinsdale Piranha had nailed his head to the floor.", "As the series progressed, each episode's opening shot of the Fawlty Towers hotel sign shows rearranged and misplaced letters. Variations include: Watery Fowls (with a kid seen adjusting it), Farty Tower, Flay Otters, Fatty Owls, Warty Towels, Flowery Twats and Farty Towels. Production team-member Iain McLean supplied the hotel sign anagrams supposedly left by aggrieved paperboys.", "A first UK edition of Full Moon by P. G. Wodehouse.Sir Pelham Grenville Wodehouse, KBE (15 October 1881 14 February 1975) was an English humourist whose body of work includes novels, short stories, plays, poems, song lyrics and numerous...", "Dickensian characters —especially their typically whimsical names—are among the most memorable in English literature. The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge , Tiny Tim , Jacob Marley , Bob Cratchit , Oliver Twist , The Artful Dodger , Fagin , Bill Sikes , Pip, Miss Havisham , Charles Darnay , David Copperfield , Mr. Micawber , Abel Magwitch , Daniel Quilp , Samuel Pickwick , Wackford Squeers , Uriah Heep and many others are so well known and can be believed to be living a life outside the novels that their stories have been continued by other authors. (Citation needed)", "20 In the FT, John Young uses the pseudonym Dogberry, named after the comic constable in Much Ado About Nothing who keeps getting his words in a muddle (e.g. 'comparisons are odorous'), of whom somebody says 'this learned constable is too cunning to be understood'. John Young took on this pseudonym on the sugggestion of the FT crossword editor Colin Inman.", "As one might expect, The Trope Namer , Alice in Wonderland , is chocabloc full of portmanteau words, at least one of which, chortle, made it into common usage. The poem \" Jabberwocky \" is practically a compendium of portmanteau words, (brillig, slithy, wabe, outgrabe and that's just the first stanza) most of which did not make it into common usage, unless someone is feeling arch and wants to show off their vocabulary.", "* A verse of the Major-General's Song in the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera The Pirates of Penzance, \"About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news, With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse\", makes an oblique reference to the theorem. ", "One of the re-tellings has Ratty regularly asking Mole for words that rhyme with something or other. Though Grahame never mentions that, I'd bet it would be one of the things that would happen all the time in their friendship. I'll look up which version and post it tomorrow.", "Norman Murphy appends: “ I don’t care what anybody says, this IS another of those infuriating misprints Wodehouse’s publishers let slip by. In English and especially in Wodehouse’s always correct English (unless he deliberately misspelled/ misused it) it is CHORD. And Cooper wrote the book in 1826 and, if you look him up, he was noted for unusual spelling.”", "Pratchett's book Thief of Time has a rather interesting look at time manipulation and martial arts*. It's the source of all the Deja Fu comments.", "Probably a reference to the Sherlock Holmes story The Speckled Band. But see also Murphys discussion of snakes in Wodehouse.", "So, anyone knows the double meaning of Snuff , and why does the latest book has it for a title? I've read it and wonder if I've missed something other than Vimes randomly taking a pinch of snuff here and there." ]

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[ "The Circle line, coloured yellow on the tube map, is the eighth busiest line on the London Underground. It forms a loop line around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames. Platforms are 120 metres long in the south and 130 metres long on the part of the track shared with the Metropolitan line.", "The Circle line, coloured yellow on the tube map, is the eighth busiest line on the London Underground . It forms a loop line around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames . Platforms are 120 metres long in the south and 130 metres long on the part of the track shared with the Metropolitan line.", "Its always best to be sure your London Underground map is in colour. Each line is inexorably tied to a particular colour. The Circle Line - yellow Central Line - red District Line (all branches) - green Piccadilly Line - dark blue Northern Line (both branches) - black Victoria Line - blue Bakerloo Line - brown Hammersmith and City Line - pink Metropolitan Line - purple Jubilee Line - silver Docklands Light Railway - hollow green", "From top to bottom, left to right, you can see Luton (blue - St Pancras Station), Heathrow (pink - Paddington Station, and also the Piccadilly Underground line throughout the center of the city), London City (yellow - Bank Underground station from the Docklands Light Rail and connections on the underground to many other stations), Stansted (green - Liverpool St Station) and Gatwick (purple, Victoria Station, and also rail service to St Pancras, the blue marker).", "The Waterloo & City line is an underground railway line operated by London Underground. Crossing under the Thames, it runs between Waterloo and Bank stations with no intermediate stops. Its primary traffic is bringing commuters from south-western England arriving into Waterloo mainline station to the City of London. As a primarily commuter link it does not operate on Sundays or public holidays.", "The London Underground is a metro system in the United Kingdom that serves Greater London and the home counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire. Its first section opened in 1863, making it the oldest underground metro system in the world – although in fact approximately 55% of the current network is above ground, as it generally runs on the surface in outlying suburbs. The system comprises 11 lines – Bakerloo, Central, Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, Jubilee, Metropolitan, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria, Waterloo & City – serving 270 stations. It is operated by Transport for London (TfL).", "The London Underground is an all- electric metro railway system that covers much of the conurbation of Greater London and some neighbouring areas. It is the world's oldest underground system, and is the largest in terms of route length. Service began on 10 January 1863 on the Metropolitan Railway ; most of that initial route is now part of the Hammersmith & City Line . Despite its name, about 55% of the network is above ground. Popular local names include the Underground and, more colloquially, the Tube, in reference to the cylindrical shape of the system's deep-bore tunnels.", "The Hammersmith and City line is a line of the London Underground , coloured salmon pink on the London Underground Map , running between Hammersmith in West London and Barking in East London. Formerly part of the Metropolitan line , part of it is the oldest underground railway in the world, as it includes the first part of the London Underground, the section between Paddington and Farringdon , which opened on January 10, 1863. It ranks 10th out of the 11 lines in passenger numbers. Out of the 28 stations served, 16 are underground. The original line opened on the June 13, 1864, although Hammersmith moved to a different location in 1868. With the exception of the two-stop Waterloo & City Line and the East London Line (which is no longer a part of the Underground) it is the least used line on the Underground (as well as the least used sub-surface line).", "The District Line is the busiest sub-surface line (and third busiest overall) on the London Underground, carrying some 188,000 journeys per year, and is represented on the London Tube Map by a green line.  It serves 60 stations and is roughly 40 miles long.", "The Piccadilly line is a line of the London Underground, coloured dark blue on the Tube map. It is the fourth busiest line on the Underground network on the basis of the number of passengers transported per year with 210,000,000. It is mainly a deep-level line, running from the north to the west of London via Zone 1, with a number of surface sections, mostly in its westernmost parts. Of the 53 stations served, 25 are below ground. Some of its stations are shared with the District line and some are shared with the Metropolitan line. It is the second longest line on the system, after the Central line, and has the second most stations, after the District line. It serves many of London's top tourist attractions including Harrods (Knightsbridge), Hyde Park, Buckingham Palace (within walking distance from Green Park), Piccadilly Circus (after which the line is named), Leicester Square and Covent Garden, as well as London Heathrow Airport, the busiest airport in Europe (based on passenger numbers). The line shares tracks with the Metropolitan line between Uxbridge & Rayners Lane, then the line shares tracks with the District line between Hanger Lane Junction & Acton Town tube station, then the line runs parallel with the District line between Acton Town & Barons Court.", "The connected London Underground station has surface-level platforms on the Circle , Metropolitan and Hammersmith & City lines. Below the station are platforms for east and westbound Central Line services. Current plans for the Crossrail service would see a new station at Liverpool Street (with full mainline and underground connections).", "12 PERMAN, E.G. UndergrounD Railways of London. London, 1928. Chromolithograph. Sheet 445 x 365mm. Folds, as issued, otherwise a very fine example. A pamphlet map of the London Underground Railways, which, being issued five years before the iconic Beck map, is shown geographically-correct with above-ground landmarks. This has meant the further reaches of the system could not be included, so the District Line is shown as far east as Whitechapel; the Metropolitan as far north as Preston Road; Bakerloo to North Wembley; and what is now the Piccadilly Line is shown only to Alperton & Northfields, although as part of the District Line Services. In the north the Northern Line has yet to extend past Highgate (now Archway Station) and the Piccadilly Line past Finsbury Park. On the back of the map are printed tables of useful information. S/N: 16511 WWW.ALTEAGALLERY.COM", "The London Underground (colloquially known as the Tube) is the oldest and second largest (after Shanghai) metro in the world.  Henry Beck’s iconic map directs passengers across 11 lines and 270 stations, five of which lie outside the M25 orbital motorway.", "The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Emirates Air Line, and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes London Tramlink and suburban railway services. The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine. ", "The Central line is a London Underground line, coloured red on the tube map. It is a deep-level \"tube\" line, running east-west across London, and, at 76 km (47 mi). It is the longest Underground line and also the busiest with around 260 million passengers a year. Of the 49 stations served, 20 are below ground. It is considered to be the tube line with the highest point-to-point speeds on the Underground, reaching 70 mph (110 km/h) when the  1992 Stock  was introduced. The Central Line is coloured red on the tube map", "The Hammersmith & City line is represented on the London Tube map by a pink line. It connects West London's Hammersmith station with Barking in the East end and was originally part of the Metropolitan line, including the world's oldest underground railway.", "In early 1908, in an effort to increase passenger numbers, the underground railway operators agreed to promote their services jointly as \"the Underground\", publishing new adverts and creating a free publicity map of the network for the purpose. The map featured a key labelling the Bakerloo Railway, the Central London Railway, the City & South London Railway, the District Railway, the Great Northern & City Railway, the Hampstead Railway (the shortened name of the CCE&HR), the Metropolitan Railway and the Piccadilly Railway. Some other railways appeared on the map but with less prominence than the aforementioned lines. These included part of the ELR (although the map wasn't big enough to fit in the whole line) and the Waterloo and City Railway. As the latter was owned by a main line railway company it wasn't included in this early phase of integration. As part of the process, \"The Underground\" name appeared on stations for the first time [10] and electric ticket-issuing machines were also introduced. This was followed in 1913 by the first appearance of the famous circle and horizontal bar symbol, known as \"the roundel\", [11] designed by Edward Johnston . [10]", "In common parlance, Londoners may refer to travelling by \"overground\" (or \"overland\"), meaning going by National Rail (as opposed to going by Underground). However, only one service is officially called Overground - London Overground is a Transport for London rail service. It is operated and promoted just like the Underground, with the logo like the Tube (except orange) on stations and full acceptance of Oyster cards. London Overground appears on the Tube map as an orange line, and services run across North London suburbs from east to west. Overground services can be a useful shortcut for crossing the city, bypassing the centre, for example from Kew Gardens to Camden. London Overground services also connect busy Clapham Junction railway station in the Southwest to West London (Shepherds Bush and Kensington) and Willesden Junction in the Northwest.", "line between Paddington Station and Farringdon Street, which was opened in 1863. The line is served by twenty nine stations between Hammersmith and Barking, ten of which are situated underground at sub surface level.The line is signified by the colour pink on an underground map. ", "Line: Bakerloo Elephant & Castle Lambeth North Waterloo Embankment Charing Cross Piccadilly Circus Oxford Circus Regent's Park Baker Street Marylebone Edgware Road Paddington Warwick Avenue Maida Vale Kilburn Park Queen's Park Kensal Green Willesden Junction Harlesden Stonebridge Park Wembley Central North Wembley South Kenton Kenton Harrow & Wealdstone", "The Northern line is a line on the underground railway system, London Underground. It is coloured black on the ", "The Jubilee Line is represented on the London Tube map by a silver line and runs from Stanmore to Stratford.  It was originally built in 1979 to Charing Cross but was extended in 1999 to Stratford in the East end of London.  These later, second-stage stations are much larger and have more safety features than those of the older tube lines in general.", "Tube: Waterloo (Black Line / Northern Line, Brown Line / Bakerloo Line, Grey Line / Jubilee Line and Pink Line / City Line)", "9. Which London Underground line, opened in the 1970’s, is coloured grey on the maps and was originally going to be called “Fleet” Jubilee Line (opened 1977)", "West Brompton Underground station in 1876. Image courtesy London Transport Museum ( www.ltmuseum.co.uk ) © Transport For London", "Metropolitan Line: Started with red, turning maroon from 1921. Turned green to match the District Line from 1937 as part of an ill-conceived LT scheme to pretend they were like the New York Subway, regained its rightful colour in 1949.", "8 MACDONALD GILL, Leslie. UndergrounD. Map of Electric Railways of London. London: Dangerfield Printing Company for Electric Railway House, 1921. 280 x 340mm. Original folds flattened. A map of the London underground rail network, dated ‘9/3/21’ on reverse, so published a decade before the operating companies were amalgamated as ‘London Transport’. It shows the stations with more geographic accuracy than the iconic design of Henry C. Beck, also a decade later. The style of the map is influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement: the script used for the station names is particularly striking. Later in the same year this map was reissued, overprinted with detail relating to the British Empire Exhibition. S/N: 16200 TEL: +44 (0)20 7491 0010", "The table below shows the changing use of colours since Beck's first map. The current colours are taken from Transport for London's colour standards guide, which defines the precise colours from the Pantone palette, and also a colour naming scheme that is particular to TfL. Earlier maps were limited by the number of colours available that could be clearly distinguished in print. Improvements in colour printing technology have reduced this problem and the map has coped with the identification of new lines without great difficulty.", "• It took less than a week for a computer whiz to come up with something clever that makes use of newly-available data about London's transport network. The result is a live map of the London Underground, which appears to show in close to real time where every train on the network is located . But as Wired points out, the map can sometimes be amusingly inaccurate, though it's not clear whether that is the fault of the data, or the program written to use it:", "A complex deep level line. Its southern terminus is at Morden in Surrey . North of Kennington it splits into two branches which both head north, through the West end and the City respectively, to rejoin at Camden Town. North of Camden Town the line splits again, one heading to Edgware and the other to High Barnet in Hertfordshire , the latter with a side branch serving only Mill Hill East. ( map )", "The coloured lines can be seen on the tube map, which you will find pasted up at every station. Here is a part of it.", "Harry Beck's design - originally sketched out in a school exercise book before being converted into final artwork - has undergone constant adjustment to accomodate new lines and stations and to add clarity improvements. Beck himself had begun to tinker with it for the 1936 version but the illustration above shows how his graphic concept remains essentially unchanged 70 years on. Its success was assured to a great degree by the fact that the tube-travelling public took to it straightaway, appreciating its clarity and the way it gave an illusion of order to the otherwise chaotic city of London." ]

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[ "For a month to have a Friday the 13th, the month must begin on a Sunday. Don't believe us? Check out our Calendars and test it for yourself.", "There is a calendrical method to the madness of Friday the 13th. Whenever a common year begins on a Thursday, the months of February, March, and November will have a Friday the 13th. This will happen 11 times in the 21st century.", "In 2015, blame Thursday. The year 2015 started on a Thursday. Whenever a common year of 365 days starts on a Thursday, it’s inevitable that the months of February, March and November will start on a Sunday. And any month starting on a Sunday always has a Friday the 13th.", "Of course, February has exactly four weeks in a non-leap year. So, for that reason, the days of the week have to match up with the same dates in both February and March during any common year. In any year, the days of the week always fall on the same dates in both March and November. In short, because the year 2015 started on a Thursday, that means February, March and November all have to start on a Sunday and all must have a Friday the 13th.", "If Thursday was the first day of the year, then 2 would represent Friday the 13th in the months of February, March, and November.", "Scary coincidence or super unlucky? Neither. The fact is that any leap year starting with a Sunday will have a Friday the 13th in January, April and July. Leap years starting with Sundays are the only years in which you’ll find this exact combination of three Friday the 13ths, spaced at exactly 13 weeks apart in the same calendar year, in January, April and July.", "Yes. Three Friday the 13ths also happen in any non-leap year that starts on a Thursday. In that case, the Friday the 13ths come in February, March and November.", "Did you know months that start on a Sunday will always have a Friday the 13th", "For example, if Monday was the first day of the year, so it was 1 in mod 7, then 5 would represent when it would be Friday the 13th and if we look at the spreadsheet, those months would be April and July.", " 20,871 weeks. Thus, each cycle contains the same pattern of days of the week (and thus the same pattern of Fridays that are on the 13th). The 13th day of the month is slightly more likely to be a Friday than any other day of the week. On average, there is a Friday the 13th once every 212.35 days (compared to Thursday the 13th, which occurs only once every 213.59 days).", "Not often. It happens only three to four times every century. It last happened in 1984 and will happen next in 2040. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, we get a January-April-July Friday the 13th in cycles of 28 years. That 28-year cycle, by the way, isn’t mysterious either. Days and dates generally always realign every 28 years. Again, a calendar quirk.", "Since 13 = 2 (mod 7), then 2 represents Friday; therefore 1 represents Thursday. When you look back at the spreadsheet above, January 1st is 1 = 1 (mod 7), so January 1st must be on a Thursday.", "The number of times Friday 13 occurs in the Gregorian calendar varies each year, from once a year to three times a year. Friday 13 occurs only once in 2010 – August 13.", "“The 13th is more likely to fall on a Friday than any other day of the week!”", "In conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks . A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday , and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. For example, in the case of the few countries that adopted the reformed calendar on the date proposed by Gregory XIII for the calendar's adoption, Friday, 15 October 1582, the preceding date was Thursday, 4 October 1582 (Julian calendar).", "Note: There are different traditions as to which day of the week is the first. In the U.S., most calendars show Sunday as the first day of the week, but the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) specifies that the week begins with Monday. There are also different ideas about how to number the weeks of the year, which is sometimes necessary for business purposes. The official solution to this question is that week 1 of the year is the week (beginning with Monday) that contains January 4. By this convention, week 1 of 2005 will be the week January 4-10, 2005. Link: ISO 8601 from Markus Kuhn.", "“Thirty days hath September, / April, June, and November; / All the rest have thirty-one, / Excepting February alone, / And that has twenty-eight days clear / And twenty-nine in each leap-year.” – 15th Century English Poem", "2006: Friday the 13th is unusual this year because the date's digits add up to thirteen (whether written in U.S. or European notation). The last time this happened was Jan. 13, 1520.", "Because the year began in March, records referring to the \"first month\" pertain to March; to the second month pertain to April, etc., so that \"the 19th of the 12th month\" would be February 19.  In fact, in Latin, September means seventh month, October means eighth month, November means ninth month, and December means tenth month.  Use of numbers, rather than names, of months was especially prevalent in Quaker records.", "As expected, the frequencies with which the 13th falls on each day of the week are roughly the same. Sum of values equals (# years)*(12 months per year), as it should be.", "which was the 13th day of January, February, April, June, August, September, November, and December, or the 15th day of March, May, July, or October.", "After the new moon of July, using our calendar (the Muslim month of \"Muharram\") we may find the third month, count forward another ten days and expect to find the correction between the two calendars, ours and the one followed by the Muslim population. The next new moon (for month Two) occurs Aug. 26, month \"Safar\"; the third new moon occurs on Sept 23, month \"Rabi-Awwal.\" Now, add ten days to the Sept 23 new moon and we find October 3 1957, \"three months and ten days of 1377.\" October 3rd is the date which actually does appear to be in the third month (Rabi-Awwal) and tenth day--following the appearances of the New Moon's", "However, every four years, we add an additional day, pushing the next year out two days. The congruence of these two facts combined causes our calendar (before Gregorian adjustments) to fully repeat after 28 years. If the story ended here, there would be no bias towards Friday 13th.", "Even un-superstitious people might admit to feeling a little uneasy when the 13th falls on a Friday.", "I'd like to be able to start with a year, and calculate occurrences of Friday the 13th. A brute force solution is easy and obvious. I have something slightly better, but I have no doubt that someone else can come up with an elegant algorithm for this.", "Lunar and lunisolar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the month. In some lunisolar calendars, such as the Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when an astronomical new moon occurs in a particular time zone. In others, such as some Hindu calendars, each month begins on the day after the full moon or the new moon. Others were based in the past on the first sighting of a lunar crescent, such as the Hebrew calendar.", "a numbered week of 13 days, in which the days were numbered from 1 to 13", "Septiembre – From Latin september, because it was the seventh month in the ancient Roman calendar.", "This website is using the Gregorian calendar system as the basis for computing the day of the week. Dates before 1752 in some European countries were recorded as a Julian calendar date such as the one engraved in the above picture of a church tower in Salisbury, a city in England. (Photo credit: Alan Clarke) Just for fun. Try entering the date you see in the above picture and verify the day of the week.", "Some can also perform calendar calculations, meaning given any date past or future the person can tell what day of the week it is.", "SEPTEMBER- From the Latin word \"septem\" meaning seven, which was the seventh month of the calendar. (Yet we use it as the ninth month?)", "Nones (Nonae) were known to be the day of the half moon which usually occurs eight days before the ides." ]

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[ "There are 12 animals in the Chinese zodiac: the rat, the ox, the tiger, the rabbit, the dragon, the snake, the horse, the ram, the monkey, the rooster, the dog and the pig", "Chinese Zodiac uses 12 animal signs to predict people's fortune. The twelve animals are Rat, Cow, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Chicken, Dog and Pig. The 12 Chinese zodiac signs are determined by people's birth year. Most of Internet Chinese horoscope sites use Chinese New Year Day to determine the Chinese zodiac sign, which is wrong.", "Chinese Zodiac uses 12 animal signs to predict people's fortune. The twelve animals are Rat, Cow, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Chicken, Dog and Pig. The 12 Chinese zodiac signs are determined by people's birth year. Most of Internet Chinese horoscope sites use Chinese New Year Day to determine the Chinese zodiac sign, which is wrong.", "The Chinese Lunar calendar follows a 12 year cycle and each of the 12 years is represented by 12 Animals which form the Chinese Zodiac. After every 12 years the Chinese Calendar repeats itself. The animals in the Chinese Zodiac or the animals which constitute the Chinese calendar are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.", "Twelve zodiac animals, also known as terrestrial branches, represent the sixty-year cycle of Chinese years: dog, horse, pig, ox, rat, dragon, tiger, rabbit, snake, sheep, monkey, and rooster. Depending on day of the year and hour of birth, these signs are combined with one of the five elements, or phases, to determine what is favorable to an individual and effective in terms of his or her feng shui (life force). The five elements in Chinese philosophy are wood, fire, metal, water, and earth. (Image courtesy of Mysid , WIkimedia Commons)", "Recognition of the intimate connections between animals and humans dates back tens of thousands of years. The ancient Chinese developed a distinctive calendar system that described twelve animal personalities: Rat, Tiger , Rabbit , Ox, Dragon, Rooster , Snake , Horse , Ram, Pig, Dog , and Monkey. While the precise origins of these animals are unknown, Chinese astrologers considered them to be a reflection of the universe itself.", "The Chinese calendar was a complex timepiece. Its parameters were set according to the lunar phases as well as the solar solstices and equinoxes. Yin and yang, the opposing but complementary principles that make up a harmonious world, also ruled the calendar, as did the Chinese zodiac, the cycle of twelve stations or “signs” along the apparent path of the sun through the cosmos. Each new year was marked by the characteristics of one of the 12 zodiacal animals: the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig.", "Rat is the first in the order of the Chinese zodiac because, as legend would have it, Rat used his cunning to win the race. In this legend it is no longer Buddha, but the Jade Emperor hosting a race. Apparently, when the Emperor sent out the invitation for the race, all the animals in the kingdom heard the call. Rat and Cat were the closest of friends and responded to the invite with equal zeal.", "Chinese Zodiac: Your Chinese Zodiac sign is determined by your birth year, and you can be either a rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, monkey, goat, rooster, dog, or pig. Obviously some sound better than others, and the idea of a Zodiac fight that's completely unfair (dragon vs. monkey?) is what makes this system beautiful.", "This is the most widespread legend about Chinese zodiac. The Jade Emperor (The Emperor in Heaven in Chinese folklore) ordered that animals would be designated as calendar signs and the twelve that arrived first would be selected. At that time, the cat and the rat were good friends and neighbors. When they heard of this news, the cat said to the rat: 'We should arrive early to sign up, but I usually get up late.' The rat then promised to awaken his friend and go together. However, on the morning when he got up, he was too excited to recall his promise, and went directly to the gathering place. On the way, he encountered the tiger, ox, horse, and other animals that ran much faster.", "In Chinese astrology the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so.", "The zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so (see below). The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order and their characteristics.", "Happy Chinese New Year! The Chinese zodiac is based on a 12-year cycle, with an animal representing each year. As 2016 is the year of the monkey, it is believed that those born under this sign will... have a good year with plenty of luck and opportunities ahead. The Chinese zodiacs are determined by birth year, and every zodiac gets the spotlight every 12 years. Chinese folklore says that their order was determined by a race, which the rat won, only by riding on the ox's back until it was able to cross the finish line first.  According to Chinese zodiac, your birth year is telling of more than just your age. The Chinese believe that the animal ruling your birth year has a profound influence on personality, relationships and destiny. Which zodiac are you? Samantha Lee/Business Insider...", "People born in late January or early February may be confused about their birth year Chinese astrology animal signs. This is because it is a common misconception that the astrology animal signs begin on the Chinese New Year day. Actually, Astrology animal signs are base on the Start of Spring, the first day of astrology year. For example, if a baby was born after the Chinese New Year Day and before Feb-04 2009, then its animal sign is the Rat, not Cow because the birthday is before the Start of Spring. If you are still confused about your animal sign, we have an Animal Sign page for people to verify their Chinese birth year animal signs.", "• In the Chinese Zodiac, which animal's year will happen the earliest after 2014's year of the horse? Sheep", "In Chinese Astrology the ram or sheep is the eighth sign in a twelve year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac which relates to the Chinese calendar. For example the following years where years of the sheep: 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003. The Sheep is considered to be the most artistic or creative sign of the Chinese zodiac. Indeed  rather like the western Zodiac anyone born under the sign of the sheep are said to have certain attributes and these are said to be the following: sensitivity, creativity, insecurity, pessimism, anxiety, empathy, generosity, idleness, capriciousness, indecisiveness, gullibility, irresponsibility, romantic,  self-pitying, indecisiveness.", "For many centuries the people of China have relied on ancient Chinese astrology symbols to represent their horoscopes. Chinese astrology symbols are astrological signs of 12 animals that represent a twelve year cycle that is aligned with the sun and the moon. Each one of them was carefully selected and used to represent human life and culture. The twelve symbols of Chinese astrology were carefully chosen and represent the first twelve animals that won the race that was to be set up by ancient gods. The twelve were the ones deemed to be the best.", "The monkey is the 9th animal that appears on the Chinese zodiac, appearing as the zodiac sign in 2016.", "According to Chinese legend, Buddha asked all the animals to meet him on Chinese New Year. Twelve animals came, and Buddha named a year after each of them and declared that the people born in each animal's year would share some of that animal's personality. Thus, the Chinese Zodiac was born.", "The first day of the animal year is different from the Chinese New Year's Day. The animal year starts on the first day of the Tiger month. Tiger month begins from the day when Sun enters ecliptic 315 degree position, which is around February 4 Gregorian calendar. That means the animal month is solar month, not lunar month. This is why many people who born in January or February confuse about their animal sign of birth year. To verify the exact animal sign of birth year goes to use the free online Chinese Astrological Animal Sign page.", "Dear Snake , welcome to the year of the Monkey 2016 ! According to Chinese astrology, the new year will start on February 8, 2016.", "The first day of the Chinese astrological year is the first day of the Tiger Month ( Start of Spring ). The Tiger Month begins around February 4, each year. If you were born before February 4, then you should check Your Chinese Zodiac Sign first before reading your 2013 Chinese zodiac. The simplest way to prove Chinese zodiac signs not determined by Chinese New Year days is to see your Chinese Astrology Birth Chart using your birthday and birth time.", "The first day of the Chinese astrological year is the first day of the Tiger Month ( Start of Spring ). The Tiger Month begins around February 4, each year. If you were born before February 4, then you should check Your Chinese Zodiac Sign first before reading your 2014 Chinese zodiac. The simplest way to prove Chinese zodiac signs not determined by Chinese New Year days is to see your Chinese Astrology Birth Chart using your birthday and birth time.", "According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny can be determined by the position of the major planets at the person's birth along with the positions of the Sun, Moon, comets, the person's time of birth, and zodiac Sign. The system of the twelve-year cycle of animal signs was built from observations of the orbit of Jupiter (the Year Star; ). Following the orbit of Jupiter around the sun, Chinese astronomers divided the celestial circle into 12 sections, and rounded it to 12 years (from 11.86). Jupiter is associated with the constellation Sheti (- Boötes) and is sometimes called Sheti.", "The real origin of the animal signs in Chinese astrology is not clear. Legend suggests the creation is attributed to the Yellw Emperor in 2637 B.C. The Yellow Emperor is a semimythical figure. Another legend attributes Buddha c.563-c.483 B.C, with the creation of the animal cycle. Buddha had invited all the animals to visit him but only twelve turned up. To show thanks, Buddha dedicated a year to each animal throughout history. The years were allocated in the order the animals arrived.", "Instead of Gods and Goddesses, the symbols used in Chinese astrology are animals, and as the Chinese New Year falls on a different day every year, you will need to check the date of the new year at the time of your birth to be certain of which animal year sign falls to you, if you were born around the beginning of the Chinese year.", "The Chinese zodiac is also used to label times of day, with each sign corresponding to a \"large-hour\", which is a two-hour period (24 divided by 12 animals). It is therefore important to know the exact time of birth to determine it. The secret animal is thought to be a person�s truest representation, since this animal is determined by the smallest denominator: a person�s birth hour. As this sign is based on the position of the sun in the sky and not the time of your local clock, it is important to compensate of daylight savings time. However, some online systems already compensate for daylight savings time, and astrologers may compensate your time for you oblivious to the fact that you've compensated it yourself, leading to an inaccurate reading. The large-hour in which a person is born is their secret animal. It is a person's own true sign which their personality is based on. Note that while this chart is quite accurate, the exact time at which each animal begins shifts by the day.", "Find your birth year in the chart below to discover your Chinese zodiac animal and read on to see if you have the typical characteristics of your sign:", "The use of the animal names in the calendar led to the development of Chinese astrology. Astrology can be defined as a pseudo-science linking human destinies to charts associated with heavenly bodies or the recording of time. The Chinese believed the characteristics of a given zodiac animal influenced the personality of every person born in that year. They used this information to create horoscopes, daily predictions based upon the year of one's birth. Although the reading of horoscopes is popular in modern Chinese culture, few people take the predictions seriously.", "89. In the Chinese Zodiac, the year commencing 28th January 2017 will be the year of which animal?", "You can also know your annual energy flow and biorhythm chart by month from Chinese zodiac animal. If you know your birth year's animal sign of the Chinese zodiac, let's check this article, learn about your rhythm, and be prepared for the future.", "Chinese New Year 2015: What do the zodiac animals mean and where did they come from?" ]

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[ "Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of the Inuit. During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes dragging up to 20 kg of baggage and in the winter they pulled the sled. Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals' holes and pestering polar bears. They also protected the Inuit villages by barking at bears and strangers. The Inuit generally favored, and tried to breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs, especially ones with bright eyes and a healthy coat. Common husky dog breeds used by the Inuit were the Canadian Eskimo Dog, the official animal of Nunavut, (Qimmiq; Inuktitut for dog), the Greenland Dog, the Siberian Husky and the Alaskan Malamute. The Inuit would perform rituals over the newborn pup to give it favorable qualities; the legs were pulled to make them grow strong and the nose was poked with a pin to enhance the sense of smell.", "Of all dog breeds which resulted from one common ancestor, the Tomarctus (Canidae) , the Eskimo dog (also known commonly as the sled dog), has most certainly caught the imagination of dog enthusiasts world-wide. The Siberian Husky, Samoyed, and Alaskan Malamute are all breeds directly descended from the sled dog. Recent DNA analysis confirms that this is one of the oldest breeds of dog as can be seen with the Alaskan Malamute.", "The Eskimos treated their dogs well and valued them highly. The gold rush of 1896 brough a great influx to Alaska of dogs of many sizes and breeds who could survive the weather. Many native dogs were interbred with these dogs and pure type was lost. The Mahlemuts were a relatively isolated tribe, so the Alaskan Malamute survived the incursion better than other breeds.", "Eskimo dogs that originated in Greenland, Greenland Dogs are heavy dogs with high endurance but little speed. They are frequently used by people offering dog sled adventures and long expeditions. There are more than 30,000 Greenland Dogs living in Greenland. In the winter, they are a primary mode of transportation. Most hunters in Greenland favor dog sled teams over snowmobiles as the dog sled teams are more reliable.", "The Malamute has been identified as a basal breed that predates the emergence of the modern breeds in the 19th Century. A study in 2013 showed that the Alaskan Malamute has a similar east Asian origin to, but is not clearly related to, the Greenland Dog and the Inuit Sled Dog (Canadian Eskimo Dog), but contains a possible admixture of the Siberian Husky. ", "The Alaskan Malamute is a large breed of domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) originally bred for hauling heavy freight because of their strength and endurance, and later a sled dog. They are similar to other arctic breeds, such as the Greenland dog, Canadian Eskimo Dog, the Siberian Husky, and the Samoyed.", "Historical references of the dogs and dog harnesses that were used by Native American cultures date back to before European contact. The use of dogs as draft animals was widespread in North America. There were two main kinds of sled dogs; one kind is kept by coastal cultures, and the other kind is kept by interior cultures such as the Athabascan Indians. These interior dogs formed the basis of the Alaskan Husky. Russian traders following the Yukon River inland in the mid-1800s acquired sled dogs from the interior villages along the river. The dogs of this area were reputed to be stronger and better at hauling heavy loads than the native Russian sled dogs.", "The original sled dogs were bred by the Mahlemuit (also known as Kuuvangmiut or Kobuk) people and are one of the earliest domesticated breeds known. They were soon crossbred with Alaskan huskies, hounds, setters, spaniels, German shepherds, and wolves. As demand for dogs skyrocketed, a black market formed at the end of the 19th century which funneled large dogs of any breed to the gold rush. Siberian huskies were introduced in the early 20th century and became the most popular racing breed. The original dogs were chosen for strength and stamina, but modern racing dogs are all mixed-breed huskies bred for speed, tough feet, endurance, good attitude, and most importantly the desire to run. Dogs bred for long races weigh from 45 to(-), and those bred for sprinting weigh 5 to(-) less, but the best competitors of both types are interchangeable.", "In winter, both on land and on sea ice, the Inuit used dog sleds (qamutik) for transportation. The husky dog breed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs and wolves for transportation. A team of dogs in either a tandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made of wood, animal bones, or the baleen from a whale's mouth and even frozen fish, over the snow and ice. The Inuit used stars to navigate at sea and landmarks to navigate on land; they possessed a comprehensive native system of toponymy. Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an inukshuk.", "The most famous kennels are still breeding their own lines, but there are some kennels that are concentrating on pure bred breeds such as the Siberian Husky, Alaskan Malamute and American Inuit dogs.", "Siberian Huskies are still used occasionally as sled dogs in dogsled racing but have been widely replaced by the more popular Alaskan Husky and hound-type crossbreeds that are specially bred and selected for speed and have less heavy coats. Freight Siberian Huskies were selectively bred to pull a medium load over long distances at a medium pace, and simply can't keep up with their faster counterparts. Siberians are still popular in races restricted to purebreds and are faster than other pure sled dog breeds such as the Samoyed and the slower but much stronger Alaskan Malamute. Today the breed tends to divide along lines of “racing” Siberians versus “show” Siberians.", "Domesticated land mammals include dogs, which were introduced by the Inuit, as well as such European-introduced species as goats, Greenlandic sheep, oxen and pigs, which are raised in modest numbers in the south.", "Dogs referred to as toy or teacup dogs, are dogs found in the Toy Group of breed registries, may be of the very ancient lapdog type, or they may be small versions of hunting dogs or working dogs, bred down in size for a particular kind of work or to create a pet of convenient size. In the past, very small dogs not used for hunting were kept as symbols of affluence, as watchdogs, and for the health function of attracting fleas away from their owners. ", "Numerous non-sled dog breeds have been used as sled dogs. Poodles, Irish setters, German shorthaired pointers, Labrador retrievers, Newfoundlands, and St. Bernards have all been used to pull sleds in the past.", "There are two genetically distinct varieties of Alaskan Husky: A sprinting group and a long-distance group. Alaskan Malamutes and Siberian Huskies contributed the most genetically to the long-distance group, while Pointers and Salukis contributed the most to the sprinting group. Anatolian Shepherd Dogs contributed a strong work ethic to both varieties. There are many Alaskan Huskies that are partially Greyhound, which improves their speed. Although some Alaskan Huskies are known to be part wolf, which increases their endurance, these wolfdogs are generally disliked since they have a reputation of being difficult to control.", "We have 150 Purebred Siberian Huskies to love and cuddle with in our kennel - the type of dog most people expect to see when they think of Canadian dogsledding. To meet all of our dogs, see their pictures and read their biographies check out Our Huskies page . Our sled dogs are part of our family, and each a special love! As such we don't sell puppies or dogs, when one comes to us they have a home & family for life! All of our dogs have unique and wonderful personalities. If you are unfamiliar with the breed, let us assure you there is no friendlier (or active) dog than the Siberian, they absolutely LOVE people and attention. Our huskies have also had their fair share of media attention, you can see the logo's of the places they have been featured below.", "The Siberian husky is among the oldest dog breeds, and is believed to have been developed by the Chukchi tribe in Northeast Asia as a working sled dog. Siberians have a long history of aiding human survival in the arctic and subarctic regions, and they are still used in sled dog races today. The thick, medium-length double coat protects the Siberian husky from extreme cold. Siberian huskies were working dogs during the Alaskan gold rush of the 1890s, and teams of Siberian huskies famously relayed serum to Nome, Alaska, during a diphtheria epidemic in 1925. Today, Siberians are popular family dogs and show dogs, while they also continue in their traditional role as sled dogs. Siberians reach 20 to 23.5 inches in height, and weigh 35 to 60 lbs. Coat colors range from solid black to pure white, often with striking facial markings and patterns unique to the breed.", "Alaskan Malamutes are still in use as sled dogs for personal travel, hauling freight, or helping move light objects; some, however, are used for the recreational pursuit of sledding, also known as mushing, as well as for skijoring, bikejoring, carting, and canicross. However, most Malamutes today are kept as family pets or as show or performance dogs in weight pulling, dog agility, or packing. Malamutes are generally slower in long-distance dogsled racing against smaller and faster breeds, so their working usefulness is limited to freighting or traveling over long distances at a far slower rate than that required for racing. They can also help move heavy objects over shorter distances. An adult male Alaskan Malamute can pull around of weight, depending on build and training.", "The Samoyed dates back to 1000 BCE, and he hasn’t changed much in appearance or temperament in all that time. The breed is named for the Samoyede people, a nomadic tribe that lived on the tundra of northern Russia and Siberia, near the Arctic Circle. The tribe used the dogs they called bjelkiers to herd reindeer, pull sledges, and occasionally hunt bears. These friendly and useful dogs were treated as members of the family, living with them in their primitive dwellings.", "from there spread into Canada and other areas of the United States. They are noted for their wolf-like appearance and unique eye color combinations. One eye may be brown and the other blue, that in normal for this breed. Siberian Huskies are very dominant and stubborn animals and do well with good training programs. They are smart dogs and have a lifespan of 12-15 years. The dog’s passion is to run and perform in sled dog racing competitions.", "The Chinook is a drafting and sled dog developed in New Hampshire in the early 1900s, and is a blend of Mastiff, Greenland Husky, German Shepherd, and Belgian Shepherd. It is the state dog of New Hampshire and was recognized by the AKC as a Working breed in 2013. Its name means \"warm winter winds\" in Inuit. They are described as athletic and \"hard bodied\" with a \"tireless gait\".", "As a working breed, Siberian Huskies are a high-energy canine requiring lots of exercise. They have served as companions and sled dogs, but are unsuitable as guard dogs. Over time, this combination of factors has lent the Siberian Husky a strong sense of gentleness and devotion.", "The Samoyed is a working breed of dog whose origin traced back to Siberia. The Samoyedskaya,as it is called by the locals, was originally used for herding reindeer, sled pulling and hunting.", "Siberian Huskies are working dogs of Siberian or Russian origin. They are characterised for their coat that is thicker than most breeds composed of a longer topcoat made of straight and short guard hairs and a thick undercoat. Their eyes are coloured brown, amber, dark-blue or ice-blue. They have heavily furred tails to add warmth over their nose and faces. Huskies howl instead of bark. They are social, docile, affectionate, and relaxed, although they are extremely energetic. They are not good watchdogs because of their friendliness with anyone.", "one of an Alaskan breed of large dogs with a dense, coarse gray or black and white coat, erect ears, and a bushy tail carried over the back, raised orig. for pulling sleds.", "The Alaskan Malamute is a freighting dog, built to pull heavy loads for long distances. He is highly athletic with a well muscled body, deep chest, strong legs and a plume of a tail that waves over his back.", "Eskimos. They are native to the northernmost regions from north-eastern Asia up to Greenland and North America, they resemble more to the Asiatic Mongoloids than to the American Indians.", "Nordic-style dog mushing involves incorporating a small sled between the owner and dog. The sled is used for carrying provisions.", "Inuit hunter and his 13-dog team, in the “fan hitch” configuration; near Baffin Bay in …", "In some areas, such as the high Arctic, venison serve as a primary source of food. Indigenous people living there utilize caribou for meat and clothing and have even raised them as domesticated animals in the past.", "1. a soft boot worn by Eskimos, often lined with fur and usu. made of sealskin or reindeer skin.", "Leasing dogs helps mushers on a shorter schedule because when they arrive the dogs are already at the peak age of 3 to 5 years old and trail trained. There can be fewer issues using dogs already familiar with the trail and with Alaska—transporting dogs from other countries is costly, and there is the risk of exposure to new viruses that may slow the team on the trail, or end their race entirely." ]

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[ "Ostriches can run at maximum speeds of about 97.5 km/h (60.6 mph), making it both the fastest bird on land and the fastest two-legged animal in the world.", "The Cheetah is not the fastest. It’s the fastest LAND animal but, not the fastest. Anyways, if the Tiger Beetle was the size of a human it could be the fastest animal at 300 mph! But the fastest is the Peregrine Falcon, at 270 mph! I say the Cheetahs’ quite slow.", "The falcon is the fastest the fact that it uses gravity to increase speed is irrelevant, the cheetah runs up to 70 miles per hour the falcon up to 200mph so whats the problem.", "While the cheetah is commonly thought of as one of the speediest creatures in the animal kingdom, and moves at 16 body lengths per second, the Paratarsotomus macropalpis trounces the big cat with a whopping 322 body lengths per second, according to a study by Pomona College in Claremont, Calif. This is almost twice as quick as what was previously believed to be the fastest animal, the Australian Tiger Beetle, which moves at 171 body lengths per second.", "While cheetahs are clearly the fastest land animals, I believe the peregrine falcons are the fastest animals because they can move over 20 mph (322 km/h) without their lungs being crushed or their eyes being coated with debris. According to National Geographic, the fastest recorded speed of a peregrine falcon's dive is 242 mph (389 km/h). The record was set by a peregrine named Frightful. She was released from a helicopter at 15,000 ft (4,572 m) which is a height that she could achieve naturally.", "The fastest land animal is the cheetah, however the fastest animal in the world is the prerigine falcon, which can dive at 217mph", "A  cheetah can run 76 kilometres per hour (46 miles per hour) – that’s really fast! The fastest human beings runs only about 30 kilometres per hour (18 miles per hour).", "7.       A cheetah can run 76 kilometers per hour (46 miles per hour) - that's really fast! The fastest human being runs only about 30 kilometers per hour (18 miles per hour).", "It should be the Paragrine Falcon, although the Spine-tailed sift should get more credit than the Cheetah considering it can go 107 full on. I believe that this site is speaking of the fastest land animal.", "The cheetah, also known as the hunting leopard, is a big cat that occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa and a few parts of Iran. The cheetah is the fastest land animal, able to run up to 75 mph and can accelerate from 0 to 60 mph in just 3 seconds", "Secondly, those which have argued that the peregrine falcon is the fastest animal on earth and wrong (to an extent). Yes, it takes credit for eing the fastest animal on earth, but it merely freefalls and does not generate speed, it lets gravity do that. So it cannot take credit for such a title, the cheetah self generates extreme speed on land with pure muscle power and immense strength in its legs. Therefore I have proven the cheetah is the fastest animal on earth!", "The cheetah is the fastest land animal and can reach speeds of up to 70 mph.", "- The cheetah is the fastest animal on land and can reach speeds up to 70 miles per hour, yet can run only 400 to 600 yards before it is exhausted.", "Third is Cheetah which moves between 70-105 Km/h, and it gets tired so fast as hell, but as a record, cheetahs are the fastest Land Mammal on land, just like Elephants are Hugest Mammal on Land, And whale is the hugest animal on earth. Hope you enjoyed this information", "The fastest land animal is indeed the cheetah, at 60 mph. But in terms of body lengths per second, that’s only, roughly 10 body-lengths per second on average, and 20 B.L.P.S. when sprinting after prey.", "The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large-sized feline (family Felidae) inhabiting most of Africa and parts of Middle East. The cheetah is the only extant member of the genus Acinonyx, most notable for modifications in the species' paws. As such, it is the only felid with non-retractable claws and pads that, by their scope, disallow gripping (therefore cheetah cannot climb vertical trees, although they are generally capable of reaching easily accessible branches). The cheetah, however, achieves by far the fastest land speed of any living animal — between 112 and 120 km/h (70 and 75 mph) in short bursts covering distances up to 500 m (1,600 ft), and has the ability to accelerate from 0 to over 100 km/h (62 mph) in three seconds.", "From Cheetah Conservation Fund website: The cheetah is aerodynamically built for speed and can accelerate from zero to 40 mph in three strides and to full speed of 70 mph in seconds. As the cheetah runs, only one foot at a time touches the ground. There are two points, in its 20 to 25 foot (7-8 metres) stride when no feet touch the ground, as they are fully extended and then totally doubled up. Nearing full speed, the cheetah is running at about 3 strides per second.", "id say that the spine-tailed swift is the fastest animal on earth. horizontally, it can reach speeds up to 105 mph. flying is no easy job, it takes a lot of muscle to lift ur whole weight off the ground, along with some hollow bones, but do note that there are many microscopic and small creatures that can travel pretty far distances at amazing speeds and that if they were as big as a cheetah they’d definetley be the fastest animals on earth…", "But even that figure requires a little context. Cheetahs run for a reason—to catch dinner—and most prey are smart enough not to bet their life on a drag race. Instead, they zig. Some even zag. And that means that while cheetahs are capable of reaching 29 m/s under ideal test conditions, in the wild they average only 15 m/s (33 mph) and maintain that speed for just one to two seconds. Yawn.", "horizontal flight – meaning gravity is not a factor – and the peregrine falcon can go 55mph, therefore cheetah can generate faster speeds under its own power.", "The cheetah is the least catlike and aggressive of the big cats; the weakest of the group, it often loses its kills to lions, hyenas and even vultures. When hunting (around dawn and late afternoon), cheetahs spend a lot of time moving into position before bursting from cover and running down their prey in brief bursts of speed of up to 112 kph (sustainable for only 200-300 meters at a time). Unlike the other big cats, cheetahs never climb trees but prefer termite mounds, leaning trees or even vehicles as observation posts.", "Cheetah is regarded as the fastest animal on land, due to its ability to glom a speed of 0 – 60 miles per hour, pull desired three seconds. palpable can grow up to a length of 3.5 to 4.5 ft, further weighs 77 to 143 lbs. Although it is believed that competent are around six sub-species of a cheetah, the taxonomy of these species is sometime to emblematize resolved. The two most superior sub-species of Cheetah are the Asiatic cheetah, found in Asia being positively as northern areas of Africa, and Northwest African Cheetah essential to the western regions of Africa. This carnivorous animal hunts in wide daylight and mostly feeds on herbivores in the surroundings.", "Cheetahs are the fastest land animals in the world, but even cheetahs have to be on the lookout for other predators.", "The cheetah's body is specialised for speed, and it is the fastest land animal. Estes describes the cheetah as the \"felid version of the greyhound\", as both have similar morphology and the ability to reach tremendous speeds in a shorter time than other mammals. The thin and light body of the cheetah makes it well-suited to short, explosive bursts of speed, rapid acceleration, and an ability to execute extreme changes in direction while moving at speed. These adaptations account for much of the cheetah's ability to catch fast-moving prey. ", "Adaptations that enable the cheetah to run as fast as it does include large nostrils that allow for increased oxygen intake, and an enlarged heart and lungs that work together to circulate oxygen efficiently. During a typical chase, its respiratory rate increases from 60 to 150 breaths per minute. While running, in addition to having good traction due to its semi-retractable claws, the cheetah uses its tail as a rudder-like means of steering to allow it to make sharp turns, necessary to outflank prey animals that often make such turns to escape. [ Source ]", "Speed is crucial to hares' survival, especially for species that live on open plains, such as the European hare, which can run at 37 body lengths a second, he said. Cheetahs , he noted, \"can only manage 23 body lengths per second.\"", "The cheetah is a sprinter, not a long distance runner, but pairs agility with speed for deadly attack runs. Cheetahs are also very fast accelerators, and can ramp up their speed four times faster than human beings can. They can also pull to a stop extremely fast. It is also interesting to note that the speed and agility of the cheetah is not matched by strength. The cheetah is fairly fragile and will lose in most fights with other predators. As a result, they will quickly surrender prey to competitors. An injured cheetah may not be able to run quickly, which can put its life in danger.", "In April 2007 Habana competed against a cheetah in a 100-meter race to help raise awareness of the imminent danger of the cheetah being classified as an endangered species, according to De Wildt officials. He lost, because cheetahs can run 70 mph, instead of 22 mph. ", "The fastest land mammal in the world, the cheetah has many adaptations that allow it to sprint across the plains; the rangy frame... More 34 Images 22 Videos", "it IS the perigrine falcon. If u dropped a cheetah, sure it would go fast but it would die because it is not built to fall. But a falcon can close over it’s nostrils, has a transparent eyelid", "The Fastest Animal On Earth Is Not A Cheetah | Fast Company | Business + Innovation", "I know for a fact that the Cheetah is the fastest land animal in the world." ]

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[ "The kiwi is the national bird and icon of New Zealand . In fact, the native people of New Zealand are often also called Kiwis . The kiwi also appears on many flags and symbols across the islands.", "The national bird of New Zealand, the kiwi is a small, flightless and rather unusual bird. Due to the destruction of its natural habitat by deforestation and the devastation of the population by predators, this nocturnal bird is not often seen in the wild. However, there are a number of places where kiwis can still be seen.", "The kiwi bird is national bird and pride of New Zealand. Kiwis are only found here in this country, which makes them very rare creatures.", "3 The Kiwi, national bird of New Zealand, can’t fly. It lives in a hole in the ground, is almost blind, and lays only one egg each year. Despite this, it has survived for more than 70 million years.", "The Kiwi is the only bird with nostrils at the tip of its beak. Whereas other birds hunt by sight or by hearing, the national bird of New Zealand uses its beaky nostrils to sniff out food at night. Although the Kiwi is roughly the same size as a chicken, it lays an egg which is 10 times larger than a hen's. It also has wings but cannot fly.", "This flightless bird is only found in the country that proudly claims it as its national animal - New Zealand . The kiwi is nocturnal, with hair-like feathers and a keen sense of smell. Despite its small size, a kiwi can outrun a human on its four-toed feet. ", "The Kiwi bird, of the order Apterygiformes-Ratitae, occurs only in New Zealand. Although primarily a bird of New Zealands native forests, kiwis also live in scrub and native grasslands. Because the kiwi is a semi-nocturnal, secretive bird, few New Zealanders have seen their national bird in the wild.", "The kiwi are native to New Zealand, and are the national symbol of the country. In fact, the term Kiwi is used all over the world as a nickname for New Zealanders! Kiwis have no tails, tiny wings that are useless, and feathers that are almost like coarse hairs. Unlike the other flightless birds, kiwi are the size of a domestic chicken, making them the smallest living ratites. They use their unique long and skinny beaks- having nostrils at the end- to poke into the ground in search of earthworms, their favorite food. Another interesting fact is that a female kiwi lays one egg that is nearly 1/4 of her body weight!", "Tweet of the Day is the voice of birds and our relationship with them, from around the world. Miranda Krestovnikoff presents the New Zealand brown kiwi. A piercing wail can be heard in a forest at night. A brown kiwi is calling. Only found in New Zealand, kiwi are flightless birds and the brown kiwi, which is about the size of a domestic chicken, lays an egg weighing as much as a quarter of its own bodyweight - proportionally; the largest egg for its size of any bird. More mammal like than birds; their tiny eyes are of little use, but they have an excellent sense of smell, using their nostrils located unusually for birds near the end of the bill. Held in great affection, brown kiwi appear on coins, stamps and coats-of- arms as well as providing a nick-name for New Zealand's national rugby team.", "Fauna beautiful native birds and plants and its completely enriched. well-known New Zealand native birds include the kea (native parrot), weka, takahe, tui, and morepork owl. Big Mama :The New Zealand kiwi is only bird in the world to have nostrils at the tip of its bill, and lays the largest egg relative to body size The playful kea is one of the most intelligent birds in the world and will happily attack a car in order to steal a windscreen wiper or other bits of rubber! Tuatara - Living Fossil, Water Baby :Hector's dolphin, found only off the coast of New Zealand, is the world's rarest and smallest dolphin. It is recognisable by the rounded dorsal fin", "New Zealand is the natural home of the unique and fascinating New Zealand Kiwi bird. At Willowbank, protecting and educating the public about this very special, endangered species, is one of our most important roles as a wildlife reserve .", "Like so many native birds, the kiwi is endemic to New Zealand’s islands but its survival in the wild is tenuous, with introduced predators such as feral cats and stoats now impacting dramatically on numbers. Populations of other birds, such as the flightless nocturnal kakapo – the world’s biggest parrot – have also suffered.", "New Zealand is notable for its geographic isolation: it is situated about 2000 km (1250 miles) southeast of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and its closest neighbours to the north are New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga. During its long isolation New Zealand developed a distinctive fauna dominated by birds (there are, in fact, only two native mammals in New Zealand), a few of which (including the Moa and the enormous Haast Eagle) became extinct after the arrival of humans and the mammals they introduced.", "Above right top: Tui, photo Gareth Rapley.  2nd down: North Island kokako, photo Rogan Colbourne.  3rd down: NZ bellbird, photo Paul Schilov.  4th down: North Island brown kiwi, photo Rod Morris, Crown Copyright © Department of Conservation.  Bottom right: Weka, Copyright © Virtual New Zealand.", "The weka is another bird of New Zealand. This brown, chicken-sized bird was an important resource for native New Zealanders and European settlers, but is now decreasing in number. While they may look unremarkable, weka have a loud call that males and females sing as a duet. They’re also known as clever thieves and will steal food and small objects to their liking and make off with them. Weka are skilled swimmers, too.", "The kiwi is a brown, fuzzy, flightless bird native to the forests and jungles of New Zealand . In recent years the kiwi has become endangered, mainly due to introduced predators like dogs , cats , rats , ferrets and weasels which hunt the kiwi and eat it's eggs. The kiwi is almost helpless against these exotic threats and there are many support organizations for kiwis which run conservation projects to try and protect the remaining kiwi population. The largest of these kiwi conservation projects is run by the Bank of New Zealand .", "Moa, adzebills, giant eagle and tiny wrens are all gone forever. Extinction rates for birds in New Zealand are high - 34% of endemic land and freshwater birds and 5% of sea birds. Birds that had evolved to live on the ground had no defences against the ravages of predators, nor habitat loss. Even now, 37% of our bird species are considered threatened. The most recent extinction was the huia in 1907; the takahe was thought to be extinct until small numbers were rediscovered in the Murchison Mountains of Fiordland in 1948; and the kaki/black stilt, with around 100 adults remaining, is on the edge.", "Fossil records indicate that in pre-Polynesian times, the kakapo was New Zealand's third most common bird and it was widespread on all three main islands. However, the kakapo population in New Zealand has declined massively since human settlement of the country. Since 1891, conservation efforts have been made to prevent extinction. The most successful scheme has been the Kakapo Recovery Programme; this was implemented in 1989 and continues.", "Most birds sleep at night, and it has long been thought that the kiwi is nocturnal, since it is rarely seen during the day. But researchers studying the bird on New Zealand's Stewart Island have seen them out and about during the day. Still, the kiwi usually rests in deep underground burrows or hollow logs during the day, and as night begins to fall, it slowly pokes its bill out to sniff the air. If the coast is clear, the bird cautiously emerges to begin a nightly routine of gorging on worms and other invertebrates.", "South Island, New Zealand evolved as a land of birds, not mammals, and scientists and citizens are struggling to save several of the more spectacular winged species unique to this area, including the endangered royal albatross and two flightless species, the yellow-eyed penguin and the kiwi. Of 93 species of birds native to New Zealand, only 50 remain, and 37 of these are classified as threatened or, worse yet, endangered.\"", "The Moas of New Zealand are a good reminder of the fact that man is not the only factor involved in extinctions. Moas existed in New Zealand from at least the late Miocene or early Pliocene and the oldest known fossil is (Anomalapteryx antiquus). About 20-25 species are known from the fossil record. All are relatively large flightless birds. The species thought to have died out last is Megalapteryx diderius which some authorities claim existed on the South Island until about 300 years ago. The Maoris arrived in New Zealand around 1350 AD so this would mean that the Moas became extinct about 300 years after the Maoris arrived. Some authorities however maintain that all the Moas were extinct before the Maoris arrived. There were human inhabitants of New Zealand before the Maoris arrived and there is no doubt that they killed and ate both Moas and their eggs.", "Special Adaptations Kiwi birds have been called a genetic leftover. Their characteristics seem very odd to us probably due to the fact that they haven't evolved much at all. They are suspected to be about 8 million years old. That's 7 million years older than humans. Due to New Zealand's isolated environment, it has been safe from predators and hasn't needed to do much adapting. They just hang around.", "Closer to Auckland, the country’s most populous city, visitors can take a boat trip to island sanctuaries such as Tiritiri Matangi, where volunteers have spent years replanting native vegetation and repopulating with species of endangered native birds. These include the takahe, the large, bright-blue flightless rail that was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in remote Fiordland in 1948, and the kokako, or blue wattled crow, whose haunting call is only rarely heard in mainland forests.", "Above top: Kereru, Copyright © 2010 G. Woodhouse.  2nd down: Parea, Crown Copyright © Department of Conservation.  3rd down: Silvereye, photo A. Walmsley, Copyright © Wildfocus.  4th down: Male stitchbird, photo Dick Veitch.  Above: North Island saddleback, photo J.L. Kendrick, Crown Copyright © Department of Conservation.", "Apteryx occidentalis, native to South Island, New Zealand. The species is known from only a single bird (c. 1900) and may have been a subspecies of the Little Spotted Kiwi or a hybrid of the Little Spotted Kiwi and the Rowi Kiwi.", "The kiwi is the sole survivor of an ancient order of birds including the now extinct moas. A flightless bird about the size of a domestic fowl, the kiwi has coarse, bristly, hair-like feathers. Females are larger than males.", "The kiwi bird is a flightless bird, about the size of a chicken. It is nocturnal; meaning it sleeps during the day and is active at nighttime. It has a long beak that is one-third the length of its body, and its beak actually has nostrils at the end. The kiwi is the only bird with this feature. Another quirky feature of the kiwi is that it has no tail. It has thick brown hair-like feathers. This bird has many physical features unlike any other bird on earth.", "The kiwi is truly unique; it is a bird, but it has features more characteristic of a mammal", "What is the only bird to have nostrils at the end of it's nose? A. The kiwi", "Kea (Nestor notabilis) are an endemic parrot of the South Island's high country. Although they are seen in reasonable numbers throughout the South Island, the size of the wild population is unknown - but is estimated at between 1,000 and 5,000 birds.", "Native.  Not common.  Nests in trees only near Okarito on the West Coast of the South Island.  During summer they spread to coasts and freshwater wetlands throughout the country but return to Okarito in August.  Maori kept caged birds for plucking, the larger white wing feathers were worn by men in their hair and bunches of smaller wing feathers were worn in their ears.  Can live 22 years", "Native, found only in New Zealand.  Not common.  Makes its nest on a sandy beach in a shallow dip in the sand just above high tide next to a small landmark like a plant or piece of wood. Walks or runs, then stops and pecks to feed. Declining numbers mean some breeding sites are fenced off to protect them from people and animals.  Can live more than 30 years." ]

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[ "A sphinx is a mythical creature with the body of a lion, most often with a human head and sometimes with wings. The creature was an Egyptian invention and had a male head - human or animal; however, in ancient Greek culture the creature had the head of a woman. The sphinx is also present in the art and sculpture of the Mycenaean, Assyrian, Persian and Phoenician civilizations.  ", "Sphinx , (fr. sphinx), is a monstrosity of Egyptian origin, composed of the head and breast of a woman, the body of a lion, and the wings of an eagle. It is more often used as a crest than in coats of arms.", "The Sphinx is a living statue from ancient Egypt that has the body of a lion but the head of an animal. This head is sometimes a man like the statue in Giza or of a Ram as in the temple of Amun. There are in fact three types of Sphinx: the Androphinx which had the body of a lion with the head of a human, the Criosphinx which had the body of a lion with the head of a ram and the Hierocosphonx which had the body of a lion with the head of a hawk.", "The sphinx is always a creature of secrecy and intrigue. Sphinxes are composites of two or more animals, usually with the body of a lion, and sometimes part human. Egyptian sphinxes had the head of a bird, a ram, or a person, usually a pharoah.", "The Great Sphinx is the most famous artistic rendition of a sphinx. It is also the earliest surviving example, dating back to the third century B.C. The sphinx, in general terms, is a mythological creature of great importance to ancient Egyptian and Greek art and mythology. In both cultures, the sphinx has a human head and the body of a lion. In the earliest reference to a sphinx, Hesiod referred to it by the name \"Phix.\"", "A sphinx (, Boeotian: ) is a mythical creature with, at a minimum, the head of a human and the body of a lion.", "The Sphinx, the largest surviving statue from the ancient world, was sculpted out of limestone bedrock. The massive sculpture has the head of man in Egyptian headdress sporting a spiraling beard, a feature found on many likenesses of pharaohs. It has the body of a lion, with two paws resting beneath the head and chest. It rises 66 feet high; the leonine body stretches for 240 feet.", "A Sphinx (Greek: Σφίγξ) is a mythical creature with, as a minimum, the body of a lion and a woman's head. She is mythicised as treacherous and merciless. The Sphinx is said to have guarded the entrance to the Greek city of Thebes, and to have asked a riddle of travellers to allow them passage. Oedipus solved her riddle, and, bested at last, the Sphinx then threw herself from her high rock and died. (An Egyptian version of the Sphinx also exists, and was viewed as benevolent in contrast to the malevolent Greek version, and was thought of as a guardian often flanking the entrances to temples.", "The Great Sphinx of Giza has stood guard in front of the pyramids since around 2500 BC. Unlike the half-lion, half-woman Sphinx of Greek myth, the Great Sphinx combines the body of a lion with the head of a man-King Khafre, the ruler of Egypt at that time. Other Egyptian sphinxes, however, have the heads of rams or falcons. And while the Sphinx of Greek myth is cruel and aggressive, Egyptian sphinxes are considered benign symbols of powerful rulers.", "The Sphinx is seen in two cultures, the Egyptians used the Sphinx as a statue, which had the body of the lion and the head of a human, and sometimes the sphinx had wings. Sphinxes were built to honour their kings who the head was normally a portrait of. The Greeks who visited Egypt much later gave the name Sphinx to these structures. The Greek sphinx was a creature of death and destruction and bad luck. The Sphinx was portrayed as a female creature as a winged lion with a feminine head, and sometimes a snake tail. The Sphinx was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The Sphinx is sometimes seen as the guardian of temple entrances.", "A Sphinx is a zoomorphic mythological figure which is depicted as a recumbent lion with a human head. It has its origins in sculpted figures of Old Kingdom Egypt, to which the ancient Greeks applied their own name for a female monster, the \"strangler\", an archaic figure of Greek mythology. Similar creatures appear throughout South and South-East Asia, and the sphinx enjoyed a major revival in European decorative art from the Renaissance onwards.", "✰ Sphinx is a mythical monster that appears in Greek as well as Egyptian legends. It is a creature with a lion's body and a human head.", "The Sphinx differs from other deities in that it has an animal body and a human head, whereas most other deities have human bodies and animal heads. One explanation for this anomaly is that the Sphinx is the earthly representation of the constellation Leo, which has a lion's body. Images of the sphinx are found in various sizes and shapes, as the collection at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the temples throughout Egypt attest.", "A sphinx ( Ancient Greek : Σφίγξ / Sphinx, sometimes Φίξ /Phix) is a mythological figure which is depicted as a recumbent lion with a human head. It has its origins in sculpted figures of Old Kingdom Egypt , to which the ancient Greeks applied their own name for the male monster, the \"strangler\", an archaic figure of Greek mythology . Similar creatures appear throughout South and South-East Asia. In European decorative art, the sphinx enjoyed a major revival during the Renaissance . Later, the sphinx image, something very similar to the original Egyptian concept, was exported into many other cultures, albeit often interpreted quite differently due to translations of descriptions of the originals and the evolution of the concept in relation to other cultural traditions.", "The Great Sphinx of Giza is an immense stone sculpture of a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human. The greatest monumental sculpture in the ancient world, it is carved out of a single ridge of limestone 240 feet (73 meters) long and 66 feet (20 meters) high.", "The name \"Sphinx\" in fact relates to a Greek mythological beast with the body of a lion, the head of a woman and the wings of an eagle. The Greek name derived from the verb \"to strangle\" as the Greek sphinx strangled anyone who failed to answer her riddle. This is a story from Greek mythology and although in the legend the sphinx was said to sit outside Thebes it is generally held that it was Thebes in Greece and a completely different sphinx that were referred to. Nevertheless the tale is still told to many tourists who visit Giza!", "On balance, it seems to me that, as Robert Temple has suggested, the Sphinx was built with the body of a dog, presumably to symbolise Anubis (with the cat�s tail representing a later modification). Anubis, it should be noted, was the god who guarded the Earth and the Underworld, and protected the body of Osiris. With the Pyramid representing Osiris (Pyramid Texts, Utterance 600), it would make sense that the Sphinx was originally an image of Anubis (its head was probably re-carved from the head of a dog to the head of a king).", "DEFINITION: A mythical beast portrayed with the crouched body of a lion and head or face of a man. It is especially known from Egyptian art as a symbol of royal power and only the pharaoh was depicted in this form. Originally considered by the Egyptians to represent the guardian of the Gates of Sunset, the statues were usually erected to guard tombs or temples from intruders. The largest and most famous of the sphinxes is that of Giza, carved from a knoll left by the quarrying of stone for the Great Pyramid. Its features are those of the pharaoh Chephren (Khafre) of the 4th dynasty, reigning c 26th century", "The word sphinx comes from the Greek Σφίγξ, apparently from the verb σφίγγω (sphíngō), meaning \"to strangle\". [2] This name may be derived from the fact that the hunters for a pride of lions are the lionesses, and kill their prey by strangulation, biting the throat of prey and holding them down until they die. The word sphincter derives from the same root. However, the historian Susan Wise Bauer suggests that the word \"sphinx\" was instead actually a Greek corruption of the Egyptian name \"shesepankh,\" which meant \"living image,\" and referred rather to the statue of the sphinx, which was carved out of \"living rock\" (rock that was present at the construction site, not harvested and brought from another location), than to the beast itself. [3]", "Author Robert K. G. Temple proposes that the Sphinx was originally a statue of the Jackal-Dog Anubis, the God of the Necropolis, and that its face was recarved in the likeness of a Middle Kingdom pharaoh, Amenemhet II. Temple bases his identification on the style of the eye make-up and the style of the pleats on the head-dress. ", "The Great Sphinx at Giza in Egypt is the oldest monumental stone sculpture in the world, and still the largest. At 74m long by 20m high, not even Mt Rushmore (at a mere 18m) can compete. The mouth, with its enigmatic smile, caused by erosion and ancient vandalism rather than design, is 2 metres across. It was carved from the living rock - one of several limestone knolls in the area. The body, heavily eroded, is a soft yellowish limestone; the head is of a much harder grey limestone. It faces due east, directly towards the sunrise at the solstice. The neck is particularly badly weathered, because it was vulnerable for the very long period when only the head was visible above the sand. Herodotus, who has much to say about the pyramids does not mention the Sphinx at all - maybe it was completely buried in the 5th century BC. The head and face (which once had a beard, fragments of which are in the British Museum) are typical of Dynasty IV, with its headdress (heavily restored in the 1920s), uraeus (cobra on the forehead), and red paint (which Pliny the Elder recorded in the 1st century AD as having religious significance), traces of which are still visible. Note that is is very definitely male, and has no wings.", "The Great Sphinx was believed to stand as a guardian of the Giza Plateau, where it faces the rising sun. It was the focus of solar worship in the Old Kingdom, centered in the adjoining temples built around the time of its probable construction. Its animal form, the lion, has long been a symbol associated with the sun in ancient Near Eastern civilizations. Images depicting the Egyptian king in the form of a lion smiting his enemies appear as far back as the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt.", "The fact that this earliest super-colossal image of the king was a mixed form, both animal and human, is significant. In mixed forms, it is the head that conveys the essential identity, and with the nemes scarf about the Great Sphinx 's head, it must be the representation of a king. But as Henry Fischer relates the head's attachment to the lion's body, it is \"a suggestion of shape-shifting, of metamorphosis, that is appropriate to the king who is, uniquely, the link between mankind and the gods, and stands constantly on the threshold of these two worlds\".", "* Sphinx has the haunches of a lion, the wings of a great bird, and the face of a woman.", "The Sphinx is crouching there at the entrance to the Necropolis like a guardian. Well, there it is! It is a guard dog! The ancient Egyptians had a god called Anubis, who was a crouching wild dog, generally referred to as a jackal (although strictly speaking there were no jackals in Egypt, and Anubis was really a wild dog species which is now extinct). Anubis was the guardian of the Necropolis, the guardian of the dead, and he was often depicted in the precise position of the Sphinx – and famously in a statue found in the Tomb of Tutankhamun as well – so that his image is familiar to almost anyone who has ever had an interest in ancient Egypt.", "The Sphinx is carved out of limestone, and is the largest monolith (a geological feature consisting of a single rock) statue in the world. Standing at 20.22 meters high, 19.3 meters wide, and 73.5 meters long. It is believed to have been sculpted by the ancient Egyptians for Khafre during circa 2558 - 2532 BC.", "Note: The sphinx of Greek mythology resembles the sphinx of Egyptian mythology but is distinct from it (the Egyptian sphinx had a man's head). (See under “Fine Arts.”)", "Located at the Giza Plateau near Cairo in Egypt, The Great Sphinx is one of the largest and oldest statues in the world, but basic facts about it, such as who was the model for the face, when it was built, and by whom, are still debated. It is the largest monolith statue in the world although it is considerably smaller than the Pyramids around it. Despite conflicting evidence and viewpoints over the years, the traditional view held by modern Egyptologists at large remains that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC by the pharaoh Khafre, the supposed builder of the second pyramid at Giza.", "The largest and most famous is the Great Sphinx of Giza, which is on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, facing due east, with a small temple between its paws. The face of the Great Sphinx is believed to the head of the pharaoh Khafra (often known by the Hellenised version of his name, Chephren), which would date its construction to the Fourth Dynasty (2723 BC – 2563 BC). However, there are some alternative theories that re-date the Sphinx to pre-Old Kingdom - and, according to one hypothesis, to prehistoric - times.", "the Great Sphinx of Giza is commonly accepted by Egyptologists to represent the likeness of King Khafra . the Great Pyramid of Giza was built a a few years earlier as the tomb of pharaoh Khufu", "Facing the rising sun, the Great Sphinx is located on the Giza plateau, about 10 km west of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile River. Later Egyptian rulers worshipped it as an aspect of the sun god, calling it Hor-Em-Akhet (“ Horus of the Horizon”). The Sphinx sits in part of the necropolis of ancient Memphis , the seat of power for the pharaohs, a short distance from three large pyramids – the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus).", "However, the ancient Greek Culture depicted the creature as having a woman’s head. Sphinx is present in the sculpture and art of many civilizations such as the Mycenaean, Persian, Assyrian, and Phoenician." ]

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[ "The most common species of ladybird in Britain is the seven-spot ladybird. This bright red ladybird has seven spots and is thought to have inspired the name ladybird: \"Lady\" referring to the Virgin Mary (Our lady) who in early paintings is seen wearing a red cloak; the seven spots are symbolic of the seven joys and seven sorrows of Mary.", "Ladybirds no longer come in one colour - red with symmetrical black spots. Now there are red ones, orange ones, yellow, brown and black ones. And, to the dismay of gardeners and farmers, invasive incomers are gobbling up native species. But how to tell the difference?", "Ladybirds also known as ladybugs or ladybeetles are small insects, ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm and are commonly yellow, orange, or scarlet with small black spots on their wing covers, with black legs, head and antennae. A very large number of coccinellid species are mostly, or entirely, black, grey, or brown and may be difficult for non-entomologists to recognize as Ladybirds.", "• If it has white or cream spots, it is a striped ladybird, an orange ladybird or a cream-spot ladybird.", "• If it is large, burgundy coloured and has 15 black spots, it is an eyed ladybird", "The atlas Ladybirds (Coccinellidae) of Britain and Ireland published in 2011 showed a decline of more than 20% in native species due to environmental changes and competition from foreign invaders. The distribution maps, compiled over a 20-year period with help from thousands of volunteers, showed a decline in the numbers of the common 10-spot and 14-spot ladybirds and a number of other species, including the 11-spot, 22-spot, cream-spot, water and hieroglyphic ladybirds, Coccidula rufa, Rhyzobius litura and Nephus redtenbacheri. Conversely, increases were seen in the numbers of harlequin, orange, pine, and 24-spot ladybirds, as well as Rhyzobius chrysomeloides. The kidney spot ladybird was recorded in Scotland for the first time in recent years, and the 13-spot was found to have recolonised Cornwall, Devon, and the New Forest. The most commonly recorded species was the 7-spot, closely followed by the Asian harlequin — an invader that arrived from continental Europe in 2003 after being introduced to control pests. An 'explosion' in the number of orange ladybirds, which feed on mildew, is thought to have been due to the warmer, damper conditions that now prevail in parts of England. ", "Many species are named after a number of spots. 2-spot, 7-spot and 10-spot ladybirds are all common. Counting the spots is not always a good way to identify them though, as the number of spots can vary a lot.", "This very common insect is considerably smaller than any of the preceding species, though small specimens of the last sometimes do not much exceed it in size. The upper surface is lively orange-brown, with black markings. Beneath, the hind wing is mapped out with black lines into various irregular spaces, all of which are filled with tints of dull yellow, ochreous, or reddish orange; excepting a row of silver spots on the border, one silver spot in the centre of the wing, and one triangular one close to the root of the wing.", "The West Coast Lady (V. annabella) does not have obvious ventral eyespots. On the dorsal side, anabella lacks a white dot in the subapical orange found in virginiensis, and is a purer orange color. V. annabella has a fully orange subapical band and leading edge on the forewing. The submarginal row of hindwing spots in annabella features three or four blue pupils. The two larger pupils in annabella are the inner spots, rather than the outer spots as in corresponding virginiensis.", "As well as the usual yellow and deep red colourings, many coccinellid species are mostly, or entirely, black, dark grey, gray, or brown, and may be difficult for an entomologist/nonentomologists to recognise as coccinellids at all. Conversely, non-entomologists might easily mistake many other small beetles for coccinellids. For example, the tortoise beetles, like the ladybird beetles, look similar because they are shaped so that they can cling to a flat surface so closely that ants and many other enemies cannot grip them.", "A very common, easily recognizable ladybug. Only the dots are sometimes so big, that the beetle is black with red spots. Then it is more difficult to recognize it. The legs are black", "There are about 500 different kinds of ladybugs in the United States, and nearly 5,000 world wide. They come in all different colors--Reds, yellows, orange, grey, black, even blue and pink.", "In general, the Painted Lady is a large butterfly (wing span 5--9�cm (2--2 7/8 in)) identified by the black and white corners of its mainly deep orange, black-spotted wings. It has 5 white spots in the black forewing tips and while the orange areas may be pale here and there, there are no clean white dots in them. The hindwings carry 4 small submarginal eyespots on dorsal and ventral sides. Those on the dorsal side are black, but in the summer morph sometimes small blue pupils are present in some.", "The Common Blackbird of the nominate subspecies T. m. merula is 23.5 to 29 centimetres (9.25 to 11.4 in) in length, has a long tail, and weighs 80-125 grammes (2.8 to 4.4 oz). The adult male has glossy black plumage, blackish-brown legs, a yellow eye-ring and an orange-yellow bill. The bill darkens somewhat in winter. The adult female is sooty-brown with a dull yellowish-brownish bill, a brownish-white throat and some weak mottling on the breast. The juvenile is similar to the female, but has pale spots on the upperparts, and the very young juvenile also has a speckled breast. Young birds vary in the shade of brown, with darker birds presumably males. The first year male resembles the adult male, but has a dark bill and weaker eye ring, and its folded wing is brown, rather than black like the body plumage.", "Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui) – These are the most widely distributed butterflies in the world, but are migrants in Europe from the tropics, arriving in spring and summer. Their wings are mostly red with brown tips covered with five white spots and they live on mallows, thistles and knapweed, hollyhocks, asters and cosmos, as do their caterpillars. The caterpillars are black with a yellow stripe down each side and as they mature they grow small spines and produce faint white and orange markings. However they are not easy to identify.", "Harmonia axyridis f. succinea orange/red with 0-19 black spots. The most of my \"Asians\" belong to this variation in colour.", "C-Mac, Coccinella maculata, are distinctive oblong beetles that are pink and black spotted. Hippodamia ladybugs have a similar body shape but no pink on them. This sets them apart from other ladybugs, although the Hippodamia ladybugs have a similar body shape but no pink on them. C-Macs are the “Porsches” of Ladybugs. They are fast, very active, and are great feeders on eggs of other insects. Therefore, they disperse further and faster than other ladybugs, and they usually cover more territory in a day than other ladybugs. C-Macs have been found to be especially effective against Colorado Potato Beetles, consuming their eggs and small larva. The favored food plants that I find them on are Queen Anne’s Lace and other plants in the wild carrot family. Keep these plants around to keep the ladybugs in your field, garden or yard.", "We are ladybugs with no spots! The only way to tell us apart is to look at the white markings on our pronota (remember, the shield like covering between our head and wings). If the white markings do not form fully enclosed circles then it is C. polita; if they do form fully enclosed circles then it is C. sanguinea.  ", "This species is about the size of a European blackbird and is black in colour with a blue sheen and white patches on the wing.... More 8 Images 5 Videos", "They feed on aphids and larvae of leaf beetles. This ladybird also lives in the Netherlands. But unfortunately not in our garden. The spots at the rear and of the elytra can be small. Then they are more difficult to recognize.", "In the UK, native species of ladybirds have come under threat in recent years, with the invasion from France by the harlequin ladybird , which eats them as well as aphids. But the seven-spotted variety, which tends to settle on plants, is one of the less vulnerable, as harlequins prefer to live on or near trees.", "* There are over 5,000 species of Ladybugs (ladybirds) * Ladybugs will bite if you squeeze them - but it will not hurt. * Lady bug stats and fact: Length is 1 to 10mm (0.04 to 0.4 inches) Habitat: Fields and gardens. Lifespan 2-3 years. Diet: Ladybugs are omnivores eating mainly insects especiall garden pests. * Male ladybugs are smaller than females. * The number of spots on ladybugs vary according to the species. Convergent ladybugs - 13 spots Two-spotted ladybugs - 2 spots", "The harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis) is also known as the Multicoloured Asian Ladybird and the Halloween Ladybird. It has a very variable appearance, which can make it difficult to tell apart from our native ladybirds!", "It is not widely distributed and is classified as 'localised' rather than 'common'. Like most ladybirds, it predates on aphids - but only on certain species of aphid. If it has to follow transient aphid populations this could well account for its localised habitats.", "Harlequin ladybird, Multicoloured Asian ladybird, Asian lady beetle,  Japanese ladybug (Harmonia axyridis) Genus Harmonia. Subfamily Coccinellinae. Family Ladybirds, ladybugs (Coccinellidae). ", "Harlequin ladybird, Multicoloured Asian ladybird, Asian lady beetle,  Japanese ladybug (Harmonia axyridis) Genus Harmonia. Subfamily Coccinellinae. Family Ladybirds, ladybugs (Coccinellidae). ", "Harlequin ladybird, Multicoloured Asian ladybird, Asian lady beetle,  Japanese ladybug (Harmonia axyridis) isn't a native ladybird in Europe.  ", "You can recognizethe ladybirds from many other beetles, because they have the form of half ball. But there are also similar beetle species.", "Parasites attack ladybird pupae and adults. You can investigate this if you take part in the UK Ladybird Parasite Survey .", "Ladybird adults spend the cold winter months in a dormant state. As the weather warms up in late February and March the adults begin to get active and search for early aphids to eat. The adults mate in the spring and the females lay eggs during the spring and early summer. This generation of adults then dies as the new generation hatches out.", "The Harlequin ladybird is of Asian origin, a recent immigrant - and capable of prodigious reproduction. It was originally confined to the south of the UK but is spreading relentlessly northwards. It appeared in my area of East Lincolnshire in July 2007.", "The descriptions below should help you, and there are lots of ladybird images for you to see at the bottom of the page." ]

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[ "The Chihuahua takes its name from the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. Most folk pronounce the name, \"Chee wa wa.\" It is an ancient breed. Images of dogs that look like Chihuahuas have been found carved on stone in the Huejotzingo Monastery between Mexico City and Pueblo. It's possible that the monks kept dogs to keep rats away. ", "The Chihuahua takes its name from the Mexican state abutting west Texas and New Mexico, but likely came from the ancient Techichi dogs of the Toltecs crossed with hairless dogs from the Orient. Historians describe the Techichi as a heavy-boned small dog with a long coat indigenous to Central America and definitely connected to the Toltec civilization near present-day Mexico City. The Techichi was larger than the modern Chihuahua and was mute.", "Yep, the Chihuahua is officially named after Chihuahua, Mexico -- the largest northern state in Mexico. In the late 1800s, American travelers to the region discovered the breed, bringing some of them back to the U.S. While some Americans referred to them as Arizona or Texas dogs, \"Chihuahua\" soon became the universal name and has stuck ever since.", "Despite being named after a Mexican city and associated with South America, the Chihuahua is thought to have been bred by the Aztecs or Incas and pictures of dogs resembling the Chihuahua appear in ancient paintings in Mexico. The Chihuahua was discovered in Chihuahua State in the 1850s and the first Chihuahuas reached America in the late 19th century and these are the ancestors of all Chihuahuas in the USA and Britain today.  The Chihuahua was officially recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1904 and in 1949 the British Chihuahua Club was formed.", "Hairless dogs also existed in Mexico, Central, and South America.  Evidence suggests that they were always domesticated, well…. at least since they became hairless!  Folklore surrounding the Xoloitzcuintli has become confusingly interwoven with that of the Chihuahua but we don’t believe them to be related.  If we continue this circular logic, why not suppose that the Peruvian and Mexican Hairless dogs influenced the Chinese dogs and not the other way round?  Small hairless dogs with a “top knot” of hair are depicted in ancient Mayan figurines. Perhaps captains of Chinese vessels were fascinated by the dogs of South and Central America and by the even tinier oddities later discovered in Mexico.  Would they not have taken a few back to China and other parts of the world?  One-way traffic makes little sense and as is explained in Seminars Online, there is evidence to the contrary.", "Dogs were historically eaten in Tahiti and other islands of Polynesia, including Hawaii at the time of first European contact. James Cook, when first visiting Tahiti in 1769, recorded in his journal, \"few were there of us but what allow'd that a South Sea Dog was next to an English Lamb, one thing in their favour is that they live entirely upon Vegetables\". Calwin Schwabe reported in 1979 that dog was widely eaten in Hawaii and considered to be of higher quality than pork or chicken. When Hawaiians first encountered early British and American explorers, they were at a loss to explain the visitors' attitudes about dog meat. The Hawaiians raised both dogs and pigs as pets and for food. They could not understand why their British and American visitors only found the pig suitable for consumption. This practice seems to have died out, along with the native Hawaiian breed of dog, the unique Hawaiian Poi Dog, which was primarily used for this purpose. The consumption of domestic dog meat is still commonplace in the Kingdom of Tonga, and has also been noted in expatriate Tongan communities in New Zealand, Australia, and the United States. ", "They were also known as tomb dogs, relating to the discovery in ancient tombs of 2000-year-old statues bearing their likeness. When China became a communist country, a tax was brought in that made the keeping of dogs a luxury and basically out of reach of the average farmer. In 1947 the tax was increased and breeding banned. This led to the Shar-Pei becoming an endangered breed and it was listed with the Guinness Book of Records in 1978 as the world's rarest dog. The first registered Shar-Pei were imported into Australia in 1981 with the first litter in 1985.", "When Keller visited Akita Prefecture in Japan in July 1937, she inquired about Hachiko, the famed Akita dog that had died in 1935. She expressed to a local that she would like to have an Akita dog. An Akita called Kamikaze-go was given to her within a month. When Kamikaze-go later died (at a young age) because of canine distemper, his older brother, Kenzan-go, was presented to her as an official gift from the Japanese government in July 1939.", "Black dogs with fiery eyes are reported throughout Latin America from Mexico to Argentina under a variety of names including the Perro Negro (Spanish for Black Dog), Nahual (Mexico), Huay Chivo (Mexico), Cadejo (Central America), Familiar (Argentina) and Lobison (Argentina). They are usually said to be either incarnations of the Devil or a shape-changing sorcerer.", "Rehna Cloete donated this photo of a dog owned by the Asongo Meno Tribe in the Belgian Congo. Look closely to see that the dog is wearing a native wooden bell around its waist. (Photo appeared in \"The Basenji\" in 1967 and in their book in 1955)", "The Louisiana Catahoula Leopard Dog or Catahoula Cur, is named after Catahoula Parish in the state of Louisiana in the United States. Of remaining dog breeds, the Catahoula is believed to have occupied North America the longest, aside from the dogs descended from Native American-...", "The Chow Chow (sometimes simply Chow ) is a dog breed originally from northern China, where it is referred to as Songshi Quan (Pinyin: sōngshī quǎn 鬆獅犬), which means \"puffy-lion dog\". The breed has also been called the Tang Quan, \"Dog of the Tang Empire.\" It is believed that the Chow Chow is one of the native dogs used as the model for the Foo dog, the traditional stone guardians found in front of Buddhist temples and palaces. It is one of the few ancient dog breeds still in existence in the world today.", "Cimetiere des Chiens, a cemetery for dogs and other domestic animals, is said to be the world’s oldest public pet cemetery. It is located in Asnières-sur-Seine, a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. Opened in 1899, Cimetiere des Chiens was a response to a French law stating that pet owners are not allowed to dump the dead bodies of their animals in the garbage or the Seine River. The most famous gravestone belongs to Rin Tin Tin, the legendary American dog that starred in various Hollywood movies.", "The Chinese Shar-Pei, is a breed of dog known for its distinctive features of deep wrinkles and a blue-black tongue. The breed comes from China. The name (沙皮, pinyin: shā pí; English name probably derived from British spelling of the Cantonese equivalent, sā pèih) translates to \"sand skin\" and refers to the texture of its short, rough coat. As puppies, Shar Pei have numerous wrinkles, but as they mature, these wrinkles loosen and spread out as they \"grow into their skin\". Shar Pei were named in 1978 as one of the world's rarest dog breeds by TIME magazine and the Guinness World Records. It is one of the ancient dog breeds, but the American Kennel Club did not recognize the breed until 1992. ", "In 1930 the last Siberians were exported as the Soviet government closed the borders of Siberia to external trade. The same year saw recognition of the Siberian Husky by the American Kennel Club. Nine years later the breed was first registered in Canada. Today’s Siberian Huskies registered in North America are largely the descendants of the 1930 Siberia imports and of Leonhard Seppala’s dogs. Seppala owned a kennel in Nenana before moving to New England. Arthur Walden, owner of Chinook Kennels of Wonalancet, New Hampshire, was by far the most prominent breeder of Siberian Huskies. The foundation of his kennel stock came directly from Alaska, and Seppala's kennel.", "The Japanese Macaque, also known as the Snow Monkey, is a terrestrial Old World monkey species native to Japan, although an introduced free-ranging population has been living near Laredo, Texas since 1972. It is the most northern-living as well as the most polar-living non-human primate. In Japan, they were historically known as saru (\"monkey\"). Nihonzaru (Nihon \"Japan\" + saru) is used in modern times to distinguish from other primates. Individuals have brown-gray fur, a red face, and a short tail.", "      \"Later, in Kenya, Dr. Louis Leakey, the world renowned anthropologist, jumped on me about this use of the term Basenji. The proper name, he said, was 'dog of the forest'. I saw and photographed a Basenji in 1934 in Africa. Her name was Peteedie which meant 'Push Trouble Far Away'. Later, she was run over by the only car in that part of Africa, and was buried. But during the night natives dug her up and ate her.\"", "The Japanese macaque is a terrestrial Old World monkey species native to Japan. It is also sometimes known as the snow monkey because it lives in areas where snow covers the ground for months each year, no primate, with the exception of humans, is more northern-living, nor lives in a colder climate. Individuals have brown-grey fur, red faces, and short tails.", "Great Bear Lake is a part of the Yamoria legends — ancient Dene stories about giant heroes, animals, and living landscapes. In 1996, Grizzly Bear Mountain and the Scented Grass Hills (called Saoyú and Æehdacho in Slavey ) were designated a national historic site. Saoyú and Æehdacho is Canada’s largest national historic site and serves to acknowledge and protect the importance of these landscapes to Dene narratives, culture and history.", "The Entzaeia-Yawa or Water Tiger (Ecuador, South America) apparently ranges from white through brown/reddish/tawny to black, with long hair and a bushy tail. It is reputed to be a man-killer so its description has undoubtedly been exaggerated by fear and folklore while the various colours may be due to wet fur or dried blood on the fur. Patagonia boasts two \"water tigers\". The Iemisch or Tigre de Agua (Water Tiger) (Patagonia) is described as a puma-sized amphibious carnivore, but its description is closer to that of an otter than to a cat. The Yaquaru is also called Tigre de Agua (Water Tiger) (Patagonia) and is said to be larger than any hunting-dog, having a yellow woolly hide, a long tapering tail and powerful claws. Horse and mules crossing the river may be dragged to the bottom, soon afterwards, their intestines float back to the surface. The Aypa (Guyana) has a tiger-like head, large teeth and a scaled neck (though wet fur may give the illusion of scales). It is worth remembering that \"tiger\" can also mean any fierce unidentified beast.", "A small, agile dog that copes very well with mountainous terrain, the Shiba Inu was originally bred for hunting.[1][2] It is similar in appearance to the Akita, though much smaller in stature. It is one of the few ancient dog breeds still in existence in the world today.[3]", "The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three belt stars Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburón Island.", "The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three belt stars Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburón Island. ", "The basenji is unique among dogs, and not just because the breed pulled off an upset at the 2001 Crufts Dog Show. The basenji is called the \"African Barkless Dog\" because the breed cannot bark; instead, the dog makes a sort of chortling sound. Native to the African continent, the basenji can still be found hunting with his tribal masters deep in the forests of Zaire.", "The Chinook is a drafting and sled dog developed in New Hampshire in the early 1900s, and is a blend of Mastiff, Greenland Husky, German Shepherd, and Belgian Shepherd. It is the state dog of New Hampshire and was recognized by the AKC as a Working breed in 2013. Its name means \"warm winter winds\" in Inuit. They are described as athletic and \"hard bodied\" with a \"tireless gait\".", "The Sika Deer are closely related to Red Deer, Central Asian Red Deer and elk. The Sika deer found in the Texas Hill Country stem from several different races including Manchurian Sika deer, Dybowski's Sika, Japanese Sika, and the Formosan Sika. Formerly, Sika was native from southern Siberia and the adjacent Japanese island of Hokkaido south, along both the mainland and islands, to southeastern China and Formosa. They are disappearing rapidly from their range due to habitat loss, but Sika were introduced to 77 counties of central and southern Texas in 1939, with free-ranging populations known from 12 of these counties. The last count in 1988 showed the total Texas population to be in the upward 11,000.", "In 1979, the only dog native to Louisiana became our state dog, the Catahoula Leopard Dog.   A cross between a dog raised by Indians of the Catahoula Lake region and a Spanish \"war dog,\" it is well known for its unusual eyes and webbed feet.", "Blonda was a pure-bred German Shepherd dog from the good lines of the time. She was born in 1926 from Ally von der Grottenau and Armin von Ridekenburg, both dogs about whom little is known nowadays. However, the lines of the grandsire of Armin von Riedekenburg, Junker von Nassau, still exists today - in American showline German Shepherds of all places.", "Pangnirtung—\"the place of the bull caribou\" in Inuktitut—is located on a narrow coastal plain against a spectacular backdrop of high mountains and a winding river valley. Legend says a hunter named Atagooyuk gave the place its name well over one hundred years ago when caribou had not yet changed their patterns as a result of the incursions of man. Pangnirtung, or ‘Pang’ as locals call it, is a small community bordered by snow-capped mountains on one side and the ocean on the other.", "* Monkey Island, near the well-known perfume bay or Xiangshui Wan, a popular tourist destination located in Lingshui County, is a state-protected nature reserve for macaques.", "Harbin - German - A little shining fighter. A good name for the little breed of dog with a lot of spunk.", "For that reason it was surprising that a man called Michael Greene was adamant that the dog was to be trained. Perhaps this was due to the fact that Mick The Miller was a descendant of the legendary Master McGrath. This would turn out to be a very prudent decision by Greene. Up until 1929 Mick The Miller was trained in Killeigh." ]

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[ "There are 12 animals in the Chinese zodiac: the rat, the ox, the tiger, the rabbit, the dragon, the snake, the horse, the ram, the monkey, the rooster, the dog and the pig", "Chinese astrology is based on the traditional astronomy. The development of Chinese astrology is tied to that of astronomy which came to flourish during the Han Dynasty. The Chinese Zodiac is one of the oldest known horoscope system in the world and consists of twelve animals that represent a certain year. According to Chinese astrology, the year of a person's birth is represented by one of these animals. The twelve animal signs or zodiac symbols are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Chinese astrology also has five elements of nature namely: water, wood, fire, earth and metal. According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny can be determined by the position of the planets and the positions of the Sun and Moon at the person's time of birth. Chinese believe that our birth year can determine our attitude and potential and that animal birth signs have symbolism and represent a specific behavior.", "Chinese Zodiac uses 12 animal signs to predict people's fortune. The twelve animals are Rat, Cow, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Chicken, Dog and Pig. The 12 Chinese zodiac signs are determined by people's birth year. Most of Internet Chinese horoscope sites use Chinese New Year Day to determine the Chinese zodiac sign, which is wrong.", "The Chinese calendar is based on the lunar year, so the date of Chinese New Year changes every year. The Chinese calendar follows a 12-year pattern with each year named after an animal. There are various stories which explain this. The simplest is that Buddha (or the Jade Emperor) invited all of the animals to join him for a New Year celebration, but only 12 animals turned up. To reward the animals that did come, Buddha named a year after each of them in the order that they arrived, starting with the Rat, followed by the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat (or Sheep), Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig. (Find another version of the story to print, below)", "The legendary animals of the Chinese zodiacal system are rat, buffalo (ox), tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and pig. Most treatises and texts agree on one common point: that these animals make up the heavenly signs or the basic 12 equal sectors of the Chinese zodiac, where all these animals came down to earth in response to an invitation. When these animals appeared after the invitation, they were given their due place in the Chinese zodiacal system as an immortal reward. The origin of these animal signs is an interesting story and the Chinese still believe that it is perhaps the greatest thing to have happened in their history.", "Recognition of the intimate connections between animals and humans dates back tens of thousands of years. The ancient Chinese developed a distinctive calendar system that described twelve animal personalities: Rat, Tiger , Rabbit , Ox, Dragon, Rooster , Snake , Horse , Ram, Pig, Dog , and Monkey. While the precise origins of these animals are unknown, Chinese astrologers considered them to be a reflection of the universe itself.", "Chinese Zodiac Signs The Chinese Zodiac signs are based on a 12-year lunar cycle, with each year relating to a different animal sign. The 12 animals included in the zodiac cycle are the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig. It is believed that the year of the animal signifies the character of a person born under that zodiac sign.", "There are 12 animals, which are Rat, Cow, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Chicken, Dog, Pig, in the counting system. The Chinese calendar needs to assign a unique animal name for each day inside the lunar month. sometimes, Chinese Lunar Calendar needs to add an extra lunar month ( Leap Lunar Month ) in the cycle to match the speed of the solar cycle. For example, Year 2006, Chinese calendar has two 7th lunar months. A lunar month contains 29 or 30 days. Therefore, Chinese calendar needs 60 different animal names to make every single day unique for the case of leap lunar month.", "Lunar New Year 2016 is the ninth year in the 12-year cycle of the Chinese Zodiac. The lunar calendar is designated with an animal prescribed to various years, including a rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, pig, or dog. Each year, the lunar calendar is associated with five elements like wood, earth, metal, water, or fire, which is why the Google Doodle’s fire monkeys are playing with firecrackers.", "This is the most widespread legend about Chinese zodiac. The Jade Emperor (The Emperor in Heaven in Chinese folklore) ordered that animals would be designated as calendar signs and the twelve that arrived first would be selected. At that time, the cat and the rat were good friends and neighbors. When they heard of this news, the cat said to the rat: 'We should arrive early to sign up, but I usually get up late.' The rat then promised to awaken his friend and go together. However, on the morning when he got up, he was too excited to recall his promise, and went directly to the gathering place. On the way, he encountered the tiger, ox, horse, and other animals that ran much faster.", "This year celebrates the year of the horse. If you’re not familiar with Chinese zodiac signs, just know there are twelve animals that comprise the entire zodiac cycle. Anyone born in the year of 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014 were (or will be) born in the year of the horse. According to Chinese culture, each animal represents a particular type of personality, ie: monkeys are smart yet mischievous (that’s me!), dogs are loyal, dragons are powerful…you get the drift.", "Happy Chinese New Year! The Chinese zodiac is based on a 12-year cycle, with an animal representing each year. As 2016 is the year of the monkey, it is believed that those born under this sign will... have a good year with plenty of luck and opportunities ahead. The Chinese zodiacs are determined by birth year, and every zodiac gets the spotlight every 12 years. Chinese folklore says that their order was determined by a race, which the rat won, only by riding on the ox's back until it was able to cross the finish line first.  According to Chinese zodiac, your birth year is telling of more than just your age. The Chinese believe that the animal ruling your birth year has a profound influence on personality, relationships and destiny. Which zodiac are you? Samantha Lee/Business Insider...", "People born in late January or early February may be confused about their birth year Chinese astrology animal signs. This is because it is a common misconception that the astrology animal signs begin on the Chinese New Year day. Actually, Astrology animal signs are base on the Start of Spring, the first day of astrology year. For example, if a baby was born after the Chinese New Year Day and before Feb-04 2009, then its animal sign is the Rat, not Cow because the birthday is before the Start of Spring. If you are still confused about your animal sign, we have an Animal Sign page for people to verify their Chinese birth year animal signs.", "Honor the animal. For Chinese families, every year is associated with one of 12 animals of the Chinese Zodiac. These animals are often represented in decorations during the holiday. This year, the animal is the Tiger. Some people think if you were born during the year of a certain animal you'll end up with the character traits of that animal. For example, if you were born during the year of the rat, you will grow up to be imaginative and cunning.", "The monkey is the 9th animal that appears on the Chinese zodiac, appearing as the zodiac sign in 2016.", "• In the Chinese Zodiac, which animal's year will happen the earliest after 2014's year of the horse? Sheep", "The Horse is the seventh of the 12 animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Horse is associated with the earthly branch.", "Chinese new year animals Horoscope 2016. Today i am writing about Chinese new year animals horoscope 2016. this coming year is a Red fire Monkey for Chinese. this Chinese new year will celebrate on 8th February in 2016. if you want to know about this Chinese new year then read and share to your friends.", "Rooster - The Rooster (also translated as Cock or Chicken) is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Rooster is represented by the earthly branch character.", "In this lesson plan, students will learn about the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In the introductory first lesson, they will see how animals are often used as symbols. In the second lesson, they will hear one of several versions of how the 12 animals were chosen. They will then focus upon a few of the animals in the story and see how they can be used as symbols of certain human characteristics. In the third lesson, they will be introduced to the other animals of the zodiac, and they will be given a chart on which they will assign traits to each animal. Then they will consult a number of websites to find the traits traditionally associated with the animals, which they will add to their list. Then, they will come up with a number of ways to compare and contrast the animals in the list. In the third lesson, they will focus upon the animal associated with the year of their birth, learning about its traits and discussing whether or not these apply to themselves and their peers. Finally, each student will make an acrostic, combining the letters of his or her first name with adjectives that relate to his or her zodiac sign.", "The seventh animal of the Lunar Calendar, the horse, galloped in in a blaze of multi-coloured lights, green, red, yellow, at midnight on Friday, as the Wood Horse arrived with great fan-fare & thunderous ‘applause’. According to one of many legends, the cheerful, charismatic horse, despite its speed and agility, arrived seventh in a swimming race organised on the Jade Emperor’s birthday. The first 12 animals, which crossed the winning line, would receive a medal and have one of the lunar years named after it. The Emperor was just about to award the medal to the horse, when the sly snake slipped into sixth place and the horse had to settle for seventh. The Lunar Calendar is widely used in East Asia including Korea & Japan.", "Each Chinese New Year is characterised by one of 12 animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac. The Chinese zodiac is divided into 12 blocks (or houses) just like its western counterpart, but with the major difference being that each house has a time-length of one year instead of one month.", "To find your animal sign, check the charts below. If you were born before February 4th (Spring Begins), use the year before. If it is on or after February 4th, then use the same birth year. This is worth double-checking; as you would be amazed how many people born in January or February get it wrong. If you are unsure of your Chinese Animal maybe consider using our Feng Shui 2010 software that calculates it automatically along with personal Gua, flying stars, annual, fixed and monthly and so much more.", "The Chinese zodiac is also used to label times of day, with each sign corresponding to a \"large-hour\", which is a two-hour period (24 divided by 12 animals). It is therefore important to know the exact time of birth to determine it. The secret animal is thought to be a person�s truest representation, since this animal is determined by the smallest denominator: a person�s birth hour. As this sign is based on the position of the sun in the sky and not the time of your local clock, it is important to compensate of daylight savings time. However, some online systems already compensate for daylight savings time, and astrologers may compensate your time for you oblivious to the fact that you've compensated it yourself, leading to an inaccurate reading. The large-hour in which a person is born is their secret animal. It is a person's own true sign which their personality is based on. Note that while this chart is quite accurate, the exact time at which each animal begins shifts by the day.", "The Chinese zodiac, which is also called \"Earthly Branches\", is one of the numerals with duodecimal system. It used to be utilized as indicates of time, the moon, directions, and many other things in the ancient China and Eastern culture.", "In Chinese astrology the animal signs assigned by year represent what others perceive you as being or how you present yourself. It is a common misconception that the animals assigned by year are the only signs and many western descriptions of Chinese astrology draw solely on this system. In fact, there are also animal signs assigned by month (called inner animals), by day (called true animals) and hours (called secret animals).", "Here’s a quick chart of Chinese Zodiac if you are curious to know what animal you are.", "Find your birth year in the chart below to discover your Chinese zodiac animal and read on to see if you have the typical characteristics of your sign:", "The use of the animal names in the calendar led to the development of Chinese astrology. Astrology can be defined as a pseudo-science linking human destinies to charts associated with heavenly bodies or the recording of time. The Chinese believed the characteristics of a given zodiac animal influenced the personality of every person born in that year. They used this information to create horoscopes, daily predictions based upon the year of one's birth. Although the reading of horoscopes is popular in modern Chinese culture, few people take the predictions seriously.", "You can also know your annual energy flow and biorhythm chart by month from Chinese zodiac animal. If you know your birth year's animal sign of the Chinese zodiac, let's check this article, learn about your rhythm, and be prepared for the future.", "In this article, you can learn the meanings and characteristics which each Chinese zodiac animal signs have. Let's take a quick look on what types of elements and features each animal sign has, and learn about various influences which you have been accepting from them since you were born.", "Chinese New Year 2015: What do the zodiac animals mean and where did they come from?" ]

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[ "21 September 1994 - Gary Lineker , England's second highest goalscorer of all time, announces his retirement from playing. Since leaving Tottenham in 1992, he has played for Nagoya Grampus Eight of Japan.", "21 September 1994: Gary Lineker , 33-year-old former England striker, announces his retirement from playing after two years in Japan with Grampus Eight , having previously played for Tottenham Hotspur , FC Barcelona , Everton and Leicester City . He is also England's second highest scorer of all time, having scored 48 times before his international retirement in 1992. [26]", "One of the most unexpected transfer moves of all time came when Gary Lineker decided to move to Japan to play for Nagoya Grampus Eight. No one in Europe seemed to even know Japan had a football league, let alone feel they deserved such a legend as Lineker. But Gary felt his struggling injuries and weariness of the European game meant a growing football nation would suit him perfectly and also hugely benefit the country’s desire to improve their football profile. He was loved in Japan and, although he only played 23 games in the two seasons he was there, he still couldn’t resist scoring 9 more goals to add to his huge tally.", "The former Barcelona star’s move to Grampus Eight was supposed to be a signal of intent to the rest of the world that Japanese football had finally arrived. For decades football in Japan was a semi-professional pursuit, resigned to the fringes of society and enjoyed by only small pockets of the population.", "Lineker was going to receive a lucrative deal from a team called Nagoya Grampus Eight. Based in Nagoya, Grampus Eight seemed a bizarre move for a man still regarded as one of the greatest footballers in England at that time. After all, Lineker was the second highest goalscorer in England during his final season at Spurs, just one goal short of Arsenal’s Ian Wright. The incredulity of the English press led to some very derisive and downright insulting reports. One reporter took particular glee, noting:", "On November 13, 1991, Lineker scored a  priceless late equaliser  away to Poland to take England through to the Euro ’92 finals. It was his 46th England goal, leaving him just three strikes behind Charlton. Over the winter, Lineker made the surprising announcement that from the 1992-93 season he would be playing for Japanese club Grampus Eight and his international career would end after the European Championship. The hope was he would end with a flourish, inspiring England to Euro glory having become the nation’s record goalscorer. The former hope was possible rather than probable but the latter looked odds on.", "Hoddle announced in 1987 that he would be leaving Tottenham Hotspur at the end of the season to pursue a career overseas where his style of play would be appreciated by continental managers and supporters, and to play European level football with English clubs banned after Heysel. He joined AS Monaco alongside George Weah and fellow Englishman Mark Hateley and immediately inspired the club to the 1988 Ligue 1 championship, its first league title in six seasons. Hoddle was voted the Best Foreign Player in French football and helped to guide the team to the quarter-finals of the European Cup in the 1988–89 campaign. Arsène Wenger was the coach who brought him to Monaco and ironically Hoddle would go on to face his former manager in the heated North London Derby as manager of Tottenham Hotspur. However, a severe knee injury curtailed his career at the highest level and in November 1990, the 33-year-old left the club by mutual consent having helped to improve the standing of English footballers in foreign countries. ", "He spent around £15 million on winger Gianluigi Lentini, breaking the world football transfer record. He also signed Fernando De Napoli, Stefano Eranio, Jean-Pierre Papin, Dejan Savićević and Zvonimir Boban. Already boasting talent such as Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit, Paolo Maldini and Frank Rijkaard, Capello was one of the first managers to introduce a squad rotation approach. He played Rijkaard and Albertini as deep-lying central midfielders, allowing his wingers more license to attack. Milan dominated the league in the 1992–93 season, defending the Serie A title, and reached the 1993 UEFA Champions League final, losing to 1–0 Marseille. Milan remained unbeaten for 58 league games, between 19 May 1991 and 21 March 1993, which included an entire season in the league, a record in Italian football. They were finally defeated 1–0 by Parma after a goal from Faustino Asprilla. ", "In 1994 Sugar financed the transfers of three stars of the 1994 World Cup: Ilie Dumitrescu, Gica Popescu, and most notably Jürgen Klinsmann, who had an excellent first season in English football, being named Footballer of the Year. Because Spurs had not qualified for the UEFA Cup, Klinsmann decided to invoke an opt-out clause in his contract and left for Bayern Munich in the summer of 1995. Sugar appeared on television holding the last shirt Klinsmann wore for Spurs and said he wouldn't wash his car with it. He called foreigners coming into the Premier League at high wages as \"Carlos Kickaballs\". Klinsmann retaliated by calling Sugar \"a man without honour\", and said:", "He helped Tottenham win the FA Cup in his third season there (1980–81), and collaborated with pop duo Chas & Dave as well as the rest of the Tottenham players for a song, \"Ossie's Dream\". He played a big part in another FA Cup triumph the following year, but did not play in the final because it had already been arranged with the Spurs management that he would leave early to join up with Argentina's 1982 World Cup squad. At that tournament he wore the number 1 shirt, as Argentina's policy at the time was to number their players alphabetically by surname, with an exception made so Diego Maradona could wear his preferred number 10.", "Sugar prides himself on being one of the few people in history to make money out of football. He certainly made very few friends. Things started out well when he bought Tottenham Hotspur in 1991, thus saving the club from the twin threats of liquidation and Robert Maxwell. But two years later, he sacked his partner, and the fans' idol, Terry Venables. He showed considerable fortitude in dealing with the acrimony that followed and managed to place the club on a sound financial footing. But in terms of success on the pitch, his tenure was a period remembered for mediocrity and underachievement.", "Roberto Baggio (born 18 February 1967) is a retired Italian footballer , widely considered among the best of all time. In his career, he played for Juventus , AC Milan and Internazionale . In 1993, Baggio won both the Ballon D'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year . He is the only Italian player ever to score in three World Cups . Baggio is known as Il Divin Codino (The Divine Ponytail ), for the hairstyle he wore for most of his career and his Buddhist background.", "He retired from international football with eighty caps and forty-eight goals, one fewer goal than Sir Bobby Charlton's England record (which Charlton accrued over 106 caps). In what proved to be his last England match, against Sweden at Euro 92, he was substituted by England coach Graham Taylor in favour of Arsenal striker Alan Smith, ultimately denying him the chance to equal—or even better—Charlton's record. He had earlier missed a penalty that would have brought him level, in a pre-tournament friendly against Brazil. He was visibly upset at the decision, not looking at Taylor as he took the bench.", "Having scored 9 goals in 23 appearances over two seasons for Nagoya Grampus Eight he announced his retirement from playing in September 1994. The English national media had previously reported that he would be returning to England to complete his playing career at Middlesbrough or Southampton. ", "A true legend of the game, nicknamed the ‘Gentle Giant’, John Charles was capable of playing as both a center-half and a center-forward. It was sometimes half-joked that Charles was best suited to start the game, take the lead and then drop into defense to ensure victory. His finest years came with Leeds and Juventus, he was even named Juventus’ greatest ever foreign player in 1997, beating the likes of Michel Platini, Michael Laudrup and Zinedine Zidane. Charles came closest in 1959, when he finished third to Alfredo di Stefano and Raymond Kopa.", "Leslie \"Les\" Ferdinand MBE (born 8 December 1966) is an English former footballer and current football coach and Director of Football at his former club Queens Park Rangers. A former striker, his playing career included spells at Queens Park Rangers, Beşiktaş, Newcastle United, Tottenham Hotspur, West Ham United, Leicester City, Bolton Wanderers, Reading and Watford during which period he earned 17 caps for England. Ferdinand is the eighth highest scorer in the Premier League with 149 goals. ", "* Chris Hughton, former Tottenham Hotspur and Republic of Ireland defender, retired at end of season when playing for Brentford. ", "Tottenham Hotspur Football Club ] commonly referred to as Spurs, is an English football club located inTottenham, London, that plays in the Premier League.", "Frank Rijkaard was born in the Netherlands on September 30 1962. He was a versatile player either as a midfielder in club football or as a central defender in internationals for the Netherlands. His talents on the pitch made him one of the most-admired players of the 1990s.", "Alan Shearer OBE, DL is a retired English footballer. He played as a striker in the top level of English league football for Southampton, Blackburn Rovers, Newcastle United and for the England national team. He is also, currently the leading goal scorer in English Premier League history.", "Another World Cup winner wore the shirt in the early 1970s. Martin Peters may have come to prominence as a West Ham player, but he reached more domestic and European finals with Spurs. His medal haul includes one UEFA Cup and two League Cup medals – and an Anglo-Italian League title as well.", "As a player, he was noted for his uncompromising \"enforcer\" role in midfield, but he could pass very well and score goals of many types as he helped his sides to success.  It is a shame that he could not have waited to do it for Tottenham, as he would have formed a formidable partnership with Steve Perryman in mifdield had he not moved to Middlesbrough so soon.", "Over the next two seasons, Middlesbrough gained successive promotions into Division Two and then into Division One. The next season, however, they came straight back down to Division Two, and with it came the then British transfer record move of Gary Pallister to Manchester United for £2.3 million. Despite constant promotion and relegation, Middlesbrough were founding members of the FA Premier League for the 1992–93 season.", "In the summer of 1997 he transferred to Spurs, his boyhood club, for £6 million. However, age had caught up with the 30-year-old Ferdinand and although he was adored by the fans during his five-and-a-half year stay at the club, injuries started to take their toll on Ferdinand and he only once reached 10 league goals.", "Clubs: St Kevin's Boys, Home Farm, Arsenal 1971-80, Juventus 1980-82, Sampdoria 1982-84, Inter 1984-86, Ascoli 1986-87, West Ham United 1987-90", "German Football Legend, won Champions' League in 1993 and lead Germany (as coach) to the final in 2002", "He announced his retirement in May 2013, shortly before leading United to another title success. The first edition of his autobiography was released in October 2013.", "The cultured defender, who enjoyed long stints with both Manchester United and Aston Villa, cited the 1990 World Cup as a career highlight.", "After the 1990 World Cup , he was signed by Real Madrid . The La Liga side paid $4.3 million to Steaua Bucureşti for him. Hagi played two seasons with Real Madrid and then was sold to Brescia Calcio .", "Gary Pallister, a Footballer who played for Manchester United F.C. and Middlesbrough F.C. was born in Ramsgate.", "Q Who was the last English footballer (in 1996) to be the subject of a world record transfer fee?", "8 Football: Who is the only player to have scored for England in three different World Cup Finals tournaments?" ]

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[ "Q50. In Association Football, how far in yards is the penalty spot from the goal line?", "The penalty area or 18-yard box (also known less formally as \"the penalty box\" or simply \"the box\") is an area of an association football pitch. It is rectangular and extends 16.5m (18 yd) to each side of the goal and 16.5m (18 yd) in front of it. Within the penalty area is the penalty spot (or penalty mark), which is 11 m or 12 yards from the goal line, directly in-line with the centre of the goal. A penalty arc adjoins the penalty area, and encloses the area within 9.15m (10 yd) from the penalty spot; it does not form part of the penalty area and is only of relevance during the taking of a penalty kick. ", "According to the official FIFA rules, the penalty spot in soccer is 11 meters or 12 yards away from the goal line. This fact is included in Law 1 of FIFA's 17 Laws of the Game.", "A penalty kick (often abbreviated to penalty) is a method of restarting play in association football, taken from 11 meters (approximately 12 yards) out from the goal, on the penalty mark.", "In front of each goal is an area known as the penalty area . This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line 16.5 m (18 yd) from the goalposts and extending 16.5 m (18 yd) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line, and a line joining them. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs , goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks. [44]", "The middle area is 100 yards long. The line separating the goal scoring and centre areas is called the penalty or thirty-yard line. Goal posts are eight feet apart. To score, the ball must be thrown from outside an 11-yard semicircle in front of the goal.", "The penalty area (colloquially \"The 18-yard box\" or just \"The box\") is similarly formed by the goal-line and lines extending from it, however its lines commence 18 yd from the goalposts and extend 18 yd into the field. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by a defender, usually punished by a direct free kick, becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Both the goal and penalty area were formed as halfcircles until 1902.", "Penalty area: A rectangular area 44 yards wide by 18 yards deep with its long edge on the goal line; the goalkeeper may use his hands to block or control the ball only within this area.", "There is not a semi circle or arc painted at the top of the penalty area, so players must move to give the shooter an unobstructed path to the ball on a penalty kick. Placement of restarts for goalkeeper infractions is two yards from the top of the penalty area.", "There are visual guidelines on the side of the field that are in place to provide a consistent indicator to the officials of what is considered the playing field. The minimum dimensions for a field is 120 yards by 70 yards. Additional markings on the field include a restraining line located 30 yards from each goal line, which creates an area where only a maximum of seven offensive players and eight defensive players (including the goalkeeper) are allowed; a 12-meter fan, which officials use to position players after fouls; and an arc in front of each goal, considered the critical scoring area, where defenders must be at least within a stick's-length of their attacker.", "The soccer field, or football pitch, is flexible in size. It is 100 to 130 yards (90-120m) long and 50 to 100 yards (45-90m) wide. In international play the field dimensions are a bit stricter in that the length must be 110 to 120 yards (100 - 110m) long and 70 to 80 yards (64 - 75m) wide.", "The offending team must retire 10 yards for both penalties and free kicks. A team can either kick for goal, run the ball or kick directly into touch with the resulting line-out awarded to them.", "There is also the penalty area which is used in the case of any penalty kick that is to be taken; it is also made by drawing lines from within the goal post area going up to 16.5m at a 90 degree angle from the goal line itself. There is a spot placed in the middle of the penalty area from where the kicks are taken.", "The penalty area is about 40 metres wide and extends 16 metres in front of the goal.", "The field of play is 110 yards (100 m) long and 60 yards (55 m) wide. The goals are 6 feet (1.8 m) by 6 feet (1.8 m). The goal sits inside a circular \"crease\", measuring 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter. [13] [14] [15] Each offensive and defensive area is surrounded by a \"restraining box.\" Each quarter, and after each goal scored, play is restarted with a face-off . During a face-off, two players lay their stick horizontally next to the ball, head of the stick inches from the ball and the butt-end pointing down the midfield line. [14] Face-off-men scrap for the ball, often by “clamping” it under their stick and flicking it out to their teammates. Attackers and defenders cannot cross their “restraining line” until one player from the midfield takes possession of the ball or the ball crosses the restraining line. [14] If a member of one team touches the ball and it travels outside of the playing area, play is restarted by possession being awarded to the opposing team. During play, teams may substitute players in and out freely. Sometimes this is referred to as \"on the fly\" substitution. Substitution must occur within the designated exchange area in order to be legal. [13] [14] [15]", "The distance from the ball for penalty kicks or kick-off shall be 5 meters. If this distance is not observed, the referee will ascribe a further 5-meter penalty to the player.", "This means on a pitch that is 100m long it is 50m from the halfway line to the goalline.", "Offside: When any part of a player’s body is beyond the line of scrimmage or free kick line when the ball is put into play. Offside is a 5-yard penalty.", "Both halves of the match are started with a place kick from the centrepoint of the halfway line. The kick must cross the opposition's 10-yard line, which the opposition are not allowed to encroach beyond until the ball is kicked.", "Following a completed tackle, all but two of the defending team must retreat at least ten metres from the point at which the tackle is made. This distance is marked by the referee. Following the play-the-ball, defenders are permitted to advance to try to put pressure on the attackers and to reduce the distance they can make with the ball. If a defender who has failed to retreat 10 metres interferes with play, then he will be deemed to have been offside and this will result in a penalty to the attacking team. Equally, if a defender advances too quickly before the ball is played, then this will also result in a penalty to the attackers. When a player kicks the ball their teammates must be behind them or they will be called for offside if they interfere with the play.", "Defenders must be 5 yards from the ball for free kicks upon request from team taking the kick. Jumping in front of the ball to prevent a quick free kick may result in a yellow card.", "Free Position: penalty awarded for a foul. Player who has been fouled gets the ball and all others must move 4m away.", "    Back 10 - When a penalty is awarded, the offending team must get back 10 meters", "A: No. On attacking free hits inside the 23 meter area, ALL players must be 5 meters from the spot where the free hit will be taken. The 23 meter line has no subsequent bearing on this particular play.", "The ball must travel at least 10 metres beyond the halfway line. It may touch the ground, but it must go the 10 metres away from halfway.", "At 16 feet, 5 inches (5.0 meters) and 32 feet, 10 inches (10.0 meters) away from the center of each backline in either direction, a line having a length of 1 foot (0.3 meter) is drawn. Thus, each backline will have four such markings. These are known as the penalty corner defender’s and attacker’s marks, respectively.", "Rule 13.2.b states that opponents must be 5 meters from the ball. Therefore, this distance must be created before the opponent attempts to tackle or engage the attacker in any way.", "A player attempting to intercept or defend the ball must be at least 3ft (0.9m) away from the player with the ball. This distance is measured from the landing foot of the player in possession of the ball. The defender may jump to intercept or defend the ball from this 0.9m (3ft) feet distance but you must ensure if you do jump to defend a ball, you don’t land any nearer that 3ft or this is obstruction (i.e. shortening your distance).", "The Ten Metre Law is a form of offside which is designed to prevent injury to a defending player who attempts to catch a ball that has been kicked ahead by the attacking side.", "The Ten Metre Law is a form of offside which is designed to prevent injury to a defending player who attempts to catch a ball that has been kicked ahead by the attacking side.", "The Ten Meter Law is a form of offside which is designed to prevent injury to a defending player who attempts to catch a ball that has been kicked ahead by the attacking side.", "A curved line on top of the penalty box, a player fouled in this part of the football field will be awarded with a penalty kick; more appropriately called the “penalty arch”" ]

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[ "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the USA , who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. [13] In the final , Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo , and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup. [14]", "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and USA , who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. [9] In the final , Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo , and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup. [10]", "The first FIFA World Cup opened at the brand-new Estadio Centenario in Montevideo on 18 July 1930. It was the beginning of a new era in world football and the inaugural event proved a remarkable success, both in a sporting and a financial sense. Of course, the organisers were disappointed that only four European sides had participated. The anger in Montevideo was so intense in fact that four years later, world champions Uruguay became the first and only team to refuse to defend their title.", "Transcript: The first ever FIFA World Cup took place in July of 1930 in Uruguay. This was the only World Cup without a qualification, and every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to come play. Uruguay not only hosted the first FIFA World Cup, but it also won the first one, beating Argentina 4 to 2 in the final.", "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and USA, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup.", "1. The first FIFA World Cup was held in Uruguay back in 1930 and 13 countries participated in the very first World Cup tournament.", "The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national association football teams. It took place in Uruguay from 13 July to 30 July 1930. FIFA, football's international governing body, selected Uruguay as host nation, as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution, and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics. All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital, Montevideo, the majority at the Estadio Centenario, which was built for the tournament.", "On May 26th 1928, FIFA elected Uruguay as the host of the first World Cup. Uruguay had won two gold medals in the Summer Olympic Games, which were hitherto the most important football tournament in the world; the Uruguayans had excellent reasons to believe they could celebrate the centenary of their Independence with a victory in the World Cup.", "These successes prompted FIFA, at the Amsterdam congress of 28 May 1928, to consider staging its own World Championship. At the following Congress in Barcelona plans were finalised – it would be held in Uruguay, which was celebrating its 100th anniversary of independence the following year. Unfortunately, Europe was in the midst of an economic crisis, and teams would have to do without their key players for two months – several nations pulled out. Without them, the first World Cup opened in Montevideo on 18 July 1930 – with only four European teams.", "In 1928 FIFA made the decision to stage their own international tournament. The inaugural World Cup tournament. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and due to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. No European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium , France, Romania , Hungary and Yugoslavia to make the trip.[9] In total 13 nations took part – seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America.", "The inaugural FIFA World Cup was staged in Uruguay in 1930 and was played from July 13th to July 30th 1930.", "In the first World Cup final, held on July 30, 1930, 93,000 spectators looked on as Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in a rematch of the 1928 Olympic gold medal game. Uruguay went on to win its second World Cup in 1950 with a 2-1 win over Brazil in Rio de Janeiro.", "The need for a single association to oversee the worldwide game prompted the founding of FIFA in Paris on 21 May 1904. Original membership belonged to seven European countries, though within several years membership began to expand beyond the European continent. The first non-European country to join was South Africa, in 1909, followed by Argentina, Chile, and the United States in subsequent years. Following the success of the competitions and the rising popularity of football, FIFA began seriously contemplating the staging of its own regular World Championship. The first World Cup was held in Uruguay in 1930. The next World Cup was held thereafter in Italy in 1934.", "The Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) was founded in the rear of the headquarters of the Union Française de Sports Athlétiques at the rue Saint Honoré 229 in Paris on 21 May 1904. The first World Cup was held in 1930 in Uruguay.", "Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.", "With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, competitions involving professional teams also started to appear. The Torneo Internazionale Stampa Sportiva, held in Turin, Italy in 1908, was one of the first and the following year Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, also held in Turin. Both tournaments were contested between individual clubs (not national teams), each one of which represented an entire nation. For this reason, neither was really a direct forerunner of the World Cup, but notwithstanding that, the Thomas Lipton Trophy is sometimes described as The First World Cup, at the expense of its less well-known Italian predecessor.", "     This WC would have been the first one played after the Great War, and given the general international political and economic situation at the time, probably one of the least successful. One of the most likely candidates to host this WC would've been Netherlands, which was neutral during WWI, and most of all thanks to the President of the Netherlands FA Carl Hirschmann, who was actually running FIFA and keeping it alive immediately after the war. Carl Hirschmann, a Dutch banker and financier, was the first man who conceived the idea of World Championship back in 1902 and saw his idea materialized four years later. At last, this tournament arrived in his home country, but alas, under very adverse circumstances.", "^ a b \"History of FIFA - The first FIFA World Cup\". FIFA. Retrieved 10 April 2012.", "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the USA , who beat Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. Four days later, the first World Cup hat-trick was achieved by Bert Patenaude of the USA in the Americans' 3–0 win against Paraguay . In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo , and became the first nation to win a World Cup.[10]", "The first World Cup match France beat Mexico 4-1. Lucien Laurent had the distinction of scoring the first World Cup goal.", "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the USA, who beat Mexico 4-1 and Belgium 3-0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. Four days later, the first World Cup hat-trick was achieved by Bert Patenaude of the USA in the Americans' 3-0 win against Paraguay. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4-2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win a World Cup.", "The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the USA, who beat Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. Four days later, the first World Cup hat-trick was achieved by Bert Patenaude of the USA in the Americans' 3–0 win against Paraguay. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win a World Cup. ", "Argentina, Uruguay, the USA and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi-finals. In the final, hosts and pre-tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people, and became the first nation to win a World Cup.", "Eventually thirteen teams (seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America) entered the tournament. Few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history, while American goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official “clean sheet” in the tournament.", "Thirteen teams (seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America) entered the tournament. Few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history, while American goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official \"clean sheet\" in the tournament.", "Argentina, Uruguay, the United States and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi-finals. In the final, hosts and pre-tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.", "     France and Mexico played in the first ever World Cup game, and the French won 4-1 with Lucien Laurent of France scoring the first ever World Cup goal. But the two teams who dominated this tournament were Argentina and Uruguay. They both topped their groups easily. Stábile was this tournament's best player, originally a substitute, he came into the side and scored a hat-trick against Mexico. The semifinals saw Argentina trash the United States by 6-1, and Uruguay won by the same score versus Yugoslavia. There was no bronzematch at that time, so both USA and Yugoslavia shared the third place. In the final Argentina looked like the better side in the first half, but the hosts came back in the second half to win the title 4-2. Read more about this final by clicking on the \"Final\" link in the left column.", "Thirteen teams, seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America entered the tournament. Few European teams chose to participate due to the duration and cost of travel. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the USA, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history.", "- During that game referee Saucedo of Bolivia awarded the first World Cup penalty. In fact, he awarded five, three of which were missed. The first player to miss from the penalty-spot was Fernado Paternoster of Argentina. First to score from a penalty was Manuel Rocquetas Rosas of Mexico.", "FIFA World Cup is staged in Africa for the first time | South African History Online", "This was the first ever World Cup competition to be hosted in Asia. See more »", "This FIFA World Cup ended with a missed penalty – and it began with a missed penalty too. Who was first to miss from the spot? B" ]

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[ "Shirt number 10 in football is reserved for greatest players who have ever played the beautiful game. Starting from Pelé, Diego Maradona, Zinedine Zidane and so on sported Jersey Number 10 are known for their quality and will be remembered for ever. Pele wore the shirt No. 10 for his Nation team Brazil and Cosmos (An North American Soccer League Club), the latter have retired the shirt number 10 in the remembrance of the ‘The King Pele’.", "Everyone wants to be a hero. With the likes of Péle and Maradona (as others have said), generations of football players aspired to wear #10, just like generations of basketball players wanted to wear #23, or baseball players wanted to wear #3 (Ruth), #4 (Gehrig, the first retired number in professional sports), #21 (Clementé) or #42 (Robinson).", "The most iconic footballers in history like Pelé, Diego Maradona, Zinedine Zidane, Michel Platini, Ferenc Puskás and Messi today wore or wear the legendary number 10.", "A peculiar incident happened recently, Diego Maradona the head coach of Argentina and former Number 10 handed the number 10 Jersey to Lionel Messi. This is the first instance of a previous number 10 handing his number to other player.", "On 1 September 2014, Maradona, along with many current and former footballing stars, took part in the \"Match for Peace\", which was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with the proceeds being donated entirely to charity. Maradona set up a goal for Roberto Baggio during the first half of the match, with a chipped through-ball over the defence with the outside of his left foot. Unusually, both Baggio and Maradona wore the number 10 shirt, despite playing on the same team. On 17 August 2015, Maradona visited Ali Bin Nasser, the Tunisian referee of the Argentina–England quarter-final match at the 1986 World Cup where Maradona scored his Hand of God, and paid tribute to him by giving him a signed Argentine jersey. ", "It’s difficult to really grasp the scope of Pele’s achievements. Years of sitting on committees and starring in Viagra ads have partly obscured the passionate Brazilian who scored four times in every five games for his country, netted 1281 goals over a 20-year career and won the World Cup three times. Fair enough, there are the medals. But those who were there remember the breathtaking style and intelligence of his play, the athletic improvisation: playing in teams packed with fabulous talent (including 1970’s Brazil, possibly football’s greatest ever), he has been described as the conductor that made them play beautiful music. It was an unstruck match between he and Maradona, so we split them with a redhead. ", "El Pibe de Oro. The Golden Boy. Diego Maradona's unwaning shadow looms large over world football. In 2007 the brilliant Argentine chose Lionel Messi as his successor to the famous No. 10 shirt. But you can never be sure that potential will be fulfilled. Three years later, Messi – El Pulga, the Flea – is a European Champion, Olympic Gold Medallist, the most naturally gifted footballer on the planet and a hero to millions of fans across the globe. Champions, reporters and coaches blunder time and time again in their haste to find superstars. This time they got it right.Aged only 22, he shows a degree of maturity rarely seen on the soccer pitch. Yet underneath the layers of footballing brilliance, he is still the shy boy who describes his Maradona moment with disarming simplicity: 'I saw the gap and I went for it.' Transcending both club and country, he is a sporting god who prefers homemade cookies to brand name perfumes.Author Luca Caioli draws on exceptional testimonies. Messi's parents, Celia and Jorge, his bother Rodrigo and his uncles and aunts; his coaches at Grandoli and Newell's Old Boys; Charly Rexach, Alex García, Frank Rjikaard, Gianluca Zambrotta from Barcelona; Hugo Tocalli, Pancho Ferrero, el Coco Basile, Roberto Perfumo from Argentina. And to conclude, Leo Messi himself sizes up his life so far.", "Since retiring, Pelé has continued to be lauded by players, coaches, journalists and others. Brazilian attacking midfielder Zico, who represented Brazil at the 1978, 1982 and 1986 FIFA World Cup, stated; \"This debate about the player of the century is absurd. There's only one possible answer: Pelé. He's the greatest player of all time, and by some distance I might add\". French three time Balon D'or winner Michel Platini said; \"There's Pelé the man, and then Pelé the player. And to play like Pelé is to play like God.\" Joint FIFA Player of the Century, Argentina's 1986 FIFA World Cup-winning captain Diego Maradona stated; \"It's too bad we never got along, but he was an awesome player\". Prolific Brazilian striker Romário, winner of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and player of the tournament; \"It's only inevitable I look up to Pelé. He's like a God to us\". Two-time FIFA Ballon d'Or winner Cristiano Ronaldo said: \"Pelé is the greatest player in football history, and there will only be one Pelé\", while José Mourinho, two-time UEFA Champions League winning manager, commented; \"I think he is football. You have the real special one – Mr Pelé.\" Real Madrid honorary president and former player, Alfredo Di Stéfano, opined; \"The best player ever? Pelé. Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo are both great players with specific qualities, but Pelé was better\". ", "Maradona played in four FIFA World Cups, including the 1986 World Cup in Mexico where he captained Argentina and led them to victory over West Germany in the final, and won the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. In the 1986 World Cup quarter final, he scored both goals in a 2–1 victory over England that entered football history for two different reasons. The first goal was an unpenalized handling foul known as the \"Hand of God\", while the second goal followed a 60 m (66 yd) dribble past five England players, voted \"The Goal of the Century\" by FIFA.com voters in 2002.", "Maradona played in four FIFA World Cups, including the 1986 World Cup in Mexico where he captained Argentina and led them to victory over West Germany in the final, and won the Golden Ball as the tournament’s best player. In the 1986 World Cup quarter final, he scored both goals in a 2–1 victory over England that entered football history for two different reasons. The first goal was an unpenalized handling foul known as the “Hand of God”, while the second goal followed a 60 m (66 yd) dribble past five England players, voted “The Goal of the Century” by FIFA.com voters in 2002.", "Anyone that puts Maradona above Pele is being 100% biased or based on subjective opinions. There are absolutely no basis on statistics to even consider that: Pele scored 1281 goals – Maradona 345 (less than 1/3). Pele won 3 world cups – Maradona 1. Pele won 40 club titles (!) Maradona won 9. Per game, Maradona had a lower scoring ratio than Pele. Maradona could only kick with one leg (Pele scored with either leg) and Pele was also the reserve Goalie and caught 2 penalties in official games for Santos (!). Pele joined the Brazilian National team at 16 years of age and was 2nd top scorer in 1958 World Cup at age 17 when he also scored 2 goals in the final. Pele was the most complete, skilled and successful player for all time. Maradona is nothing but a long distant second best that impressed the most recent generation and that is the only reason why some sites even dare to mention Maradona in the same level as Pele.", "Pelé was named FIFA's \"Co-Player of the Century\" in 1999, along with Argentine Diego Maradona. To many, his accomplishments on the soccer field will never be equaled, and virtually all great athletes in the sport are measured against the Brazilian who once made the world stop to watch his transcendent play.", "Unlike Pele, however, much of Maradona's career was tainted with controversy . For every wonder goal there was a scandal to match, with the 1986 quarter-final against England perfectly encapsulating El Diego. Four minutes after his 'Hand of God' put Argentina ahead, he wove his way through the England defence to score, at least in my opinion, the greatest goal the game has seen.", "Years later Diego Maradona took issue with Pele for this. “I would have liked him to look after Garrincha instead of letting him die broke,” he wrote. In truth, there was little anybody could have done to arrest Garrincha’s decline, but Maradona’s intervention opened up a new fault-line between the two players now generally regarded as the greatest ever.", "Pele, whose given name is Edson Arantes do Nascimento, is considered by many to be the greatest soccer player of all time.", "It happened to the great Pele in 1958, the mercurial Johan Cruyff in 1974 and the legendary Diego Maradona in 1986.", "El Piebe D’oro (the golden foot) as he was nicknamed, Diego Armando Maradona was ‘inhuman’ when on the ball. Many experts, football critics, former players, current players and football fans in general consider Maradona to be the greatest football player of all time.", "By 1982, Maradona had become one of the biggest sports stars in the world and had endorsements with many companies, including Puma and Coca-Cola, earning him $1.5 million per year in endorsements. In 1982 he featured in a World Cup commercial for Coca-Cola, and a Japanese commercial for Puma. In 2010, Maradona appeared in a commercial for the French fashion house Louis Vuitton, indulging in a game of table football with fellow legends Pelé and Zinedine Zidane. Maradona features in the music video to the 2010 World Cup song \"Waka Waka\" by Shakira, with footage shown of him celebrating Argentina winning the 1986 World Cup. ", "I cannot help but think that both Pele’s and Maradona’s comments about Messi are the result of sour grapes. After all, until Messi started playing, they were considered the two best players in the world, a place they now have to share with him. And while Messi isn’t annoyed by the comparison with Maradona and Pele, both of these players seem resentful of him.", "I cannot help but think that both Pelé and Maradona comments about Messi are the result of sour grapes. After all, until Messi started playing, they were considered the two best players in the world, a place they now had to share with Messi. And while Messi isn’t annoyed by the comparison with Maradona and Pelé, both of these players seem resentful of Messi.", "Brazil played Italy in the final at the Azteca Stadium in Mexico City. Pelé scored the opening goal with a header over Italian defender Tarcisio Burgnich. He then made assists on Brazil's third goal, scored by Jairzinho, and the fourth finished by Carlos Alberto which is often considered the greatest team goal of all time, involving all but two of the team's outfield players, and ended with Pelé making a blind pass which went into the path of Carlos Alberto, who came running from behind, and struck the ball to score. Brazil won the match 4–1, keeping the Jules Rimet Trophy indefinitely, and Pelé received the Golden Ball as player of the tournament. Burgnich, who marked Pelé during the final, was quoted saying \"I told myself before the game, he's made of skin and bones just like everyone else — but I was wrong\". ", "During the course of the tournament, Maradona attempted or created more than half of Argentina's shots, embarked on 90 dribbles some three times more than any other player and was fouled 53 times, winning his team twice as many free kicks as any player. Maradona scored or assisted 10 of Argentina's 14 goals, including the assist for the winning goal in the final, ensuring that he would be remembered as one of the greatest names in football history. By the end of the World Cup, Maradona went on to win the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament by unanimous vote and was widely regarded to have won the World Cup virtually single-handedly, something that he did not entirely agree with. In a tribute to him, Azteca Stadium authorities built a statue of him scoring the \"Goal of the Century\" and placed it at the entrance of the stadium. ", "In the 1986 World cup in Mexico City, Argentinean Diego Maradona scored a controversial goal that has become known throughout football history as \"the Hand of God\". In the match against England, Maradona headed the ball into the net using his head and hand in what he later called: \"a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God\".", "After the downfall of the dictatorship in 1983, a democratic government was reinstalled, and prosperous times were ahead for Argentina—particularly on the pitch. The 1986 World Cup in Mexico was perhaps the paramount tournament performance by Argentina’s national football team.  During this World Cup, Argentina possessed a precious jewel that would unleash its potential, and restore Argentina’s pride. This jewel was named Diego Armando Maradona. For many years, Maradona had established himself as one of the best players in the history of football, leading his team to Argentina League victories (with Boca Juniors in 1981) and a Primera title with Barcelona in 1983. However, the culmination of his career was yet to come.", "In 2000, Fifa decided to have a vote to find the 'Player of the Century' , which took the form of an online poll. Maradona won it comfortably, which led to concerns that the age of internet users meant more people who saw the Argentine play would be able to cast a vote than those of an older generation who saw Pele.", "At Napoli from 1984-91, he became a living God in the eyes of all Neapolitans after leading the club to their first ever Scudetto in 1987, and another in 1990. Never has a player been revered as much by one club’s supporters as Maradona was.", "the goal made by maradona made with his hands. it was counted as a goal becuase the referee didnt see it. it was during the 1986 world cup ending with argentina winning 2-1 against england. After argentina won the world cup.", "Here he is owning Maradona, something that can’t be said for many people at that time:", "Few players can divide opinion like Diego Maradona. Yet while some call him a god and others a cheat, none would deny that he was one of the most breathtakingly exciting players the world has had the pleasure to witness.", "How Diego Maradona’s Hand of God goal ignited a feud between the men who gave it", "Q: Do you still hold grudge against Maradona for scoring that “hand of god” goal or ponder of over the genius of the man who scored what has been dubbed as the goal of the century?", "Really this isn’t an argument that should be used in determining who is the better player. Regardless of how poorly Maradona behaved off the pitch, and how much he bent the rules on it, this all makes no difference to how great a player he was." ]

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[ "The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup. Alex Ferguson won 28 major honours, and 38 in total, from November 1986 to May 2013, when he announced his retirement after 26 years at the club.[6] Fellow Scot David Moyes was appointed as his replacement on 9 May 2013.", "Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup when they beat Benfica 4–1 after extra time at Wembley Stadium with goals from Bobby Charlton (2), George Best and Brian Kidd. Manager Matt Busby was knighted that year for his achievements. A double triumph was secured by Leeds United when they won the Inter Cities Fairs Cup by beating Ferencváros 1–0 on aggregate.", "The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United became the first English football club to win the European Cup. Alex Ferguson won 38 trophies, including 13 Premier League titles, 5 FA Cups and 2 UEFA Champions Leagues, between 1986 and 2013, when he announced his retirement. José Mourinho is the club's current manager, having been appointed on 27 May 2016.", "Manchester United Football Club is an English professional football club, based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, that plays in the Premier League. Founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, the club changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to Old Trafford in 1910. In 1968 Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup . The current manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, is the most successful manager in English football history, having won 26 major honours since he took over in November 1986. Manchester United is the most successful club in the history of English football, having won a record 19 league titles, a record 11 FA Cups and four League Cups. The club has also won three European Cups and is the only English club to have been world champions, in 1999 and 2008. Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world.The club is said to be worth £1.13 billion, making it the most valuable football club in the world. After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million.", "Under their inspiring Scottish manager Matt Busby after the War, Manchester United became one of the most brilliant and exciting football teams in England. They won the FA Cup in 1948 and in 1957 the young 'Busby babes' were the first English Club to enter the European Cup. The following year, on the way back from Yugoslavia and a 3-3 draw with Red Star Belgrade, Busby and his players and staff boarded a BEA aircraft at Munich airport in a driving snowstorm.", "Manchester United rebuild their team and become the first English team to win the European Cup.", "In the late 1960s English clubs dominated the last years of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, with wins for Leeds United, Newcastle United and Arsenal. Manchester United became the first English club to win the European Cup in 1967–68 when they beat Benfica 4–1 at Wembley in the final. Liverpool (four), Nottingham Forest (two) and Aston Villa (one) won the European Cup in a successful period between 1977 and 1984.", "• Spurs were the first English club to win a UEFA competition, Nicholson's men hammering Atlético Madrid 5-1 in the 1963 European Cup Winners' Cup final; Jimmy Greaves – England's all-time top scorer in top-flight games with 357 goals  – netted twice. Tottenham then beat Wolverhampton Wanderers to land the inaugural UEFA Cup in 1972, becoming the first British club to capture two different UEFA trophies.", "Up until 1976, English teams had achieved some great results in the European Cup, but had only managed to win the trophy once, when Manchester United triumphed at Wembley in 1968. The Fairs/UEFA Cup had been won on 5 consecutive occasions between 1968 and 1972 and the Cup-Winners Cup had gone to England four times, but in the European Cup the performance of English sides did not match up to that of their Spanish, Portugese, Italian, Dutch and German counterparts. That, however, was about to change. Liverpool were beginning to establish a reputation for themselves both at home and abroad. They had just won their domestic championship and had knocked out the likes of Dynamo Dresden, Barcelona and Bruges on the way to winning the UEFA Cup trophy that they had previously won in 1973. Liverpool had been built by Bill Shankly who guided the club from second division obscurity to league championship and European glory during his 15 years in charge. In July 1974, having just won the F.A.Cup - his ninth trophy at Anfield - Shankly rocked the football world by announcing his retirement. The managers job was then handed to his assistant Bob Paisley. Remarkably, Paisley would build on Shankly�s legacy to such an extent that his achievements would eventually dwarf those of his predecessor.", "After a difficult start to the 1974–75 season, Greenwood moved himself \"upstairs\" to become general manager and, without informing the board, appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager. The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in their first four games combined and won the FA Cup, becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all-English side when they beat Fulham 2–0 in the 1975 final. Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners' Cup final in 1976, though the team lost the match 4–2 to Belgian side Anderlecht. Greenwood's tenure as general manager lasted less than three years, as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie's resignation in 1977. ", "The foundations for Total Football were laid by Jack Reynolds, who was the manager of Ajax from 1915–1925, 1928–1940, and 1945–1947. An early form of Total Football was also developed by the Hungarian national football team of the 1950s, the Magical Magyars, who were managed by Gusztáv Sebes and were especially inspired by the experienced coaching of Burnley born and bred Jimmy Hogan. The first British side, and one of the first in the world to be an exponent of Total Football were Burnley F.C. in the 1950s. Led by Harry Potts, Burnley went on to win the 1959-60 English League title with an attacking, dominating style of football \"where every footballer in the team could play at every position\", nowadays known as Total Football. Burnley's style of play won many admirers, including all-time English First Division top scorer Jimmy Greaves. ", "United won the league championship in 1965 and regained it two years later, but the pinnacle of Matt Busby's reign came in 1968 when United hammered Benfica 4-1 in the European Cup final at Wembley Stadium. Busby received a knighthood while star player George Best was voted European Footballer of the Year.", "After a difficult start to the 1974–75 season, Greenwood moved himself “upstairs” to become general manager and, without informing the board, appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager. The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in their first four games combined and won the FA Cup, becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all-English side when they beat Fulham 2–0 in the 1975 final. Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners’ Cup final in 1976, though the team lost the match 4–2 to Belgian side Anderlecht.Greenwood’s tenure as general manager lasted less than three years, as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie’s resignation in 1977.", "Manchester City's cup was their fourth. In winning the trophy, Joe Mercer became the first person to win the league championship and FA Cup as both a captain and a manager. By winning the competition, Manchester City earned the right to compete in the 1969–70 European Cup Winners' Cup. City went on to win the Cup Winners' Cup, beating Górnik Zabrze 2–1 in the final. Leicester City continued to struggle in their remaining league matches and were relegated to the Second Division. Leicester became only the second club to reach a cup final and suffer relegation in the same season. By coincidence, the other club to have done so was Manchester City, who were subject to the same fate in 1926.", "The biggest success of his career came on 29 May 1968 when the team won the European Cup. He retired as manager at the end of the following season, having announced his intention to do so on 14 January 1969, but remained at the club as a director, handing over managerial duties to trainer and former player Wilf McGuinness. When McGuinness was sacked in December 1970, Busby briefly returned to his managerial duties, but there was never any question of his returning as manager permanently. The job went to Frank O'Farrell in June 1971 after United were unsuccessful in approaching Jock Stein and Don Revie.", "Manchester United endured a difficult time in the 1970s following the retirement of Matt Busby as manager. They suffered relegation to the Second Division in 1974, but achieved instant promotion and went on to win the FA Cup in 1977. The 1980s brought more success for the club, who won the FA Cup in 1983 and again in 1985 under the management of Ron Atkinson. They were captained by Bryan Robson, who also captained the England team for much of the decade, and had been Britain's most expensive footballer on his £1.5million arrival at the club in October 1981. Atkinson was succeeded by Alex Ferguson as manager in November 1986, but by the end of the decade United had gone more than 20 years without winning the league title, although they had finished in the top four on no less than seven times during the decade.", "While most of us were still preoccupied with bucket and spades Leeds were on their way to winning their first European competition. Leeds entertained Ferencváros of Hungary in the first leg of the 1967/68 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final held over to the beginning of the 1968/69 season and played on this day in 1968. Mick Jones scored the only goal of the match and with the second leg in September finishing goalless the trophy went to Leeds United.", "They had their upsets however: in 1933 they lost a cup game to Walsall of the old Third Division, a team that cost less than Arsenal's boots. Chapman died during this period, but he is considered to have been the first modern football manager. In 1934, England played an international game with seven Arsenal players, still a record. 1936 saw a second FA Cup win (1 - 0 against Sheffield United). During that season, Ted Drake set a record by scoring 7 goals in an away game at Aston Villa. A fourth Championship was captured in 1938 before World War II stopped competitive football for six years.", "'Poached' from the frighteningly-titled Middlesbrough lronopolis club. He had the single honour of coaching every one of Aston Villa�s League Championship winning sides before the Great War. Under trainer Grierson, the League was conquered six times and the FA Cup four times in a run of success which it took a World War to halt. Not until Shankly and Paisley led Liverpool to the peaks was that level of domination eclipsed anywhere in the world. Former Villa playing legend John Devey was assistant to Grierson after Devey's playing retirement in 1901.", "John J. Bentley was replaced by John Robson, the former manager of Brighton & Hove Albion. However, Manchester United continued to struggle and in the 1914-15 season finished in 18th place, just one point above relegated Chelsea.", "However, arguably the most successful manager in the club's history is David Ashworth. Appointed in 1906, he guided them to the Lancashire Combination Championship and promotion to the Football League in his first season. In 1910, after just three seasons in Division 2, they finished in second place and won promotion to the top flight of English football. For the next four years Ashworth maintained the club's smooth progress. They finished season 1913–14 in 4th place, only for Ashworth to move to Stockport County, leaving his successor Herbert Bamlett to take the team to its best ever league placing the season after, when they finished runners-up to Everton, missing out on the League Championship by just one point.", "In 1888, West Bromwich Albion were the first club to win the FA Cup with a team made up of English born players. Only 3 other teams have since achieved the same feat - 1958 Bolton Wanderers, 1969 Manchester City, 1975 West Ham United.", "Graham Taylor OBE is particularly remembered for being manager of the England national football team, as well as being manager of Watford, a club he took from the Fourth Division to the First within five years, then from the foot of the second division to the Premier League in two seasons, two decades later. In 1982/83 the club finished second in the league behind Liverpool, earning them a place in the UEFA Cup and in ’84, he led Watford to an FA Cup Final. Taylor had totally transformed the club in the space of five years.", "The most successful manager is Graham Turner , who won the Third Division Championship in 1978-79 - his first season in charge - and took the club into the Second Division for the first time. They remained for ten years, although Turner departed for Aston Villa in 1984.", "Preston North End won the first ever Football League championship without losing any of their 22 fixtures, and won the FA Cup to complete the double. They retained their league title the following year but by the turn of the 20th century they had been eclipsed by Aston Villa, who had emulated Preston's double success in 1897. Other Midlands sides, such as Wolves (1893 FA Cup winners) and West Bromwich Albion (1888 & 1892 FA Cup winners) were also successful during this era, as were Blackburn Rovers, who won five FA Cups in the 1880s and 1890s. In 1892 a second division was added and in 1920 a third division was added.", "** Queens Park Rangers become the first 3rd Division side to win the English Football League Cup at Wembley Stadium, defeating West Bromwich Albion 3–2.", "Houllier began to build a squad of players ready to challenge at the top. Success was not immediate but after two seasons in sole charge three trophies arrived together. League Cup success over Birmingham was the clubs first trophy for 6 years and this was soon followed by FA Cup and UEFA Cup joy two months later. A memorable UEFA Cup Final saw Houllier’s team beat Spanish underdogs 5-4 after extra time.", "Indeed they are, Nicholas. The First Division winners of 1977/8, who won the European Cup in 1979 and retained it in 1980, are indeed the only club to have won Big Cup more times than their league at home.", "In 1919, still under King's leadership, West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , the first game being a 1-1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923, also making the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium. Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final . This is because so many people turned up to the game, (estimated at 200,000), that they spilled out on to the pitch. The pitch had to be cleared prior to kick-off, by Billie, a giant white horse (actually grey) being ridden by PC George Scorey. The Cup Final match itself ended 2–0 to Bolton Wanderers. The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for 10 years and reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1927.", "In the replay, Spurs became the only non-league side to win the FA Cup when they beat Sheffield United 3–1 before an attendance of 20,470 at Burnden Park, Bolton. John Cameron opened the scoring before centre forward Sandy Brown became the first player to score in every round. He netted both goals in the final as well as one in the replay for a total of 15 in the season's competition. ", "Shankly lead the club to their first FA Cup final at their third attempt in 1965, beating Leeds United in the final. That win came was sandwiched by two more championships. European success was on the horizon and despite ending as runners-up in the European Cup Winners Cup in 1966 the bread and butter of the league title was won.", "In the same season Everton won the First Division title. Although Everton were relegated to Second Division in 1930, Dean stayed with them, and the club subsequently won the Second Division in 1931, followed by the First Division again in 1932, and the FA Cup in 1933 (in which he scored in the final itself ) – a sequence of success not matched since." ]

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[ "Watford Football Club was founded in 1881. The long established Hertfordshire team has a number of nicknames including ‘the Hornets’, ‘the Golden Boys’ and ‘the ‘Orns’. They were once owned by legendary British music star Sir Elton John, who oversaw several successful seasons under manager Graham Taylor. Both men are now Honorary Life Presidents of the club.", "This nickname did not prove particularly popular, and upon the adoption of a blue-and-white colour scheme in the 1920s, the club became predominantly known as The Blues. When Watford changed kit colours in 1959, supporters chose The Hornets as the team's new nickname, and the club later introduced a crest depicting a hornet.", "Watford's initial nickname was The Brewers, in reference to the Benskins Brewery, which owned the freehold of Vicarage Road. Subscription required. This nickname did not prove particularly popular, and upon the adoption of a blue-and-white colour scheme in the 1920s, the club became predominantly known as The Blues. When Watford changed kit colours in 1959, supporters chose The Hornets as the team's new nickname, and the club later introduced a crest depicting a hornet. In 1974 the design was changed to depict Harry the Hornet, the club's mascot. The club's nickname remains, but in 1978 the hornet crest was replaced by a depiction of a hart – a male red deer – on a yellow and black background. A hart represents the town's location in the county of Hertfordshire. Until Barnet and, later, Stevenage joined the Football League, Watford were Hertfordshire's only league club. Other nicknames have since been adopted, including The Golden Boys, Yellow Army and The 'Orns. ", "Tottenham Hotspur Football Club ] commonly referred to as Spurs, is an English football club located inTottenham, London, that plays in the Premier League.", "Arsenal Football Club is an English Premier League football club based in Holloway, London. One of the most successful clubs in English football, it has won 13 First Division and Premier League titles and 10 FA Cups. Arsenal holds the record for the longest uninterrupted period in the English top flight and would be placed first in an aggregated league of the entire 20th century. It is the second side to complete an English top flight season unbeaten and the only one to do so across 38 matches. Arsenal was founded in 1886 in Woolwich and in 1893 became the first club from the south of England to join the Football League. In 1913, it moved north across the city to Arsenal Stadium in Highbury. In the 1930s the club won five League Championship titles and two FA Cups. After a lean period in the post-war years it won the League and FA Cup Double, in the 1970–71 season, and in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century won two more Doubles and reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final. Arsenal has a long-standing rivalry with North London neighbours Tottenham Hotspur, with whom it contests the North London derby. Arsenal is the fourth most valuable association football club in the world as of 2013, valued at more than $1.3 billion.", "Several English and Welsh professional football clubs are nicknamed \"The Robins\"; Bristol City , Swindon Town , Cheltenham Town and, traditionally, Wrexham FC : the nickname is derived from the clubs' home colours being red . A small bird is an unusual choice, though it is thought to symbolise agility in darting around the field. [32] In addition to the football club, the Swindon Robins is the full name of the local Speedway promotion. It is also the nickname of the English Rugby League team Hull Kingston Rovers . The nickname is derived from the club's home colours, of white with a red band. [33]", "Liverpool Football Club is an English Premier League football club based in Liverpool. Liverpool F.C. is one of the most successful clubs in England and has won more European trophies than any other English team with five European Cups, three UEFA Cups and three UEFA Super Cups. The club has also won eighteen League titles, seven FA Cups and a record eight League Cups. Liverpool was founded in 1892 and joined the Football League the following year. The club has played at Anfield since its formation. The most successful period in Liverpool's history was the 1970s and '80s when Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley led the club to eleven league titles and seven European trophies. The club's supporters have been involved in two major tragedies. The first was the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 in which charging Liverpool fans caused a wall to collapse, killing 39 Juventus supporters and resulting in English clubs being banned from European competitions for five years. In the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, 96 Liverpool supporters lost their lives in a crush against perimeter fencing. Liverpool has long-standing rivalries with neighbours Everton and with Manchester United. The team changed from red shirts and white shorts to an all-red home strip in 1964. The club's anthem is \"You'll Never Walk Alone\".", "Liverpool Football Club is a Premier League football club based in Liverpool, currently managed by Jürgen Klopp. Liverpool F.C. is one of the most successful clubs in England and has won more European trophies than any other English team with five European Cups, three UEFA Cups, and three UEFA Super Cups. The club has also won eighteen League titles, seven FA Cups and a record eight League Cups. In spite of their successful history, Liverpool are yet to win a Premier League title since its inception in 1992.", "Newcastle United Football Club is an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne. Following the club's most recent relegation from the top-flight during the 2015–16 season, Newcastle returned to the Football League's 2nd tier, the Championship for the 2016–17 campaign. The club was founded in 1892 by the merger of Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End, and has played at its current home ground, St James' Park, ever since. The ground was developed into an all-seater stadium in the mid-1990s and now has a capacity of 52,405. The club has been a member of the Premier League for all but two years of the competition's history, and has never dropped below English football's second tier since joining the Football League in 1893. The club has been owned by Mike Ashley since 2007, succeeding long term chairman and owner Sir John Hall.", "Wigan Athletic Football Club is an English professional football club based in Wigan, Greater Manchester. Since 2005, the club has competed in the Premier League, the highest tier of English football. Their current spell in the Premier League is the only top flight run in the club's history, and as such, Wigan Athletic is the only club never to have been relegated from the top flight in the history of English football.", "Watford Football Club is a football club based in Watford, Hertfordshire, England, that plays in the Premier League, the highest level of English football. Founded in 1881 as Watford Rovers, the club entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1886, and the Southern League a decade later. After finishing the 1914–15 season as Southern League champions under the management of Harry Kent, Watford joined the Football League in 1920. The club played at several grounds in its early history, before moving to a permanent location at Vicarage Road in 1922, where it remains to this day. Watford spent most of the following half century in the lower divisions of The Football League, changing colours and crest on multiple occasions.", "Luton is the home town of Luton Town Football Club who currently play in the Football League 2, Their nickname, \"The Hatters\", dates back to when Luton had a substantial millinery industry. The club began the 2008/09 season with a thirty-point deficit, and were consequently relegated from the Football League to the Conference Premier on 13 April 2009.[4] However, Luton did win the Football League Trophy that year in front of 42,000 Luton fans at Wembley, despite being the lowest placed team in the competition for the whole season, Conference Premier after failing to win automatic promotion to Football League Two during the 2009–10, 2010–11 and 2011–12 seasons. Luton were beaten 2–0 on aggregate by York City in the semi finals of the playoffs, and therefore failed to progress to the final at Wembley Stadium. The following season Luton progressed to the final of the playoffs, losing to Wimbledon on penalties. In 2011–12 once again the team reached the final of the play-offs, only to lose 2–1 to York.", "Chelsea Football Club (also known as the Blues, previously known as the Pensioners), founded in 1905, is a Premier League football team that plays at Stamford Bridge football ground in South west London. Notwithstanding the club's name, it is not actually based in the borough of Chelsea, but just outside its boundaries, in the borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. It is on the Fulham Road, which runs between Fulham and the borough district of Chelsea. Chelsea currently have the seventh longest unbroken tenure in the top division, having been there since the 1989-90 season.", "Wigan Athletic became the first side to win the FA Cup and be relegated in the same season, after beating Manchester City 1–0 in the 2013 final. Their fate in the Premier League was sealed three days after their triumph, following a 4–1 defeat to Arsenal. ", "AFC Bournemouth is a professional association football club based in Bournemouth, Dorset, that plays in the Premier League, the top tier of the English football league system. Formed in 1890 as Boscombe St. John's Institute F.C., the club was reformed in 1899 as Boscombe F.C.. They changed to Bournemouth and Boscombe Athletic F.C. in 1923, before settling on their current name in 1972. Nicknamed The Cherries, since 1910 Bournemouth have played their home games at Dean Court. Their home colours are red and black striped shirts, with black shorts and socks.", "The team nickname is The Lions, previously The Dockers. The original Dockers name arose from the job of many of the club's supporters in the early 1900s. The club did not like the moniker and changed the nickname after press headlined Millwall as 'Lions of the South', after knocking Football League leaders Aston Villa out of the 1899–1900 FA Cup. Millwall, then a Southern League side, went on to reach the semi-final. The club adopted the motto: We Fear No Foe Where E'er We Go. In the 2000s the club started to recognise its unique link with London's docks by introducing Dockers' Days, and archiving the club's dock roots in the Millwall FC Museum. Dockers' Days bring together past successful Millwall teams who parade on the pitch at half-time. Supporters who were dockers are allowed to attend the game for free. In 2011, Millwall officially named the east stand of The Den as the 'Dockers Stand' in honour of the club's former nickname. ", "Swansea City Association Football Club () is a Welsh professional football club based in Swansea, Wales, that plays in the Premier League, the highest level of English football. Swansea City represent England when playing in European competitions, although they have represented Wales in the past. The club were founded in 1912 as Swansea Town and joined the Football League in 1921. The club changed their name in 1969, when they adopted the name Swansea City to reflect Swansea's new status as a city. Swansea have played their home matches at the Liberty Stadium since 2005, having previously played at the Vetch Field since the club were founded.", "AKA \"The Blues\" (other than Chelsea) or more commonly \"The Toffees\", based in Liverpool. They have nine league titles to their name and have spent a total of 105 seasons in the top-flight (this makes Aston Villa v. Everton the most-played tie in history). Play in blue shirts, white shorts and blue socks, they call Goodison Park their home ground, after moving out of Anfield.", "One of the most plausible explanations I have heard for our unusual nickname appeared in the sports section of The Independent on Sunday a few years back, when the sports section ran a 'Questions and Answers' page. Someone wrote in asking why West Bromwich Albion were called the Baggies, and (presumably) an Albion fan wrote back to say that the name actually stems from the fans. In the early days of the club's history, many of the supporters worked in the local ironworks and because of the intense heat, tended to wear very loose, baggy clothing. Since most of them would go straight to the match after work, it resulted in a very oddly attired bunch standing on the terraces at the Hawthorns, and led to the nickname of 'Baggies'. Has anyone else come across this one?", "The club’s Latin motto is Audere est Facere (lit: “To Dare Is to Do”), and its emblem is a gamecock standing upon a football. The club has a long-standing rivalry with near neighbours Arsenal, and matches between the two teams are known as the North London derby.", "The club's Latin motto is Audere est Facere (lit: \"To Dare Is to Do\"), and its emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football. The club has a long-standing rivalry with nearby neighbours Arsenal, with head-to-head fixtures known as the North London derby.", "The club’s Latin motto is Audere est Facere (lit: “To Dare Is to Do”), and its emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football. The club has a long-standing rivalry with nearby neighbours Arsenal, with head-to-head fixtures known as the North London derby.", "West Bromwich Albion Football Club, nicknamed The Baggies, are a Premier League football club based in West Bromwich less than 30 minutes west of Birmingham.", "The team were elected to The Football League in 1978, and competed in the Premier League from 2005 to 2013. They won the 2012–13 FA Cup, have also won League One and League Two and are two-times winners of the Football League Trophy, along with numerous regional football competitions from their time as a non-league club. The club embarked on its first European campaign during the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League.", "The team is nicknamed the \"Seagulls\" or \"Albion\". The team has historically played in blue and white stripes, though this changed to all white briefly in the 1970s and again to plain blue during the club's most successful spell in the 1980s. Crystal Palace is considered the club's main rival, although the grounds are 40 miles apart. ", "They secured their top division status a year later to become founder members of the new Premier League, but were relegated after two seasons despite reaching that year's FA Cup semi-finals. They are currently playing in Football League One, the third tier of the English league. Darren Kelly was appointed as Manager in May 2015", "As is typical with most EPL clubs, the Villains have an animal, in their case a lion, centrally placed on their logo. ", "To rebrand and modernise the club’s image, in 2006 both this club badge and the coat of arms gave way to a professionally designed logo/emblem.[12] This revamp features a leaner/fitter cockerel and an old-time football together with the club name. The club claims that the rebranding kept much of the original meaning of the name, and emphasised its originality.", "The club’s Latin motto is Audere Est Facere (“To Dare Is to Do”), and its emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football. Their home kit is white shirt and shorts or combination with navy blue shorts and their away kit is normally all Navy Blue or Yellow as well as a Black shirt on odd occasions.", "The team's home colours have been entirely red since 1964 when manager Bill Shankly changed them from a red shirt and white shorts. The club's anthem is \"You Will Never Walk Alone\".", "In 2006 to rebrand and modernise the club's image, the club badge and coat of arms were dumped for a professionally designed logo/emblem. This revamp showed a leaner, fitter cockerel on an old-time football. The club claims that the rebranding kept much of the original meaning of the name, but emphasised its originality. ", "In 2006 to rebrand and modernise the club’s image, the club badge and coat of arms were dumped for a professionally designed logo/emblem. This revamp showed a leaner, fitter cockerel on an old-time football. The club claims that the rebranding kept much of the original meaning of the name, but emphasised its originality." ]

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[ "29. Brazil is the only Country to have appeared in every World Cup tournament since 1930 until 2010.", "In all, 76 nations have played in at least one World Cup . [42] Of these, seven national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their crests , with each star representing a World Cup victory. (However, Uruguay are an exception to this unwritten rule; They choose to display four stars on their crest, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950). With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup to date. [43] Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. Brazil and Germany have both made the most appearances in the final, with seven, while Germany have made the most appearances in the top four, with eleven.", "Because the World Cup is held only every four years, there have only been 18 tournaments since it began in 1930. It’s an exclusive club of countries that have competed in any World Cup, and an even more exclusive club of countries that have won it. Out of 18 tournaments, there have been only seven countries to claim four years’ worth of bragging rights. Only one country has won five times (Brazil), one has four titles (Italy), and one has three (Germany). Brazil has the added honor of being the only country to have participated in every single World Cup.", "The 19 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Italy , with four titles; Germany , with three titles; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay , with two titles each; and England , France , and Spain , with one title each.", "The 19 FIFA World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other winners are Italy, with four titles; Germany, with three wins; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay, with two; and England, France, and Spain, with one title each.", "The 20 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay, with two titles each; and England, France and Spain, with one title each.", "The World Cup, also known as the Mundial or Copa do Mundo, has been held 19 times since it inaugural tournament in 1930. It has been won by eight different teams, with Brazil having the most World Cup titles with five, followed by Italy with four, and West Germany with three. Argentina and Uruguay have two titles each while England, France, and Spain have one title.", "With the FIFA World Cup in Brazil now over, I thought I take a visual look at the 80 year old history of the FIFA World Cup. It all started in 1930 in Uruguay where only 13 nations took part, currently we are up to its 20th instalment in Brazil, where 32 teams will battle it out in 2014.", "Brazil, the most successful team, is the only nation to have played in every World Cup Finals tournament.", "At the time the decision was made, Japan had never qualified for a World Cup finals (although the Japanese did subsequently qualify for the 1998 competition). The only other countries to have been awarded a World Cup without previously having competed in a final tournament are Italy in 1934 and Qatar in 2022. (Uruguay hosted the first World Cup in 1930 so there was no prior tournament. They were defending Olympic champions from 1928).", "With the host country, all world champion teams since the first World Cup in 1930 (Uruguay, Italy, Germany, England, Argentina, France and Spain) have qualified for this competition. The previous four World Cups staged in South America were all won by South American teams.", "Uruguay won the inaugural edition of the World Cup back in 1930, with Argentina and Uruguay grabbing second and third place, respectively. With the 20th edition of the tournament now in full swing, it’s time to look at the most successful countries of all time.", "The first ever World Cup match was played in Uruguay in 1930. Thirteen teams from around the world competed, and the host nation Uruguay became the first ever nation to win the world cup with a 4-2 triumph over Argentina.", "Of the thirteen teams that competed, only one, England, was making its debut. Several of the Latin American teams were competing for the first time since the inaugural 1930 tournament—this included undefeated Uruguay, as well as Mexico, Chile, Paraguay and Bolivia. Yugoslavia was also making its first appearance since 1930. This would be the United States' last appearance at the World Cup finals until 1990, and Bolivia's last until 1994.", "World Cup qualifiers were introduced in 1934. Only one country has taken part in every single World Cup qualifying competition since 1934. Which one? E Netherlands", "Two players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal (1950–1966) and Germany's Lothar Matthäus (1982–1998) both played in five tournaments. Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 25 appearances. Brazil's Djalma Santos (1954–1962), West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer (1966–1974) and Germany's Philipp Lahm (2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three Finals All-Star Teams. ", "France was one of the four European teams that participated at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 and have appeared in 14 FIFA World Cups, tied for sixth-best. The national team is one of eight national teams to have won at least one FIFA World Cup title. The France team won their first and only World Cup title in 1998. The tournament was played on home soil and France defeated Brazil 3–0 in the final match.", "The first World Cup was the only one without qualification. Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete, and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept. Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas; Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and the United States all entered. A total of seven South American teams participated, more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals. However, because of the long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean, and the length of absence required for players, very few European teams were inclined to take part. Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances, and no European entries were received before the February deadline. In an attempt to gain some European participation, the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to the Football Association, even though the Home Nations were not members of FIFA at the time. This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929. Two months before the start of the tournament, no team from Europe had officially entered.", "The first World Cup was the only one without qualification. Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete, and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept. Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas; Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and the United States all entered. A total of seven South American teams participated, more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals. However, because of the long and costly trip by ship across the Atlantic Ocean, and the length of absence required for players, very few European teams were inclined to take part. Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances, and no European entries were received before the February deadline. In an attempt to gain some European participation, the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to The Football Association, even though the British Home Nations were not members of FIFA at the time. This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929. Two months before the start of the tournament, no team from Europe had officially entered.", "The inaugural World Cup, held in Uruguay in 1930, is the only competition in which teams did not have to qualify - instead, 13 nations were invited to participate.", "Scotland, Turkey and South Korea made their World Cup debuts at this tournament (Turkey and Scotland had qualified for the 1950 competition but both withdrew). Austria appeared for the first time since 1934. Turkey would not participate at a finals again until the 2002 competition, while South Korea's next appearance would be in 1986.", "The FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association) World Cup are a football tournament held every four years since 1932 (with the exception of 1940 and 1944 due to the World War 2) in different host countries to hand out the World Cup. The tournament occurs for one month July-June every four years - in 2008, the most recent World Cup, the tournament was hosted in South Africa, and will be hosted by China in 2012. 32 countries are accepted to the tournament, and after initial \"group play,\" 16 teams advance to the knockout rounds. The 2008 championship match between China and Germany was the most-watched program in television history.", "International football stopped being about where you were born a long time ago. Luis Monti played for Argentina in the 1930 World Cup final, and Italy in the 1934 final. ", "“The Red Fury” Spain is proud as the only team in history to win three major international tournament in row, won twice Euro and a World Cup between 2008 - 2012. It is one of four nations to ever won both FIFA World Cup and European Championship. They holds the World record most games unbeaten with 35 between 2007 and 2009 and also the record most consecutive game wins with 15 between 2008 and 2009, tied with Germany as the most appearance in European Championship final with three.  Spain was first admitted to FIFA in 1914 and played its first ever international match in the 1920 Olympic Games and immediately won Silver medal, is the only concrete achievement of them in the pre-war era. Spain was introduced professionalism in 1926. They played in their first ever World Cup in 1934. Spain was successful in the 1950 FIFA World Cup as finishing third place. It was one of the founding members of UEFA in 1954. Spain won the 1964 European championship as their first ever appearance. Since 1978, Spain has qualified for World Cup every nine tournaments in row. They finished runner-up in the 1984 European Championship. The golden era came visit during the late 2000s after they won the 2008 European Championship and their only FIFA World Cup of the 2010 tournament. Spain every disqualified for World Cup for four times during the 1950s and the 1970s.", "brazil:What is the only country to have qualified for all of the soccer World Cup finals ?", "*1930 FIFA World Cup was the first world cup to be held. It was won by hosts Uruguay.", "The Dutch hold the record for playing the most World Cup finals without ever winning the tournament. They finished second in the 1974, 1978 and 2010 World Cups, losing to West Germany, Argentina and Spain respectively. They won the UEFA European Championship in 1988. ", "Sixteen countries have been FIFA World Cup hosts in the competition's twenty tournaments since the inaugural World Cup in 1930. The organization was at first awarded to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The choice of location was controversial in the earliest tournaments, given the three-week boat journey between South America and Europe, the two centres of strength in football at the time.", "The FIFA World Cup (often called the Football World Cup, Soccer World Cup or simply the World Cup) is the most important competition in international football , and the world's most representative team sport event. Organised by Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's governing body, the World Cup is contested by the men's national football teams of FIFA member nations. The championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930 (except in 1942 and 1946 due to World War II ), however, it is more of an ongoing event as the qualifying rounds of the competition take place over the three years preceding the final rounds.", "Although Denmark is FIFA member since 1904, they weren’t able to qualify for any of the previous 12 World Cups", "It was the highest amount of South American countries to have participated in a World Cup. This is also the only World Cup which contained more countries from South America than from Europe.", "File:stabile arg.jpg|Guillermo Stábile played in the 1930 World Cup and managed the team from 1939 to 1960." ]

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[ "* João Batista Nunes de Oliveira (b. 1954), ex-footballer who put the Liverpool off the Mundial of clubs at 1981.", "Michael Owen is a former English footballer and currently he is working as a football analyst on BT Sport football coverage and BBC’s Match of the Day. Michael Owen is the 2001 FIFA Ballon d’Or winner and he is widely regarded as the greatest Liverpool footballer of all time in the history. In his club career, he had played for Liverpool, Newcastle United, Manchester United and Stoke City in the Barclays Premier League. With his amazing 150 premier league goals, Michael Owen takes the 7th place in the list of premier league all time top goal scorers.", "Everton F.C. were founded in 1878 and play at Goodison Park and Liverpool F.C. were founded in 1892 and play at Anfield. Many high-profile players have played for the clubs, including Dixie Dean, Alan Ball, Gary Lineker, Neville Southall and Wayne Rooney for Everton F.C. and Kenny Dalglish, Alan Hansen, Kevin Keegan, Ian Rush and Steven Gerrard for Liverpool F.C.. Notable managers of the clubs include Harry Catterick and Howard Kendall of Everton, and Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley of Liverpool. Famous professional footballers from Liverpool include Peter Reid, Gary Ablett, Wayne Rooney, Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher and Tony Hibbert. The City of Liverpool is the only one in England to have staged top division football every single season since the formation of the Football League in 1888, and both of the city's clubs play in high-capacity stadiums.", "Former Liverpool and England captain Emlyn Hughes was one of the most successful footballers of his generation.", "*Kevin MacDonald – Former footballer who played for Liverpool FC, and former caretaker first team coach at Aston Villa", "William \"Bill\" Shankly  OBE  (2 September 1913 – 29 September 1981) was a Scottish  footballer  and manager  who is best known for his time as manager of  Liverpool .", "Forlorn Fagan – \"Whenever I think of Heysel, the first image that springs to mind is the expression on Joe Fagan's face as the terrifying scenes of crowd violence escalated to the point where the game that had been his whole life no longer meant anything. At the end, he looked a broken man,\" wrote former Liverpool defender Alan Hansen of the club's manager in his autobiography \"A Matter of Opinion.\"", "The book starts with a brief story by former Italian team coach Cesare Prandelli about his opinion of the genius Pirlo, since the midfielder started his career as a young boy in the ranks of Brescia until he reached the Italian national team. It then speaks about different timelines from the mind of Andrea himself about the most memorable moments in his football career, such as winning the 2006 World Cup, losing the famous Istanbul 2005 Champions League final to Liverpool in what he called “The Istanbul Miracle”, and his time under different coaches and most recently Antonio Conte’s Juventus. He never forgets to mention some laughs here and there with the time he spent with who he considers their closest friends, such as Rhino Gattuso who is the Italian football manager and is a former football player. In conclusion, the book is very enjoyable as it keeps you hooked wanting to learn more about this football philosopher (a true philosopher on and off the football pitch). It’s a must read for all football fans, as Pirlo is “a player who belongs to everyone”. And with Pirlo still part of the team, we can still hope for more legendary games and goals. And as former Italian team coach Lippi said, “Pirlo is a silent leader. He speaks with his feet.” October, 2014", "We're not absolutely certain about this, but Paul Fields and Geoff Clay both reckon the answer is Ian Callaghan, the man who played more games for Liverpool - 843 - than anyone else. Callaghan played two group games during the 1966 World Cup, but was not recalled until 1977, when Ron Greenwood was in the middle of what Paul Fields calls \"his short-lived experiment of picking every English-born Liverpool player bar David Fairclough and the criminally ignored Jimmy Case\".", "*The Liverpool sides of the late 1970s to late 1980s were famously notable for numbers of moustachioed players, including Bruce Grobbelaar, Alan Kennedy, Mark Lawrenson, Terry McDermott, David McGurrin, Ian Rush, and Graeme Souness.", "Ian Rush is the current highest Liverpool goals record holder. One of the best players in the world never to play in a World Cup, he went on to manage Chester City but failed to achieve anything significant.", "Bill Shankly was always more than a great football manager. He was football's Muhammad Ali: a charismatic maverick whose utterances had an unexpected, undeniable poetry. Between his appointment as Liverpool manager in December 1959 and his retirement 15 years later, he transformed a second-rate club, stuck in the lower ranks of the Second Division, into the finest team of its generation, winning three First Division titles, two FA Cups, a Second Division title and a Uefa Cup. He led Liverpool like a revolutionary leader, casting his personnel not just as footballers but soldiers to his cause, and became a folk hero to the fans. At the same time he laid the foundations of the team that dominated the First Division and European competition for the decade that followed his retirement.", "Benítez's spending was, eventually, significant, breaking Liverpool's transfer record when signing Spanish striker Fernando Torres from Atlético Madrid as well as signing Ryan Babel, Yossi Benayoun, Lucas Leiva and Andriy Voronin. Among those Benítez sold was Craig Bellamy, who was notably phased out of the first team following an altercation with John Arne Riise in the buildup to Liverpool's remarkable victory over Barcelona in the Camp Nou en route to the Champions League final. ", "On 31 January 2011, Suárez signed a five-and-a-half-year deal with Liverpool until 2016, and was the club's most expensive signing (£22.8 million) until the arrival of Andy Carroll (£35 million) a few hours later. Suárez requested the number seven jersey, but at the time did not realise that it had been worn by Liverpool legends such as his new manager Kenny Dalglish and Kevin Keegan. Suárez made his Liverpool debut on 2 February against Stoke City at Anfield in a 2–0 win; he came on as a substitute and scored Liverpool's second goal in front of the Kop in the seventy-nine minute. He was one of Liverpool's best players during his partial season and helped Liverpool go from twelfth in the league in mid-January to finish sixth. He finished the 2010–11 season with four goals in 13 games.", "Ronnie Whelan was the '80s equivalent of Javi Mascherano. The player who does all the dirty work in midfield, Whelan was a formidable midfielder, able to tackle, set up plays and scoring goals from midfield. He was captain of the 1989 FA Cup Final winning Liverpool side.", "At Liverpool, Ruddock was also part of the squad of the 1990s under Roy Evans , known infamously as the \" Spice Boys \", that included the likes of David James , Robbie Fowler , Jamie Redknapp , Jason McAteer , Steve McManaman and Stan Collymore , but left in 1998 just as new coach Gérard Houllier embarked on a French revolution at Anfield .", "Once, at the peak of Merseyside football power, when Everton boasted of the brilliant midfield axis of Alan Ball, Howard Kendall and Colin Harvey, Liverpool won a mighty victory at Goodison Park. Hughes scored after a churning run from midfield. Said Shankly: \"Emlyn Hughes was more than a player today. He was a force of nature. He looked as if he could run for ever.\"", "'''Michael Joseph 'Mick' McCarthy''' (born 7 February 1959) is a professional football manager, pundit and former player who is the current manager of Ipswich Town. Born in Barnsley, England with an Irish father, he played for the Republic of Ireland on 57 occasions scoring 2 goals. McCarthy began his playing career at Barnsley in 1977, and he later had spells at Manchester City, Celtic, Lyon, and finally Millwall, retiring in 1992. He went on to manage Millwall, and then the Republic of Ireland. He guided Ireland to the knockout stage of the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan. He later managed Sunderland, and then Wolverhampton Wanderers. He has also worked as a television pundit and commentator, most recently for the BBC. Wikipedia text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License - Full article", "I do not want to reiterate everything that has been said; I want to give a slightly different perspective. The first is from someone I do not know: the Liverpool goal-keeper at the time, Bruce Grobbelaar. I remember reading an interview with him in which he said:", "Manager Joe Fagan retired after the Heysel disaster, and Hansen's friend, team-mate and fellow Scotsman Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player-manager. He gave Hansen the captaincy and the season ended in triumph, as in 1986 Liverpool became only the third side in the 20th century to complete a League and FA Cup \"double\", following Tottenham in 1961 and Arsenal in 1971. Hansen lifted both trophies as captain and earned his first FA Cup winners' medal, thereby completing the domestic set.", "The 2000–01 season saw one of the most exciting derbies of the Premier League era. Liverpool, having won the first derby at Anfield, completed the double with a thrilling 2–3 victory over Everton at Goodison in April, with the injury-time winner by Gary McAllister proving to be crucial at the end of the season in helping Liverpool qualify for the UEFA Champions League —which replaced the European Cup in 1992—for the first time.", "20.05.1989 - Liverpool conquer Everton 3-2 in the friendliest Merseyside derby ever in the FA Cup final. Ian Rush scores twice in extra-time after Stuart McCall had equalized twice for Everton.", "18 August – Ian Rush becomes the most expensive player to join a British club when he returns to Liverpool F.C. for £2.7 million after a year at Juventus in Italy.", "A SKILFUL centre half, Hansen was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2006. When he retired through injury in 1991 after 14 years at Anfield he had collected three European Cup and eight title medals. Since then he has been employed as the main pundit for the BBC's football coverage. He is, unsurprisingly, still a firm favourite amongst Kopites everywhere and was voted number 12 in the 2006 Liverpool Football Club website poll’s 100 Players Who Shook The Kop.", "In the April 2012 FA Cup semi-final, Liverpool won the first Merseyside derby at the new Wembley. Everton took the lead through Nikica Jelavić in the first half. Luis Suárez equalised for Liverpool mid-way through the second half, and Andy Carroll scored the Liverpool winner with a header in the 87th minute.", "At Liverpool, he built up a reputation of scoring from long range and freekicks. He also netted 16 goals at international level.", "43 years with the Same Bird is a book written by Daily Mirror columnist Brian Reade. It documents his lifelong following of Liverpool F.C..", "Cruyff was the author and co-author of several books (in Dutch and Spanish) about his football career, in particular his principles and view about the football world. He also wrote his weekly columns for El Periódico (Barcelona-based newspaper) and De Telegraaf (Amsterdam-based newspaper).", "Chiles is the author of We Don't Know What We're Doing. Published in 2007, the book recounts the stories of a varied cast of avid West Bromwich Albion supporters whom Chiles met over the course of the 2005/06 season, at the end of which the team was relegated from the Premier League. The book also documents Chiles' own obsession with his beloved \"Baggies.\"", "Who's the only Liverpool-born player to have won the FA Cup with both Everton and Liverpool?", "08.05.1979 - After giving their opponents a one year break in the League, Liverpool win their 11th title by beating Aston Villa 3-0 at Anfield. Liverpool finished 8 points ahead of Nottingham Forest.", "1 Football: Who is the only player to have scored in Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow derbies?" ]

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[ "Nicknamed La Vecchia Signora (The Old Lady), Juventus have long been integral to the Italian national team's success in terms of producing talent, playing a key role in Italy's World Cup triumphs of 1934, 1982 and 2006.  ", "The Juventus Football Club typically plays in black-and-white striped shirts and white shorts (in some seasons black shorts), and is nicknamed la Vecchia Signora (the Old Lady, by the first official name), i bianconeri (black-and-whites), zebre (zebras), or depreciatively gobbi (humpbacks) by the opponents.", "Juventus was Czech 1960s bigbeat group. Juventus Football Club is one of Italy's oldest and most renowned football clubs. Based in Turin. With 11 official international titles in team honours (second in Europe), Juve is the 3rd best club in All-time ranking of the UEFA's European Tournaments and 4th in All-time ranking of the UEFA Champions League. It is widely regarded as one of the most supported and successful football clubs in the world. The team typically plays in black-and-white striped shirts and white shorts (in some seasons black shorts), and is nicknamed la Vecchia Signora (the Old Lady, by the first official name), i bianconeri (black-and-whites), zebre (zebras), or depreciatively gobbi (humpbacks) by the opponents....", "Juventus is considered a great rival of Parma largely due to their recent duels, which include Parma's 1995 UEFA Cup victory, its first and third Coppa Italia triumphs, Supercoppa Italiana defeats in 1995 and 2002, and its 1995 domestic cup final defeat to The Old Lady. These six matches comprise nearly half of the fourteen major finals Parma has participated in. Ironically, Parma's colours have their origins in those Juventus wears, and the switch from white and black to a yellow and blue home kit in the late 1990s took place in order to distance and distinguish Parma from Juventus. Parma maintain keenly fought rivalries with Vicenza and Genoa.", "Italy's top domestic league, the Serie A, is one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the world and it is often depicted as the most tactical national football league. Italy's club sides have won 48 major European trophies, making them the second most successful nation in European football. Serie A hosts three of the world's most famous clubs as Juventus, Milan and Inter, all founding members of the G-14, a group which represented the largest and most prestigious European football clubs; Serie A was the only league to produce three founding members. Juventus, Milan and Inter, along with Roma, Fiorentina, Lazio and Napoli are known as the Seven Sisters of Italian football. ", "The Stadio Giuseppe Meazza, more commonly called San Siro, is a football stadium in Milan, Italy. It is the home stadium for two of the most successful European clubs: AC Milan and F.C. Internazionale Milano, and one of the most famous football stadiums in the world. Although it has been officially renamed in honour of Giuseppe Meazza, the Inter Milan and AC Milan player of the 1930s and 1940s, it is still commonly called San Siro. With the spectators being so close to the pitch, the stands being so steep and with a large roof, it is considered to have one of the best atmospheres of any stadium in the world.", "Real Madrid won their long-awaited \"La Decima\" (translates into Spanish as 'the tenth'), their record-breaking tenth UEFA Champions League title, in the 2013–14 season after winning 4–1 in extra time in the final against city rivals and La Liga champions Atlético Madrid. It was the first same-city final and the second all-Spanish final. Diego Simeone coached Atlético in an incredible season after clinching the Spanish league title a week before the final and his side lead 1–0 through Diego Godín until a Sergio Ramos header deep into injury time took it to extra time. The next year, Barcelona won their fifth title, defeating Juventus by three goals to one in the final. It was Barcelona's fourth Champions League triumph in 9 years, and this victory also gave them the honour of winning the most European Cups in the Champions League era (post-1993 reform), having now won 4 titles, a record that has now been beaten by the other Spanish giant Real Madrid after his victory of 2016 which gives them five \"modern\" trophies.", "Other clubs draw on their histories. The canon on Arsenal’s crest is a nod to its nickname, the Gunners, a reference to the club’s original players, who worked at the Royal Arsenal armaments plant in Woolwich. Similarly, the rivet hammers on West Ham’s badge refer both to its name, the Hammers, and its origins at the Thames Ironworks. A Scottish lion is emblazoned on the emblem of Birmingham-based Aston Villa in honor of William McGregor, a Scottish draper who became involved with the club after moving to the area, then helped to found the English Football League in the 1880s. A white star shines beside the lion to mark Villa’s greatest triumph: winning the 1982 European Cup.", "Italian managers are the most successful in European Football, especially in competitions such as the Champions League. More players have won the coveted Ballon d'Or award while playing at a Serie A club than any other league in the world. The Italian word for football is calcio and this is the word used to make reference to the sport in Italy, as opposed to football in places like the United Kingdom, India, Hong Kong and France, translated directly from \"football\" in countries such as Spain, Portugal, Russia, Hungary and Turkey or soccer in the United States of America and Canada and both terms \"football\" and \"soccer\" in Australia, New Zealand and the island of Ireland.", "Juventus Football Club is one of Italys oldest and most renowned football clubs. Based in Turin, the club competes in Serie A.", "Real Madrid Club de Fútbol (Spanish pronunciation: [reˈal maˈðɾið ˈkluβ ðe ˈfuðβol]; Royal Madrid Football Club), commonly known as Real Madrid, or simply as Real, is a professional football club based in Madrid, Spain.", "Liverpool Football Club is a Premier League football club based in Liverpool, currently managed by Jürgen Klopp. Liverpool F.C. is one of the most successful clubs in England and has won more European trophies than any other English team with five European Cups, three UEFA Cups, and three UEFA Super Cups. The club has also won eighteen League titles, seven FA Cups and a record eight League Cups. In spite of their successful history, Liverpool are yet to win a Premier League title since its inception in 1992.", "The double-headed eagle is the emblem of the Greek sport clubs AEK and (since 1929) P.A.O.K.. It is a symbol of the clubs' origins, since both were founded by Greek refugees who fled to Greece from Constantinople in the 1920s. It is also the emblem of the Turkish Konyaspor and Erzurumspor, the Dutch clubs NEC and Vitesse Arnhem, the English League Two football club AFC Wimbledon and Scottish Premier League side Saint Johnstone FC.", "HSV play their home games at the Volksparkstadion in Bahrenfeld, a western district of Hamburg. The club colours are officially blue, white and black but the home kit of the team is white jerseys and red shorts. The team's most common nickname is \"die Rothosen\" (the Red Shorts). As it is one of Germany's oldest clubs, it is also known as der Dinosaurier (the Dinosaur). HSV have rivalries with Werder Bremen, with whom they contest the Nordderby, and Hamburg-based FC St. Pauli, whom they contest the Hamburg derby.", "The owner of the club is former Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , and the vice-president is Adriano Galliani . The club is one of the wealthiest and most valuable in Italian and world football. [12] It was a founding member of the now-defunct G-14 group of Europe's leading football clubs as well as its replacement, the European Club Association .", "Unione Calcio Sampdoria, commonly known as Sampdoria, is an Italian association football club based in Genoa.", "UEFA Champions League (in English: UEFA Champions League) is an annual football Club championships between clubs in European football's most successful, and often regarded as a trophy in the level of the most prestigious clubs in Europe.", "*Italian football club, S.S. Lazio, was founded as Società Podistica Lazio, being the first football club founded in the Italian capital", "In contrast, the team's home kit is white jerseys and red shorts, which are the colours of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. As a result, the team's most common nickname is \"die Rothosen\" (the Red Shorts). Because of its age and having been ever-present in the top flight of German football, HSV is also known as der Dinosaurier (the Dinosaur) and currently uses a dinosaur mascot called \"Hermann\" (named after long-time club physiotherapist Hermann Rieger) for marketing purposes.", "Football or soccer ( calcio) is Italy’s national sport and by far the most important in Italy, occupying almost the entire first half of each issue of La Gazzetta dello Sport. Italian football fans ( tifosi) are among the most dedicated and fervent in Europe, matched in their fanaticism only by the English, Scottish and Spanish.", "Sport Lisboa e Benfica, commonly known as Benfica, is a Portuguese sports club based in Lisbon, Portugal. It is best known for the professional football team playing in the Primeira Liga, the top flight of Portuguese football. Benfica are the current Portuguese champions, having won three consecutive league titles.", "The owner of the club is former Italian prime minister and controlling shareholder of Mediaset Silvio Berlusconi. The vice-president is Adriano Galliani. The club is one of the wealthiest and most valuable in Italian and world football. It was a founding member of the now-defunct G-14 group of Europe's leading football clubs as well as its replacement, the European Club Association. ", "The club’s Latin motto is Audere est Facere (lit: “To Dare Is to Do”), and its emblem is a gamecock standing upon a football. The club has a long-standing rivalry with near neighbours Arsenal, and matches between the two teams are known as the North London derby.", "The club’s Latin adage is Audere est Facere (lit: “To Dare Is to Do”), and its symbol is a cockerel standing upon a football. The club has a long-lived competition with near next-door neighbors Arsenal. Matches between the two teams are called the North London derby.", "The main football club in the city is FBC Unione Venezia, founded in 1907, who currently plays in the Lega Pro Prima Divisione. Their ground, the Stadio Pierluigi Penzo situated in Sant'Elena, is one of the oldest venues in Italy.", "The Primera División (First Division) of the Liga de Fútbol Profesional (Professional Football League), commonly known as La Liga (The League) or, for sponsorship reasons, Liga BBVA (BBVA League) since 2008, is the top professional association football league in Spain. It is contested by 20 teams, with the three lowest placed teams relegated to the Segunda División and replaced by the top three teams in that division.", "2 What’s the only football club that’s won the European Cup more times than its domestic League title?", "Società Sportiva Dilettantistica Parma Calcio 1913, commonly referred to as Parma, is an Italian football club based in the city of Parma that currently competes in Lega Pro, the third tier of Italian football. Founded as Parma Football Club in Italian Parma Piede Palla in December 1913, the club plays its home matches in the 22,352-seat Stadio Ennio Tardini, often referred to as simply Il Tardini, from 1923. It traditionally plays attractive football and develops players through the club's academy. ", "To rebrand and modernise the club's image, in 2006 both this club badge and the coat of arms gave way to a professionally-designed logo/emblem. This revamp features a leaner/fitter cockerel and an old-time football together with the club name. The club claims that the rebranding kept much of the original meaning of the name, and emphasized its originality.", "In this article I look at the ten oldest football clubs still in existence today and try and put the magnitude of their impact upon the game into some sort of historical perspective.", "Il Boundary Park è il principale stadio di Oldham, nella Greater Manchester, in Inghilterra. Si trova all'estremità nord-occidentale di Oldham, vicino alle città di Royton e Chadderton che si trovano immediatamente a nord e a ovest, rispettivamente, dando origine al nome Boundary Park. Esso era originariamente conosciuto come \"il campo di atletica\" quando è stato aperto nel 1896 come sede della prima squadra professionistica di calcio della città: l'Oldham County FC. Quando il County si dissolse nel 1899, il Pine Villa Football Club acquistò il terreno e cambiò il nome in Oldham Athletic. L'Oldham Athletic A.F.C. ha giocato le partite casalinghe in questo stadio sin dalla sua apertura. Gli Oldham Roughyeds hanno lasciato la loro sede tradizionale, Watersheddings, nel 1997 e si sono trasfer", "Il Boundary Park è il principale stadio di Oldham, nella Greater Manchester, in Inghilterra. Si trova all'estremità nord-occidentale di Oldham, vicino alle città di Royton e Chadderton che si trovano immediatamente a nord e a ovest, rispettivamente, dando origine al nome Boundary Park. Esso era originariamente conosciuto come \"il campo di atletica\" quando è stato aperto nel 1896 come sede della prima squadra professionistica di calcio della città: l'Oldham County FC. Quando il County si dissolse nel 1899, il Pine Villa Football Club acquistò il terreno e cambiò il nome in Oldham Athletic. L'Oldham Athletic A.F.C. ha giocato le partite casalinghe in questo stadio sin dalla sua apertura. Gli Oldham Roughyeds hanno lasciato la loro sede tradizionale, Watersheddings, nel 1997 e si sono trasferiti a Boundary Park." ]

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[ "15 Penalties that have been awarded in FA Cup finals. The first player to miss in a final was Charlie Wallace, for Aston Villa against Sunderland at Crystal Palace in 1913. The first player to miss a Cup final penalty at Wembley was John Aldridge, for Liverpool against Wimbledon in 1988.", "The 2005 FA Cup Final between Arsenal and Manchester United was the first final ever to have to go to penalties as the score was still 0–0 after extra time. Arsenal won the shootout – and thus the Cup – 5–4. It was the first 0–0 draw in an FA Cup final since 1912.", "In 1988, Wimbledon's Dave Beasant became the first goalkeeper to save a penalty in an FA Cup final at Wembley, when he denied John Aldridge of Liverpool (although Charlie Wallace of Aston Villa was the first to miss a penalty in the final). The Crazy Gang of Wimbledon defeated the league champions Liverpool 1–0 with a Lawrie Sanchez goal, and Beasant also became the first goalkeeper to captain an FA Cup-winning side. ", "19th - On this day in 1994 we won our first and only successful penalty shootout in the FA Cup to date. First Division Peterborough United eventually succumbed to a 5-4 penalty decider at White Hart Lane.", "He began his career in the late 1970s. A well-travelled player, Beasant's former clubs include Wimbledon , Newcastle United , Chelsea , Southampton , Nottingham Forest , Portsmouth , Tottenham Hotspur , Brighton & Hove Albion and Wigan Athletic . He is best remembered for his part in Wimbledon's 1988 shock FA Cup victory, during which he was the first goalkeeper to save a penalty in an FA Cup final. He made two appearances for the England national football team .", "Hoddle's first season saw the club's league position drop 3 places to 14th - but this was made up for by the club reaching in 1994 its first FA Cup final since 1970. The final was lost 4-0 to Manchester United in a game marred by the award of two penalties against Chelsea.", "Flying Over An Olive Grove is the first great working-class football story. Born at a unique moment in the history of the beautiful game, Fred Spiksley was amongst a new wave of teenagers who from 1885 onwards could aspire to be a professional footballer and dodge the inevitability of industrial labour. He became the first player to score a hat-trick against Scotland and in 1896 he guided Sheffield Wednesday to FA Cup glory with 4 goals and 8 assists during the cup run. His first goal in the final is considered by some to be the fastest ever goal in FA Cup final history.", "Wins the FA Cup with Preston in a 1-0 win over Huddersfield. George Mutch’s penalty was the winner, being the first penalty ever to decide a Wembley final.", "On St George's Day, 23 April 1927, at Wembley Stadium in London, the FA Cup was taken out of England for the first time when Cardiff City beat Arsenal 1–0 in the Final, cult hero Hughie Ferguson scoring the only goal of the game.", "Stan Mortensen's hat-trick for Blackpool in 1953 remains the only hat trick ever scored at Wembley in the competition's final. Everton's Louis Saha scored a goal after 27.9 seconds in the 2009 FA Cup Final. It is currently the fastest goal in FA Cup Final history. Bury's 6–0 victory over Derby County in 1903 FA Cup Final is the largest winning margin. With his goal in the 2012 Final, Chelsea's Didier Drogba became the first man to score a goal in four different Finals.", "The FA Cup, known officially as The Football Association Challenge Cup, is an annual knockout association football competition in men's domestic English football. First played during the 1871–72 season, it is the oldest association football competition in the world.", "The first African players to feature in the FA Cup final were South Africans, like Bill Perry, who starred in the so-called \"Matthews final\" of 1953, when a 38-year-old Stanley Matthews won his only FA Cup winners medal. It was the Johannesburg-born Perry who scored the winning goal for Blackpool in their 4-3 victory against Bolton Wanderers. In 1966, Albert 'Hurry Hurry' Johanneson became the first black player to appear in an FA Cup final, and although the South African was on the losing side as Leeds lost 2-1 to Liverpool, Johanneson blazed the way for many an exciting talent.", "In the 1986 final against Everton, Grobbelaar himself pulled off a save that is still remembered and talked about to this day. “That is probably my most memorable FA Cup final moment. Graeme Sharp headed the ball toward goal, and I had to run across half of my box before tipping it over. Sharp thought it was in. And from there, we went on to win 3-1.”", "Preston North End fielded amateur goalkeepers in their first two appearances in the FA Cup Final. Dr Mills Roberts kept goal in 1889 while James Frederick Mitchell was between the sticks in 1922.", "Stan Mortensen may have scored a hat-trick for Blackpool in the 4-3 victory, but the 1953 FA Cup final will forever be known as 'The Matthews Final'. With the Tangerines 3-1 down with 35 minutes remaining, Matthews's tricky wing play helped spur his side on to win the trophy.", "In 1919, still under King's leadership, West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , the first game being a 1-1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923, also making the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium. Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final . This is because so many people turned up to the game, (estimated at 200,000), that they spilled out on to the pitch. The pitch had to be cleared prior to kick-off, by Billie, a giant white horse (actually grey) being ridden by PC George Scorey. The Cup Final match itself ended 2–0 to Bolton Wanderers. The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for 10 years and reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1927.", "In 1871, Charles W. Alcock , the FA Secretary, announced the introduction of the Football Association Challenge Cup . It was the first knockout competition of its type in the world. Only 15 clubs took part in the first staging of the tournament. It included two clubs based in Scotland, Donington School and Queen's Park. In the 1872 final, the Wanderers beat the Royal Engineers 1-0 at the Kennington Oval.", "In October 1945, the impending resumption of football led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby, who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection, player transfers and training sessions. Busby led the team to second-place league finishes in 1947, 1948 and 1949, and to FA Cup victory in 1948. In 1952, the club won the First Division, its first league title for 41 years. With an average age of 22, the back-to-back title winning side of 1956 were labelled \"the Busby Babes\" by the media, a testament to Busby's faith in his youth players. In 1957, Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, despite objections from The Football League, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season. En route to the semi-final, which they lost to Real Madrid, the team recorded a 10–0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht, which remains the club's biggest victory on record. ", "The League Cup had introduced the penalty decider in 1975/76 but only for First Round ties. Even then the clubs had to finish the two-legged ties all square and draw a replay before penalties were used. The first penalty shoot-out in the League Cup followed such a First Round replay when Darlington beat Sheffield Wednesday 5-3 on pens at Hillsborough on Wednesday September 3rd 1975. But progress of penalties through the other rounds was gradual and although the 1977 League Cup final needed two replays it wasn't until the 1997 final was replayed that the rules were finally changed to allow penalties for a final drawn in its first match.", "Keith Peacock, of Charlton Athletic, became in August 1965 the first footballer to appear as a substitute in a Football League match, while Manchester United took the First Division title earlier in the year and Liverpool won the FA Cup for the first time in their history, beating Leeds United at Wembley with goals by Roger Hunt and Ian St John. England, of course, had another year still to wait before winning the World Cup at Wembley, and Bobby Moore was yet to pause and wipe his muddied hands on the velvet rail of the Royal Box before receiving the Jules Rimet Trophy from The Queen.", "The Football Association Challenge Cup was created in 1871, the first organised Association Football competition in the world. Thirteen clubs entered that first competition, although three withdrew without playing a game. In the final held at Kennington Oval on March 16th, 1872, Wanderers beat the Royal Engineers by a single goal, scored by Morton Betts under the pseudonym A H Chequer, as he was formerly a member of the Harrow Chequers Club.", "1970 Hull City and Scumchester United were tied 1-1 after extra time, and for the first time in an English first division football match penalty kicks were used to break the tie. Scumchester won 4-3 on penalties.", "1970 Hull City and Scumchester United were tied 1-1 after extra time, and for the first time in an English first division football match penalty kicks were used to break the tie. United won 4-3 on penalties.", "\"A friend told me recently that in the mid-70s, the new victors were displaying the FA Cup during a match and the referee blew the whistle for the game to start, only for an opposition player to kick the football, full-bloodedly, at the trophy and knock it flying,\" writes Gavin Ward. \"If this is true, can you please explain how it exactly happened?\"", "Liverpool created a host of chances, including a chipped goal over the goalkeeper by Peter Beardsley which was disallowed as the referee had already awarded a free kick to Liverpool, but were unable to find a way past Wimbledon goalkeeper Dave Beasant. The Merseysiders were awarded a penalty on the hour mark following a foul by Clive Goodyear on John Aldridge, though replays showed that Goodyear won the ball cleanly, but Aldridge's penalty was saved by Beasant's diving save to his left, thus becoming the first keeper to save a penalty in a Wembley FA Cup final. The Londoners survived more pressure from Liverpool to secure their first major trophy and a notable upset in FA Cup Final history. Dave Beasant also became the first goalkeeper to receive the FA Cup as captain. ", "Leeds United won the FA Cup for the first time in their history by beating the previous year's winners, Arsenal, 1–0 in the final at Wembley. Allan Clarke scored the winning goal. ", "23rd - 1984 Tony Parks is the hero on a night of high drama at White Hart Lane. The UEFA Cup final against Anderlecht ends 2-2 on aggregate then we win the trophy with a 4-3 victory in the penalty shoot-out.", "Meanwhile, in the other two games, Ferenc Bene 's late goal for Hungary against the Soviet Union, who were led by Lev Yashin 's stellar goalkeeping, proved little more than a consolation as they crashed out 2–1, and the only goal between Argentina and England came courtesy of England's Geoff Hurst . During that controversial game (for more details see Argentina and England football rivalry ), Argentina's Antonio Rattín became the first player to be sent off in a senior international football match at Wembley. [9] Rattín at first refused to leave the field and eventually had to be escorted by several policemen. After 30 minutes England scored the only goal of the match. This game is called el robo del siglo (the robbery of the century) in Argentina. [10]", "Meanwhile, in the other two games, Ferenc Bene's late goal for Hungary against the Soviet Union, who were led by Lev Yashin's stellar goalkeeping, proved little more than a consolation as they crashed out 2–1, and the only goal between Argentina and England came courtesy of England's Geoff Hurst. During that controversial game (for more details see Argentina and England football rivalry), Argentina's Antonio Rattín became the first player to be sent off in a senior international football match at Wembley. Rattín at first refused to leave the field and eventually had to be escorted by several policemen. After 30 minutes England scored the only goal of the match. This game is called el robo del siglo (the robbery of the century) in Argentina.", "Meanwhile in the other two games, Ferenc Bene 's late goal for Hungary against the Soviet Union, who were led by Lev Yashin 's stellar goalkeeping, proved little more than a consolation as they crashed out 2–1, and the only goal between Argentina and England came courtesy of England's Geoff Hurst . During that controversial game (for more details see Argentina and England football rivalry ), Argentina's Antonio Rattín became the first player to be sent off in a senior international football match at Wembley. Rattín at first refused to leave the field and eventually had to be escorted by several policemen. After 30 minutes England scored the only goal of the match. This game is called el robo del siglo (the robbery of the century) in Argentina.", "1 In football in which decade was the first substitute called on in a Football League match", "Former English football player who was Manchester United’s goalkeeper when they became the first English club to win the European Cup." ]

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[ "Bob Geldof envisaged him as singing the first line on \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" by Band Aid . However, Bowie was unavailable for the recording, so Paul Young sang it instead as it was felt he had the closest voice to Bowie of all the performers participating. Bowie did get to eventually sing the opening of the song at the Live Aid (1985) finale at Wembley Stadium.", "The year 1984 was a difficult one for Young, as his first heavy promotional and live concert tour of America strained his vocal cords severely, to the extent that he was forced to rest his voice and did not sing for much of the year. He recovered sufficiently to become involved with the Band Aid single \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", an all-star charity project put together by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure for Ethiopian famine relief. Young sang the opening lines of the song as a replacement for David Bowie. ", "It was the cover of a 1962 Marvin Gaye hit that sent Paul Young on his way to 14 Top 40 UK hits, which included six Top Ten's and two #1's. Paul soon found the perils of constant live performances as he strained his vocals during 1984, causing him to take a year off. Returning at the end of 1984, Paul famously sings the first line in Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", an honor later given to Kylie Minogue and Coldplay's Chris Martin. As a close friend of Spandau Ballet's Tony Hadley, the two regularly performs together.", "Buerk's news piece was seen by Irish singer Bob Geldof, who quickly organised the charity supergroup Band Aid. Their single, \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", was released on 3 December 1984 and became Britain's best-selling single within a few weeks, eventually selling 3.69 million copies domestically. All proceeds from the single, apart from value-added tax, went to charities working to relieve the famine. Other charity singles soon followed; \"We Are the World\" by USA for Africa was the most successful of these, selling 20 million copies worldwide.", "Band Aid is a charity supergroup featuring mainly British and Irish musicians and recording artists. It was founded in 1984 by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise money for anti-famine efforts in Ethiopia by releasing the song \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" for the Christmas market that year. On 25 November 1984, the song was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, and was released in the UK four days later. The single surpassed the hopes of the producers to become the Christmas number one on that release. Two subsequent re-recordings of the song to raise further money for charity also topped the charts. The original was produced by Midge Ure. The 12\" version was mixed by Trevor Horn. In November 2014, a new version of the song was recorded by artists under the name of Band Aid 30.", "It all started when Bob Geldof, who had seen Michael Buerk's news reports in 1984 about the appalling famine in Africa, felt he had to do something to stop the suffering. He and Midge Ure of Ultravox got together and wrote the song 'Do They Know It's Christmas' to raise money for the crisis. They then enlisted a host of other stars to record the song under the name of Band Aid. Released on 7 December 1984, the single became the UK's biggest selling single of the time and raised £8m.", "This all-star charity single was inspired by Band Aid, the British group Bob Geldof put together the year before to record \" Do They Know It's Christmas? .\" Band Aid, which included Bono, Phil Collins, David Bowie, Paul McCartney, and Sting, served as a template, showing how a disparate group of famous artists could come together in one day to record a song.", "In 1984 Irish musician Bob Geldof and Scottish Ultravox member Midge Ure organised a charity fundraiser record for the starving of Africa. Under the name of Band Aid, they collected together most of the singers then making the British pop charts and got them singing together on a charity single called \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" The pair followed up with re-recordings of the song, with different groups of musicians, in 1989 and 2004.", "In 1984 Ure co-wrote the Band Aid hit, \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" with Bob Geldof. Ure was rehearsing with Ultravox for an episode of the Channel 4 music show \"The Tube\" when host Paula Yates handed him the phone. It was her then husband, Geldof, who proceeded, recalls Ure, \"to rant on about the Michael Buerk BBC news report on the Ethiopian famine\". Geldof provided the initial lyrics, with Ure working the musical theme on a small keyboard in his kitchen. The second half was composed by Ure, with the bridging chorus only assembled in the studio when the artists had gathered. Ure has described the song as not one of the best he has ever written, commenting that \"the momentum the artists gave it in the recording studio is what made it\". ", "Band Aid 30 is the 2014 incarnation of the charity supergroup Band Aid. Announced by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure, the aim was to aid 2014 Ebola outbreak victims in Western Africa and preventing its spread. As in previous incarnations, the group covered the track \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", written in 1984 by Geldof and Ure. The song was recorded by some of the biggest-selling current British and Irish pop acts, including One Direction, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Emeli Sandé, Ellie Goulding and Rita Ora. Bastille and Take That also took part, along with Chris Martin (Coldplay) and Bono (U2)—the third time he has contributed to a Band Aid recording. ", "14 - Band Aid , organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure, produces a chart-topping single, Do They Know It's Christmas?, to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia.", "Sir Bob Geldof, 60, and 61-year-old Scottish musician Midge Ure – who co-wrote the first Band Aid track - are preparing to release a new Band Aid single 30 years after Do They Know It’s Christmas? was first released", "Later in 2004, Dizzee Rascal was part of Band Aid 20, a group of British musicians who re-recorded \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" He did not sing in the song; rather, he rapped two lines of it (\"Spare a thought this yuletide for the deprived, if the table was turned would you survive?\" and \"You ain't gotta feel guilt just selfless, give a little help to the helpless\"). Dizzee Rascal was the first person to add to the song since the original was released; this would mark the first time that Dizzee reached the number one spot in the UK Singles Chart, albeit as part of the ensemble.", "Bananarama featured on the Band Aid single, \"Do They Know It's Christmas?,\" and were the only artists to appear on both the original 1984 Band Aid and the 1989 Band Aid II versions (though Fahey only appeared on the 1984 version).", "Bob Geldorf orchestrates a gathering of rock stars called Band Aid to record \"Do They Know It's Christmas,\" the proceeds from which will go towards famine relief in Ethiopia. The song debuted at #1 in the UK (November), and two weeks later made the top of the US chart. Written by Geldorf, the song would eventually sell 50 million copies. Among those who performed: Bananarama, Culture Club, Duran Duran, Eurythmics, Heaven 17, Kool and the Gang, Paul McCartney, Paul Young,  Phil Collins, Sting, U2 and Wham!", "Michael sang on the original Band Aid recording of \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" (which became the UK Christmas number one) and donated the profits from \"Last Christmas/Everything She Wants\" to charity. He also contributed background vocals to David Cassidy's 1985 hit \"The Last Kiss\", as well as Elton John's 1985 successes \"Nikita\" and \"Wrap Her Up\". Michael cited Cassidy as a major career influence and interviewed Cassidy for David Litchfield's Ritz Newspaper.", "The best-selling No. 2 in UK chart history, with 1.6 million copies, it would have made No. 1 had Bob Geldof and Midge Ure not formed Band Aid and released Do They Know It's Christmas? After a complaint from Barry Manilow, Last Christmas was judged too similar to his hit Can't Smile Without You and a legal settlement saw George Michael giving his first year’s royalties to Band Aid.", "In November 1984, Michael joined other British and Irish pop stars of the era and formed Band Aid, singing on the charity song \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" for famine relief in Ethiopia. This single became the UK Christmas number one in December 1984, holding Michael's own song, \"Last Christmas\" by Wham!, at No. 2. \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" sold 3.75 million copies in the UK and became the biggest selling single in UK Chart history, a title it held until 1997 when it was overtaken by Elton John's \"Candle in the Wind 1997\", released in tribute to Princess Diana following her death (Michael would attend Diana's funeral with Elton John). Michael donated the royalties from \"Last Christmas\" to Band Aid and subsequently sang with Elton John at Live Aid (the Band Aid charity concert) in 1985.", "In 1984, Geldof responded to a BBC news report from Michael Buerk about the famine in Ethiopia by mobilising the pop world to do something about the images he had seen. With Midge Ure of Ultravox he wrote \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" in order to raise funds. The song was recorded by various artists under the name of Band Aid.", "At this time, Ure also co-wrote and helped produce the 1984 Band Aid single \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\". The group also appeared at Live Aid the following year and played four of their hit singles (\"Vienna\", \"Reap the Wild Wind\", \"Dancing with Tears in My Eyes\" and \"One Small Day\"). Later in 1985, Ure scored a No.  1 solo hit with \"If I Was\" and his solo album The Gift reached No.  2 in the UK.", "Steve was the very first winner of the X Factor, back in 2004. Fresh from his victory, his winner's single, a cover of Phil Collins' Against All Odds was pipped to Christmas number one by the Band Aid 20 revamp of Do They Know It's Christmas?", "Sir Paul McCartney's contribution to Live Aid at Wembley Arena was a rendition of Beatles classic Let It Be ahead of the London finale and chorus of Do They Know It's Christmas?", "As Bob Geldof unveils the stunning supergroup creating Band Aid 30 , we look back at the previous recordings of Do They Know It’s Christmas?", "The double A-side single \"Last Christmas/Everything She Wants\" became the highest-selling single ever to peak at No. 2 in the UK charts. It stayed at No. 2 for five weeks and, to date, is the 24th best-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom, selling over 1.4 million copies in the UK. Wham! donated all their royalties from the single to the Ethiopian famine appeal to coincide with the fund-raising intentions of Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", the song which kept them out of the top spot. Nevertheless, Band Aid's success meant that Michael had achieved #1 status in the UK within three separate entities in 1984—as a solo artist, as one half of a duo, and as part of a charity ensemble. ", "The record was released on 3 December 1984, and went straight to No. 1 in the UK singles chart, outselling all the other records in the chart put together. It became the fastest- selling single of all time in the UK, selling a million copies in the first week alone. It stayed at No. 1 for five weeks, selling over three million copies and becoming easily the biggest-selling single of all time in the UK, thus beating the seven-year record held by Mull of Kintyre. It has since been surpassed by Elton John's \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" (his tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales) but it is likely to keep selling in different versions for many years to come. In 1986 the original music video from \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" received Band Aid a Grammy Award nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form.", "Charity Motivation Song : He was supposed to sing on Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" but couldn't make the recording session; he did record a brief B-side spoken-word message and, later, an introduction for the video's debut on Top of the Pops . He finally got to sing the song with his fellow Live Aid performers the following year.", "^ Karen Attwood (2004-12-06). \"Band Aid heads for Christmas number one spot\". Manchester Evening News. Trinity Mirror. Retrieved 2010-08-22. ", "15. In what year was Band-Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas the UK Christmas chart-topping record? 1984", "15. In what year was Band-Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas the UK Christmas chart-topping record?", "In what year was Band-Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas the UK Christmas chart-topping record (bonus point each for the years of reissue success by Band Aid II and Band Aid 20)? Bonus points (100 each): years of band Aid II + Band Aid 20", "In the UK, this is the fourth version of Band Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas?", "A \"Thank God It's Christmas\" egy karácsonyi kislemez a brit rockbandától, a Queen-től. A dalt a gitáros Brian May és a dobos Roger Taylor írta." ]

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[ "Graham McPherson (born 13 January 1961), better known as Suggs, is an English singer-songwriter, musician, radio personality and actor. In a career spanning more than 30 years, Suggs came to prominence in the late 1970s as the lead singer for the English ska band Madness, which released fifteen singles that entered the top ten charts in the United Kingdom during the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s, including \"My Girl\", \"Baggy Trousers\", \"Embarrassment\", \"It Must Be Love\", \"House of Fun\", \"Driving in My Car\", \"Our House\", \"Wings of a Dove\" and \"Lovestruck\". Suggs began his solo career in 1995, while still a member of Madness. Since then, he has released two studio albums, and two compilation albums. His solo hits include \"I'm Only Sleeping\", \"Camden Town\", \"Cecilia\", and \"Blue Day\".", "Graham McPherson, better known as Suggs, is an English singer, actor, former radio DJ, television and radio personality, who is best known as the frontman of the band Madness.", "Graham McPherson (born on 13 January 1961 in Hastings), better known as Suggs, is an English singer, actor, former radio DJ, and TV personality � most famous as the frontman of the band Madness.", "David Robert Jones (8 January 1947 – 10 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie, was an English singer, songwriter and actor. He was a figure in popular music for over five decades, regarded by critics and musicians as an innovator, particularly for his work in the 1970s. His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, his music and stagecraft significantly influencing popular music. During his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at 140 million worldwide, made him one of the world's best-selling music artists. In the UK, he was awarded nine platinum album certifications, eleven gold and eight silver, releasing eleven number-one albums. In the US, he received five platinum and seven gold certifications. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996.", "Eric Clapton (born Eric Patrick Clapton in Ripley, Surrey, England on 30 March 1945), nicknamed \"Slowhand\", is a Grammy Award winning English composer, singer and guitarist who became one of the most respected artists of the rock era, winning three inductions into the rock and roll hall of fame. Clapton's musical style has changed during his career, but has remained rooted in the blues. Clapton is credited as an innovator in several phases of his career, which have included blues-rock with John Mayall & The Bluesbreakers and The Yardbirds (1963-1965)...", "Steven Patrick Morrissey (born 22 May 1959), professionally known only as Morrissey, is an English singer, songwriter and author. He rose to prominence as the lead singer of the indie rock band The Smiths, which was active from 1982 to 1987. Since then, Morrissey has had a solo career, making the top ten of the UK Singles Chart on ten occasions.", "Eric Patrick Clapton, CBE (born 30 March 1945) is an English guitarist, vocalist, and songwriter. Clapton is the only three-time inductee to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: once as a solo artist, and separately as a member of The Yardbirds and Cream. Clapton has been referred to as one of the most important and influential guitarists of all time. Clapton ranked fourth in Rolling Stone magazine's list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\" and fourth in Gibson's Top 50 Guitarists of All Time.", "Eric Clapton (born Eric Patrick Clapp in Ripley, Surrey, England on 30 March 1945), nicknamed \"Slowhand\", is a Grammy Award winning English composer, singer and guitarist who became one of the most respected artists of the rock era, winning three inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .", "Van Morrison, OBE (born George Ivan Morrison; 31 August 1945) is a Northern Irish singer-songwriter and musician. His live performances at their best are regarded as transcendental and inspired; while some of his recordings, such as the studio albums Astral Weeks and Moondance, and the live album It's Too Late to Stop Now, are widely viewed as among the greatest ever made. Known as \"Van the Man\" to his fans, Morrison started his professional career when, as a teenager in the late 1950s, he played a variety...", "David Bowie, (born David Robert Jones, 8 January 1947) is an English musician, actor, record producer and arranger. Active in five decades of popular music and frequently reinventing his music and image, Bowie is widely regarded as an innovator, particularly for his work in the 1970s. He has been cited as an influence by many musicians and is known for his distinctive voice and the intellectual depth of his work. David Bowie first caught the eye and ear of the public in the autumn of 1969, when the song \"Space Oddity\" reached the top five of the UK Singles Chart. After a three-year period of experimentation he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era as the flamboyant, androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust, spearheaded by the hit single \"Starman\" and the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. The relatively short-lived Ziggy", "Sir Michael Philip \"Mick\" Jagger (born 26 July 1943) is an English singer, songwriter and actor, best known as the lead singer and a co-founder of the Rolling Stones.", "Sir Michael Philip \"Mick\" Jagger (born 26 July 1943) is an English musician, singer-songwriter, actor, and producer, best known as the lead vocalist of rock band, The Rolling Stones. Jagger has also acted in and produced several films.", "On a whim and because he'd always liked Dixieland jazz, Duncan went to central London to see Chris Barber's Jazz Band at a club run by Humphrey Lyttelton, 100 Oxford Street. He swears he knew little about Lonnie Donegan, or the fact Lonnie had just left Barber's employ. Johnny says Ottilie Patterson spotted him from the stage and at the end of the set came up to him to remark on his resemblance to Donegan. Duncan said he was a singer too and somehow a meeting was arranged with Barber which led to an invitation to attend a rehearsal in Southall a few nights later. With Johnny an 'authentic' hillbilly and Barber's open minded attitude to the peculiar mixture of country, gospel, folk and blues that made up skiffle the deal was clinched for Johnny to perform for 10 pounds a week. It was an attractive arrangement all round and Duncan stayed with Barber for nearly a year and made his first recordings with the trombonist and part time bass player thousands of miles from his home.", "Norman Cook (born Quentin Leo Cook on 31 July 1963), also known by his stage name Fatboy Slim, is an English DJ, musician and record producer/mixer.", "Ronan Patrick John Keating (born 3 March 1977) is an Irish recording artist, singer-songwriter, musician, and philanthropist. He debuted in 1994, alongside Keith Duffy, Michael Graham, Shane Lynch, and Stephen Gately, as the lead singer of Irish group Boyzone. His solo career started in 1999 and has spawned nine albums. He gained worldwide attention when his single \"When You Say Nothing at All\" was featured in the film Notting Hill and peaked at number one in several countries. As a solo artist, he has sold over 20 million records worldwide alongside the 25 million records with Boyzone, and in Australia, he is best known as a judge on The X Factor and now a coach on The Voice.", "David Gordon \"Slim Dusty\" Kirkpatrick AO, MBE, (Officer of the Order of Australia, Member of the British Empire), (June 13, 1927—September 19, 2003) was an Australian country music singer-songwriter. He sold more than seven million albums and singles in Australia.Over the course of his career, he collected more gold and platinum albums than any other Australian artist. (The \"Pub with No Beer\" is a real place, in Taylors Arm, not far from Kempsey where Slim Dusty was born). In 1959 and 1960 Dutch and German cover versions of the song became number one hits (even evergreens) in Belgium, Austria and Germany, brought by the Flemish country singer-guitarist and amusement park founder Bobbejaan Schoepen. 1964 saw the establishment of the annual Slim Dusty round Australia tour, a 48,280 kilometres (30,000 mi), 10 month journey. \" Artist Discography \"", "During the late-‘90s, Graham assembled some friends to do the occasional live show, playing mainly 10cc material, but also featuring some of his earlier hits. In 2000, concerts in the UK, Belgium and Germany were so well received that he decided to take it more seriously.", "Meanwhile, Kingston, Jamaica-born Errol’s role key role in Hot Chocolate’s success (as both lead singer and primary songwriter) has more recently seen him being awarded with an MBE for Services To Music by The Queen in 2003 and, in 2004, an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music. A keen golfer, Brown now lives with his wife of over 30 years - Ginette - in The Bahamas. From where he speaks in-depth about his trailblazing career to ‘Blues & Soul’’s ever-attentive Pete Lewis on the eve of his forthcoming final British tour.", "Cockburn, Bruce Canadian singer, songwriter, guitarist, activist best known for music blending folk, rock, pop, and jazz, and lyrics that typically addressed spiritual themes and global issues from a politically charged perspective. Often considered a “songwriter’s...", "* 2015 – Andy Fraser, English-American singer-songwriter and bass player (Free, Sharks, and John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers (b. 1952)", "He had a keen interest in music, forming a short-lived punk band called Vox Deus. Next he joined and left a band called Crossword. Later he answered an advert in the music press to join a band to be called Brooks with Mike Nolan. He adopted his stage name (an anagram of his surname) at the time he was recruited by the existing members of Kajagoogoo, who were then performing under the name Art Nouveau.", "Rod Stewart. While bluesy and boozy rock was Stewart's usual forte even at the very beginning of his career, he has been very vocal in his admiration of folkies such as Ramblin' Jack Elliott and Wizz Jones. His first solo album, 1969's The Rod Stewart Album, had a cover of Ewan MacColl's \"Dirty Old Town,\" and some of his best work of the early 1970s was folk-rockish, such as his cover of Tim Hardin's \"Reason to Believe\" and the megahit \"Maggie May.\"", "Davy Jones is a Grammy winning, English pop singer-songwriter and Tony-and Emmy-nominated actor best known as a member of the 60s pop phenomenon, The Monkees between 1965 and 1971.", "Roy Buchannan was one of rock's great guitarists. He started out as a session player for various fifties groups and co-wrote \"Suzie-Q\" with Dale Hawkins. In the seventies he fronted a blues band and remained successful in the blues circuit. On August 13th of 1988 he was arrested for drunk-driving. The following morning he was found hanging inside his jail cell. Gone at the age of 48.", "davy graham (early '60's folk gtrst., major influence on \"led zeppelin\", \"simon & garfunkel\" and others but never credited properly) (2008)", "Freddie McGregor has been variously a singer, musician and producer. According to Allmusic he is one of reggae's most durable and soulful singers, with a steady career that started in the 1960s, when he was just seven years old.", "John Watson, Jr., known professionally as Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson, was an American blues, soul, and funk musician and singer-songwriter. A flamboyant showman and electric guitarist in the style of T...", "Justin Currie Scottish songwriter and singer, explaining Elvis´art to staff writer Graem Thompson, as published in the Scottish Herald, on 26 July 2010.", "Shetland's culture and landscapes have inspired a variety of musicians, writers and film-makers. The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style, which is a vibrant part of local culture today. Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain, Fiddlers' Bid, and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson. Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life, but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978. ", "Hamish McGregor was the leader / musical director / promoter for the Memphis Road Show.  He played baritone sax and got 'top dollar', playing R&B, Soul and Stax.", "Isaacs recorded the album Night Nurse in 1982, and the title song garnered him international recognition. Known as the \"Cool Ruler\" for his designer suits, silk shirts silky smooth singing voice, Isaacs cultivated a style of reggae music that became known as lover rock. The style emphasized romantic yearning over reggae's more traditional themes.", "Graham Keith Gouldman (born 10 May 1946) is an English songwriter and musician who is a long-time member of British band 10cc." ]

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[ "Vogue - Hanky Panky - The Beast Within - Deeper and Deeper - Bedtime Story - Lament - Frozen = 7 90's songs", "Richard Ashcroft, the lead vocalist of the Verve, was born this day back in 1971 in Lancashire. His group may have hailed from rugby league playing country in Wigan, but the Verve swerved the oval ball in favour of the recording studio. This was a good decision, as their magnificent single, 'Bitter Sweet Symphony', is a strong candidate for the best song of the 1990s, featuring a bizarre video in which the peculiar Ashcroft walks straight through 'passers-by' on the pavement. The success of this hit was also bitter sweet, as the band were forced to cede songwriting royalties to the impoverished duo of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards for alleged sampling of 'The Last Time'.", "1990s[edit] Manilow released a number of cover tunes during the 1990s. It started with the 1989 release Barry Manilow, continued with his 1990 Christmas LP Because It's Christmas. On the Christmas album, Manilow was joined by pop girl trio Exposé and together they recreated, note for note, a 1943 million-selling recording of \"Jingle Bells\" by Bing Crosby and The Andrews Sisters. Manilow has credited Patty, Maxene, and LaVerne Andrews as inspiring him, perhaps most evident in his recording of \"Jump, Shout Boogie\".[31] Consequent \"event\" albums followed, including: Showstoppers, a collection of Broadway songs (1991), Singin' with the Big Bands (1994) and a late 1970s collection Summer of '78 (1996), which included the hit \"I Go Crazy\", formerly a hit for Paul Davis in 1978. The decade ended with Manilow recording a tribute to Frank Sinatra Manilow Sings Sinatra (1998) released months after Sinatra's death.[citation needed]", "Manilow released a number of cover tunes during the 1990s, starting with the 1989 release Barry Manilow, and continuing with his 1990 Christmas LP Because It's Christmas. On the Christmas album, Manilow was joined by pop girl trio Exposé and together they recreated, note for note, a 1943 million-selling recording of \"Jingle Bells\" by Bing Crosby and The Andrews Sisters. Manilow has credited Patty, Maxene, and LaVerne Andrews as inspiring him, perhaps most evident in his recording of \"Jump, Shout Boogie\". Consequent \"event\" albums followed, including: Showstoppers, a collection of Broadway songs (1991), Singin' with the Big Bands (1994) and a late 1970s collection Summer of '78 (1996), which included the hit \"I Go Crazy\", formerly a hit for Paul Davis in 1978. The decade ended with Manilow recording a tribute to Frank Sinatra Manilow Sings Sinatra (1998) released months after Sinatra's death.", "Elton John – His \"Candle in the Wind 1997,\" a tribute to Princess Diana, was the biggest-selling single of the decade, placing him high on the 10 Best-Selling artists of the 90's list.", "<b>Actual Lyric:</b> Wanna make love to you baby <p></p><b>Song: </b>2 Become 1 </p> <p><b>Artist: </b> Spice Girls </p> <p><strong><a href=\"http://www.iheart.com/artist/bon-jovi-39361/songs/misunderstood-805548/?campid=content_listen_text\" target=\"_blank\">Listen to \"Misunderstood\" Radio on iHeartRadio</a></strong></p> <p><span style=\"font-size: 9px;\">Photo: Getty Images</span>", "I love this song! It's so catchy, fun, and smartly written. One of the best songs of the 90's.", "The track was released in September 1990 throughout the world. In the US, the track reached a peak of #9 on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped both the modern rock and mainstream rock charts. A dance remix of the track received wide airplay on US top 40 stations, reaching the top 10 of the dance chart. In the UK, the track reached a peak of #11 while it reached #2 in their homeland of Australia1 and #1 in Canada.", "The song enjoyed renewed popularity in 1992 as part of the soundtrack to the film Wayne's World. The film's director, Penelope Spheeris, was hesitant to use the song, as it did not entirely fit with the lead characters, who were fans of less flamboyant hard rock and heavy metal. Mike Myers insisted that the song fit the scene.", "Etta James is no stranger to songs of lust, having recorded “Roll With Me Henry” and “Rock Me Baby”, among many others which make few excuses as to their carnal motivations. James recorded “I Just Want to Make Love to You” in 1961 on her album At Last , during a time when sexual frankness was not for public consumption on the radio, especially when expressed by women. Yet the song became a signature hit for her, and would enjoy a resurgence in TV commercials and then on the charts into the 1990s and beyond.", "A dance version of \"Just a Dream\" was released in the 90s to a new audience and became a club anthem. Read Less", "A 1990 Romantic Comedy starring Richard Gere and Julia Roberts , directed by Garry Marshall , and named for the song by Roy Orbison .", "A second album, of b-sides and previously unreleased recordings was released in 1990 on the album Ay Fond Kiss, but it stalled in the UK album charts at #55. Their final single, accompanying this album, a cover of Patsy Cline’s hit  Walking After Midnight , scraped into the top 100 UK singles chart at #97.", "Their second album, 1997's Dig Your Own Hole, featured Noel Gallagher on the number one single Setting Sun. It proved to be one of the most influential and pivotal albums of the 1990s, an evocation of the clubbing experience remarkable both for its musical breadth and its emotional depth.", "In 1992, RCA signed on to release the album as the debut of the newly created group Try 'N' B. The self-titled release included three additional tracks not on the Real Milli Vanilli release: \"Ding Dong\", \"Who Do You Love\", and a remake of Dr. Hook's \"Sexy Eyes\". Because of significantly better sales under the name Try 'N' B in America, a slightly modified Try 'N' B debut album was released internationally. It featured guest singer Tracy Ganser, and a Ray Horton lookalike named Kevin Weatherspoon.", "With naughty lyrics like \"You've got the horn so why don't you blow it?\" and a breathy lyrical delivery, Prince and the New Power Generation's sexy mid-tempo song from 1991's \"Diamonds and Pearls\" album earned two weeks at No. 1 on the Hot 100.", "A huge hit in 1995. The video clip of the song is eary and it has some film clips of the movie.", "One-hit wonders from the 90s: From Chumbawamba and Natalie Imbruglia to Kris Kross, 19 songs that will make you feel nostalgic | Metro News", "Written by Terry Britten, Graham Lyle ● Produced by Terry Britten ● Performed by Tina Turner", "The band continued their international success with the singles \"She Drives Me Crazy\" and \"Good Thing\", from the 1989 album The Raw & the Cooked. The latter song was their second U.S. number one, topping the Billboard Hot 100 on 8 July 1989. It also peaked at number 7 on the UK Singles Chart. The Raw & the Cooked included three songs the band had recorded for Tin Men (including \"Good Thing\"), and their cover of the Buzzcocks' \"Ever Fallen in Love (With Someone You Shouldn't've)\" recorded for the film Something Wild.", "This song is about someone who is desperately seeking the love of another someone, and how they would do anything to have their love returned by that person.", "In 1996, Pop released Naughty Little Doggie, with Whitey Kirst returning on guitar, and the single \"I Wanna Live\". In 1997, he remixed Raw Power to give it a rougher, more hard-edged sound; fans had complained for years that Bowie's official \"rescue effort\" mix was muddy and lacking in bass. Pop testified in the reissue's liner notes that on the new mix, \"everything's still in the red\". He co-produced his 1999 album Avenue B with Don Was, releasing the single \"Corruption.\" Pop produced 2001's Beat 'Em Up, which gave birth to The Trolls, releasing the single \"Football\" featuring Trolls alumni Whitey Kirst and brother Alex.", "One classic song is all a career really needs, and this perennial party favourite is the track for which the New York trio will always be remembered. At its heart was the simplest of ideas; that falling in love is a bit like dancing. But there’s nothing simple in the delivery, pulling house, funk, disco and hip-hop together into a package that is wild, woozy and very, very strange. DM", "\"Naughty Girl\" was an early version of the song which was later issued with the title of \"Dreamin'\". The single had been scheduled for release in January 1986 but due to the legal dispute with Alan Lancaster it was cancelled. No copies were pressed - although the original master tapes for the single manufactured on the 6th November 1985 still exist.", "Highly literate UK adult pop band that enjoyed success with several catchy hit singles in the 90s.", "The group's follow-up album, Rose Royce II: In Full Bloom, produced two Top Ten singles, \"Do Your Dance\" and \"Ooh Boy\". It also included \"Wishing on a Star\", which for Rose Royce was a top-10 hit only in the UK; it became notable elsewhere through its cover versions, including The Cover Girls' Top Ten single in 1992.", "It's a wildly romantic song, less than 3 minutes, with a catchy beat. This song also went to number 1 in the UK.", "Nirvana's song \"Love Buzz\" (from their album Bleach ) is a Gender Flipped cover version of a 1969 song by Dutch psychedelic band Shocking Blue (released on their album At Home ) whose other hit, \"Venus,\" was covered up by Bananarama.", "The song \"Love Potion No. 9\" is referenced in this song. (\"No Number Nine Love Potion/ Could make me love her more\" )", "Madly Deeply is a single released by the band in 1997.  It became their signature song", "In the film The Commitments (1991), one of the girls auditioning for the titular band sings \"I Dreamed a Dream\" as her audition song.", "However, in 1986 he recorded the single, \"I Want to Wake Up with You\", a surprise UK Number One, which spent two months in the Top Ten. The accompanying album, Everything to Me also included the follow-up hit, \"You're Everything to Me\" (which just missed out being another Top 10 entry, when it peaked at Number 11). The single \"The Meaning of Christmas\" was also released later that year." ]

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[ "Blondie broke up after the release of its sixth studio album The Hunter in 1982. Debbie Harry continued to pursue a solo career with varied results after taking a few years off to care for partner Chris Stein, who was diagnosed with pemphigus, a rare autoimmune disease of the skin. The band re-formed in 1997, achieving renewed success and a number one single in the United Kingdom with \"Maria\" in 1999, exactly 20 years after their first UK No.1 single (\"Heart of Glass\").", "Blondie broke up after the release of its sixth studio album The Hunter in 1982. Debbie Harry continued to pursue a solo career with varied results after taking a few years off to care for partner Chris Stein, who was diagnosed with pemphigus, a rare autoimmune disease of the skin. The band re-formed in 1997, achieving renewed success and a number one single in the United Kingdom with \"Maria\" in 1999, exactly 20 years after their first UK No.1 single (\"Heart of Glass\").", "in 1979 - Blondie had their first of five UK No.1 singles, with 'Heart Of Glass', taken from the band's third studio album, Parallel Lines. 'Heart of Glass' was originally recorded in 1975 under the name 'Once I Had a Love.'", "1979, Blondie scored their first US No.1 single with ‘Heart Of Glass’, also No.1 in the UK. We tend to think of Blondie as", "February 3 (4 weeks) Blondie - Heart of Glass: One of the best known Blondie recordings, this was a first UK Number One for the band fronted by the enigmatic Debbie Harry.", "No Exit reached number three on the UK charts, and the first single, \"Maria\", which Destri had written thinking about his high school days, became Blondie's sixth UK number one single exactly 20 years after their first chart-topper, \"Heart of Glass\". This gave the band the distinction of being one of only two American acts to reach number one in the UK singles charts in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s (the other being Michael Jackson who had No. 1 hits with the Jacksons and solo in the same decades).", "\"Heart of Glass\" was their first U.S. hit. The disco-infused track topped the U.S. charts in April 1979. It was a reworking of a rock and reggae-infused song that the group had performed since its formation, updated with strong elements of disco music. Clem Burke later said the revamped version was inspired partly by Kraftwerk and partly by the Bee Gees' \"Stayin' Alive\", whose drum beat Burke tried to emulate. He and Stein gave Jimmy Destri much of the credit for the final result, noting that Destri's appreciation of technology had led him to introduce synthesizers and to rework the keyboard sections.[21] Although some members of the British music press condemned Blondie for \"selling out\", the song became a success, worldwide. Selling more than a million copies and garnering major airplay, the single reached number one in many countries including the U.S., where Blondie had previously been considered an \"underground\" band. The song was accompanied by a music video that showcased Debbie Harry's hard-edged and playfully sexual persona, and she began to attain a celebrity status that set her apart from the other band members, who were largely ignored by the media.", "Debbie Harry enjoyed several successful years as the lead vocalist of Blondie. When the group went their separate ways, it was commonly assumed that Harry's solo career would be equally prolific. However, this never materialised. In the first instance, Harry had to take time out to nurse her lover Chris Stein back from a serious bout of ill health. Perhaps the omens were not good when the first solo release 'Backfired' did precisely that. Eventually, Deborah Harry was back in the limelight with the marvellous 'French Kissin'. In spite of the success of this fabulous pop song, Harry returned to relative obscurity. Nevertheless, instead of growing old gracefully, the 'blonde' singer once more fronted the Blondie group, and 'Maria' helped the ageing New Yorkers return to the once-familiar territory of a British Number One hit triumph. This icon of New York was born on this day in 1945. Success would come late in life for the lovely Deborah. Perhaps there is hope for us all.", "We just threw this one in just for fun, as both releases hit Number 1 – the first  being Blondie's in November 1980, staying there for two weeks. Of course, real chart geeks will tell you that Blondie's version was itself a cover of a song previously sung by the Paragons and Gregory Isaacs – but Blondie were the first act to take it into the chart.", "Blondie's third album, Parallel Lines (UK No. 1, US No. 6, Australia No. 2), was released in September 1978. Produced by Mike Chapman, it finally broke the band into the American market on the strength of the worldwide hit single “Heart of Glass\". Parallel Lines became the group's most successful album, selling 20 million copies worldwide. The album's first two singles were \"Picture This\" (UK No. 12) and \"Hanging on the Telephone\" (UK No. 5). Because the biggest hit from Blondie's previous album Plastic Letters was \"Denis\", a cover of Randy & The Rainbows' 1963 song \"Denise\", Chrysalis Records chose Buddy Holly's \"I'm Gonna Love You Too\" as the lead single from Parallel Lines in the U.S. This turned out to be a miscalculation as the single failed to chart. The song was eventually released as a single in a few other countries in 1979.", "Blondie turned to British pop producer Mike Chapman for their third album, on which they abandoned any pretensions to new wave legitimacy (just in time, given the decline of the new wave) and emerged as a pure pop band. But it wasn't just Chapman that made Parallel Lines Blondie 's best album; it was the band's own songwriting, including Deborah Harry , Chris Stein , and James Destri 's \"Picture This,\" and Harry and Stein 's \"Heart of Glass,\" and Harry and new bass player Nigel Harrison 's \"One Way or Another,\" plus two contributions from nonbandmember Jack Lee , \"Will Anything Happen?\" and \"Hanging on the Telephone.\" That was enough to give Blondie a number one on both sides of the Atlantic with \"Heart of Glass\" and three more U.K. hits, but what impresses is the album's depth and consistency -- album tracks like \"Fade Away and Radiate\" and \"Just Go Away\" are as impressive as the songs pulled for singles. The result is state-of-the-art pop/rock circa 1978, with Harry 's tough-girl glamour setting the pattern that would be exploited over the next decade by a host of successors led by Madonna .", "Blondie signed with Chrysalis in October 1977. Mike Chapman, a veteran of glitter pop, produced Parallel Lines, which slowly made its way into the Top Ten, breaking first in markets outside the U.S. The disco-style \"Heart of Glass\" hit Number One in April 1979 and gave the group a platinum album. Blondie maintained its popularity and dabbled in black-originated styles, collaborating with Eurodisco producer Giorgio Moroder for \"Call Me\" (Number One, 1980) for the American Gigolo Soundtrack, covering the reggae tune \"The Tide Is High\" (Number One, 1980), and recording a song including an extended Debbie Harry rap, \"Rapture\" (Number One, 1981), for Autoamerican (Number Seven, 1980). Harry also did the rounds as a celebrity, including an endorsement of Gloria Vanderbilt designer jeans in 1980.", "Blondie is an American rock band, founded by singer Debbie Harry and guitarist Chris Stein. The band was a pioneer in the early American new wave and punk scenes of the mid-1970s. Their first two albums contained strong elements of these genres, and although successful in the United Kingdom and Australia, Blondie was regarded as an underground band in the United States until the release of Parallel Lines in 1978. Over the next three years, the band achieved several hit singles and became noted for its eclectic mix of musical styles incorporating elements of disco, pop, rap, and reggae, while retaining a basic style as a new wave band.", "1979: Blondie’s ‘Heart Of Glass’ is the #1 song on the Billboard Hot 100. They would score three more chart toppers over the next two years.", "Blondie: “X-Offender” (1976), “One Way or Another” (1978), “Dreaming” (1979), “Call Me” (1980), “ The Tide Is High ” (1980), “ Rapture ” (1980), “Heart of Glass” (1978)", "Chris Stein , co-founder, lead guitarist and chief songwriter for punk/new-wave band Blondie ; wrote most of their big hits including \"Sunday Girl\", \"Heart of Glass\", \"Picture This\", \"Dreaming\", \"Island of Lost Souls\", \"Rapture\", \"Rip Her to Shreds\". He also ran the Animal Records label.", "“X Offender” was the first single from the 1976 debut self-titled album by Blondie. It was originally called Sex Offender, but for fear of not getting any radio play the name was changed. Crysalis Records signed the band after hearing the song. It’s 1 of 7 five star Blondie songs in my collection. What a great band!", "1970s punk rock band Blondie also made a surprise resurgence at the very beginning of the year, making #1 18 years after their previous Top 10 hit (and 19 years after their previous #1). \"Maria\", the band's sixth #1, was the first track taken from their #3 album, No Exit. The band started fresh as member differences and conflicts outside of the group had all been settled. Lead singer Debbie Harry continued to pursue acting as well as being a member of the group. She is the oldest female to make number one at 54 years of age, however Cher still holds the record for oldest solo female to reach the top. Despite topping the charts in several countries \"Maria\" never made number one in their US homeland.", "Eat To The Beat made #1 in the UK album charts and #17 in the US. This is Blondie's most-loved album and regarded by many as a step-up from the previous album Parallel Lines. It features the perfect blend of 80s new wave, punk, catchy pop and a beautiful ballad called Shayla. Add the quality drumming of Clem Burke and you end up with one of the finest albums ever released.", "This was Blondie's comeback song - their lead singer Debbie Harry was 53 when it was released. The band re-formed in 1998 for a tour and album after breaking up in 1982. The new version of the band was made up of original members Chris Stein (guitar) and Deborah Harry (vocals) as well as former members Jimmy Destri (keyboards) and Clem Burke (drums) along with two new members. The band was gone for about a generation, which meant there were a lot of new fans who were just discovering Blonde and hearing their earlier hits for the first time.", "Blondie started as an ironic update of trashy 1960s pop. But by the end of the 1970s, they were far and away the most commercially successful and adventurous survivors of the New York punk scene, having released three platinum albums (Parallel Lines, Eat to the Beat, and Autoamerican). In bleached-blond lead singer Deborah Harry, new wave's answer to Marilyn Monroe, the group had an international icon. The group's repertoire, written by Harry and boyfriend Chris Stein, inhabited the melodic side of punk and grew increasingly eclectic while Harry's deadpan delivery remained consistent.", "The group was formed in New York City in August 1974 by singer Deborah Harry (b. July 1, 1945, Miami, Florida), formerly of the folk-pop group Wind in the Willows , and guitarist Chris Stein (b. January 5, 1950, Brooklyn, New York) out of the remnants of Harry 's previous group, the Stilettos. The lineup fluctuated over the next year; drummer Clement Burke (b. November 24, 1955, New York) joined in May 1975, and bassist Gary Valentine signed on in August, while keyboard player James Destri (b. April 13, 1954) came on board in October, completing the initial permanent lineup. One of the first bands on the CBGB scene to score a record deal, Blondie released their first album, Blondie, on Private Stock Records in December 1976. In July 1977, Valentine was replaced by Frank Infante.", "Blondie - In the early 1970s, Chris Stein moved to New York City and, inspired by the New York Dolls, aimed to join a similar band. He joined The Stilettos in 1973 as their guitarist and formed a romantic relationship with the band's vocalist, Deborah Harry. A former waitress and Playboy Bunny, Harry had been a member of the folk-rock band, The Wind in the Willows, in the late 1960s. In 1974, Stein parted ways with The Stilettos and Elda Gentile, the band's originator. Stein and Harry formed a new band with drummer Billy O'Connor and bassist Fred Smith. After some personnel turnover (other early members included sisters Tish Bellomo and Eileen Bellomo on backing vocals) by 1975, Stein and Harry were joined by drummer Clem Burke, keyboard player Jimmy Destri and bass player Gary Valentine. Originally billed as Angel and the Snake the band renamed themselves Blondie in late 1975. The name was taken from comments from truck drivers who called \"Hey, Blondie\" to Harry as they drove by.", "Maria was an unashamedly poppy rock song with a ballsy, euphoric chorus. Blondie had always been the band who refused to stick to any one musical style, flirting with reggae, rap and disco. It was like they’d never been away. It went straight into the top of the charts and spent a week there. It was their sixth chart-topper, but their first since The Tide Is High over 18 years earlier.", "Blondie were a firm favourite in our household back in the seventies and eighties, and I still have a stack of well-used vinyl - the band gained fame in the late 1970s. Featuring lead singer Deborah Harry, the American band was a pioneer in the early American punk rock and New Wave scene. Indeed, their first two albums were very much influenced by punk and new wave, and were more successful in the UK and Australia, than in America. ", "Blondie emerged from New York in the late ‘70s and quickly became music, style and pop culture icons selling over 40 million albums globally throughout their 37-year career. Scoring hits with reggae, rock/disco, hip-hop and pop songs alike, Blondie pioneered the early American new wave and punk scenes of the ‘70s.", "By 1982, the year the band initially broke up, Blondie had released six studio albums, each exhibiting a stylistic progression from the last. The band is known not only for the striking stage persona and vocal performances of Harry but also for incorporating elements in their work from numerous subgenres of music, reaching from their punk roots to embrace new wave, disco, pop, rap, and reggae. ", "Note: Blondie does not appear on this release. It contains cover versions of Blondie songs. It is included as a courtesy to collectors, who may be interested in this release.", "People: Blondie, Clem Burke, Debbie Harry, Frank Infante, Gary Valentine, Jimmy Destri, Nigel Harrison, Shirley Manson", "\"Lola\" is a song written by Ray Davies and performed by English rock band the Kinks on their album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One. The song details a romantic encounter between a young man and a possible transvestite, whom he meets in a club in Soho, London. In the song, the narrator describes his confusion towards a person named Lola who \"walked like a woman and talked like a man\". Although Ray Davies claims that the incident was inspired by a true encounter experienced by the band's manager, alternate explanations for the song have been given by drummer Mick Avory.", "People: Blondie, Chris Stein, Clem Burke, Debbie Harry, Frank Infante, Gary Valentine, Nigel Harrison, Shirley Manson", "McGuire's single hit #1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and #3 on the UK Singles Chart in September 1965." ]

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[ "In 1994, Wet Wet Wet had their biggest hit, a cover version of the Troggs single \"Love Is All Around\", which was a huge international success and spent fifteen weeks atop the British charts. The week before it could have equalled the record for the longest-standing Number 1 single, held by Bryan Adams' \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\", Pellow insisted on its deletion (he was bored with its chart domination and overheard people complaining about it).[4] However, it would have not broken the record. There were still enough copies in the shops, and the song slipped to #2 the week after its deletion. In any event, it remained in the Top 40 for the remainder of the year. \"Love Is All Around\" was used on the soundtrack to the film Four Weddings and a Funeral. In the official UK best-selling singles list issued in 2002, it was placed 12th. The song also featured on the 1995 album Picture This, their sixth, which also spawned the hit single \"Julia Says\". The album, although well-received by critics, would ultimately live in the shadow of \"Love Is All Around\".", "1994: Wet Wet Wet spend 15 consecutive weeks at number 1 with Love Is all Around, one week short of Bryan Adams' record. They are knocked off the top spot by Whigfield with Saturday Night, the first ever debut hit by an artist to enter the chart at number 1.", "In 1994 Wet Wet Wet had their biggest hit, with a cover version of The Troggs single “Love Is All Around”, which was a huge international success and spent 15 weeks at Number 1 in the British charts. Only Marti Pellow’s insistence on deletion (he was bored of its chart domination, and overheard people complaining about it) prevented the song from possibly equalling and breaking, the record for the longest-standing Number 1 single, held by Bryan Adams.", "Wet Wet Wet's version of \"Love Is All Around\", which has a different introduction from the Troggs' version, was recorded in B-flat-major on 4 January 1994 and released on 9 May 1994. It topped the UK Singles Chart after just under three weeks and, fuelled by its appearance in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral, remained there for 15 consecutive weeks, the joint second longest stay at the top of that chart, along with Drake's One Dance (beaten only by \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\" by Bryan Adams, which topped the chart for 16 weeks). The song was later included on the band's album Picture This.", "15 weeks spent at number one for Wet Wet Wet’s cover of Love Is All Around (beaten only by Bryan Adams’ (Everything I Do) I Do It For You)", "Wet Wet Wet once again raced up the charts in 1992 with the release of High on the Happy Side. An album full of radio-friendly ballads, High on the Happy Side produced a successful single in the shape of \"Goodnight Girl.\" 1994 saw Wet Wet Wet at the peak of their talents when their contribution to the soundtrack to the film Four Weddings and a Funeral was released. The song, a cover of the Troggs' \"Love Is All Around,\" became a huge international success, spending 15 weeks at the top of the British charts and driving the band's best of compilation End of Part One to healthy sales. In 1995 Picture This was released. While enjoying good sales, the album did not produce any major singles. By the time of 1997's 10, the band had begun to implode. Cunningham had already left the group to form Sleeping Giants, and, shortly after the release of 10, Pellow quit to concentrate on a solo career. Despite this, the remaining members decided that Wet Wet Wet would remain a going concern.", "A - No. I don't know. Maybe he liked some of the songs I was starting to write. \"Love Is All Around\" was a very big hit. When Wet, Wet, Wet, the Scottish band did it over here, it stayed at number one for fifteen weeks.", "The song has now had the longest reign at the top of the charts since Wet Wet Wet's Love Is All Around in 1994.", "Wet Wet Wet deleted their single from sale after their cover of The Troggs’ 1967 song spent 15 weeks on top, to ensure it didn’t match Adams’ record.", "Wet Wet Wet have congratulated Drake for equaling their 22-year-old record of spending 15 weeks at Number One.", "Wet Wet Wet are a successful Scottish pop band who scored a number of hits in the British and international charts in the 1980s and 1990s. They were formed in Clydebank, Scotland in 1982. They took their name from the Scritti Politti song, “Gettin, havin’ and holdin’”.", "It’s 20 years since Scottish quartet Wet Wet Wet spent an incredible fifteenth week at Number 1, dashing Kylie Minogue’s hopes of a chart-topping comeback.", "Wet Wet Wet are a Scottish pop rock band that formed in the 1980s. They scored a number of hits in the British charts and around the world. The band is composed of Marti Pellow (vocals), Tommy Cunningham (drums, vocals), Graeme Clark (bass, vocals) and Neil Mitchell (keyboards, vocals). A fifth, unofficial member, Graeme Duffin (lead guitar, vocals), has been with them since 1983.", "The song Love is All Around, performed by Wet Wet Wet, is featured in which Richard Curtis film*four weddings and a funeral", "Wet Wet Wet are a Scottish band that formed in 1982. They scored a number of hits in the UK charts and around the world. The band is composed of Marti Pellow (lead vocals), Tommy Cunningham (drums, vocals), Graeme Clark (bass, vocals) and Neil Mitchell (keyboards, vocals). A fifth, unofficial member, Graeme Duffin (lead guitar, vocals), has been with them since 1983. The band were named Best British Newcomer at the 1988 Brit Awards. ", "The song, which accompanied the biggest Brit-flick of the year Four Weddings and a Funeral, went on to become a first-dance and school disco staple in the '90s and beyond. It also set a bar that Wet Wet Wet would never match again. They would always be the 'Love Is All Around' band forever more.", "In 1988, Wet Wet Wet scored their first Number 1 hit with a cover version of the Beatles' \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", recorded for the charity ChildLine. Another Beatles song, \"She's Leaving Home\", was equally-billed on the flip side, performed by Billy Bragg. In the same year, an album - entitled The Memphis Sessions - was released from their spell in the United States prior to hitting the big time.", "Wet, Wet, Wet....Scottish singing Group. Soundtrack for Four Weddings & a Funeral. (Love is all around).", "in 1989 - Record Mirror published a chart of last years Top UK singles artists. No.1 was Kylie Minogue, No.2, Bros, No.3, Yazz, No.4 Tiffany, No.5, Phil Collins, No.6, Cliff Richard, No.7, Erasure, No.8, Pet Shop Boys, No.9, Belinda Carlisle, and No.10, Wet Wet Wet.", "The band have released eight studio albums plus two compilations, which have sold around 15 million copies worldwide. Their breakthrough album Parklife was released in 1994 and featured the hits \"Girls & Boys\" and \"Parklife\". The band's other popular songs include \"Song 2\", \"Beetlebum\", \"Country House\" and \"Coffee & TV\".", "East 17 scored twelve Top 10 hits on the UK Singles Chart between 1992 and 1998. Their debut album, Walthamstow, shot to No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart. It featured a string of Top 20 singles, including \"House of Love\" and \"Deep\". \"It's Alright\" became a major success in Australia, reaching No. 1 in early 1994 for seven consecutive weeks, and No. 3 in the UK in 1993. The lyrics to some of their songs, such as \"Let It Rain\", had political undertones, talking about war, peace, equality, love, and other political issues.", "Pellow left Wet Wet Wet in May 1999, effectively disbanding the group. They reformed, however, in March 2004.", "In 1994, Pet Shop Boys offered to remix fellow Parlophone act Blur 's single \" Girls & Boys \"; it was a club hit throughout Europe and started a sporadic trend for Pet Shop Boys to remix other artists' music. Also in 1994, Pet Shop Boys released the 1994 Comic Relief single, \"Absolutely Fabulous\". The song started when Tennant and Lowe were playing around with samples from the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous in the studio . They wanted to release a single, so approached lead actors Jennifer Saunders and Joanna Lumley and suggested releasing it as a charity single . The single was released under the artist name of 'Absolutely Fabulous' too. Tennant and Lowe do not consider it as a Pet Shop Boys' single release and it was not included on any of their next best-of album. The video to the single featured clips from the sitcom, along with newly recorded footage of Tennant and Lowe with the characters of Edina (Saunders) and Patsy (Lumley).", "Mud were an English glam rock band, formed in February 1966. Their earlier success came in a pop and then glam rock style, while later hits were influenced by 1950s rock and roll, and are best remembered for their hit singles \"Tiger Feet\", which was the UK's best-selling single of 1974, and \"Lonely This Christmas\" which reached Christmas number 1 in December 1974. After signing to RAK Records and teaming up with songwriters/producers Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman, the band had fourteen UK Top 20 hits between 1973 and 1976, including three number ones.", "In 1994, Pet Shop Boys remixed Blur's single 'Girls & Boys' and the track became a hit around Europe. They also released a Comic Relief single, sampling Jennifer Saunders and Joanna Lumley in Absolutely Fabulous.", "In 1994, Pet Shop Boys offered to remix fellow Parlophone act Blur 's single \" Girls & Boys \"; it was a club hit throughout Europe and started a sporadic trend for Pet Shop Boys to remix other artists' music. Also in 1994, Pet Shop Boys released the 1994 Comic Relief single, \"Absolutely Fabulous\". The song started when Tennant and Lowe were playing around with samples from the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous in the studio. They wanted to release a single, so approached lead actors Jennifer Saunders and Joanna Lumley and suggested releasing it as a charity single . The single was released under the artist name of 'Absolutely Fabulous' too. Tennant and Lowe do not consider it as a Pet Shop Boys single release and it was not included on their next best-of album. The video to the single featured clips from the sitcom, along with newly recorded footage of Tennant and Lowe with the characters of Edina (Saunders) and Patsy (Lumley).", "\"Squeeze\" were an English rock music band that came to prominence in the New Wave period of the late 1970s. The group formed in London in 1974. They are known for their hit songs \"Cool For Cats,\" \"Up The Junction,\" \"Tempted,\" and \"Hourglass,\" among many others.", "In August of 1974, this song was reissued in Britain, where it reached UK #12. >>", "\"Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)\" is a song by Italian electronic music producer Spiller, featuring vocals from British singer and songwriter Sophie Ellis-Bextor. The single was released in August 2000 by Positiva Records. It peaked at number one in the UK, New Zealand, Ireland and Australia, as well as charting at number three on the American Hot Dance Chart. On 15 September 2000, the song was certified gold record status by the British Phonographic Industry, and was certified platinum on 22 July 2013. Various versions of the single were later featured on the German reissue and some UK editions of Ellis-Bextor's debut solo album, Read My Lips.", "In 1994 the song featured in TV advert for Bisto gravy powder. It has also been featured in many other adverts down through the years.", "With an unabashedly synthy beat and breathy vocals about a \"warm, wet and wild\" place and the women you find there, how could Katy Perry's perfectly timed hit -- with a smooth assist from Snoop Dogg, not have been the top song of summer 2010 ? In fact the song was so huge, it leapt from No. 18 when we first published this chart in May 2010 to No. 1 just one year later, beating out over 50 years of other hot summer songs.", "8. What was the name of the Blur hit from 1997 voted the 15th Best Track ever by Radio 1 listeners?" ]

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[ "Which comedy duo had a number one hit with `The Stonk` in 1991? Hale and Pace", "in 1991 - Comedy duo Hale And Pace And The Stonkers were at No.1 on the UK singles chart with the charity record 'The Stonk.'", "Around mid-2003, a rumor began circulating in PSB fandom that the Boys had recorded a track called \"The Stonk\" and were planning to release it as a single. Although Neil squelched this rumor in short order with an online posting, it continued to surface off and on for at least two years thereafter. But all indications are that our musical heroes never recorded such a track, much less considered putting out a single with that title. It's unknown, incidentally, whether this alleged PSB song was supposed to have been an original or a remake of the 1991 Comic Relief single \"The Stonk\" by the British comedy duo Hale and Pace, which made it all the way up to #1 on the U.K. charts. In a bizarre instance of \"PSB linkage,\" the flipside of this charity single was \"The Smile Song\" by fellow comedian Victoria Wood, who had reportedly wanted to record it with Neil and Chris. But they declined, so she settled by including them among the pop stars she parodied in its music video. (See #37 in my list of performance parodies of the Boys .)", "In 1991, they released a charity single in aid of Comic Relief. \"The Stonk\", based on a fictitious dance craze was written by Joe Griffiths and Hale & Pace, and was produced by Queen guitarist Brian May, who also featured on the track. Musicians involved on the single The Stonk, other than Bryan May on keyboards and guitar, were David Gilmour, Tony Iommi on guitars, Neil Murray on bass, Cozy Powell, Roger Taylor and Rowan Atkinson - as Mr Bean in the video - on drums, Joe Griffiths and Mike Moran on keyboards. A UK number-one single for one week in March 1991, it is their sole chart single but raised £100,000 for Comic Relief. The B-side was entitled \"The Smile Song\", which was written and performed by the comedian Victoria Wood.", "Tommy Cannon and Bobby Ball (real names: Thomas Derbyshire and Robert Harper) are a British comedy duo whose greatest fame was during the 19 70s (clubs) and the 19 80s (television). They were part of the last generation of comedians to emerge from constant live performance in working men's clubs ; with a few exceptions (such as Hale & Pace and, curiously in this company, Vic Reeves ), any new comedians who show promise on the live circuit tend to be quickly snapped up by television. After coming last in 1968 's season of Opportunity Knocks , the duo - who had been performing together since the early 1960s - slowly built up a following over the next decade before ITV found them.", "Tommy Cannon (born Thomas Derbyshire, 27 June 1938) and Bobby Ball (born Robert Harper, 28 January 1944), known collectively as Cannon and Ball, are an English comedy double act best known for their comedy variety show The Cannon and Ball Show, which lasted for nine years on ITV. The duo met in the early 1960s while working as welders in Oldham, Lancashire. They started out as singers working the pubs and clubs of Greater Manchester and switched to comedy after being told comics earned an extra £3 a night.", "Enter the coolest diner in town. Shay Healy presides over the bar where celebrities drop in, you can find rock bands in the basement, film reports on the box and there is always a bit of drama. In this show we meet John Cleese, Tommy McManus of Mama's Boys, Tony Allen of Foster and Allen fame, Philip Donnelly, and the three-man comedy group Mr. Trellis, comprising Ardal O'Hanlon, Barry Murphy and Kevin Gildea. Watch", "Monty Python (nicknamed The Pythons) was a British surreal comedy group founded in 1969. The group consisted of Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin. They are credited with creating, writing, and starring in the sketch comedy show Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1969) as well as a string of successful comedy films in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "In the wake of Not the Nine O'Clock News, The Young Ones and the breakthrough onto television of 'alternative comedy' came French and Saunders; Fry and Laurie; Rik Mayall and Ade Edmondson; Hale and Pace; and Smith and Jones. These edgier comics were more brash and crude—comedy's answer to punk rock. They developed the satire and vulgarity of Peter Cook and Dudley Moore rather than the more gentle humour of Morecambe and Wise and The Two Ronnies. In fact, Smith and Jones showed blatant disregard for their predecessors, openly mocking the Two Ronnies (this may have been a factor in Ronnie Barker's decision to retire from comedy in the late 1980s.)", "Outer Limits, The Comedy duo Nigel Planer and Peter Richardson who performed their routines as part of Dexys Midnight Runners' \"Projected Passion Revue\" shows in 1981.", "The 1990s also saw the introduction of one of comedy's strangest yet most successful double acts in Reeves and Mortimer. They at the same time deconstructed light entertainment and paid homage to many of the classic double acts (Vic Reeves would even do an Eric Morecambe impression on Vic Reeves Big Night Out). They simultaneously used very bizarre, idiosyncratic humour and traditional double act staples (in later years they became increasingly reliant on violent slapstick).", "The Goodies are a trio of British comedians: Tim Brooke-Taylor , Graeme Garden , and Bill Oddie . They wrote for and performed in their eponymous surreal comedy show during the 1970s and early 1980s, combining sketches and situation comedy.", "The Mr Blobby spoof theme song \"Mr Blobby\" was released as a single, and hit #1 on the UK top 40 charts . On 11 December 1993, it hit #1, replacing Meat Loaf's \"I'd Do Anything For Love (But I Won't Do That)\" which had been in the #1 spot for 7 weeks. A week later, \"Babe\" by Take That bumped it off #1, but only for a week. It returned to the #1 spot on the charts on Christmas Day and remained for another 2 weeks. The song also became the first to return to the No.1 position since 1968. [1 ]", "On January 14th 1991, the band released the six-and-a-half-minute long epic \" Innuendo \" as a single. It was a massive success, giving the band their third UK Number One single and ensuring them the Number One slot throughout Europe. The album of the same name was released on February 4th, and crashed straight into the UK chart at Number One, hitting the high spot again throughout Europe - and it even charted top thirty in America.", "In 1992, Dallin and Woodward returned as a duo and had a UK top 30 hit with \"Movin' On\" (UK #24), which was the first single from the album Please Yourself. Released in 1993, the album marked the return of production duties back to the remaining members of SAW, Stock and Waterman. Ironically, though the lead single was titled \"Movin' On\", the album was a regression to their previous Euro disco sound as illustrated by their cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More, More, More\" (UK #24). Bananarama was losing momentum as subsequent single \"Last Thing on My Mind\" (UK #71) struggled to chart. It was to be their last album on London Records.", "A further release from Behaviour, 'Jealousy', took their total of top twenty hits to sixteen - time for a greatest hits album. Featuring all their hits and two newly-recorded songs, Discography - The Complete Singles Collection was released in time for Christmas 1991. The two new tracks soon became hits in their own right: 'DJ Culture' preceding the album and 'Was It Worth It?' following soon afterwards. Strangely, although the latter was something of a return to the earlier, high-energy Pet Shop Boys sound, it became the first of their singles to peak outside of the top twenty 2 , reaching only number 24.", "Edmondson and Mayall gained their reputation at The Comedy Store, from 1980. The double act, \"20th Century Coyote\", became popular. Mayall also developed solo routines using characters such as Kevin Turvey and a pompous anarchist poet named Rick.", "The band's debut album, Kissing to Be Clever (UK No. 5, US No. 14) was released in October 1982, and the follow-up single, \"Time (Clock of the Heart)\", became another Top 10 hit in the US (Number 2) and UK (Number 3). \"I'll Tumble 4 Ya\" also became a Top Ten hit in the US (Number 9) and in Canada. This gave Culture Club the distinction of being the first group since The Beatles to have three Top Ten hits in America from a debut album. Kissing to Be Clever sold over 1 million copies in the US, being certified platinum, and sold another two million worldwide at the time of its release.", "In 1991, he teamed with his comedy partner Rik Mayall once more, this time co-writing and co-starring in their own sitcom, Bottom. … Read More", "The following year, Madness released 'House of Fun', the only number one hit of their career to date. They played the song live on the sitcom The Young Ones, which starred Rik Mayall, Ade Edmonson and Nigel Planer.", "Comedians Frank Skinner and David Baddiel co-wrote 'Three Lions' with Ian Broudie of the Lightning Seeds. It topped the charts for two weeks in May and June 1996", "A seasonal special of the long-running sitcom from 1991. Foggy is convinced that Compo's trousers are 'out of control' and Clegg thinks that they're haunted.", "The three originally came together in 1982 to perform the studio produced hit, \"The Lion Sleeps Tonight\". The sight of two young nubile, twenty something girls strutting their stuff in thigh length leopard print boots, and a tall dark and handsome twenty something young man in a loin cloth proved too much for the British public to ignore. The Tight Fit performances helped push the single from number 74 to the coveted Number One spot in March 1982 for three weeks, as the public bought the single in droves.", "Just as the Thompson Twins were not actually twins and the Scissor Sisters weren't really sisters, The Outhere Brothers were not real brothers, but lyricist Keith Mayberry and producer Hula Mahone. The guys had a short burst of hits which saw them reach our Top Ten twice with singles that hid the real truth about the guys' music. While you wouldn't hear anything controversial on the radio versions, the true original versions were something quite naughty. But with further releases, \"Fuk U In The Ass\", and \"Pass The Toilet Paper\", you get the idea what it was like.", "Early in 1993 Fred, Richard and Rob wrote and recorded the Comic Relief single \"Stick It Out\", which was a top-five hit in the United Kingdom and in many European countries. In September 1993, Right Said Fred released its second album, Sex and Travel, to critical acclaim. Sex and Travel included the hit singles \"Bumped\" and \"Hands Up for Lovers\". ", "S Club 7, now known as S Club, was a pop group consisting of members Tina Barrett, Paul Cattermole, Jon Lee, Bradley McIntosh, Jo O'Meara, Hannah Spearritt and Rachel Stevens. The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, Miami 7, in 1999. Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America, and Africa. They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "1992: The released line up had a slot named 'Special Guest' which provoked much curiosity. Tom Jones turned out to be the performer, and was apparently 'fantastic'. HURGH!", "The Young Ones was a popular British sitcom, first seen in 1982, on BBC2. Its anarchic, offbeat humour helped bring alternative comedy to television in the 1980s and made household names of its writers and performers. Soon afterwards, it was shown on MTV, one of the first non-music television shows on the fledgling channel.", "He had a UK Top 5 chart hit in August 1975 with the novelty record \" Funky Moped \", written by Chris Rohmann and produced by Jeff Lynne . The B-side was a risqué monologue parodying the children's TV series The Magic Roundabout . This was banned by the BBC, which is widely believed to have contributed to its success, which in turn led to his appearance on the BBC's Top of the Pops.", "The Young Ones was a popular British sitcom, first seen in 1982, which aired on BBC2. Its anarchic, offbeat humour helped bring alternative comedy to television in the 1980s and made household names of its writers and performers. Soon after, it was shown on MTV in its early days, being one of the first non-music television shows to appear on the fledgling channel.", "He had a surprise UK Top 5 chart hit in August 1975 with the novelty record \" Funky Moped \", written by Chris Rohmann and produced by Jeff Lynne . The B-side of this single was a risqué monologue parodying the animated children's TV series The Magic Roundabout . This track was banned by the BBC , which is widely believed to have contributed to the single's commercial success, which in turn, ironically, led to his appearance on the BBC's Top of the Pops .", "Highly literate UK adult pop band that enjoyed success with several catchy hit singles in the 90s." ]

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[ "Forty-six years ago today, on Aug. 29, 1966, the Beatles played the final live concert of their careers at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. Though many of the band's most timeless songs lay ahead of them, this Bay Area live date would mark the end of the Beatles as a touring entity. Freeing themselves from the burdens of live performance allowed the Liverpool foursome to become ever more daring and experimental in their studio work, which had already begun with the then-three-week-old Revolver, and would continue with the White Album, and, of course, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.", "The Beatles performed their last concert before paying fans in Candlestick Park in San Francisco on 29 August , 1966 . From this time until the group dissolved in early 1970 , the Beatles concentrated on making some of the most remarkable recorded pop music of the 20th century. The group's compositions and musical experiments raised their artistic reputations while they retained their tremendous popularity. The Beatles' financial situation took a turn for the worse however, when their manager Brian Epstein died in 1967 and the band's affairs began to unravel. That same year, The Beatles became the first band ever globally broadcast on television but the members were drifting apart. Their final live performance was on the roof at the Apple studios in London in January 1969 during the difficult \"Get Back\" sessions (later used as a basis for the Let It Be album). Also in 1969 , largely due to McCartney's efforts, they recorded their final album, Abbey Road . The band officially broke up in 1970 and a few months later Let It Be followed as their last commercial album release. Any hopes of a reunion were crushed when Lennon was murdered by a deranged fan in 1980 .", "The Beatles' last official live concert appearance took place on August, 29th 1966 at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California. By the time of that final show the group had burned themselves out with extensive touring and had begun to make studio recordings that could not be replicated live with the technological limitations of the time period. They did play live together in a public place one more time, in an unannounced January, 1969 rooftop (The Apple Records Building in London) performance, filmed as a segment for the final Beatles film \"Let It Be.\"", "Live Bid! The Beatles Last Performance - Candlestick Park, San Francisco, CA. August 29,1966 by Jim Marshall", "29 August 1966: The Beatles' final concert in Candlestick Park, San Francisco | The Beatles Bible", "On August 29, 1966, the Beatles emerged out of an armored truck onto the infield of San Francisco's Candlestick Park to the deafening screams of thousands of fans. No one knew that it would be the last live Beatles performance together... ever.", "John Lennon and Paul McCartney of The Beatles share a microphone during the last concert on their final tour at Candlestick Park, San Francisco, California, August 29, 1966.", "Consecutivenumbered unused tickets for their final Candlestick Park show 69. Beatles. A pair of original unused tickets from the Beatles last ever concert at Candlestick Park, San Francisco, held on August 29, 1966. Tickets measure 5.5 x 2.5 with red writing and head shots of each Beatle, and are for seats 1 and 2 of row 14 in the upper grandstand, with a face value of $4.50 each. In fine condition. This was the Beatles’ last concert tour appearance ever, a 33-minute 12-song set including ‘Day Tripper,’ ‘Nowhere Man,’ and ‘Paperback Writer.’ Scarce as individuals, two consecutively-numbered seats are very uncommon. RR Auction COA. Starting Bid $200 www.RRAuction.com | 37", "The Beatles end their US tour with a concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. It is their last performance as a live touring band.", "Jim Marshall Photography LLC has donated a Limited Edition Beatles Portfolio containing five archival photos of the band from their 1966 final concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. Only 25 have been produced. The set includes a complimentary photo of Jim Marshall backstage with the Beatles, all offered in a presentation portfolio.", "It remains to be seen exactly when might McCartney, 72, and his four-man group will perform at Petco Park. His Aug. 10 Dodger Stadium concert will be followed by an Aug. 12 date at the US Airways Center in Phoenix and an Aug. 14 show at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, where The Beatles performed their final concert in 1966.", "Although in retrospect it would seem a laughable underestimation of their drawing power in America, Beatles' manager Brian Epstein chose venues like the 17,000-seat Cow Palace for the 1964 tour expressly because he feared that the Beatles might not sell out large sports stadiums like San Francisco's Candlestick Park, where they would play their final official concert in 1966. Suffice it to say that the Beatles had no difficultly filling the Cow Palace, which was packed with 17,130 screaming fans when the group bounded to the stage shortly after 9:00 p.m. on this day in 1964 and launched into \"Twist And Shout.\"", "7068. Beatles 1966 Candlestick Park Ticket. Choice unused ticket for the Beatles concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on August 29, 1966, for lower stand admission. The ticket, measuring 5.75 x 2.5, features ‘floating head’ images of the band members and text reading, “KYA Radio 1260 Welcomes The Beatles.” In fine condition. This was the band’s very last scheduled live concert, thought they would appear unannounced for their famed ‘rooftop’ show in 1969. An uncommonly vibrant and virtually mint example. Estimate $500+", "29 August – The Beatles play their very last concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California.", "Sir Paul McCartney has tossed up the possibility of headlining one last concert at Candlestick Park - where the Beatles played their final gig for a paying crowd in 1966 - before the stadium's da...", "29 August – The Beatles perform their last official concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California.", "The Beatles concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on Aug 29, 1966 - The Paul McCartney Project", "The Beatles appeared live for the final time on August 14, 1965. The show was broadcast September 12, 1965, and earned Sullivan a 60-percent share of the nighttime audience for one of the appearances . This time they followed three acts before coming out to perform \" I Feel Fine \", \" I'm Down \", and \" Act Naturally \" and then closed the show with \" Ticket to Ride \", \" Yesterday \", and \" Help! \" Although this was their final live appearance on the show, the group would, for several years, provide filmed promotional clips of songs to air exclusively on Sullivan's program such as the 1966 and 1967 clips of \" Paperback Writer \", \" Rain \", \" Penny Lane \", and \" Strawberry Fields Forever \".", "On 19 May 2014, it was reported that McCartney had been bedridden by an unspecified virus on doctor’s orders, and had to cancel a sold-out concert tour of Japan scheduled to begin later in the week. The tour would have included a stop at the famed Budokan Hall. McCartney also had to push his June US dates to October, as part of his doctor’s order to take it easy to make a full recovery. [207] However, he resumed the tour with a high-energy three hour appearance in Albany, New York, on 5 July 2014. [208] On 14 August 2014, McCartney performed the final concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco , California before its demolition. It was the same venue that the Beatles played their final concert in 1966. [209]", "I was there at Candlestick Park on Monday, August 29, 1966 for both shows by the Beatles. I had also been at the two previous shows when the Beatles played the Cow Palace. I was on John’s side of the stage about 20-30 yards back and I could see and hear everything perfectly. What amazed me, besides the hysterics of it all, was the fact that all the house lights were on and you could look around and see everyone. It’s no wonder the people behind couldn’t hear anything except the screaming, but for myself, being up-close was a big help. (I also remember some guy who came from the audience from behind the stage who got onto the stage and stole John’s cap right off his head. What a despicable person!)", "A comment on the fact that much of the Beatles music was meant to be listened and not danced to. This may be a comment on the fact that the Beatles' 1966 Candlestick Park concert only lasted 35 minutes, there wasn't any music to dance to and even if there was it was over too soon to enjoy. It may also be a reference to the break-up of The Beatles.", "The Beatles at Candlestick in 1966: An oral history from the fans - The Big Event", "The quartet was the Beatles (there were four, not including if Paul McCartney is really dead!) and the park thing is Candlestick Park, the place of their last concert. It was practicing 'cause their music would grow after they stopped touring (their first project after this was \"Sgt. Pepper\" which is considered the best album of all time).", "The Beatles show was announced early in the summer — the band’s first appearance in the Bay Area since a 1965 visit to the Cow Palace. The Candlestick show was the end of a controversial tour that included John Lennon’s famous “more popular than Jesus” remark. Fans had no idea at the time, but the Candlestick tour finale was the last commercial show the band would perform together.", "1966: The Beatles made their final live, paid appearance in the UK when they played a 15 minute set at the NME Poll Winners concert at Empire Pool, Wembley. Also appearing were The Spencer Davis Group, The Fortunes, Herman’s Hermits, Roy Orbison, Cliff Richard, The Rolling Stones, The Seekers, The Small Faces, Dusty Springfield, The Walker Brothers, The Who and The Yardbirds. The Fab Four were not filmed because a financial agreement could not be reached. Their last song is ‘I’m Down.’", "1965: The Beatles played their last ever show in their hometown of Liverpool when they appeared at The Liverpool Empire during the group’s final UK tour. Only 5,100 tickets were available, but there were 40,000 applications for tickets.", "*January 30 – The Beatles perform for the last time in public, on the roof of the Apple building at 3 Abbey Road, London. The performance, which was filmed for the Let It Be movie, is stopped early by police after neighbors complain about the noise.", "It was 49 years ago tonight (August 15th, 1965) that the Beatles played their legendary concert at Shea Stadium in New York City. The show was the first on their 1965 U.S. summer tour, and it was also the first-ever open-air stadium rock concert. The group flew into New York on August 13th and a day later taped a five-song performance for The Ed Sullivan Show to be broadcast the following month. Sullivan returned the favor by introducing the group the next night at Shea, in front of a sell-out crowd of 55,600 fans.", "The Beatles performed their last public concert on the rooftop of the Apple Building at 3 Savile Row, London. It was a lunchtime concert on January 30th that lasted 42 minutes in the cold winter wind, and was conceived as a filming opportunity for the climax of the Film: ‘Let it Be’. Billy preston joined them on keyboards. The concert was broken up by the police as a disturbance of the peace.", "August 15, 1965 – The Beatles play for a record-breaking 55,600 people at New York’s Shea Stadium, grossing $304,000 dollars. The band’s share is $160,000.", "First, here's some (silent) footage of the Beatles arriving in San Francisco and of Candlestick Park fans before the show. Then, check out YouTube vids giving a full (admittedly rough) audio-only recording of the concert:", "Once the Beatles came on and started playing a strange thing happened. The group started moving closer to the fence one section at a time, first the group on the left, then the group on the right, then the center group. It was the perfect maneuver to divide and conquer the three security guards. At some point, and I don’t remember exactly when or why, there was a charge towards the fence and guys started climbing over it. I couldn’t help myself, I darted up as well and quickly made it up and over and on to the field. The goal was right in front of us, make it to second base, sit down in front of the band and watch the concert, just like we were at Speedway Meadows in Golden Gate Park!" ]

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[ "Bohemian Rhapsody by Queen is the only record to get the UK Christmas Singles Chart Number One twice, once in 1975 and again in 1991. During Christmas time in Newfoundland, people called mummers dress up in crude disguises and go from house to house. At each house they visit, they start dancing, playing music, and get wasted drunk while the hosts try to discover their true identities. Christmas is celebrated on the 25th of December because, some say, of the Roman sun god and not the birth of Jesus.", "\"Bohemian Rhapsody\" by Queen, which reached the number-one spot at Christmas 1975 and 1991, is the only record to have reached the top twice. \"Mary's Boy Child\" is the only song to be Christmas number one for two entirely unrelated artists (Harry Belafonte in 1957 and Boney M. in 1978), although \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" has been Christmas number one for three generations of Band Aid. The original version of \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" is the second best selling single in UK history. ", "The first half of the 70's passed with no sign of a single getting to our 8-week landmark. Then two of the big hitters moved in. The Christmas number ones of 1975 and 1977 (Queen's \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" and Wings' \"Mull of Kintyre\") both notched up 9 successive weeks at the top. (\"Bohemian Rhapsody\" would go on to chalk up another 5 weeks in a re-issued form in 1991).", "In Britain and Ireland, the terms \"Christmas number one single\" and \"Christmas number two single\" denote songs released around the time of the Christmas holiday and that reach the top of the UK Singles Chart and/or Irish Singles Chart respectively. Because of the two countries' proximity to each other, the Irish No. 1 is usually the same as the British No. 1 or No. 2. Though some of these songs do tend to develop an association with Christmas or the holiday season, such an association tends to be much shorter lived than the more traditionally themed Christmas songs such as \"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\", \"Mistletoe and Wine\" and \"Merry Christmas Everyone\", and the songs may have nothing to do with Christmas or even winter. Past Christmas number-ones include children's songs such as \"Mr Blobby\" (#1, 1993) and the theme from Bob the Builder (#1, 2000), novelty songs such as Benny Hill's \"Ernie\" (#1, 1971) and South Park's \"Chocolate Salty Balls\" (#2, 1998), and several examples of standard pop fare that would likely be just as popular outside the holiday season. Some songs will be \"tweaked\" to make them more related to Christmas. This is almost exclusively a British cultural phenomenon; some notable and longer-lasting examples include Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" (#1, 1985, the second biggest selling single in UK Chart history; two re-recordings also hit #1 in 1989 and 2004), Slade's \"Merry Xmas Everybody\" (#1, 1973) and Wham!'s \"Last Christmas\" (#2, 1984).", "By 2003, however, \"White Christmas\" had slipped to the number two position on their list of Christmas songs.  The number one song was \"The Christmas Song\" (Mel Torme and Robert Wells). The other three in the top five are \"Santa Claus Is Coming To Town (J. Fred Coots and Haven Gillespie), \"Winter Wonderland\" (Felix Bernard and Richard B. Smith), and \"Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas\" (Ralph Blane and Hugh Martin). By 2007, \"White Christmas\" occupied the number five position (based on airplay over the preceding five years). For more information, see the ASCAP Top 25 Holiday Song List .", "In late 2006, UK chart rules changed to allow downloads of old singles eligible to chart, which allowed \"Merry Xmas Everybody\" to return to the chart. It has re-entered the UK Top 75 every Christmas since then, most successfully in 2007 when it peaked at number 20.", "1973, Slade were at No.1 on the UK singles chart with 'Merry Xmas Everybody' their sixth chart topper. It has been released during every decade since 1973, and has been covered by numerous artists. In a 2007 poll, 'Merry Xmas Everybody' was voted the UK's most popular Christmas song.", "2005, ‘Fairytale of New York’ was voted the favorite Christmas song ever in a VH1 poll. The song by The Pogues and Kirsty MacColl took the top spot, Mariah Carey's ‘All I Want for Christmas is You’, was voted into 2nd place and Wham's ‘Last Christmas’ came third. Other songs voted into the Top 10 were, ‘Mistletoe and Wine’, Sir Cliff Richard at No.4, ‘Merry Xmas Everybody’ by Slade at No.5, ‘I Wish it could be Christmas Everyday’, Wizzard, No.6, ‘Christmas Time’, The Darkness, No.7, ‘Saviour's Day’, Sir Cliff Richard No.8, ‘Do They Know It's Christmas’ (1984), Band Aid at No.9 and ‘Lonely This Christmas’ by Mud at No.10.", "In a 2007 survey, of United States radio listeners, the most liked songs were standards such as Bing Crosby's \"White Christmas\" (1942), Nat King Cole's \"The Christmas Song\" (1946), and Burl Ives' \"A Holly Jolly Christmas\" (1965). Other favorites like \"Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree\" (Brenda Lee, 1958), \"Jingle Bell Rock\" (Bobby Helms, 1957) and John Lennon and Yoko Ono's \"Happy Xmas\" (1971), scored well in one study. Also \"loved\" were Johnny Mathis' \"Do You Hear What I Hear?\" and Harry Simeone Chorale's \"Little Drummer Boy\". The newest song in one survey's top 10 was Mariah Carey's \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" (1994); for another it was Lennon and Ono's.", "After the average \"Look Wot You Dun\" (which still hit number 4), they served up a veritable beer barrel of frothy UK chart-toppers including \"Take Me Bak 'Ome\", \"Mama Weer All Crazee Now\", \"Cum On Feel The Noize\" and \"Skweeze Me Pleeze Me\". Their finest moment was 1973's \"Merry Xmas Everybody\", one of the great festive rock songs and a perennial favourite. Unpretentious and proudly working-class, the band appealed to teenage audiences who cheered their larynx-wrenching singles and gloried in their garish yet peculiarly masculine forays into glam rock. Holder, clearly no sex symbol, offered a solid, cheery image, with Dickensian side whiskers and a hat covered in mirrors, while Hill took tasteless dressing to marvellous new extremes.", "Chris de Burgh had an across-the-board success with the ballad \"The Lady in Red\" in late 1986; the single became a number one hit in the UK (number three in America) and its accompanying album, Into the Light, reached number two in the UK (number 25 in the U.S.). That Christmas season, a re-release of de Burgh's 1976 Christmas song \"A Spaceman Came Travelling\" became a Top 40 hit in the UK. Flying Colours, his follow-up to Into the Light, entered the British charts at number one upon its 1988 release, yet it failed to make the American charts. De Burgh never hit the US charts again and his commercial fortunes began to slide slightly in Britain in the early 1990s, yet he retained a following around the world. This is mainly due to inactivity of his previous recording label A&M Records UK division in the U.S.", "Until the death of Princess Diana in August 1997, this colossus of a single was the United Kingdom's biggest-ever selling 45. I have to raise my hat to the celtic composers, Bob Geldof and Midge Ure. The song actually sounds quite festive, yet the lyrics are arguably the most thought-provoking words to be translated into music. Assembling a cast of current pop favourites, including Bono, Boy George, Duran Duran, Sting, Wham, and Paul Young was also a masterstroke. Forget all the forgettable stuff about Santa Claus is coming to town. Here is the ultimate Christmas track in which the world of pop reminds the listener of a less fortunate world where Santa Claus was most certainly not coming. There is a legion of legends, myths, and true stories about the excesses and downright shameful behaviour of the agents of rock and pop, but 'Do They Know It's Christmas?' was one glorious occasion when the artists of pop world did themselves proud. For Christians, today is the Saviour's Day. Not even the Messiah, Jesus Christ, could fail to be impressed by Band Aid's well-intentioned response to the famine catastrophe in east Africa.", "It is the band's best known and most commercially successful recording and was the 1981 Christmas number one in the UK, where it has since sold over 1,560,000 copies, making it the 23rd most successful single in UK Singles Chart history. It later topped the Billboard Hot 100 in the US on 3 July 1982 where it stayed for three weeks. In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation's 7th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV. ", "Caribbean-style song about Jesus Christ would become a firm Christmas favourite, but it has. The Jamaican-born 70’s disco band get people on the dance floor in December each year when the DJ belts out this wonderful, happy Christmas tune. 7. John Lennon Happy Xmas (War Is Over): Released in 1971, this song written by ex-Beatle Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono made it to number four in the UK. A protest song against the Vietnam War, it has become a Christmas classic and is constantly named in polls as a holiday favourite.", "The song re-entered the UK Singles Chart one year later in 1985, one of three hits to do so that originally charted in December 1984 (\"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" by Band Aid and \"Last Christmas\" by Wham! were the other two).", "in 1973 - Slade were at No.1 on the UK singles chart with 'Merry Xmas Everybody' their sixth chart topper. The song has re-entered the UK charts on eight other occasions.", "Dave Edmunds was born on this day in 1943 in Cardiff. His love of early rock 'n' roll paid off handsomely in 1970 when his cover of 'I Hear You Knocking' (originally recorded by Smiley Lewis) spent six richly deserved weeks at Number One in Britain. It also earned the coveted accolade of the Christmas chart-topper back in the good old days when the Yuletide season wasn't sabotaged excessively by novelty records. If there was ever an award for the best Yuletide Number One, this tremendous rocker would be an obvious candidate. Such are the slings and arrows of the music industry (and more especially popular taste) that Dave Edmunds's formidable slice of rock 'n' roll was knocked off the top perch by 'Grandad' by that other great rocker, Clive Dunn!", "The song, which was released not soon after the Band Aid fundraiser smash \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" (which also features Michael), has the dubious distinction of being one of the biggest songs in U.K. chart history that never actually reached #1. But it has proved to have staying power and currently ranks at #14 on the Billboard Holiday Songs list.", "A Christmas No 1 that was forgotten until Cliff Richard included it on his 1991 Xmas album.", "Shane and Kirsty returned to Top Of The Pops as a pair in January 1992 following the song’s re-release for Christmas 1991.", "The Beatles are the only act to have four Christmas number ones, three consecutively starting from 1963. On two occasions, 1963 and 1967, they had both the Christmas number one and the number two, the only act to have achieved this. As part of two acts, George Michael repeated the feat with Band Aid and Wham! in 1984. Paul McCartney has been top eight times with various acts. Cliff Richard has spent four Christmasses at number one; two as a solo act, one with The Shadows and one as part of Band Aid II. The Spice Girls later equalled the record of having three consecutive Christmas number ones, from 1996 to 1998. Spice Girl Melanie C achieved a fourth Christmas number one as a member of The Justice Collective in 2012, which also gave Robbie Williams his third.", "* Frank Kelly recorded \"Christmas Countdown\" in 1982 in which a man named Gouvinet O'Lunacy receives 12 different Christmas gifts from a lady named Nuala. As each gift is received, the man gets upset with the person who sent them. This version charted in both Ireland (where it reached number 8 in 1982) and the UK (entering the UK chart in December 1983 and reaching number 26) ", "Richard concluded his thirtieth year in music by achieving a UK Christmas No. 1 single in 1988 with \"Mistletoe and Wine\", while simultaneously holding the No. 1 positions on the album and video charts with the compilation Private Collection, which summed up his biggest hits from 1979 to 1988. \"Mistletoe and Wine\" was Richard's 99th UK single and spent four weeks at the top of the chart. It was the best-selling UK single of 1988, shifting 750,000 copies. The album was certified quadruple platinum, becoming Richard's first to be certified multi-platinum by the BPI since its inception in 1973. ", "One hit wonder? Somehow, no. Christmas In Blobbyland made it into the top 40 two years later, but was beaten to the Christmas number 1 spot in 1995 by Michael Jackson's Earth Song and exactly 34 other songs. Still, number 36 was as high as the pink-and-yellow punchline would ever get from there.", "05.12.87 03 Rockin' Around The Chrstmas Tree - \"Mel and Kim\" performed by Mel Smith and Kim Wilde", "Rockin' Around The Chrstmas Tree - \"Mel and Kim\" performed by Mel Smith and Kim Wilde", "Was also a minor hit in 1982 and 1983. Lake used the famous \"sleigh ride\" theme as an instrumental break in this much loved Christmas single.", "I remember this being played a lot at discos in the mid to late 1970's, another favourite of the Grannies and people just back from a package holiday to Spain, it got to Number Five in the UK singles chart in 1975. I prefer the original by The George Baker Selection.", "The song topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks and spent eight weeks on the charts. It was the second single for the group in the UK's all-time best selling singles list. The song was later included on the group's Christmas album which was released in 1981.", "This has got to be one of the ultimate singalong-a-Christmas car songs! Loving the backing vocals, and Michael’s voice never sounded more full of joy. Originally recorded in 1934, the song was part of the Jackson 5’s 1970 Christmas Album.", "Are you ready for a bit more nostalgia? This time it’s the Number One singles from 1991", "Which act besides the Beatles is the only other act to have three consecutive Christmas number one singles?" ]

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[ "The Sicilian Mafia, also known as Cosa Nostra (\"our thing\"), is a criminal syndicate in Sicily , Italy . It is a loose association of criminal groups that share a common organisational structure and code of conduct . The basic group is known as a \"family\", \"clan\", or \" cosca \" or \"cosche\" in Sicilian. [1] Each family claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighbourhood (borgata) of a larger city, in which it operates its rackets . Its members call themselves \"men of honour\", although the public often refers to them as \"mafiosi\". The Mafia 's core activities are protection racketeering , the arbitration of disputes between criminals, and the organizing and oversight of illegal agreements and transactions.", "The Mafia, also referred to in Italian as La Cosa Nostra (variously translated as This Thing Of Ours or Our Thing), is the name for a secret, criminal organisation which evolved in mid 19th century Sicily, and led to an offshoot on the East-Coast of the United States emerging during the late 19th century with the waves of Italian immigration to that country. As opposed to the insular Sicilian Mafia, during the 20th century the American Mafia became more accomodating of Neapolitan criminals, and other Southern Italians among the sworn-in membership of 'made-men', and forged closer associations with gangsters of other nationalities, thus becoming distinct from the original organisation in Sicily.", "The New York Italian Mafia is an extremely complex, tight-knit family-group that operates under strict policy. The Italian Mafia also known as La Cosa Nostra implements a hierarchical structure that is formal like most legal organizations and businesses. The Italian Mafias national structure consists of a boss or God father, an under-boss, Consigliere or advisor, Caporegime also known as a Capo or Captain, soldiers, and associates.", "The American Mafia, often referred to in the United States as the Italian Mafia or Italian Mob, and commonly called the Mafia or Mob, is an extremely powerful, influential, highly organized and deadly Italian-American criminal society that originated and developed from the Sicilian Mafia. Lacking a formal name, its members usually refer to it as Cosa Nostra, a phrase meaning \"our thing\" or \"our work\". The father of American organized crime is generally considered to be Sicilian-American criminal Charles \"Lucky\" Luciano.", "Often, but not always, the term organized crime refers to a particular organized crime syndicate, variously known as the Mafia or La Cosa Nostra,(159) and it is in this sense that the committee has used the phrase. This organized crime syndicate was the principal target of the committee investigation. (160)", "� La Cosa Nostra (LCN). The LCN remains the foremost organized criminal threat to American society. There are currently over 1,200 \"made\" members of the LCN and many additional associates. Less than 10 percent of identified LCN members are currently incarcerated.", "The murder of faction leader Joseph Masseria brought an end to the gang warfare, and the two groups united to form the organization now dubbed La Cosa Nostra. It was not a peaceful beginning: Salvatore Maranzano, the first leader of La Cosa Nostra, was murdered within six months.", "Cosa Nostra should not be confused with other mafia-type organizations in Italy such as the 'Ndrangheta in Calabria, the Camorra in Campania, or the Sacra Corona Unita in Apulia.", "The Cosa Nostra was founded in Sicily in the 19th century as a powerful crime group who operated under an honour code governed by Omerta   - the rule of silence.", "Italian investigators initially did not take the term seriously, believing it was used only by the American Mafia . In 1984, the Mafia turncoat Tommaso Buscetta revealed to the anti-mafia magistrate Giovanni Falcone that the term was used by the Sicilian Mafia as well. [12 ] Buscetta dismissed the word \"mafia\" as a mere literary creation. Other defectors, such as Antonino Calderone and Salvatore Contorno , confirmed the use of Cosa Nostra to describe the Mafia. [13 ] Mafiosi introduce known members to each other as belonging to cosa nostra (\"our thing\") or la stessa cosa (\"the same thing\"), meaning \"he is the same thing, a mafioso, as you\".", "La Cosa Nostra were formerly established and recognised in 1920, although our then hidden organisation dates back to the 16th century. The Cosa Nostra were involved in numerous illegal activities which led to a fearsome and respectable reputation. Smuggling (drugs, weapons and other contraband), protection from theft and/or competition, rackets, vote rigging, bid rigging, loan sharking, burglary, murder, sedition, territorial control, gambling amongst other illicit activities led to the power and growth of the Cosa Nostra.", "Many gangsters involved in organized crime usually are known by their monikers, especially (but not limited to) those involved with \"La Cosa Nostra.\" Famous examples include: Al Capone OR \"Scarface\", Charles \"Lucky\" Luciano, Benjamin \"Bugsy\" Siegel, John Gotti AKA \"The Teflon Don\" or \"The Dapper Don,\" Louis \"Lepke\" Buchalter, Albert \"The Mad Hatter\" Anastasia or the \"Lord High Executioner,\" Vincent \"Chin\" Gigante, Jimmy \"Whitey\" Bulger, Arnold \"The Brain\" Rothstein or \"The Big Bankroll,\" Enoch \"Nucky\" Johnson, Carmine Galante AKA \"Lilo,\" Anthony \"Gaspipe\" Casso, Jimmy \"The Gent\" Burke, Frank Costello AKA \"The Prime Minister,\" \"Crazy\" Joe Gallo....you get the idea.", "As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs, including Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The Mafia (also known as Cosa Nostra) first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, forming alliances with other criminal enterprises, including the Jewish mob, led by Meyer Lansky, the leading Jewish gangster of that period.Jaffe, Eric. , Smithsonian (magazine), April 2007. Accessed May 16, 2007. From 1920–1933, Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize.", "The Sicilian Cosa Nostra is a loose confederation of about one hundred Mafia groups, also called cosche or families, each of which claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighborhood of a larger city, though without ever fully conquering and legitimizing its monopoly of violence. For many years, the power apparatuses of the single families were the sole ruling bodies within the two associations, and they have remained the real centers of power even after super ordinate bodies were created in the Cosa Nostra beginning in the late 1950s Some observers have seen \"mafia\" as a set of attributes deeply rooted in popular culture, as a \"way of being\", as illustrated in the definition by the Sicilian ethnographer, Giuseppe Pitrè, at the end of the 19th century: \"Mafia is the consciousness of one's own worth, the exaggerated concept of individual force as the sole arbiter of every conflict, of every clash of interests or ideas.\"", "Lupara is an Italian word used to refer to a sawn-off shotgun of the break-open type. It is traditionally associated with Cosa Nostra, the Italian organized crime group dominant in Sicily for their use of it in vendettas, defense—such as its use against Mussolini's army when he decided to break up the Sicilian mafioso network—and hunting. ", "Previous to his fall, Maranzano appointed himself Boss of all Bosses in his establishment of a network comprised of 500 Italian gangsters. He declared that this group would be split into five families, each with a boss, a sub boss, lieutenants and soldiers, an organization that he dubbed Cosa Nostra meaning \"our thing\". Later when Luciano took his place, Cosa Nostra was replaced with \"Unione Siciliano,” a corruption in spelling of the longtime Sicilian fraternal organization.   ", "The Camorra is said by some authoritative sources to have originated with the Garduna, a late-Middle-Ages criminal society based in Seville, Spain, which was transported to Naples when Spain took control of the region. Compared to its counterparts elsewhere in Italy, the Sacra corona unita in Puglia and the 'Ndrangheta in Calabria, it was more involved in piracy. Also, compared to the Sicilian Cosa Nostra's pyramidal structure, the Camorra is made up of many clans that often fight each other. Drive-by shootings by camorrista often result in casualties among the local populations, but such episodes are often difficult to investigate because of the widespread Omert�.", "La Cosa Nostra’s main goal is to reappear before the turn of the century with a new vision and different image than before. Our idea is to become a forefront organisation in trading, resources (more listed below), not just as a business but as a Universal family. We believe that we can build upon what our forefathers and ancestors set down over a thousand years ago and once again become a respected organisation by many. This will be done by combining their rules with some new ones set out by our members. Our image has been reshaped from the bottom up, no longer do we display ourselves as a ‘criminal organisation’ but more as a business. By doing so we portray the idea of abiding by the law, this will allow us to trade and interact with other organisation and lawful authorities when needed.", "In 1963, Joe Valachi became the first American Cosa Nostra member to provide a detailed look at the inside of the organization. Having been recruited by FBI special agents, and testifying before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations, Valachi exposed the name, structure, power bases, codes, swearing-in ceremony, and members of this organization. All of this had been secret up to this point.", "Other than its members, Cosa Nostra makes extensive use of \"associates\". These are people who work for or aid a clan (or even multiple clans) but are not treated as true members. These include corrupt officials and prospective mafiosi. An associate is considered by the mafiosi nothing more than a tool, someone that they can \"use\", or \"nothing mixed with nil.\" [12 ]", "The first mention in official law documentation of the 'mafia' came in the late 1800s, when a Dr. Galati was subject to threats of violence from a local mafioso, who was attempting to oust Galati from his own lemon grove in order to move himself in. Protection rackets, cattle rustling and bribery of state officials were the main sources of income and protection for the early mafia. Cosa Nostra also borrowed heavily from masonic oaths and rituals, such as the now famous initiation ceremony.", "Italy's largest criminal organizations--the Sicilian Mafia, Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, Neapolitan Camorra, and Puglian Sacra Corona Unita--were born and bred in rugged rural areas, where they engaged in local criminal rackets and were generally esteemed as protectors of local peasant interests. The defeat of Italian fascism in World War II allowed these groups to extend their influence into urban areas, which provided greater openings to the outside world. Many of Italy's banking, commercial, and port facilities fell under the influence or control of organized crime. In the last half century, Italian organized crime groups have become self-sustaining, multifaceted criminal organizations with considerable clout in Italy's political and economic systems. They have proven to be resilient and opportunistic, often emerging stronger from periodic government attempts to crack down on organized crime and taking advantage of new criminal opportunities.", "Since their appearance in the 1800s, the Italian criminal societies known as the Mafia have infiltrated the social and economic fabric of Italy and now impact the world. They are some of the most notorious and widespread of all criminal societies. There are several groups currently active in the U.S.: the Sicilian Mafia; the Camorra or Neapolitan Mafia; the �Ndrangheta or Calabrian Mafia; and the Sacra Corona Unita or United Sacred Crown. The FBI estimated the four groups had approximately 25,000 members total, with 250,000 affiliates worldwide. There were more than 3,000 members and affiliates in the US, scattered mostly throughout the major cities in the Northeast, the Midwest, California, and the South. Their largest presence centers around New York, southern New Jersey, and Philadelphia.", "Italian Fascism (), also known simply as Fascism (), is the original fascist ideology, as developed in Italy. The ideology is associated with the National Fascist Party, which under Benito Mussolini ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, the Republican Fascist Party that ruled the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945, the post-war Italian Social Movement and subsequent Italian neo-fascist movements.", "According to the most commonly accepted definition, the Mafia is a criminality originating in Sicily. [1 ] However, the term \"Mafia\" is sometimes used as a pars pro toto for similar organizations of many nationalities.", ", name given to a number of organized groups of Sicilian brigands in the 19th and 20th cent. Unlike the Camorra in Naples, the Mafia had no hierarchic organization; each group operated on its own.", "The Chicago Outfit (also known as the Outfit, the Chicago Mafia, the Chicago Mob, or The Organization) is an extremely powerful, influential, vicious and dangerous Italian-American organized crime syndicate based in Chicago, Illinois and dating back to the 1910s. It is part of the American Mafia originating in Chicago's South Side. The Outfit rose to power in the 1920s, under the control of Johnny Torrio and Al Capone and the period was marked by bloody gang wars for distribution of illegal alcohol during Prohibition. Since then, the Outfit has been involved in a wide range of criminal activities, including loansharking, gambling, prostitution, extortion, political corruption, and murder. Following Capone's conviction for income tax evasion, the Outfit was run by Paul Ricca and Tony Accardo for more than 50 years after Frank Nitti killed himself instead of going to jail. Accardo took over as boss sometime in the 1940s and was one of the longest sitting bosses of all time right up until his death in the early 1990s.", "The nature of terrorist organizations. Terrorist organizations vary from the classic secret \"cell\" structure to loosely defined networks of persons with essentially the same political ideology who have adopted terrorist tactics. Examples of tightly organized (and extensively researched) groups are the Irish Republican Army, the Italian Red Brigade, the German Baader-Meinhof Group (Red Army Fraction), and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN). There are fewer examples of terrorist networks, and less has been written about them, partly because they have proven to be more difficult to locate and study and partly because the shift toward less tightly knit and identifiable organizations is a relatively recent development. (Debates in the 1960s–1980s era over the existence of a worldwide terrorist network dominated by the former USSR were driven by cold war politics rather than any real evidence.) Perhaps the prototypical network internationally is that associated with Osama bin Ladan, widely considered ultimately responsible for the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York , the 1996 destruction of an American military housing complex in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia , and the 2000 attack on the U. S. S. Cole while berthed for refueling at Aden, Yemen .", "This research shows that the OSS/CIA that was formed in the National Security Act, the same agency that employed hundreds of Nazis, has been in alliance with the Vatican through various Agency connections such as Licio Gelli. The CIA/Vatican alliance that Assassinated Pope John Paul 1, JFK, and hundreds of dictators of 3rd world countries is the Illuminati.", "Organized crime is a category of transnational, national, or local groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals who intend to engage in illegal activity, most commonly for money and profit. Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist groups, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, such as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called \"protection\". Gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization or gang can also be referred to as a mafia, mob, or crime syndicate; the network, subculture and community of criminals may be referred to as the underworld. ", "The group Ordine Nuovo (New Order) was behind the bombing. In July 1970 Ordine Nuovo bombed the Rome-Messina train, killing six and wounding 100. In May 1974 eight activists were killed in Brescia when an anti-fascist march was hand-grenaded by Ordine Nuovo.", "The Red Brigades worked closely with the Hyperion Language School in Paris, which was founded by Corrado Simioni, Duccio Berio and Mario Moretti. Corrado Simoni had worked for the CIA at Radio Free Europe, Duccio Berio had been supplying the Italian SID with information of leftist groups and Mario Moretti, apart from being accused by the Red Brigades founders as being an intelligence asset, also happened to be the mastermind and murderer of former Italian Prime Minister, Aldo Moro. An Italian police report referred to the Hyperion Language School as “the most important CIA office in Europe.”" ]

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[ "September 16, 1969 - President Nixon orders the withdrawal of 35,000 soldiers from Vietnam and a reduction in draft calls.", "Kennedy increased the number of U.S. military in Vietnam from 800 to 16,300. It remains a point of controversy among historians whether or not Vietnam would have escalated to the point it did had Kennedy served out his full term and possibly been re-elected in 1964. Fueling this speculation are statements made by Kennedy's and Johnson's Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. In the film \" The Fog of War\", not only does McNamara say this, but a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson confirms that Kennedy was planning to withdraw from Vietnam, a position Johnson states he disapproved of. Additional evidence is Kennedy's National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) #263 on October 11, 1963 that gave the order for withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963. Nevertheless, given the stated reason for the overthrow of the Diem government, such action would have been a dramatic policy reversal, but Kennedy was generally moving in a less hawkish direction in the Cold War since his acclaimed speech about World Peace at American University the previous June 10, 1963 .", "October 31, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered an end to American bombing in North Vietnam.", "On May 8th, 1962, following JFK's orders, McNamara instructed a stunned Gen. Paul Harkins \"to devise a plan for bringing full responsibility [for the Vietnam War] over to South Vietnam.\" Mutinous, the general ignored the order until July 23rd, 1962, when McNamara again commanded him to produce a plan for withdrawal. The brass returned May 6th, 1963, with a half-baked proposal that didn't complete withdrawal as quickly as JFK had wanted. McNamara ordered them back yet again.", "1968 - Vietnam War October surprise: Citing progress with the Paris peace talks, US President Lyndon B. Johnson announces to the nation that he has ordered a complete cessation of \"all air, naval, and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam\" effective November 1.", "On 25 January President Nixon announced an eight part program to end the war which included agreement to remove all U.S. and foreign allied troops from Vietnam no later than six months after a peace agreement was reached. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong delegates rejected the proposal and insisted upon complete withdrawal of all foreign troops from Indochina and cessation of all forms of U.S. aid to South Vietnam.", "Defying such pressures, JFK, in the spring of 1962, told McNamara to order the Joint Chiefs to begin planning for a phased withdrawal that would disengage the U.S. altogether. McNamara later told an assistant secretary of defense that the president intended to \"close out Vietnam by '65 whether it was in good shape or bad.\"", "The controversy of the conduct of the Battle of Hamburger Hill led to a reappraisal of U.S. strategy in South Vietnam. As a direct result, to hold down casualties, General Abrams discontinued a policy of \"maximum pressure\" against the North Vietnamese to one of \"protective reaction\" for troops threatened with combat action, while simultaneously President Richard Nixon announced the first troop withdrawal from South Vietnam.", "Following his election, President Nixon began to withdraw American troops from Vietnam in June 1969 and replaced the military draft with a lottery in December of that year. In December 1972, the United States began large-scale bombing of North Vietnam after peace talks reach an impasse. The so-called Christmas bombings led Congressional Democrats to call for an end of U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia.", "From the White House, President Gerald Ford issued an official statement: \"The Government of the Republic of Vietnam has surrendered. Prior to its surrender, we have withdrawn our Mission from Vietnam. Vietnam has been a wrenching experience for this nation...History must be the final judge of that which we have done or left undone, in Vietnam and elsewhere. Let us calmly await its verdict.\"", "On 9 June, President Johnson replaced Westmoreland as commander of MACV with General Creighton W. Abrams. Although the decision had been made in December 1967 and Westmoreland was made Army Chief of Staff, many saw his relief as punishment for the entire Tet debacle. Abrams' new strategy was quickly demonstrated by the closure of the \"strategic\" Khe Sanh base and the ending of multi-division \"search and destroy\" operations. Also gone were discussions of victory over North Vietnam. Abrams' new \"One War\" policy centered the American effort on the takeover of the fighting by the South Vietnamese (through Vietnamization), the pacification of the countryside, and the destruction of communist logistics. The new administration of President Richard M. Nixon would oversee the withdrawal of U.S. forces and the continuation of negotiations.", "In the fall of 1968, Richard Nixon, pledging that he would get the United States out of Vietnam, was elected President. He began to withdraw troops; by February 1972, less than 150,000 were left. But the bombing continued. Nixon's policy was \"Vietnamization\"—the Saigon government, with Vietnamese ground troops, using American money and air power, would carry on the war. Nixon was not ending the war; he was ending the most unpopular aspect of it, the involvement of American soldiers on the soil of a faraway country.", "July 25 - Vietnam War: U.S. President Richard Nixon declares the Nixon Doctrine, stating that the United States now expects its Asian allies to take care of their own military defense. This starts the 'Vietnamization' of the war.", "Richard Nixon took office in 1969 with the promise of bringing “peace with honor” to the unpopular conflict in Vietnam. His “secret plan” to end the Vietnam War included gradual withdrawals of the U.S. troops from Vietnam as part of the so-called “Vietnamization” program from June 1969. He also replaced the military draft with a lottery in December of that year.", "1967 U.S.A. Martin Luther King, Jr Says US Should Leave Vietnam 4th April 1967 : The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. says in a speech that the United States stop all bombing of North and South Vietnam and declare a unilateral truce in the hope that it would lead to peace talks.", "Severe communist losses during the Tet Offensive allowed U.S. President Richard Nixon to begin troop withdrawals. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine , was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \" Vietnamization \". Vietnamization had much in common with the policies of the Kennedy administration. One important difference, however, remained. While Kennedy insisted that the South Vietnamese fight the war themselves, he attempted to limit the scope of the conflict.", "June 8 - U.S. President Richard Nixon and South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu meet at Midway Island. Nixon announces that 25,000 U.S. troops will be withdrawn by September.", "June 8 U.S. President Richard Nixon and South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu meet at Midway Island. Nixon announces that 25,000 U.S. troops will be withdrawn by September.", "Johnson was succeeded in 1969 by Republican Richard Nixon, who attempted to gradually turn the war over to the South Vietnamese forces. He negotiated the peace treaty in 1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, achieving détente (relaxation; ease of tension) with both parties. ", "May 14, 1969 - During his first TV speech on Vietnam, President Nixon presents a peace plan in which America and North Vietnam would simultaneously pull out of South Vietnam over the next year. The offer is rejected by Hanoi.", "On March 31, the beleaguered President Johnson declared that he was limiting the bombing of North Vietnam to the area below the 20th parallel (thus sparing 90 percent of Communist territory) and calling for negotiations to end the war. At the same time, he announced that he would not be running for reelection that November. Though peace talks would drag on for another five years–during which more American soldiers were killed than in the previous years of the conflict–Johnson’s decision to halt escalation after the Tet Offensive marked a crucial turning point in American participation in the Vietnam War .", "Nixon appealed to what he claimed was the \"silent majority\" of moderate Americans who disliked the \" hippie \" counterculture and civil rights and peace demonstrators. Nixon also promised \"peace with honor\" by his \"secret plan\" to end the Vietnam War. He proposed the Nixon Doctrine to establish the strategy to turn over the fighting of the war to the Vietnamese. During the war, on July 3 , 1969, Nixon made an unscheduled visit to South Vietnam and met with President Nguyen Van Thieu and with US military commanders. The war ended during Nixon's term, but only after four more years of strategic bombing and defeat on the ground, and the withdrawal of US troops, leaving the battle to the South Vietnamese army. ", "Once in office, Nixon and his staff faced the problem of how to end the Vietnam War, which had broken his predecessor's administration and threatened to cause major unrest at home. As protesters in America's cities called for an immediate withdrawal from Southeast Asia, Nixon made a nationally televised address on November 3, 1969, calling on the \"silent majority\" of Americans to renew their confidence in the American government and back his policy of seeking a negotiated peace in Vietnam. Earlier that year, Nixon and his Defense Secretary Melvin Laird had unveiled the policy of \"Vietnamization,\" which entailed reducing American troop levels in Vietnam and transferring the burden of fighting to South Vietnam; accordingly, U.S. troop strength in Vietnam fell from 543,000 in April 1969 to zero on March 29, 1973. Nevertheless, the Nixon administration was harshly criticized for its use of American military force in Cambodia and its stepped-up bombing raids during the later years of the first term.", "Working with his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Nixon pursued a vigorous foreign policy.  His first priority was the conflict in Vietnam.  The invasion of Cambodia and expanded bombing in North Vietnam triggered violent protests in 1970. A student protest at Kent State University met with police violence that left four students dead.  More than 4 million students participated in the following nationwide strike.  In January 1973, Nixon announced an accord with North Vietnam ending American military involvement in Southeast Asia. By March, he reduced the number of United States military forces in Vietnam to zero, from 543,000 in April 1969.", "Nixon proposed a controversial strategy of withdrawing American troops from South Vietnam while carrying out Air Force bombings and army special-ops operations against enemy positions in Laos and Cambodia, both of which were officially neutral at the time. He established what became known as the Nixon Doctrine (also called \"Vietnamization\"), replacing American troops with Vietnamese soldiers. From 1969 to 1972, troop withdrawals were estimated to be 405,000 soldiers. While Nixon's campaign promise in 1968 was to draw down the size of the U.S. involvement in Vietnam, the bombings of North Vietnam and incursions into Laos and Cambodia created a political firestorm. When Nixon made a televised speech announcing the movement of U.S. troops into Cambodia to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries, young people across the country erupted in protest, and student strikes temporarily closed more than 500 universities, colleges and high schools.", "In his announcement on March 31, President Johnson also told the American people about the partial bombing halt in North Vietnam. He stated that there would be no bombing of North Vietnam except in the area near the demilitarized zone and asked Ho Chi Minh to respond positively to this gesture. Johnson finished his announcement on Vietnam; then he paused dramatically before launching into his decision not to run for reelection.", "President Johnson, watching the broadcast, said, “If we’ve lost Walter Cronkite, we’ve lost the country.” In May, Johnson announced he would not run for reelection. He also said there would be a pause in the air attacks on North Vietnam as “the first step to de-escalate” and promised America would substantially reduce “the present level of hostilities.”", "The president held to the conviction, however, that continuing the Vietnam War was a course both honorable and in the national interest. Yet as the war grew more and more unpopular, so did the president. On March 31, 1968, he surprised the nation by announcing that he would not seek re-election.", "was the secretary of defense under Kennedy. He helped develop the flexible response policy. He was against the war in Vietnam and was removed from office because of this", "elected President in 1968 and 1972 representing the Republican party. He was responsible for getting the United States out of the Vietnam War by using \"Vietnamization\", which was the withdrawal of 540,000 troops from South Vietnam for an extended period. He was responsible for the", "The U. S. president most responsible for sending \"combat\" troops into Vietnam and escalating that war was:", ".  This U. S. General was in charge of United States forces in the Vietnam War:" ]

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[ "The Old Man of Lochnagar is a children's book written by Prince Charles and illustrated by Sir Hugh Casson. The story revolves around an old man who lives in a cave in the cliffs surrounding the corrie loch under the Lochnagar, a mountain which overlooks the royal estate at Balmoral in Scotland where the Royal Family spend much of their summer holidays. ", "3.50 to 5.05pm The Old Man of Lochnagar BY DAVID WOOD, BASED ON THE BOOK BY HRH THE PRINCE OF WALES", "75 Which member of the Royal Family wrote the children’s story The Old Man of Lochnagar?", "Ten miles south-west of Ballater, behind the royal Balmoral estate, is Lochnagar, one of Scotland’s finest mountains (3786 ft). The subject of a poem by Lord Byron and a children’s book by the Prince of Wales, this is not only one of the most romantic mountains in Scotland but one of the most popular with both walkers and climbers. At the foot of Lochnagar lies the wild expanse of Loch Muick, almost totally encircled by steep mountains. Located on the royal estate of Balmoral, its surrounds are home to many types of wildlife, including mountain hare, grouse and herds of red deer. The loch, about 8 miles south-west from Ballater, is accessible via a narrow road running through Glen Muick. This delightful road climbing up past the Falls of Muick terminates at the Loch Muick car park and visitor centre. (There is a small parking fee – used to maintain footpaths and other facilities.)", "The story of the old man of Lochnagar was one Prince Charles had told some years earlier to entertain his brothers, Andrew and Edward, when they were young. The book was published in 1980 in aid of The Prince's Trust charity. ", "1992 With the cast of children who staged a production of his book, The Old Man Of Lochnagar", "Robert Burns (also known as Rabbie Burns, Scotland's favorite son, the Ploughman Poet, Robden of Solway Firth, the Bard of Ayrshire and in Scotland as simply The Bard) was a Scottish poet and a lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland, and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and a \"light\" Scots dialect, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these his political or civil commentary is often at its most blunt. A cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish Diaspora around the world, celebration of his life and work became almost a national charismatic cult during the 19th and 20th centuries, and his influence has long been strong on Scottish literature. In 2009 he was voted by the Scottish public as being the Greatest Scot, through a vote run by Scottish television channel STV. He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement.", "Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson was a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist and travel writer. His best-known books include Treasure Island, Kidnapped, and Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. A literary celebrity during his lifetime, Stevenson now ranks among the 26 most translated authors in the world. He has been greatly admired by many authors, including Jorge Luis Borges, Ernest Hemingway, Rudyard Kipling, Marcel Schwob, Vladimir Nabokov…, who said of him that he \"seemed to pick the right word up on the point of his pen, like a man playing spillikins.", "Robert Burns ~ the poet laureate of Scotland, a cultural icon among Scots worldwide, authored Auld Lang Syne", "Now the road leaves the loch to skirt the wooded area of Special Scientific Interest  . We pass Drumbuie and the home of the late author, Richard Frere. As we enter the village of Drumnadrochit we encounter the Official Loch Ness Centre and Drumnadrochit Hotel then the Original Loch Ness Centre and Loch Ness Lodge Hotel (what used to be the Glenurquhart Lodge Hotel). There is an ongoing feud between the two centres. Both centres run boat trips.", "In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance. The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including \"A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle\" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms. Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar, the novelists Neil Gunn, George Blake, Nan Shepherd, A. J. Cronin, Naomi Mitchison, Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon, and the playwright James Bridie. All were born within a fifteen-year period (1887 and 1901) and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school, they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.", "In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance. The leading figure, Hugh MacDiarmid, attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including \"A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle\" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots. Other writers connected with the movement included Edwin Muir and William Soutar. Writers that emerged after the Second World War writing in Scots included Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith. Those working in English included Norman MacCaig, George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay and George Mackay Brown. The parallel revitalisation of Gaelic poetry, known as the Scottish Gaelic Renaissance was largely due to the work of Sorley Maclean. The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period included Douglas Dunn, Tom Leonard, Liz Lochhead. The 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, including Don Paterson, Robert Crawford, Carol Ann Duffy, Kathleen Jamie and Jackie Kay.", "Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson (13 November 1850 – 3 December 1894) was a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer. His most famous works are Treasure Island, Kidnapped, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde and A Child's Garden of Verses.", "The eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included the satirist Rob Donn Mackay (Robert Mackay, 1714–78), the hunter-poet Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre, 1724–1812) and Uilleam Ross (William Ross, 1762–90), most noted for his anguished love songs.\"Scottish poetry\" in S. Cushman, C. Cavanagh, J. Ramazani and P. Rouzer, eds, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition (Princeton University Press, 2012), ISBN 1400841429, pp. 1276–9. The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald, c. 1698–1770), who emerged as the nationalist poet of the Jacobite cause and whose poetry marks a shift away from the clan-based panegyric tradition. His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson's Seasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns.", "Robert Louis Stevenson's classic historical adventure novel 'The Master of Ballantrae: A Winter's Tale' has been enjoyed around the world for over 120 years. The story follows two Scottish noblemen brothers whose family is torn apart by the Jacobite rising of 1745.", "\"When Burns wrote these touching lines, he was staying with Sir William Murray, of Ochtertyre, during one of his Highland tours. Loch-Turit is a wild lake among the recesses of the hills, and was welcome from its loneliness to the heart of the poet.\"", "On 15 July 1914 Gavin Maxwell , the Scottish novelist and naturalist, was born. Maxwell was born into a family of minor aristocracy and grew up in rural Wigtownshire, where he acquired a lifelong love of nature. During the war, Maxwell served as a Commando instructor on Arisaig, which fired a love for the Highlands. Following the war he turned to writing, after the failure of a basking shark fishery. He is best known as the author of ‘Ring of Bright Water’, a touching tale of his attempts to establish an otter sanctuary in Sandaig.", "The novelist Sir Hugh Walpole lived at \"Brackenburn\" on the lower slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwent Water from 1924 until his death in 1941. Whilst living at \"Brackenburn\" he wrote The Herries Chronicle detailing the history of a fictional Cumbrian family over two centuries. The noted author and poet Norman Nicholson came from the south-west Lakes, living and writing about Millom in the twentieth century – he was known as the last of the Lake Poets and came close to becoming the Poet Laureate.", "\"Immortal Memory\" 6 part cycle by James Barke. A re-telling of the life of beloved Scottish poet Robert Burns. Series begins with \"The Wind That Shakes the Barley\".", "There is a touching story here surrounding the grave of Mary Mackenzie (Mairi Nighean Alisdair). When she passed away her husband William went to join his only remaining family who had all left for Canada but he died broken-hearted (actually of typhoid) within a year of landing in the New World and was buried in Mountain View Cemetery in Thunder Bay. Before leaving Lewis he pulled out one of his teeth and buried it with his wife so at least part of him remained there. William MacKenzie (1856 - 1908) became known as the Bard of Shader for his songs and poetry. A headstone here in the church cemetery at Aignish was dedicated in September 1998 in the presence of his grandson to mark the 90th anniversary of his death.", "Home, the author of Douglas, had an adventure here, confined as prisoner of war in a Jacobite dungeon, from which he escaped, with five fellow-captives, in quite romantic style; and this, we know, was one of the stages of Captain Edward Waverley’s journey. Farther up the river, another place of note is Cambusmore, where Scott spent the youthful holidays that made him familiar with the Trossachs country. Callander he does not mention, its name not fitting into his metre, whereas its neighbour Dunblane’s amenity to rhyme brought to be planted there a flower of song at the hands of a writer who perhaps knew it only by name. But Callander has grown into a snug little town of hotels and lodging-houses below most lovely scenery, little spoiled by the chain of lakes above being harnessed as water-works for thirsty Glasgow, whose Bailie Nicol Jarvies now lord it over the country of Rob Roy and Roderick Dhu.", "Buchan's 100 works include nearly thirty novels, seven collections of short stories, and biographies of Sir Walter Scott, Caesar Augustus, and Oliver Cromwell. Buchan was awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his biography of the Marquess of Montrose, but the most famous of his books were the spy thrillers, and it is for these that he is now best remembered. The \"last Buchan\" (as Graham Greene entitled his appreciative review) was the 1941 novel Sick Heart River (American title: Mountain Meadow), in which a dying protagonist confronts the questions of the meaning of life in the Canadian wilderness. The insightful quotation, \"It's a great life, if you don't weaken,\" is famously attributed to Buchan, as is, \"No great cause is ever lost or won, The battle must always be renewed, And the creed must always be restated.\" ", "The simple unsought charm which Lockhart notes in \"The Antiquary\" may have passed away in later works, when what had been the amusement of happy days became the task of sadness. But this magic \"The Antiquary\" keeps perhaps beyond all its companions,the magic of pleasant memories and friendly associations. The sketches of the epoch of expected invasion, with its patriotic musters and volunteer drillings, are pictures out of that part in the author's life which, with his early Highland wanderings (\"Waverley\") and his Liddesdale raids (\"Guy Mannering\"), was most dear to him. In \"Redgauntlet,\" again, he makes, as Alan Fairford, a return on his youth and his home, and in \"Rob Roy\" he revives his Highland recollections, his Highland lairds of \"the blawing, bleezing stories.\" None of the rest of the tales are so intimate in their connection with Scott's own personal history. \"The Antiquary\" has always, therefore, been held in the very first rank of his novels.", "Scottish novelist, essayist, poet and short story writer. Called to the Scottish bar in 1875 but never practised. Contributed essays to periodicals from 1873. One of the great storytellers in the romantic tradition, he is celebrated for \"Treasure Island\" (1883), \"The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.Hyde\" (1886), \"Kidnapped\" (1886), \"The Master of Ballantrae\" (1889) and the unfinished \"Weir of Hermiston\" (1896).", "Alan Warner 's debut novel Morvan Callar , about a young woman who wakes on Christmas morning to discover that her boyfriend has committed suicide, leaving behind the manuscript of his unpublished novel, was at number seven. And in 10th place, Docherty by William McIlvanney. McIlvanney is best know as the \"godfather of tartan noir\" with his detective Laidlaw, but this portrait of working-class life in the west of Scotland is much revered.", "           HARRY MUIR. A Story of Scottish Life. By the Author of “Margaret Maitland,” “Adam Graeme,” &c. 3 vols. (Just Ready.)", "There is one person, however, who knew Gavin well and who is prepared to defend his reputation. Jimmy Watt, who appears as a floppy-haired boy in many of the pictures in Ring of Bright Water, was a 15-year-old school-leaver when he joined Maxwell as an otter keeper in 1958. He remained close to the writer and eventually inherited his estate, including the rights to his books. Now over 70, he lives in Glenelg, close to Sandaig. \"One thing I would like to say about Gavin is that if he was a friend of yours, he'd always be there for you,\" he tells me. \"He helped a lot of people, paid for their education, and really looked after them. A lot of it was unsaid and unknown. He was like a father to me, so I have a great deal of affection for him.\"", "The poem describes the habits of Tam, a farmer who often gets drunk with his friends in a public house in the Scottish town of Ayr , and his thoughtless ways, specifically towards his wife, who is waiting at home for him, angry. At the conclusion of one such late-night revel after a market day, Tam rides home on his horse Meg while a storm is brewing. On the way he sees the local haunted church lit up, with witches and warlocks dancing and the devil playing the bagpipes . He is still drunk, still upon his horse, just on the edge of the light, watching, amazed to see the place bedecked with many gruesome things such as gibbet irons and knives that had been used to commit murders and other macabre artifacts. The witches are dancing as the music intensifies and, upon seeing one particularly wanton witch in a short dress he loses his reason and shouts,`Weel done, cutty-sark!' (cutty-sark : \"short shirt\"). Immediately, the lights go out, the music and dancing stops and many of the creatures lunge after Tam, with the witches leading. Tam spurs Meg to turn and flee and drives the horse on towards the River Doon as the creatures dare not cross a running stream. The creatures give chase and the witches come so close to catching Tam and Meg that they pull Meg's tail off just as she reaches the Brig o' Doon .", "Journalist turned author best known for his trilogy \"Sunset Song\", \"Cloud Howe\" and \"Grey Granite\". His writing was rooted in The Mearns (in the Country of Kincardineshire).", "1891, November 8 – Author Neil M Gunn Best known for “Highland River” (1937) and “Silver Darlings” (1951) was born in Caithness on this day.", "This is from the story of an ancient road and events that happened on it. This chapter is about the Scottish Wars of Independance the giant hero William Wallace, Braveheart. My family name is Boyd and my ancestors were involved in these Wars.", "Another tale is about the man from Barra a long time ago who went to Glasgow to get" ]

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[ "7. In the stock exchange what animal is used as a nickname to describe someone who sells shares thinking that the price will fall ?", "19.In the stock exchange, which animal is used as a nickname to describe someone who sells shares thinking that the price will fall?.........BEAR", "Bulls and Bears, in the Stock Exchange, the bull being one who buys in the hope that the value may rise, and the bear one who sells in the hope that it may fall. See Bear .", "Bear Someone who thinks the market, or a particular share, will decline.  A bear market is one in which most prices are falling.  Also used adjectivally, as in \"bearish\", \"bear market\" and so on.", "While its origins are unclear, the term may have originated from traders who sold bear skins with the expectations that prices would fall in the future . opposite of bull market.", "Stock jobbers. Persons who gamble in Exchange Alley, by pretending to buy and sell the public funds, but in reality only betting that they will be at a certain price, at a particular time; possessing neither the stock pretended to be sold, nor money sufficient to make good the payments for which they contract: these gentlemen are known under the different appellations of bulls, bears, and lame ducks.", "Bull. An Exchange Alley term for one who buys stock on speculation for time, i.e. agrees with the seller, called a Bear, to take a certain sum of stock at a future day, at a stated price: if at that day stock fetches more than the price agreed on, he receives the difference; if it falls or is cheaper, he either pays it, or becomes a lame duck, and waddles out of the Alley. See Lame duck and Bear.", "One hypothetical etymology points to London bearskin \"jobbers\" (market makers), who would sell bearskins before the bears had actually been caught in contradiction of the proverb ne vendez pas la peau de l'ours avant de l’avoir tué (\"don't sell the bearskin before you've killed the bear\")—an admonition against over-optimism. By the time of the South Sea Bubble of 1721, the bear was also associated with short selling; jobbers would sell bearskins they did not own in anticipation of falling prices, which would enable them to buy them later for an additional profit.", "* In the stock market, a bear market is a period of declining prices. Pessimistic forecasting or negative activity is said to be bearish (due to the stereotypical posture of bears looking downwards), and one who expresses bearish sentiment is a bear. Its opposite is a bull market, and bullish sentiment from bulls.", "Bull Someone who thinks the stock market or a particular share will go up.  Also used adjectivally, as in \"bullish\", \"bull market\" and so on.", "is a type of stock market strategy, where a trader (or group of traders) attempts to force down the price of a stock to cover a short position. A bear raid can be done by spreading negative rumors about the target firm, which puts downward pressure on the share price.", "The same thing is true of bears - don't panic and sell low. Let the bear market run its course, which history tells us is likely to be short.", "Duck. A lame duck; an Exchange-alley phrase for a stock-jobber, who either cannot or will not pay his losses, or, differences, in which case he is said to Waddle out of the alley, as he cannot appear there again till his debts are settled and paid; should he attempt it, he would be hustled out by the fraternity.", "bull - an investor with an optimistic market outlook; an investor who expects prices to rise and so buys now for resale later", "An investor who expects share prices to rise or, more generally, has an optimistic outlook. A bull market is a period of rising share prices. The opposite of bear .", "Another type of secondary trend is called a bear market rally (sometimes called \"sucker's rally\" or \"dead cat bounce\") which consist of a market price increase of only 10% or 20% and then the prevailing, bear market trend resumes. Bear market rallies occurred in the Dow Jones index after the 1929 stock market crash leading down to the market bottom in 1932, and throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s. The Japanese Nikkei 225 has been typified by a number of bear market rallies since the late 1980s while experiencing an overall long-term downward trend.", "A bear market is a general decline in the stock market over a period of time. It is a transition from high investor optimism to widespread investor fear and pessimism.", "In describing financial market behavior, the largest group of market participants is often referred to, metaphorically, as a herd. This is especially relevant to participants in bull markets since bulls are herding animals. A bull market is also described as a bull run. Dow Theory attempts to describe the character of these market movements.", "After a large sell-off or drop in the market, a slang term for picking oversold stocks.", "Have you ever heard investor friends or media personalities speaking about being bullish or bearish about a particular asset, or that a bull or bear market was at hand? Those unfamiliar with this terminology might wonder whether the speakers were referring to some type of exotic livestock auction or safari adventure.", "The bear market definition is exactly the opposite of a bull market. It’s a market where quarter after quarter and the market is moving down about 20 percent. That signals a bear market, and when that happens people start to get really scared about putting money into the stock market. That’s because they don’t know how to invest Rule #1 style.", "Another related explanation used in behavioral finance lies in herd behavior , the fact that investors tend to buy or sell in the direction of the market trend. [26] [27] This is sometimes helped by technical analysis that tries precisely to detect those trends and follow them, which creates a self-fulfilling prophecy .", "Averaging Down: This is when an investor buys more of a stock as the price goes down. This makes it so your average purchase price decreases.", "2.  “The one principal that applies to nearly all these so-called “technical approaches” is that one should buy because a stock or the market has gone up and one should sell because it has declined. This is the exact opposite of sound business sense everywhere else, and it is most unlikely that it can lead to lasting success in Wall Street. In our own stock-market experience and observation, extending over 50 years, we have not known a single person who has consistently or lastingly made money by thus “following the market.” We do not hesitate to declare that this approach is as fallacious as it is popular.” ", "Psychology - Stock market performance and participants psychology are mutually dependent. In a bull market, almost everyone is interested in the market, willingly participating in hopes of obtaining a profit. During a bear market, on the other hand, market sentiment is negative as participants are beginning to move their money out of equities and waiting in fixed-income assets until there is a positive move. Decline in stock market prices shakes investor confidence, which causes investors to keep their money out of the market,which has spiralling effect,causing the stock markets to decline further.", "Another example is a rep who holds a security and trys to build retail interest in the stock. Thus causing the price to rise", "Recessions have psychological and confidence aspects. For example, if companies expect economic activity to slow, they may reduce employment levels and save money rather than invest. Such expectations can create a self-reinforcing downward cycle, bringing about or worsening a recession. Consumer confidence is one measure used to evaluate economic sentiment. The term animal spirits has been used to describe the psychological factors underlying economic activity. Economist Robert J. Shiller wrote that the term \"...refers also to the sense of trust we have in each other, our sense of fairness in economic dealings, and our sense of the extent of corruption and bad faith. When animal spirits are on ebb, consumers do not want to spend and businesses do not want to make capital expenditures or hire people.\" ", "In Australian slang or vernacular speech, a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake clandestine or illegal activities, particularly gambling, may be referred to as a \"cockatoo\". Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as \"cocky farmers.\" ", "Defensive stock A stock which is expected to be relatively insensitive to market or economic downturn, for example a food manufacturer.", "“I never attempt to make money on the stock market. I buy on the assumption that they could close the market the next day and not reopen it for ten years.”", "Before rushing to condemn the traders and bankers responsible, consider this: perhaps they were in too good a mood. That's the intriguing implication of experiments showing that even a fleeting exposure to a smiling face makes people more likely to make risky investment decisions.", "'A fool and his money are soon parted' - the meaning and origin of this phrase" ]

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[ "Aquarius is the zodiac sign of a person born on this day. Garnet is the modern birthstone for this month. Emerald is the mystical birthstone from Tibetan origin that dates back over a thousand years.", "Those born on this date are under the sign of Aries. They include Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck in 1599; author Louis L'Amour in 1908; actor Leonard \"Chico\" Marx of the Marx Brothers comedy team in 1887; actor Karl Malden in 1912; actor Werner Klemperer in 1920; actor Ross Martin in 1920; French mime Marcel Marceau in 1923; newspaper executive Allen Neuharth in 1924; composer Stephen Sondheim in 1930 (age 86); televangelist Pat Robertson in 1930 (age 86); actor William Shatner in 1931 (age 85); U.S. Sen. Orrin Hatch, R-Utah, in 1934 (age 82); actor M. Emmet Walsh in 1935 (age 81); singer George Benson in 1943 (age 73); British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber in 1948 (age 68); television journalist Wolf Blitzer in 1948 (age 68); sportscaster Bob Costas in 1952 (age 64); actor Lena Olin in 1955 (age 61); actor Matthew Modine in 1959 (age 57); Canadian skater Elvis Stojko in 1972 (age 44); actor Reese Witherspoon in 1976 (age 40).", "If you were born on the first or last day of a Sun sign, in astrological terms you were born on a cusp. If that's the case, you will probably benefit from reading your own Sun sign and the Sun sign that ends or begins right before or after your date of birth. For example, if your birth date is 22 December, your Sun sign is Capricorn, but you probably have some Sagittarian traits as well.", "Astrologically speaking the planet Saturn's influence is believed the strongest influence on the probabilities of all Capricorn personalities. The actual day you were born on, the twenty fifth of December is governed by the authority of Neptune's presence giving an explanation for your differences form other zodiac goats. Your rational reasoning, efficiency and ability to listen intently are starred to serve you well throughout life. Your skill at effective time keeping along with your many interests and wishes indicates that you will rarely be bored. An ending thought forpeople born on December the 25th is to be realistic in all you do and always remain open to the art of compromising to truly follow your fate.", "An individual born on the 25th day of December is a Capricorn. Capricorn is the 10th sign of the zodiac and falls between December 22nd and January, give or take a day or so depending on the year.", "This one reminds us of the 50s, fresh-faced actress, Natalie Wood. It means ‘born on Christmas day’.", "Sagittarius (November 23- December 22): The ninth sign of the zodiac, a Sagittarius has a very positive outlook on life. They have vibrant personalities and enjoy meeting new people. They can also be reckless.", "People born specifically on the 25th of December are expected to be practical, serious and ambitious with the typical Capricorn reliability and ability to plan ahead. The ruling astrological planet for this particular day is Neptune gracing you with a compassionate, helpful, thoughtful and reasonable nature. If you have this birthday you tend to greatly value your privacy and usually refuse to compromise on personal principles. In spite of this appreciation of space and morals you are also extremely communicative and a wonderful listener too. A mix of intense determination and dreamy thought you are often drawn to mysteries in an attempt to try and solve them. Intuitive and slightly impulsive you are ordinarily fond of variety, music, dance and travel. Individuals with a December the twenty fifth birthday are likely to have high expectations of themselves and others and as a result can be occasionally overly serious, moody, reserved or restless. Purposeful and prudent you have a strong need to feel useful and efficient.", "Control your workday at the New Moon on December 11. You have the responsibility, authority, and expertise, so step into the spotlight and be the star. Have a shiny, bright, and fun Full Moon on December 25. It's Christmas, but whatever your holiday, celebrate with the heart of a child. With the Moon opposing Pluto, something big and unexpected may happen, but you'll put a humorous slant on it. On New Year's Eve, December 31, the Moon conjoins Jupiter and trines Mercury. A burst of good luck could find you before the year ends, and you'll know what to do with it.", "AQA: Famous people who have their birthdays on Christmas Day include Dido, Annie Lennox, Sir Isaac Newton, Anwar Sadat, Humphrey Bogart and Sissy Spacek.", "or people who attach importance to their own individual birth signs then unfortunately there is some bad news for you. The original signs of the zodiac and the dates they are meant to cover were invented thousands of years ago. But because of movements in the earth’s orbit known as precession then the star sign that you believe is yours is almost certainly NOT the constellation where the sun was on the day you were born. Whenever I hold a star party I always end the evening by asking folk for their date of birth and which star sign they think is theirs. Then by using a computer program showing exactly where the sun was on the day that they were born I am able to tell them what their true star sign really is. If anyone would like to know his or her true star sign then simply email your birth date to me at kencampbell1@msn.com.", "A Capricorn born on December 25 is drawn to life's mysteries. New Age learning and holistic healing have special appeal for them. They are introspective people who can transcend their own emotional struggles by involving themselves in work that helps others. They can understand others' motives and divine what even they may not realize.", "The two signs associated with the month of November are Sagittarius and Capricorn. For those born from December 1st to December 21st, they are members of the Sagittarius sign. The Sagittarius can be sure to have a desire to put their imprint in the world, which is paired nicely with their appreciation of life's finer things. People born from December 22nd to December 31st are members of the Capricorn zodiac sign. One of the life's natural intellectuals, the Aquarius can be identified by their curiosity and originality.", "Gemini: Geminis are playful, charming, and two-faced (duh). They also tend be creative — they're your friends at work who have lots of great ideas, but aren't so good with deadlines. The twin sign is shared by Mary Kate and Ashley Olsen (of course), Prince William, and Marilyn Monroe. ", "A Capricorn born on December 30 is a jovial individual who promotes the status quo. They like the good life and are willing to work long and hard to achieve it. They are focused and understand the need to make sensible sacrifices. These individuals are happiest when they have a stable family and happy home life.", "Christians in the West celebrate Christmas on DEC-25, as the day when the Yeshua of Nazareth (a.k.a. Jesus Christ) was born. He is regarded by most Christians as a deity and savior of humanity. The Eastern Orthodox churches currently celebrate Christmas on DEC-25 according to the Julian calendar, which is JAN-07 in the more commonly used Gregorian calendar. It is not actually the date of Jesus' birthday . That probably happened in the fall sometime between 7 and 4 BCE . It s origin can be traced to an ancient Roman Pagan celebration called Saturnalia. It was a commemoration of the dedication of a temple to the God Saturn. Saturnalia was originally celebrated as a one day celebration on DEC-17. It became so popular that it was expanded to seven days. This celebration was picked up by the followers of Mithraism where it became the Feast of Sol Invicta, (the Unconquered Sun). It started on DEC-25 of the year 274 CE.", "Where you born on Christmas day? Here are a few famous faces you share your birthday with...", "In Christian tradition, the Star of Bethlehem, also called the Christmas Star, revealed the birth of Jesus to the Biblical Magi, and later led them to Bethlehem.", "Libra 24 September-23 October You're in high spirits this Advent; one sniff of the sherry cork and you're anyone's! Only after Boxing Day do you begin to settle down and stop acting. A heart to heart over the New Year will create a more harmonious scene for 1986, when with domestic reconciliation, you'll be as united as the holly and the ivy.", "While the world celebrates Christmas, ushering in the holiday season on 25 December, the day also marks the birthdays of some prominent people. IBTimes UK takes a look at 10 famous people born on this day.", "Some Famous People with Mercury in Aries: Mariah Carey (Sun, Mercury, and Venus in Aries), Robert Downey Jr. (Sun, Mercury, and Venus in Aries), Adolf Hitler, Ashley Judd (Sun, Mercury, and Venus in Aries), David Letterman (Sun and Mars in Aries), John Madden (Sun and Mercury in Aries), Sarah Jessica Parker (Sun, Mercury, and Venus in Aries), William Shatner (Sun and Mercury in Aries), Vincent Van Gogh (Sun and Mercury in Aries), Christopher Walken (Sun and Mercury in Aries)", "Your main strengths of character are probably seen in your bold reliable helpfulness and thoughtfulness as these qualities are a perfect match for your ample degrees of seriousness. Your fabulous communication skills and intuition are additional fortes that assist you to satisfy your keen sense of purpose. The personality weaknesses for those born on December 25th could be linked to an unwanted disturbance or a challenge to your moralistic philosophy and standards. Your negative traits of restlessness and moodiness will present in these circumstances as you are likely to adopt a surprisingly stubborn response in order to express your annoyance.", "Santa Claus, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Father Christmas, Kris Kringle, Santy, or simply Santa is a mythical figure with historical origins who, in many Western cultures, brings gifts to the homes of well-behaved, \"good\" children on Christmas Eve (24 December) and the early morning hours of Christmas Day (25 December). The modern Santa Claus is derived from the British figure of Father Christmas, the Dutch figure of Sinterklaas, and Saint Nicholas, the historical Greek bishop and gift-giver of Myra. During the Christianization of Germanic Europe, this figure may also have absorbed elements of the god Odin, who was associated with the Germanic pagan midwinter event of Yule and led the Wild Hunt, a ghostly procession through the sky.", "You were born on the 24th day, which reduces to a 6. You are likable and warm, and you treat the people you love with great respect and care. You value your family more than most, and although you may forgive others who have slighted you, you are unlikely to forget. Factoring in the 10th month of October, you are a number 7. Your intuition is powerful. As you mature, you will come to rely on it more and more, and others will turn to you for your “take” on any given situation. Factoring in your birth year gives you your Birth Path Number—a highly personal number for you.", "CAPRICORN Whenever you have held yourself steadfast and stuck to your guns, living honestly and being true to yourself, going against the grain even when others did not align with your way of thinking then you are about to experience the results of your diligent pursuits. It will feel like you are an observer of the great gains you have actually made and are able to see objectively a greater vision nd December 22 of where you now wish to be. January 19th", "IF YOUR BIRTHDAY IS JANUARY 10, then there is no better person than you to have around. The zodiac sign for January 10 is Capricorn. You carry yourself with an honest approach to life. Having struggled early on in life, you matured early. Others find it easy to show respect to one of the hardest working people they know.", "The December 25 birthday personality are professionals who are generally found in the background. Nonetheless, you have a sunny disposition to work with. You make people laugh with your sense of humor. It would not surprise me if you somehow used your supernatural abilities to help others. They love your winning attitude, too. Usually, you are hard at work while others are sleeping. You want to live well and without financial limitations. You have the drive and the will power to prosper; you need to use it, however.", "start Christmas early today: donate a penny to a mall santa, mount an open sleigh, marvel at a birthing virgin", "You may be familiar with the Christmas song, The 12 Days of Christmas. The first few lines go like this:", "(Astrology) of or pertaining to birthdays or to the position of the stars at one's birth.", "How and when did St. Nicholas day (December 6th) become associated with Christmas day (December 25th)? - Quora", "How many gifts would you receive if you received all of the gifts in the song \"The Twelve Days of Christmas\"? (answer is a number spelled out)" ]

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[ "Balaclavas were used for the first time during the Crimean War (1853-1856). This was a war between the Russians on one side and the French, British, Sardinians and Ottomans on the other. In 1854 the battle of Balaclava was fought and after that battle “balaclava” became the name for this type of headgear.", "The favorite headgear of skiers and robbers alike, the balaclava was worn by English troops unaccustomed to the bitter cold Russian weather during the Crimean War. Despite not being called balaclavas until almost 30 years later, the name comes from the town of the same name in present-day Ukraine where an important battle was fought.", "Balaclava: A type of woollen headgear that covers the whole head with just an opening for the eyes and mouth, as worn by British troops at the Battle of Balaclava on October 25th, 1854, during the Crimean War.", "As earlier mentioned, the Crimean War was fought out mainly on the Crimean peninsula, which at the moment is part of Ukraine. Balaclava (sometimes spelled as Balaklava) was a little town near the city of Sevastopol where during this war all balaclavas were designed, produced and distributed to the British troops.", "The Battle of Inkerman was fought during the Crimean War on 5 November 1854 between the allied armies of Britain, France and Ottoman Empire against the Imperial Russian Army. The battle broke the will of the Russian Army to defeat the allies in the field, and was followed by the Siege of Sevastopol. The role of troops fighting mostly on their own initiative due to the foggy conditions during the battle has earned the engagement the name \"The Soldier's Battle\". ", "The Crimean War was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the forces of the British Empire, French Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Kingdom of Sardinia. It spanned three years, from 1853 to 1856, and was largely concerned with the territories of the Ottoman Empire, which by this time was in decline. The famous charge of the British light cavalry took place at the Battle of Balaclava on October 25, 1854. This brigade was supposed to pursue a Russian artillery train but, due to miscommunication, was instead sent into a frontal assault against heavily fortified Russian defenses. The British were valorous but were cut to pieces and retreated with immense casualties (some estimates say 247 of the 637 died).", "Battle of Balaklava, Balaklava also spelled Balaclava, (Oct. 25 [Oct. 13, Old Style], 1854), indecisive military engagement of the Crimean War , best known as the inspiration of the English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s “", "The Battle of Balaclava, fought on 25 October 1854 during the Crimean War , was part of the Anglo-French-Turkish campaign to capture the port and fortress of Sevastopol, Russia 's principal naval base on the Black Sea. The engagement followed the earlier Allied victory in September at the Battle of the Alma , where the Russian General Menshikov had positioned his army in an attempt to stop the Allies progressing south towards their strategic goal. [4] Alma was the first major encounter fought in the Crimea since the Allied landings at Kalamita Bay on 14 September, and was a clear battlefield success; but a tardy pursuit by the Allies failed to gain a decisive victory, allowing the Russians to regroup, recover and prepare their defence.", "The Crimean War was fought between Russia and an alliance involving Britain and France. It resulted from tensions over the lands of the Ottoman (Turkish) empire, and was mostly fought on the Crimea peninsular on the Black Sea, now part of Ukraine. Among the war's noteworthy incidents was the disastrous 'Charge of the Light Brigade' (see below).", "The Battle of the Alma was the first major engagement between the British, French and Russians in the Crimean War . The Allied armada had aimed to concentrate in Balchik Bay, fifteen miles north of Varna but delayed due to bad weather.", "This poem was written to memorialize a suicidal charge by light cavalry over open terrain by British forces in the Battle of Balaclava (Ukraine) in the Crimean War (1854-56). 247 men of the 637 in the charge were killed or wounded. Britain entered the war, which was fought by Russia against Turkey, Britain and France, because Russia sought to control the Dardanelles. Russian control of the Dardanelles threatened British sea routes.", "The Battle of Balaclava, fought on 25 October 1854 during the Crimean War, was part of the Anglo-French-Turkish campaign to capture the port and fortress of ...", "* The Charge of the Light Brigade, about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War", "Another Crimean officer whose name became attached to a clothing style was Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, first Baron of Raglan (1788–1855). He had served under Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, and lost an arm at Waterloo. He also distinguished himself during the Crimean War, before he died of cholera. Because of his handicap, Raglan favored a capelike overcoat with sleeves extending to the neck (rather than the shoulder), and it came to be called raglan. The coat itself is no longer in fashion, but the sleeve style, called raglan sleeve, is still used for coats, sweaters, and dresses.", "1854: In the Crimean War, the British fought the Russians in the Battle of Alma. Six Britons were awarded the Victoria Cross.", "BAYARD was the mount for General Bosquet in the Crimean War fought between the British Empire, France, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the opposing Russian Empire (1853 – 1856). The Crimean War was the first war to introduce technical changes affecting the future course of warfare; first war thoroughly documented in photographs and the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph.", "In 1854 they went to the Crimea, took part in the storming of the heights above the Alma and then moved on to Sevastopol. They were led by Sir Colin Campbell who was so pleased with them at Alma that he had obtained Lord Raglan's permission to wear a Highland bonnet instead of his general's cocked hat for the rest of the campaign.", "A Light Division was again formed for service, but this was in name only as no light infantry battalions were assigned to it. The division was involved in the Battle of the Alma (20 September 1854), which is usually considered the first battle of the Crimean War, took place in the vicinity of the River Alma in the Crimea. An Anglo-French force under General St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan defeated General Menshikov's Russian army, which lost around 6,000 troops. They were also engaged in the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) , and the battle of Battle of Inkerman (5 November 1854) before the end of hostilities.", "However, the battle is also widely cited for producing some of the finest displays of soldiering of the Crimean War conflict. Although at first regarded as a failure by the British Army - who refused to give the soldiers any formal insignia for the conflict - veterans of Balaclava soon lobbied for recognition for their efforts and bravery.", "The United Kingdom join the Crimean War in 1854, on the side of the Ottoman Empire and against Russia. It was after this war that Victoria instituted the Victoria Cross, an award for valour.", "After invading the Crimean Peninsula in the autumn of 1854, the Allied forces scored a victory at the Battle of the Alma and then besieged the vital Russian naval hub at Sevastopol. They believed the city would fall in a matter of weeks, but following a series of bloody Russian counterattacks at the Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman, the war settled into a stalemate. In what became a preview of World War I’s Western Front, both sides dug extensive trench lines around Sevastopol. Soldiers were forced to suffer through a brutal Russian winter, and many fell victim to “trench madness,” or shell shock, from the constant artillery bombardments and threat of enemy raids. It would eventually take 11 months before a French assault forced the Russians to evacuate Sevastopol. The city’s fall was the symbolic end of the Crimean War, but scattered fighting continued until Russia finally admitted defeat the following year.", "From 1853 to 1856, Britain fought with Turkey and France against Russia in the Crimean War. It was the first war to be extensively covered by the media through news stories and photographs. The conditions were very poor and many soldiers died from illnesses they caught in the hospitals, rather than from war wounds. Queen Victoria introduced the Victoria Cross medal during this war. It honours acts of valour by soldiers.", "March 28, 2014, is the 160th anniversary of Britain declaring war on Russia to formally start the Crimean War. The war was fought by Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, mainly to curtail Russia's presence and ambitions in the Black Sea and Eastern Europe. It lasted until 1856, and was fought in several places, not just Crimea. But it's best remembered for just one battle, a battle that was vaunted as glorious and heroic by the side that lost it (but won the war) — and that has left us with some misquotations, three articles of clothing, and some lessons in accidental and deliberate miscommunication.", "Balaclava battle monument, erected by the British. Photographs by Colonel Vladislav Klembovsky/Album BATTLEFIELDS OF THE CRIMEAN CAMPAIGN 1854-1855/courtesy of the State Historic Public Library of Russia", "The appearance of soldiers in battle was intended to impress and intimidate the enemy. In ancient wars the barbarians of today Germany piled their hair on the tops of their heads to make themselves look taller. During Napoleonic Wars the dragoons and cuirassiers wore helmets with heightened crests and combs and attached horsehair tails. The bearskins worn by the Old Guard, Scottish highland units and grenadiers employ the same principle. Prussian hussars wore the \"skull and crossbones\" Totenkopf on their hats.", "In Britain, the Crimean War is principally remembered for three reasons: the Charge of the Light Brigade, maladministration in the British army, and Florence Nightingale. However, this war, fought by an alliance of Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia, is far more complex.", "Which bravery award was originally made from the metal of guns captured during the Siege of Sebastopol during the Crimean War?", "The most memorable battle of the war was at Balaclava, on October 25, 1854, and it gave rise to two British legends, one highlighting honor, the other incompetence. According to one eyewitness account, a large Russian force had advanced on the Allies at the entrance of Balaclava (a Black Sea port now part of Ukraine). Heavy artillery fire prepared the way for Russian cavalry, and the Ottomans retreated rapidly, fleeing for the port.", "To the Russians the Battle of Balaclava was a victory and proved a welcome boost in morale – they had captured the British redoubts (from which seven guns were removed and taken to Sevastopol as trophies), and had gained control of the Worontsov Road. [100] The loss of the outer ring of defences severely restricted Allied movements and confined them to a narrow area between Balaclava and Sevastopol. Nearly all officers received awards. General Semyakin received the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree. Gribbe and Levutsky became the cavaliers of the Order of St Stanislav of the 1st degree, and Colonel Krudener was promoted to Major General. General Liprandi was awarded a golden sabre encrusted with diamonds, and inscribed 'For Bravery'. [101] Semyakin wrote home with news of the action at Balaclava, and what he considered a great success – \"Many Turks and English were killed by our Russian bayonets, and many English were pierced with lances of our Uhlans and Cossacks, and by sabres of our Hussars … God grant that the heart of the Tsar rejoices.\" [102]", "On 25th October 1854 between 600 and 700 British cavalry, led by confused commanders, attacked a Russian position near Balaklava on the Crimean peninsular. As a result they took heavy casualties from artillery fire. The incident quickly became a classic example of futile bravery.", "On 25 October 1854, Russian General Liprandi launched an attack against allied forces in the sector, aiming to seize their positions and start driving back the allies. This was the Battle of Balaclava.", "On 25 October 1854 the Battle of Balaclava took place. This was when the Charge of the Light Brigade occurred, led by Lord Cardigan and his light cavalry. Both armies had outposts and redoubts — heavily-armed, well defended, strategic positions — from which they tested their opponents' strength by making sorties. The Russians, on a sortie from Sevastopol on to the Causeway Heights to redoubts manned by the Turks so frightened the defenders that the Turks fled. The Cossacks took the redoubts and began to make off with the naval guns and ammunition which had been used in the redoubts. The loss of guns was a clear sign of defeat which Raglan could not allow. Raglan saw what the Russians were doing, and ordered that the guns should be retaken from the Russians. The order was very vague and very hastily scribbled by General Airey (at Raglan's command). Captain Nolan took the order to Lord Cardigan. It said :" ]

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[ "Christopher Columbus ( /kəˈlʌmbəs/ ; Italian : Cristoforo Colombo; Spanish: Cristóbal Colón; Portuguese : Cristóvão Colombo; Latin : Christophorus Columbus; between 31 October 1450 and 30 October 1451 in Genoa – 20 May 1506 in Valladolid ) was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa . Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain , he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola , initiated the European colonization of the New World .", "Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo; Spanish: Cristóbal Colón; Portuguese: Cristóvão Colombo; born between October 31, 1450 and October 30, 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Republic of Genoa, in what is today northwestern Italy. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World.", "Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo; Spanish: Cristóbal Colón; Portuguese: Cristóvão Colombo; born between 31 October 1450 and 30 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer, citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World.", "Christopher_Columbus (1451 to 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Republic of Genoa, in today's northwestern Italy. His dates are placed here mainly to compare with the dates of mathematicians listed here, thus giving some sense of the state of mathematics and astronomy at the time of Columbus's voyages. Columbus learned Latin, as well as Portuguese and Castilian, and read widely about astronomy, geography, and history, including the works of Claudius Ptolemy.", "Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, hoping to find a route to India (in order to trade for spices). He made a total of four trips to the Caribbean and South America during the years 1492-1504. The First Trip: Columbus sailed for King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain. On his first trip, Columbus led an expedition with three ships, the Niña (captained by Vicente Yáñez Pinzon), the Pinta (owned and captained by Martin Alonzo Pinzon), and the Santa Maria (captained by Columbus), and about 90 crew members. They set sail on Aug. 3, 1492 from Palos, Spain, and on October 11, 1492, spotted the Caribbean islands off southeastern North America. They landed on an island they called Guanahani, but Columbus later renamed it San Salvador . They were met by the local Taino Indians , many of whom were captured by Columbus' men and later sold into slavery. Columbus thought he had made it to Asia, and called this area the Indies, and called its inh ...", "Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) (REQUIRED) was an Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, hoping to find a route to India (in order to trade for spices). He made a total of four trips to the Caribbean and South America during the years 1492-1504.", "Christopher Columbus was a italian sailer who sailed across the atlantic ocean in 1492. On his first trip, Columbus led an expedition with three ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. this sail was important because he discovered america", "In 1988 José Mascarenhas Barreto published a book which claims that Columbus was a Portuguese national and spy who hatched up an elaborate diversion to keep the Spanish from the lucrative trade routes that were opening up around Africa to the Indies. Barreto, through his interpretation of the Kabbalah and other research, suggested Columbus was born in Cuba, Portugal, the son of a nobleman and related to other Portuguese navigators. According to this claim, his real name was concealed, Christopher Columbus being a pseudonym, meaning Bearer of Christ and the Holy Spirit. His real name was supposedly Salvador Fernandes Zarco and he was the son of Dom Fernando, Duke of Beja, Alentejo and maternal grandson of João Gonçalves Zarco, discoverer of Madeira. Mascarenhas Barreto, however, has been discredited by Portuguese genealogist Luís Paulo Manuel de Meneses de Melo Vaz de São Paio in his works Carta Aberta a um Agente Secreto, Primeira Carta Aberta a Mascarenhas Barreto and Carta Aberta a um \"Curioso\" da Genealogia. ", "1492: The Papacy and the Roman Catholic king and queen of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, granted the Italian sailor Christopher Columbus (actual name in Italian: Cristoforo Colombo) his commission of exploration to the \"New World.\" As shown on the map, the four voyages of Columbus were actually limited to the area of the islands in the Caribbean, not to what is today called \"America\" (see also Thanksgiving In History and Prophecy ).", "Indeed the origins of Christopher Columbus, the discoverer and explorer of the Americas, have been a subject of speculation for some time, but most historians still believe he was the son of Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver from Genoa, Italy, and later lived in Savona. Others have claimed however that he was of Catalan, Greek, or Portuguese origin, or even a Spanish Jew.", "Christopher Columbus, Italian Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish Cristóbal Colón (born between August 26 and October 31?, 1451, Genoa [Italy]—died May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Spain), master navigator and admiral whose four transatlantic voyages (1492–93, 1493–96, 1498–1500, and 1502–04) opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas. He has long been called the “discoverer” of the New World, although Vikings such as Leif Eriksson had visited North America five centuries earlier. Columbus made his transatlantic voyages under the sponsorship of Ferdinand II and Isabella I , the Catholic Monarchs of Aragon , Castile , and Leon in Spain . He was at first full of hope and ambition, an ambition partly gratified by his title “Admiral of the Ocean Sea,” awarded to him in April 1492, and by the grants enrolled in the Book of Privileges (a record of his titles and claims). However, he died a disappointed man.", "A U.S. national holiday since 1937, Columbus Day commemorates the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World on October 12, 1492. The Italian-born explorer had set sail two months earlier, backed by the Spanish monarchs King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. He intended to chart a western sea route to China, India and the fabled gold and spice islands of Asia; instead, he landed in the Bahamas, becoming the first European to explore the Americas since the Vikings set up colonies in Greenland and Newfoundland during the 10th century.", "Serious doubts have been expressed regarding Columbus's national origin. Although in the popular culture he is generally assumed to be Italian (Genoese), his actual background is clouded in mystery. Very little is really known about Columbus before the mid-1470s. It has been suggested that this might have been because he was hiding something?an event in his origin or history that he deliberately kept a secret.", "Explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life. Columbus participated in several other expeditions to Africa. In 1492 Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Niña along side. He has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization.", "Christopher Columbus was a navigator, colonizer and explorer who was instrumental in bringing Spanish colonization to the Americas. While he was not the first European to reach the Americas, he was the first to make Europe fully aware of the Americas. But where was Christopher Columbus born? This article will answer exactly that question and also look at three interesting facts about Christopher Columbus.", "Christopher Columbus was one of the most famous explorer whose geographical discoveries had monumental consequences in the history of mankind. He was born in Genova, Italy, in 1451, to a wool weaver and merchant. Young Columbus first went to sea at the age of fourteen. As a young man, he settled in Portugal and married a woman of noble background. After his wife’s death in 1485, Columbus and his young son Diego moved to Spain.", "One hypothesis is that Columbus served under the French caper Guillaume Casenove Coulon and took his surname, but later tried to hide his piracy. Some Basque historians have claimed that he was Basque. Others had said that he was a converso (Spanish Jew converted to Christianity). In Spain, even converted Jews were much mistrusted; it was suggested that many conversos were still practicing Judaism in secret. However, not only was his mysticism profoundly Catholic, recent disinterment of his son retrieved his Y chromosome (which is passed completely unchanged from father to son) has ruled out Jewish ancestry, at least in the male line.", "Cristobal Colon (Christopher Columbus), whose name means \"Christ-bearing colonizer,\" was born near Genoa in 1451. He became a sailor, navigator, captain, and mapmaker, and after 1480 he dedicated his life to the audacious venture of leading an expedition to explore eastern Asia by sailing west. His proposal was rejected by the Royal Commission of Portuguese king Joao II (r. 1481-95) because they were exploring the route around Africa; also they believed that his estimate of the distance to Japan by going west was much too short. His brother Bartolomé Colon appealed to England's Henry VII without success. Finally in 1492 after the Spanish had defeated the Moors at Granada and expelled them and the Jews from Spain, King Fernando (Ferdinand) and Queen Isabel agreed to finance the bold venture.", "For a long time Christoph Columbus was considered the discoverer of America. Today it is clear that this title is not really true. Long before Columbus people have crossed the Northern Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and simply had to land on the American continent. Leif Eriksson or Zheng He is only two of Columbus' predecessors. The Native American people are the proof for a land bridge that once had existed after the last ice age, on which people could walk from Asia to America.", "PETER: And I’m Peter Onuf. We’re talking today about Christopher Columbus and how his name has resonated throughout American history.", "Though Christopher Columbus came to be considered the \"discoverer of America\" in US and European popular culture, his true historical legacy is more nuanced. America was first discovered by its indigenous population, and Columbus was not even the first European to reach its shores as he was preceded by the Vikings at L'Anse aux Meadows. But the lasting significance of Columbus's voyages outshone that of his Viking predecessors, because he managed to bring word of the continent back to Europe. By bringing the continent to the forefront of Western attention, Columbus initiated the enduring relationship between the Earth's two major landmasses and their inhabitants. \"Columbus's claim to fame isn't that he got there first,\" explains historian Martin Dugard, \"it's that he stayed.\"Dugard, Martin. The Last Voyage of Columbus. Little, Brown and Company: New York, 2005.", "Christopher Columbus. Admiral of the Ocean Sea. The Great Navigator. Renown as the champion of the belief that the earth was round. The man who sought the riches of the Far East by sailing to the west, and who happened instead upon a New World. The man who discovered America. Removed from Hispaniola in chains in 1500 and wrongly persecuted in his later years. His story typifies that of a tragic heroic figure.", "*One of our readers has provided an alternative historical account of Christopher Columbus. This version is different to what is found in US history books.", "Christopher Columbus was probably the most famous explorer of the era. He achieved fame by sailing west in search of a sea route to India. Instead of reaching India he discovered that there was an unknown mass of land in between, land that the Europeans knew nothing of.", "Beyond historical attributes, his personal characteristics and life history add to the intrigue. What was his real name? Kirkpatrick Sale notes the following possibilities: Christoforo Colombo, Christofferus de Colombo, Christobal Colom, Christ�bal Col�n, and Xpoual de Col�n. Columbus himself, after 1493, chose to sign himself Xpo ferens, which glosses as \"the christbearer.\" As St. Christopher had before him, he saw himself fulfilling God's plan by bringing Christ to a new world.", "On 20 May 1506, aged probably 54, Columbus died in Valladolid, Spain. His remains were first interred at Valladolid, then at the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville (southern Spain) by the will of his son Diego Colón, who had been governor of Hispaniola. In 1542, the remains were transferred to Colonial Santo Domingo, in the present-day Dominican Republic. In 1795, when France took over the entire island of Hispaniola, Columbus's remains were moved to Havana, Cuba. After Cuba became independent following the Spanish–American War in 1898, the remains were moved back to Spain, to the Cathedral of Seville, where they were placed on an elaborate catafalque.", "Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the \"natural\" status of three of his", "Christopher Columbus - Explorer of the New World in 1492. Use a Tudor / Elizabethan style costume (doublet and hose).", "Never admitting that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans rather than the East Indies he had set out for, Columbus called the inhabitants of the lands he visited indios (Spanish for \"Indians\"). His strained relationship with the Spanish crown and its appointed colonial administrators in America led to his arrest and dismissal as governor of the settlements on the island of Hispaniola in 1500, and later to protracted litigation over the benefits which he and his heirs claimed were owed to them by the crown.", "Classrooms and federal employees cross America celebrate Columbus'exploration of the world every year. Columbus' is often lauded as one of the greatest 'discoverers' in history. However, on His first day in the New World found him using violent force to enslave six natives.", "No question that Christopher Columbus’ origins seem to highlight the passions. Where do YOU believe Christopher Columbus was actually born? Which of these theories would you favor?", "Here's a look at the famed navigator, the voyage to the New World, the history of today's holiday and other interesting facts that have helped drive the conversations and controversy surrounding Christopher Columbus." ]

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[ "When the vote was first extended to women in Britain by the Representation of the People Act 1918, it was only to women over 30 (men could vote at 21); but, considering that prior to the same Act being passed, only 60% of men (i.e. males over 21 according to the standards of the time) had the vote, it puts things into perspective.", "The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed 'constitutional' methods, continued to lobby during the war years, and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. On 6 February, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. About 8.4 million women gained the vote, not only in Britain but also throughout Ireland , the whole of which was part of the United Kingdom. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into Parliament . Having 30 as the age requirement for women to vote, as opposed to 21 for men, was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War. [2] The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men. [2]", "Women in Britain over the age of 30, meeting certain property qualifications, were given the right to vote in 1918, and in 1928 suffrage was extended to all women over the age of 21..", "In 1918 in Britain women over 30 were allowed to vote. In 1928 they were allowed to vote at the age of 21 (the same as men). In 1919 Nancy Astor became the first female MP and in 1929 Margaret Bondfield became the first female cabinet minister. In 1979 Margaret Thatcher became the first female Prime Minister of Britain.", "In 1918, women over 30 were given the right to vote, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as members of parliament at the younger age of 21. The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz, who therefore became the first woman MP. However, due to Sinn Féin's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat. ", "# The first election held under the Representation of the People Act 1918 in which all men over 21, and most women over the age of 30 could vote, and therefore a much larger electorate", "Women were not given the vote before the war. At the end of the war, in 1918, however, the Representation of the People Act gave women over 30 the vote, and in 1928 this was extended to all women over the age of 21.", "In 1901 Britain had a constitutional government, but it was not a fully-fledged democracy. In 1918 it became a democracy, with the introduction of universal adult male suffrage and votes for women aged over 30.", "In the years before World War I , women in Norway (1913) also won the right to vote, as did women in the remaining Australian states. Denmark granted women's suffrage in 1915. Near the end of the war, Canada, Russia, Germany, and Poland also recognized women's right to vote. Propertied British women over 30 had the vote in 1918 , Dutch women in 1919, and American women won the vote on 26 August 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Irish women won the same voting rights as men in the Irish Free State constitution, 1922. In 1928, British women won suffrage on the same terms as men, that is, for persons 21 years old and older. Suffrage of Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and in 1934 for national elections.", "The First World War provided the first opportunity for women to take on traditional male jobs so it isn't surprising that in 1918 women over 30 were given the same political rights as men. But this change was not just a result of war - women had been campaigning for decades to be given the right to vote.", "In Lyonshall from 1914 onwards, younger men joined the army and were sent abroad to fight in the trenches; some never returned. Women took their places on the fields, and started to learn how to drive and work machinery. Nationally, the Suffragette movement campaigned for rights for women. By 1918, women over 30 were able to vote for the first time if they were ratepayers or married to ratepayers. It took another ten years until all women over 21 were able to vote.", "World War I could not be said to have had many silver linings, but it gave British women - who had spent the last four years, in a country shorn of young men, keeping the war effort running in munition factories and farms - a newfound political confidence. The 1918 Act recognised that not only these women, but many soldiers who had supposedly fought for British democracy, were still unable to vote. It removed all property restrictions from male voters, and allowed women to vote for the first time - although not those under 30, and with property restrictions - and to stand for election. The first woman, Nancy Astor, was elected to Parliament just 18 months later, in Plymouth Sutton. Ten years later, the restrictions on women were lifted, allowing them to vote at 21 whether or not they held property.", "The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed \"constitutional\" methods, continued to lobby throughout the war years and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. On 6 February, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications as well as men over 21 – before this not all British men were enfranchised. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into parliament. The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms that men had gained ten years earlier.", "The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed \"constitutional\" methods, continued to lobby during the war years and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. On 6 February, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications as well as men over 21 – before this not all British men were enfranchised. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into parliament. The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms that men had gained ten years earlier. ", "In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) also won the right to vote, as did women in the remaining Australian states. Denmark granted women's suffrage in 1915. Near the end of the war, Canada, Russia, Germany, and Poland also recognized women's right to vote. Propertied British women over 30 had the vote in 1918, Dutch women in 1919, and American women won the vote on 26 August 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Irish women won the same voting rights as men in the Irish Free State constitution, 1922. In 1928, British women won suffrage on the same terms as men, that is, for persons 21 years old and older. Suffrage of Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and in 1934 for national elections.", "5th Feb The Representation of the People Act passed by the British Parliament received the Royal Assent, granting the vote to women over 30. Their first opportunity to use it would come at the General Election on 14th December 1918.", "Emmeline Pankhurst was born in Manchester in 1858. She set up the Women’s Franchise League in 1889, which fought to get the vote in local elections for married women. In 1903 she helped found the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). This was the first group whose members were called ‘suffragettes’. The group used civil disobedience as part of their protest to gain the vote for women. They chained themselves to railings, smashed windows and committed arson. Many of the women, including Emmeline, went on hunger strike. In 1918, women over the age of 30 were given voting rights and the right to stand for Parliament, partly in recognition of the contribution women made to the war effort during the First World War. Shortly before Emmeline’s death in 1928, women were given the right to vote at the age of 21, the same as men.", "In the United Kingdom full adult male suffrage was not achieved until the passage of the Representation of the People Act in 1884 and the franchise was not extended to women in 1918, for those aged 30 and over and in 1928 for those aged 21 and over.", "The Representation of People Act became law in February 1918. From that point on women over 30, who were occupiers of property or married to occupiers, were entitled to vote.", "In which year did all men and women over the age of 21 in Britain get the vote?", "The Wartime Elections Act had enfranchised some women for the 1917 election. In 1918, legislation was passed that enfranchised all women over the age of 21. The 1921 election was the first time that the majority of Canadian women were able to vote.", "The representation of Women in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom has been an issue in the politics of the United Kingdom at numerous points in the 20th and 21st centuries. Originally debate centered on whether women should be allowed to vote and stand for election as Members of Parliament. The Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 gave women over 21 the right to stand for election as a Member of Parliament.", "H.H. Asquith advocated denying women the right to vote. As a result, his house became a target of the British suffragette movement's mass window-breaking campaign in the early 20th century. Despite the views of Asquith and others, in 1928, all British women over age 21 were granted the right to vote.", "1918 The first woman elected to Parliament was Constance, the Countess Markievicz who won for Sinn Fein, contesting a Dublin seat. She was unable to take her seat as she was in Holloway Prison, London. The 1918 General Election was also the first time that women in Britain had the vote.", "1918 - Women vote for the first time in a British general election. Countess Markievicz became the first woman elected to the House of Commons (although she never took her seat)", "\"This followed the 1918 Representation of the People Act, which enfranchised 8.5 million women, giving them a voice in Britain's government for the first time.\"", "After the passing of the Qualification of Women Act the first opportunity for women to vote was in the General Election in December, 1918. Seventeen women candidates that stood in the post-war election. Christabel Pankhurst represented the The Women's Party in Smethwick . Despite the fact that the Conservative Party candidate agreed to stand down, she lost a straight fight with the representative of the Labour Party by 775 votes. Only one woman, Constance Markiewicz , standing for Sinn Fein , was elected. However, as a member of Sinn Fein, she refused to take her seat in the House of Commons .", "Women were given the right to vote in 1915. [9] The first female member of parliament was elected in 1922.", "During the First World War, women rallied to the war effort, becoming nurses and drivers, and replacing men in factories. In 1916, Asquith, overwhelmed by the evidence of feminine capacity, agreed to legislation. Legislation assented to on 6 February 1918 women were granted the vote and allowed to sit in parliament and by related legislation in 1919 became entitled to hold office. Other western countries followed a different course but the result was similar.", "1880: An act passed by the House of Keys on the Isle of Man granted women the vote, provided they were widows or spinsters with a property rated annually at £4 or over. The first opportunity to vote was in April, the following year. In 1901, Norwegian women were allowed to vote, but in local elections only.", "It's not so far back in British history that women were viewed almost as terrorists for demanding to have a vote. It wasn't until 1928, almost a 100 years after the Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced, that women in the UK were entitled to vote on the same terms as men.", "The Great Reform Act of 1832, gave about 4% of the population the right to vote, but women were absolutely forbidden. Women did not get the vote in U. K. until after WW1." ]

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[ "On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. [10] Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. [11]", "On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics held only one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. [9] Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. [10] On April 20 Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. [11] Johnson responded on the following day, concluding that \"we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership.\" [12] His memo concluded that a manned moon landing was far enough in the future to make it possible that the United States could achieve it first. [12]", "On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics held only the day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. [9] Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. [8] On April 20 Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. [10] Johnson responded on the following day, concluding that \"we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership.\" [11] His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future to make it possible that the United States could achieve it first. [11]", "By 1959 American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Project Mercury's first launch. On 12 April 1961, the USSR launched Yuri Gagarin into orbit around the Earth on Vostok 1. They dubbed Gagarin the first cosmonaut, roughly translated from Russian and Greek as \"sailor of the universe\". Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his spacecraft in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space. Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at 7,000 metres (23,000 ft), and landing by parachute. Under Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (International Federation of Aeronautics) FAI qualifying rules for aeronautical records, pilots must both take off and land with their craft, so the Soviet Union kept the landing procedures secret until 1978, when they finally admitted that Gagarin did not land with his spacecraft. When the flight was publicly announced, it was celebrated around the world as a great triumph, not just for the Soviet Union, but for the mankind itself. Yet it once again shocked and embarrassed the United States.", "1961 Yuri Gagarin (Russian was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961. In a flight lasting 148 minutes, he became the first man to orbit the Earth April 12, 1961", "On 12 April 1961, Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space when he launched into orbit on the Vostok 3KA-3 spacecraft (Vostok 1).", "In 1959, the Soviet space program took another step forward with the launch of Luna 2, the first space probe to hit the moon. In April 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit Earth, traveling in the capsule-like spacecraft Vostok 1. For the U.S. effort to send a man into space, dubbed Project Mercury, NASA engineers designed a smaller, cone-shaped capsule far lighter than Vostok; they tested the craft with chimpanzees, and held a final test flight in March 1961 before the Soviets were able to pull ahead with Gagarin’s launch. On May 5, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space (though not in orbit).", "On April 12, 1961 the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space on an orbital flight. Alan Shepard became the first American in space on a suborbital flight three weeks later, on May 5, 1961. John Glenn, the third Mercury astronaut to fly, became the first American to reach orbit on February 20, 1962, but only after the Soviets had launched a second cosmonaut, Gherman Titov, into a day-long flight in August 1961. Three more Mercury orbital flights were made, ending on May 16, 1963 with a day-long, 22 orbit flight. However, the Soviet Union ended its Vostok program the next month, with the human spaceflight endurance record set by the 82-orbit, almost 5-day Vostok 5 flight. ", "On May 5, 1961, Mercury Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr. (right, headed to launch) blasted off in his Freedom 7 capsule atop a Mercury-Redstone rocket (left). His 15-minute sub-orbital flight made him the first American in space.", "May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American astronaut to fly in space. His Project Mercury spacecraft \"Freedom 7\" is launched into sub-orbital trajectory by a Mercury-Redstone missile.", "*Vostok 1, launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961, carrying Yuri Gagarin, was the first successful human spaceflight to reach Earth orbit.", "Three weeks later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, launched in a ballistic trajectory on Mercury-Redstone 3, in a spacecraft he named Freedom 7. Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft's attitude and retro-rocket firing. After his successful return, Shepard was celebrated as a national hero, honored with parades in Washington, New York and Los Angeles, and received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal from President John F. Kennedy. ", "[ˈjʉrʲɪj ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ ɡɐˈɡarʲɪn]; 9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Russian Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961.", "1961: On May 5, Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space in his Mercury capsule Freedom 7.", "President John F. Kennedy (1961-1963) awoke on April 12, 1961, to the news that the Soviet Union had won the race to put a man into space. Kennedy immediately met with Vice President Lyndon Johnson in the White House to discuss the embarrassment of the Soviets beating America again. \"Can we put a man on the moon before them?\" Kennedy asked. A few weeks later, Kennedy challenged the nation to \"commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth.\" The president was feeling more confident in that possibility because Commander Alan Shepard Jr. had returned from a flight to space in a Mercury capsule. Kennedy became a strong supporter of Project Mercury, the American program to put a man into orbit around the earth. On February 20, 1962, Kennedy congratulated John Glenn from the Oval Office when Glenn safely returned from orbiting the earth three times at a speed of 17,000 miles per hour. Kennedy was assassinated before he could see the American flag planted on the moon, but he did succeed in energizing America's space program. Glenn became a national hero and went on to serve in the United States Senate. As an astronaut, Glenn would receive another White House congratulations from the president, but it would come from President Bill Clinton in 1998. \"Space Shuttle Payload Specialist\" John Glenn, at 77, became the oldest person to fly into space.", "[ 97] NASA's first four manned spaceflight projects were Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab. As the first U.S. manned spaceflight project, Project Mercury-which included two manned suborbital flights and four orbital flights-\"fostered Project Apollo and fathered Project Gemini.\" 1 The second manned spaceflight project initiated was the Apollo manned lunar exploration program. The national goal of a manned lunar landing in the 1960s was set forth by President John F. Kennedy 25 May 1961:", "6. 1961 May 5th The United States launches it's first man in space Alan Shepard on the Freedom 7", "On 20 July 1969, Apollo 11, the first human spaceflight landed on the Moon. Launched on 16 July 1969, it carried mission Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, and the Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin. Apollo 11 fulfilled President John F. Kennedy's goal of reaching the moon by the end of the 1960s, which he had expressed during a speech given before a joint session of Congress on 25 May 1961: \"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\"", "Apollo 11 was the first space flight that landed astronauts on the moon on 20 July 1969 - Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. Shortly before 11am, Armstrong climbed down the ladder and proclaimed to more than half a billion people watching on television: \"That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.\"", "In April 1959, seven military-jet test pilots were introduced to the public as America's first astronauts. They were: Lt. M. Scott Carpenter, USN; Capt. L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., USAF; Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., USMC; Cap. Virgil I. Grissom, USAF; Lt. Cdr. Walter M. Schirra, Jr., USN; Lt. Cdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., USN; and Capt. Donald K. Slayton, USAF. Six of the original seven would make a Mercury flight. Slayton was grounded for medical reasons but remained a director of NASA's astronaut office. He returned to flight status in 1975 as Docking Module Pilot on the Apollo-Soyuz flight.", "Nine new astronauts- called the \"New Nine\"- were selected in September of 1962 and flew a total of ten Gemini missions along with the previous class of astronauts. (Compared to the Mercury spacecraft, the Gemini vehicle was larger and could hold two astronauts.) Members of this second class included Neil A. Armstrong, the first man to walk on the Moon, and John W. Young, the commander of the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia.", "1965 – NASA launches Gemini 3, the United States’ first two-man space flight (crew: Gus Grissom and John Young). Young sneaked a corned beef sandwich on board, for which he was later reprimanded.", "On 16th July 1969, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins set off on the first manned space mission (Apollo 11) to the Moon. On 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong piloted Buzz Aldrin in the Lunar Module to the Moon’s surface. They spent about two and a half hours on the Moon, collecting samples and taking photographs. The mission returned on 24th July.", "December 1968 saw the launch of Apollo 8, the first manned space mission to orbit the moon, from NASA’s massive launch facility on Merritt Island, near Cape Canaveral, Florida . On July 16, 1969, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong , Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin and Michael Collins set off on the Apollo 11 space mission, the first lunar landing attempt. After landing successfully on July 20, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon’s surface; he famously called the moment “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”", "Shortly afterwards on July 21, 1961, Gus Grissom piloted Liberty Bell 7 on the second American (suborbital) spaceflight. This was the second of seven manned flights in Project Mercury.", "Neil Armstrong ( 5 August 1930 – 25 August 2012 ) was an American test pilot and astronaut , who was the commander of the Apollo 11 moon landing mission on July 20, 1969, in which he and Buzz Aldrin were the first humans to land on the moon, and he was the first man to walk on the moon.", "Mercury-Redstone 4 was the second United States human spaceflight, on July 21, 1961. The suborbital Project Mercury flight was launched with a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, MRLV-8. The spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was named Liberty Bell 7 and piloted by astronaut Virgil I. \"Gus\" Grissom.", "Astronaut Buzz Aldrin, lunar module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, poses for a photograph beside the deployed United States flag during Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969. Astronaut Neil Armstrong took the ... more", "Dr. Wernher von Braun, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, relaxes after the successful launch of Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin Aldrin Jr. Their historic lunar landing mission began at 9:32 a.m. EDT, July 16, 1969, when an Apollo/Saturn V space vehicle lifted off from the spaceport's Launch Complex 39A.", "Skylab, America’s first space station, is successfully launched into an orbit around the earth. Eleven days later, U.S. astronauts Charles Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul Weitz made a rendezvous with Skylab, repairing a jammed solar panel and conducting scientific experiments during their 28-day stay aboard the space station.", "1961: Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom is the second American astronaut in space on a non-orbital rocket flight over the Atlantic.", "* Honored Master of Sports of the USSR (1961, title obtained as a reward for a space flight)" ]

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[ "Scotland is a country which, today, comprises the northern part of Great Britain and includes the islands known as the Hebrides and the Orkneys. The name derives from the Roman word \"Scotti\" which designated an Irish tribe who invaded the region and established the kingdom of Dal Riata. A claim has also been made, however, that the land is named after Scota, daughter of an Egyptian Pharaoh , who married the Celt Erimon son of Mil and settled in the land which came to be known as Scotland. Prior to this, the land north of Hadrian ’s Wall was known by the Romans as Caledonia and, in Scots Gaelic, as Alba. The precise meaning of these names and their etymology remains a subject of debate, though \"rocky land\" has been offered as a likely candidate for Caledonia and \"white\" is the direct translation of Alba. While it is clear that \"Alba\" once referred to the whole of Great Britain, the theory that it referenced the white cliffs of Dover is disputed. The early Scots referred to the kingdom of the Picts as \"Alba\" and said kingdom, in the north of Scotland, was, of course, nowhere near Dover of Britain.", "Scotland takes its name from Scota, who in Irish mythology, Scottish mythology, and pseudohistory, is the name given to two different mythological daughters of two different Egyptian Pharaohs to whom the Gaels traced their ancestry, allegedly explaining the name Scoti, applied by the Romans to Irish raiders, and later to the Irish invaders of Argyll and Caledonia which became known as Scotland.. Other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael. This last word, derived from the Welsh gwyddel \"raiders\", was eventually adopted by the Irish for themselves. However, as a term it is on a par with Viking, as it describes an activity (raiding, piracy) and its proponents, not their actual ethnic affiliations.", "“Scotland” comes from Scoti , the Latin name for the Gaels . The Late Latin word Scotia (“land of the Gaels”) was initially used to refer to Ireland. [29] By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to (Gaelic-speaking) Scotland north of the river Forth , alongside Albania or Albany, both derived from the Gaelic Alba . [30] The use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages . [18]", "The Roman historian Tacitus, in his book Agricola (c. 98 AD), uses the name Hibernia. The Romans also sometimes used Scotia, \"land of the Scoti\", as a geographical term for Ireland in general, as well as just the part inhabited by those people.", "The word Scotia was used by the Romans, as early as the 1st century CE, as the name of one of the tribes in what is now Scotland. The Romans also used Scotia to refer to the Gaels living in Ireland. The Venerable Bede (c. 672 or 673 – 27 May, 735) uses the word Scottorum for the nation from Ireland who settled part of the Pictish lands: \"Scottorum nationem in Pictorum parte recipit.\" This we can infer to mean the arrival of the people, also known as the Gaels, in the Kingdom of Dál Riata, in the western edge of Scotland. It is of note that Bede used the word natio (nation) for the Scots, where he often refers to other peoples, such as the Picts, with the word gens (race). In the 10th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the word Scot is mentioned as a reference to the \"Land of the Gaels\". The word Scottorum was again used by an Irish king in 1005: Imperator Scottorum was the title given to Brian Bóruma by his notary, Mael Suthain, in the Book of Armagh. This style was subsequently copied by the Scottish kings. Basileus Scottorum appears on the great seal of King Edgar (1074–1107). Alexander I (c. 1078–1124) used the words Rex Scottorum on his great seal, as did many of his successors up to and including James VI. ", "Just to confuse you the Scots, in Latin Scotti, were an Irish tribe in late Roman times. After the end of the Roman period the Scots settled in Scotland and gave the country its name.", "The history of the period is complex and not well-documented. The province of Valentia, for instance, may have been the lands between the two Roman walls, or the territory around and south of Hadrian's Wall, or Roman Wales. Romans held most of their Caledonian territory only a little over 40 years; they probably only held any Scottish land at all for about 80 years. Some Scottish historians such as Moffat go so far as to say Rome's presence was entirely uninfluential. \"Scots\" and \"Scotland\" proper would not emerge as unified ideas until centuries later. In fact, the Roman Empire influenced every part of Scotland during the period: by the time of the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410, the various Iron Age tribes native to the area had united as or fell under the control of the Picts while the southern half of the country was overrun by tribes of Romanized Britons. The Scoti, Gaelic Irish raiders who would give Scotland its English name, had begun to settle along the west coast as well. All three groups may have been involved in the Great Conspiracy that overran Roman Britain in 367. The era also saw the emergence of the earliest historical accounts of the natives. The most enduring legacies of Rome, however, were Christianity and literacy, both of which arrived indirectly via Irish missionaries.", "The written protohistory of Scotland began with the arrival of the Roman Empire in southern and central Great Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now England and Wales, administering it as a province called Britannia. Roman invasions and occupations of southern Scotland were a series of brief interludes. In AD 83–84 the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius, and Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line (none are known to have been constructed beyond that line). Three years after the battle the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands. They erected Hadrian's Wall to control tribes on both sides of the wall, and the Limes Britannicus became the northern border of the empire, although the army held the Antonine Wall in the Central Lowlands for two short periods—the last of these during the time of Emperor Septimius Severus from 208 until 210. The extent of Roman military occupation of any significant part of Scotland was limited to a total of about 40 years, although their influence on the southern section of the country occupied by Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini and Damnonii would still have been considerable.", "In reference to what constitutes ‘Britain’ (without the Great), the Romans occupied (for two periods) plenty of modern day Scotland and built the Antonine (or Severan) wall between the Forth and Clyde. North of that they called Caledonia. If Britain is different from Great Britain and is based on what the Romans called Britannia, surely it should end at either the Antonine wall (incorporating the borders and lowlands of Scotland) or at Hadrian’s wall (excluding northernmost England).", "Caledonia - the geographical area (in Roman times) to the north of the Antonine Wall; now a poetic name for Scotland", "410AD is largely regarded as the date for the end of Roman Rule in Britain. Throughout the final years of disintegrating Roman administration, letters were sent complaining of raids into the north of the Province of Britannia by a tribe called the Scoti, or Scots. These raiders were not from Scotland, however, which did not yet exist as a united realm under that name. They lived in the north east of Ireland.", "The archaeological legacy of Rome in Scotland is of interest, but sparse, especially in the north. Almost all the sites are essentially military in nature and include about 650 km of roads. Overall, it is hard to detect any direct connections between native architecture and settlement patterns and Roman influence. Elsewhere in Europe, new kingdoms and languages emerged from the remnants of the once-mighty Roman world. In Scotland, the Celtic Iron Age way of life, often troubled, but never extinguished by Rome, simply re-asserted itself. In the north the Picts continued to be the main power prior to the arrival and subsequent domination of the Scots of Dalriada. The Damnonii eventually formed the Kingdom of Strathclyde based at Dumbarton Rock. South of the Forth, the Welsh speaking Brythonic kingdoms of Yr Hen Ogledd (English: \"The Old North\") flourished during the 5th–7th centuries.", "..... Click the link for more information.  differed in various details from those of Rome, introduced in the south of Britain by St. Augustine. Conflict between the two was settled in favor of Roman usage decided at the Synod of Whitby in 663, but Scottish Christianity only slowly adopted the Roman forms. After the decline of the Northumbrian power in Scotland began the raids of the Norsemen, who harried the country from the 8th to the 12th cent. In 794 they attacked the islands off Scotland and soon returned to live in the Hebrides; by 870 they were established in what came to be Caithness and Sutherland. In the mid-9th cent. Kenneth I Kenneth I", "Then in 71-74 AD the Romans conquered what is now the north of England. They built a great town at York . The Romans also established a town at Carlisle In the years 74-77 the Romans conquered South Wales. Then in 77 AD Agricola was made governor of Britain. First he conquered North Wales. Then he turned his attention to what is now Scotland. By 81 AD the Romans had captured the area from the Clyde to the Forth. In 82 they advanced further north. In 83 the Romans won a great victory at Mons Graupius (it is not known exactly where that was). However in 86 the Romans withdrew from Scotland.", "In the mid-first century, the Romans were in the process of conquering Britain. In the north, extending into what is now Scotland, the Romans faced the Brigantes.", "Scotland had been inhabited for thousands of years before the Romans arrived. However, it is only during the Greco-Roman period that Scotland is recorded in writing.", "Map of Roman sites in Scotland in the mid 2nd century showing the Antonine Wall. Roman Britain", "Following the conquest of AD 43 the Roman province of Britannia was established, and Roman Britain expanded to cover much of the island of Great Britain. An invasion of Ireland was considered but never undertaken, and Ireland remained outside the Roman Empire. The Romans failed to consolidate their hold on the Scottish Highlands; the northern extent of the area under their control (defined by the Antonine Wall across central Scotland) stabilised at Hadrian's Wall across the north of England by about AD 210. Inhabitants of the province continued to refer to themselves as \"Brittannus\" or \"Britto\", and gave their patria (homeland) as \"Britannia\" or as their tribe. The vernacular term \"Priteni\" came to be used for the barbarians north of the Antonine Wall, with the Romans using the tribal name \"Caledonii\" more generally for these peoples who (after AD 300) they called Picts. ", ", the Romans defeated the tribal armies of Scotland in battle but they were unable to conquer the people. In an attempt to isolate the fierce \"barbarians,\" the Roman emperor Hadrian built a massive stone wall, the remains of which are still visible traversing northern England just south of the Scottish border. By the 600s, four tribal groups had emerged: the Angles of the Southeast, related to the Germanic tribes settling England at the time; the Britons of the southwest, a Celtic people related to the Welsh; the Picts, also Celtic, who dominated the Highlands; and the Scots, a Celtic group that settled the western islands and cost from nearby Ireland. Christianity, brought by missionaries such as St. Ninian and St. Columba, spread slowly among the tribes beginning in about 400.", "At first the Romans attempted to gain control of all of Britain with their allies, the Brigantes. But in 69 an anti-Roman faction gained control of the tribe and as a result forced the Romans to invade and take it under Roman rule. In 79 Agricola embarked on a voyage to conquer Scotland. He had fought four years and gathered several significant victories including a great victory over the natives at Mons Graupius. However at this point there was trouble at the Danube and Domitian was forced to withdraw his troops for Britain. By the end of the century the frontier had been pushed back to the Tyne-Solway isthmus, where Hadrian was to build his wall.", "The earliest recorded history concerning the Scots comes from the Romans, who controlled southern Britain in the first century", "Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the island of Hibernia is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland. The successes and failures of the Romans in subduing the peoples of Britain are still represented in the political geography of the British Isles today.", "The Roman Governor of Britain leads two invading columns into Lowland Scotland, The force sets up permanent garrisons in its wake. In AD 81 the Forth-Clyde line is secured, perhaps slightly south of the later Antonine Wall. The following year, the Romans secure the western coast up to the Clyde to contain the tribesmen there (the Damnonii , Selgovae , and Novantae ) and perhaps prevent Irish landings. Within the Caledonian heartland, firstly north of the Firth of Forth (in AD 83) and then at Mons Graupius (in AD 84), the Romans win victories over what they call the 'Caledonides' led by Calgucus (probably involving the tribal grouping of the Creones and their neighbours along the western coast), and then fight a decisive battle to end the campaign.", "Although the Romans never conquered the peoples of the North of Scotland, they made several journeys to the Moray Firth coast. Suspected Roman forts have been discovered at Thomshill, near Elgin and at Easter Galcantray, Cawdor, Nairnshire and also a suspected marching camp at Wester Alves, Moray. ", "Also present at this time were the people whom the Romans called the Hiberni. These Hiberni were the Irish of the time. In Southern Scotland there were also the various tribes of the Britons. Both the Hiberni and the Britons were of Celtic origin.", "During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.", "West Lothian was extensively settled in prehistoric times, and several ancient burial sites have been uncovered, such as at Cairnpapple Hill. There are remains of hillforts on Cockleroy, Peace Knowe, Bowden, Cairnpapple, and Binns Hills. The area was anciently inhabited by Britons of the tribe known as the Votadini or Gododdin. By 83 AD, southern Scotland had been conquered by Romans, who built a road from their fort at Cramond to the eastern end of the Antonine Wall, as well as forts in West Lothian (of which Castle Greg is a known example). The Romans withdrew roughly two centuries later, and the area was left to the Britons until the arrival of Anglo-Saxons in the fifth and sixth centuries, who brought Lothian under the rule of the Kingdom of Northumbria. In later centuries the region was regularly overrun by Gaelic-speaking Scots, and it became permanently part of the Kingdom of Scotland in the 11th century.", "A final note: in what follows, \"Britannia\" refers to the area shown on the maps. That is, the Island south of the Forth-Clyde line. This is the area occupied by Rome and its federate allies for most of the first four centuries A.D.", "In AD 83–84, the General Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tacitus wrote that, before the battle, the Caledonian leader, Calgacus, gave a rousing speech in which he called his people the \"last of the free\" and accused the Romans of \"making the world a desert and calling it peace\" (freely translated). After the Roman victory, Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line (only Cawdor near Inverness is known to have been constructed beyond that line). Three years after the battle, the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands. ", "In AD 83–84, the General Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Tacitus wrote that, before the battle, the Caledonian leader, Calgacus , gave a rousing speech in which he called his people the “last of the free” and accused the Romans of “making the world a desert and calling it peace” (freely translated). [42] After the Roman victory, Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line (only Cawdor near Inverness is known to have been constructed beyond that line). Three years after the battle, the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands . [43]", "In AD 83–84, the General Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Tacitus wrote that, before the battle, the Caledonian leader, Calgacus , gave a rousing speech in which he called his people the “last of the free” and accused the Romans of “making the world a desert and calling it peace” (freely translated). [45] After the Roman victory, Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line (only Cawdor near Inverness is known to have been constructed beyond that line). Three years after the battle, the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands . [46]", "In 84 AD, the Romans reached the northern limit of their advance: the Moray Firth. The battle of Mons Graupius 14 was fought between the Romans and the Caledonians - the Romans won this battle, beating the Caledonian leader Calgacus and a force of 30,000." ]

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[ "Great Britain was the first country to issue a pre-paid postage stamp, followed by Brazil and a Swiss canton", "Since Great Britain is credited with issuing the world's first postage stamp, they are the only country on earth that is not required by the Universal Postal Union to put the name of their country on the postage stamps they issue. On Great Britain’s current postal issues you’ll see the cameo silhouette of Queen Elizabeth II.", "Only one country is permitted to issue postage stamps without including their name. This is Great Britain because it was the first country to issue postage stamps in 1840. In place of the country's name, Great Britain is allowed to simply include an image of the ruling monarch (frequently in the upper right hand corner of the stamp). Remember that many countries do not use English and thus you may not recognize the name. An on line country stamp identifier is available at http://www.iswsc.org/iswsc_ident.html .", "As no other country at the time was issuing adhesive postage stamps, the country name was not used. For their distinction of being the first stamp issuing country, to this day, Great Britain is the only country in the World that is NOT required to print their country name on their postage stamps.", "In 1855, Sweden issued its first postage stamps, in a set of five values depicting the Swedish coat of arms, with denominations ranging from three to 24 Swedish skillings. The three-skilling stamp was normally printed in a blue-green color, with the eight-skilling stamp being printed in yellowish orange. It is not known exactly what went wrong, but the most likely explanation is that a stereotype of the eight-skilling printing plate (which consisted of 100 stereotypes assembled into a 10 × 10 array) was damaged or broken, and it was mistakenly replaced with a three-skilling. The number of stamps printed in the wrong color is unknown, but so far only one example has been found.", "New regulations removed the special postal privileges which had been enjoyed by officials of the East India Company. Stamps for official use were prepared and carefully accounted for to combat the abuse of privileges by Company officials. In 1854 Spain had printed special stamps for official communications, but in 1866 India was the first country to adopt the simple expedient of overprinting 'Service' on postage stamps and 'Service Postage' on revenue stamps. This innovation became widely adopted by other countries in later years.", "Subsequently, an Act for the Penny Post was passed in the British Parliament, and on 1 May 1840, the now famous and coveted Penny Black became legal tender for postage in Great Britain.  In New Zealand, the first official adhesive postage stamps were not introduced until some years later, in 1855, and depicted a full face portrait of Queen Victoria taken from a coronation portrait painted by Alfred Edward Chalon.", "The first adhesive postage stamp, the Penny Black, was launched in Britain in 1840, followed two days later by the Tuppence Blue. Before then, postage had been paid by the recipient rather than the sender.", "1840: The first postage stamps, the Penny Black and two-penny blues, which were the brainchild of Roland Hill, officially went on sale in Britain. (Some had been sold four days before and are now valued at not less than £65,000 each.)", "Small piece of pre-gummed paper that, when affixed to an item of mail, indicates that postage costs have been prepaid. The postage stamp originated in Britain in 1840 as part of the reform of the postal system instigated by Sir Rowland Hill (1795-1879), who is also credited with the design of the first stamp, the Penny Black, which was first sold in London on 1 May 1840 (it was not officially valid until 6 May, although examples of premature use are known). This design government stamp affixed to mail to indicate payment of postage. The term includes stamps printed or embossed on postcards and envelopes as well as the adhesive labels. The use of adhesive postage stamps was advocated by Sir Rowland Hill; it was adopted in", "The first stamp was put on sale on May 1, 1840 and was valid from May 6, 1840. Two days later the Two Pence Blue came. Both show a portrait of young Queen Victoria. At that time, The United Kingdom's name was not inscribed on the stamp. United Kingdom remained the only country not to inscribe its name on the stamp because the monarch’s head was used as identification.", "An Act of Congress provided for the issuance of stamps on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. The 5-cent stamp paid for a letter weighing less than 1 oz and traveling less than 300 miles, the 10-cent stamp for deliveries to locations greater than 300 miles, or twice the weight deliverable for the 5-cent stamp.", "The U.S. Postal Service participated in the celebration issuing the first US commemorative postage stamps , a series of 16 postage issues called the Columbian Issue depicting Columbus, Queen Isabella and others in the various stages of his several voyages. The issues range in value from the 1-cent to the 5-dollar denominations. Under Benjamin Harrison and his Postmaster General John Wanamaker the Columbian commemorative stamps were made available and were first issued at the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, in 1893. Wanamaker originally introduced the idea of issuing the nation's first commemorative stamp to Harrison, the Congress and the U.S. Post Office. To demonstrate his confidence in the new Columbian commemorative issues Wanamaker purchased $10,000 worth of stamps with his own money. The Columbian Exposition lasted several months, and over $40 million in commemorative postage stamps had been sold. [64] The 400th anniversary Columbian issues were very popular in the United States. A total of two billion stamps were issued for all the Columbian denominations, and 72 percent of these were the two-cent stamps, \"Landing of Columbus\", which paid the first-class rate for domestic mail at the time.", "postage stamps (in five and ten cent denominations) were first authorized by Congress in 1847 and came on the market on July 1 of the same year. By 1860, more than 90 countries, colonies, or districts were issuing postage stamps.", "Among the first definitive stamps that appeared in the United States were items depicting George Washington, along with that of Benjamin Franklin appeared on July 1 of 1847. Thomas Jefferson first appeared on U.S. postage in March 1856, nine years after the first issues were released. Only 15 years later Andrew Jackson was honored with a special postage stamp. Abraham Lincoln appeared for the first time on a U.S. postage stamp on April 14, 1866, on occasion of the first anniversary of his death. With a run of history newly selected presidents began to be commemorated with different philatelic issues.", "When postage was released, the use of adhesive stamp spread rapidly. Baden, Canada, Denmark, Hawaii, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Sardinia, Trinidad, Tuscany, and Wurttemberg joined the stamp-issuing entities in 1851.", "In 1837 Sir Rowland Hill, the British Postmaster General, introduced the \"Post Office Reforms\" whereby the mail could go anywhere in the British Isles at the same rate (a penny a half-ounce); the postage was to be paid by the sender -- not the addressee; and payment was receipted by placing a small piece of colored paper on the outside of the letter -- THE STAMP! Of course Hill's proposal was heavily debated for a few years, but after serious discussion the change was enacted and instituted in 1840. Thus on May 6, 1840 (first date of valid use) the first government-printed postage stamps were born.", "Congress finally provided for the issuance of stamps by passing an act on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster-General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. They consisted of an engraved 5-cent red brown stamp depicting Benjamin Franklin (the first postmaster of the U.S.), and a 10-cent value in black with George Washington. Like all U.S. stamps until 1857, they were imperforate.", "Mauritius in 1847 was the first British colony to adopt adhesive stamps. The same year, Trinidad had a local stamp for mails carried by Lady McLeod. Lady McLeod is a steamship run by a private company. This steamship was featured on a stamp during Mauritius ear. As early as 1843, the Broadway of Penny Post of New York had a stamp showing the same steam locomotive.", "The Post Office Department issued its first postage stamps on July 1, 1847. Previously, letters were taken to a Post Office, where the postmaster would note the postage in the upper right corner. The postage rate was based on the number of sheets in the letter and the distance it would travel. Postage could be paid in advance by the writer, collected from the addressee on delivery, or paid partially in advance and partially upon delivery.", "The World Columbian Exposition of 1893 commemorated the 400th anniversary of the landing of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. The Post Office got in on the act, issuing a series of 16 stamps depicting Columbus and episodes in his career, ranging in value from 1¢ to $5 (a princely sum in those days). They are often considered the first commemorative stamps issued by any country.", "The first series of commemorative stamps issued by the U.S. Postal Service depicted Columbus's discovery of America. They were issued in 1893 and ", "1893 - The first commemorative postage stamps were issued. They commemorated the lowest prices these stamps would ever be again.", "1869 – Postage stamps showing scenes are issued for first time. It was also the first time two-color stamps were used.", "In 1873, the Post Office began producing a pre-stamped post card. One side was printed with a Liberty-head one-cent stamp design, along with the words \"United States Postal Card\" and three blank lines provided for the mailing address. Six years later, it introduced a series of seven Postage Due stamps in denominations ranging from 1¢ to 50¢, all printed in the same brownish-red color and conforming to the same uniform and highly utilitarian design, with their denominations rendered in numerals much larger than those found on definitive stamps. The design remained unchanged until 1894, and only four different postage due designs have appeared to date.", "issued their own stamps, but the first official stamps came in 1847, with 5 and 10 cent stamps depicting Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. A few other countries issued stamps in the late 1840s. Many more, such as", "George Washington was the first president to be pictured on a postage stamp. It was a ten cent stamp issued in 1847.", "were among the first countries to have issued self-adhesive stamps in these instances some in the shapes of fruit;", "It also saw the introduction of the first Postage Due stamps. Please see section below for more details on these.", "a block of stamps from the 1943-1944 Overrun Countries Issue ( Scott 909-921) with a country name in the location where a plate number is customarily located.", "The issuing office must have postal sovereignty over the territory and also the means to transport mail. Therefore, stamps issued by governments in exile cannot be considered to be postage stamps. Although the overwhelming majority of postage stamps bear the name of the issuing State or country, this is not absolutely necessary. British stamps, for instance, have no text giving the name of the country; they just feature the portrait of the King or the Queen. After all,", "' incidentally. It could therefore be said by a rather forced argument that for the first time, the name of the country then appeared on a stamp of the" ]

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[ "John Nash (18 January 1752 – 13 May 1835) was a British architect responsible for much of the layout of Regency London under the patronage of the Prince Regent, and during his reign as George IV. Nash was also a pioneer in the use of the Picturesque in architecture. His best-known buildings are the Royal Pavilion, Brighton, and Buckingham Palace (though the facade facing The Mall is an early 20th-century remodelling by Aston Webb of an 1850s wing by Edward Blore, and thus is not Nash's work). Many of his buildings were built by the property developer James Burton, who also lent him financial assistance when he encountered financial problems during his projects on Regent Street. In return, Nash promoted the career of Burton's son, Decimus Burton, who assisted him with several of his designs and later became a famous architect in his own right. ", "One of the greatest architects of metropolitan London during the Regency era (c.1810-30), John Nash was a highly original and prolific designer, best known for the neoclassical architecture he used in the Marylebone region of London, notably Regent's Park (1812-27), an impressive complex of rigorously classical buildings. Part of the Picturesque movement, he combined irregular views with Neoclassical structures, making use of the widest variety of styles and urbanistic ideas. In addition, he was among the initiators of the revival of Gothic and Renaissance architecture , Exoticism, and similar styles, that became typical of 19th century architecture in England. His most famous examples of classicism included city terraces in London (Royal Mews 1825; Cumberland Terrace 1828; Carlton Terrace 1827-32), major urban structures (Theatre Royal Haymarket 1820), country houses and castellated villas (East Cowes Castle 1798-1802; Ravensworth Castle 1808), and picturesque cottages (Blaise Hamlet 1810-11). He also designed the neoclassical All Souls Church in Langham Place (182224), and the gothic-style St. Mary's Church Haggerston (182527). His most unorthodox building was the Royal Pavilion in Brighton (1815-22) - a fantastic version of Indian design, with elements of Chinese, Moorish and Gothic architecture . The layout of the West End of London, including Trafalgar Square, St James's Park, and the Royal Mews off the Mall, owes a great deal to his innovative designs and planning. He also worked on Buckingham Palace, although here he was less unsuccessful and after the King's death he lost his royal commissions. See also Victorian Art (1840-1900).", "Whether this was based on just a rumour put about by people who resented Nash's success or if there is substance behind is not known.<br /><br /> Further London commissions for Nash followed, including the remodelling of Buckingham House to create Buckingham Palace (1825â1830), and for the Royal Mews (1822â24) and Marble Arch (1828) The arch was originally designed as a triumphal arch to stand at the entrance to Buckingham Palace. It was moved when the east wing of the palace designed by Edward Blore was built, at the request of Queen Victoria whose growing family required additional domestic space. Marble Arch became the entrance to Hyde Park and The Great Exhibition.<br /><br /> Many of Nash's buildings were built by property developer James Burton, who also lent him financial assistance when he encountered financial problems during his projects on Regent Street. In return, Nash promoted the career of Burton's son, Decimus Burton, who assisted him with several of his designs. Nash was appointed architectural 'overseer' for Decimus's Regent's Park projects: Cornwall Terrace, York Terrace, Chester Terrace and the villas of the Inner Circle, including The Holme. However, to the chagrin of Nash, Decimus largely disregarded his advice and developed the Terraces according his own style, to the extent that Nash sought the demolition and complete rebuilding of Chester Terrace, but in vain. Decimus also emerged as the dominant force in the design of Carlton House Terrace. Read Less", "George IV’s character was in part redeemed by his linguistic and other intellectual abilities and especially by his astute judgment in the arts; he patronized the architect John Nash , who developed Regent Street (1811–c. 1825) and Regent’s Park , London; and he sponsored Sir Jeffry Wyatville’s restoration of Windsor Castle . George’s most famous effort was the exotic Royal Pavilion at Brighton with its Mughal Indian and Chinese decorations, designed by Nash.", "John Nash was a British architect who built the Royal Pavilion under the patronage of Prince Regent in the early 19th century. The Royal Pavilion was originally built as a seaside resort and had an Indian look from the outside. John Nash is also known for being one of the main architects in the enlargement of Buckingham Palace.", "Nash's other major building project in London, Buckingham Palace , did not fare so well, however. When Nash began work on the Palace in 1825 it was still Buckingham House. The Prince Regent had decided that Carlton House was \"antiquated, rundown, and decrepit\", and decided to create a palace on the site of the Duke of Buckingham's former villa.", "Buckingham House was transformed into Buckingham Palace in the 1820s by the architect John Nash for George IV.", "Nash was born in 1752 in the Isle of Wight and trained as an architect. He set up in London with a legacy but after speculating in the Bloomsbury Square development in 1783 went bankrupt and moved to Wales to begin afresh with country projects. In 1796 he returned to London where he set up with the landscape designer Humphrey Repton until 1802. In 1798 he married the 25 year old Mary Bradley through whom he met the Prince of Wales who was interested in architecture and made use of Nash. In return the Prince may have made use of Mary! In 1806 he was appointed Chief Commissioner of Woods & Forests. He was responsible for designing some of the terraces and approved the plans of other buildings in the Regent's Park scheme. His development of Regent Street as an approach road was also intended to divide lower class Soho from upper class Mayfair and included a flat for himself at number 14-6 (now gone). He was commissioned by the Prince to make improvements to Buckingham House but the mounting costs of the project made him unpoplar and the Prince died in 1830 before it was completed. Nash himself died in 1835 aged 83 having done much of his major work in his 60s. There is a bust of him at the south end of Chester Terrace.", "Before the engineering triumphs of Bazalgette came the architectural triumphs of George IV's favorite designer, John Nash. Nash designed the broad avenues of Regent Street<, Piccadilly Circus, Carlton House Terrace, and Oxford Circus, as well as the ongoing creation of Buckingham transformation of Buckingham House into a palace worthy of a monarch.", "Born in Lambeth, the son of a millwright, Nash trained with the architect Sir Robert Taylor (1714-88) and began as a surveyor and builder, before opening his own architectural practice at the age of 25. Alas, despite receiving a substantial family inheritance of £1000 in 1778, Nash's decision to invest in property proved unwise and he was declared bankrupt five years later. After this, he left London and settled near his mother in Carmarthen, Wales. It was in Wales that he completed his first important projects of late-18th century architecture , the prisons at Carmarthen (1789-92), Cardigan (1791-96) and Hereford (179296). He also renovated St David's Cathedral (1789-91) by adding two large flying buttresses, and designed Castle House Aberystwyth (1795) in Picturesque style. In addition, he designed a dozen small country houses or \"villas\", located throughout South Wales, such as Llanerchaeron (c.1795). While working in the principality, Nash formed a profitable 8-year partnership with landscape gardener Humphrey Repton (1752-1818). Then in 1797 he returned to London.", "The unique complex of buildings that make up the Royal Pavilion in Brighton was developed for the Prince Regent (later King George IV) as a residence. John Nash effected the transformation to royal palace using the structural techniques for cast iron frames, laminated timber ribs and prestressed timber beams pioneered by engineers but rarely acknowledged by architects at the time. The ever-popular pavilion is Grade I listed and a scheduled ancient monument.", "The first suggestion for a National Gallery on Trafalgar Square came from John Nash, who envisaged it on the site of the King's Mews, while a Parthenon-like building for the Royal Academy would occupy the centre of the square. Economic recession prevented this scheme from being built, but a competition for the Mews site was eventually held in 1831, for which Nash submitted a design with C. R. Cockerell as his co-architect. Nash's popularity was waning by this time, however, and the commission was awarded to William Wilkins, who was involved in the selection of the site and submitted some drawings at the last moment. Wilkins had hoped to build a \"Temple of the Arts, nurturing contemporary art through historical example\", but the commission was blighted by parsimony and compromise, and the resulting building was deemed a failure on almost all counts.", "9) In 1826 which English King commissioned architect John Nash to remodel Buckingham House into a Royal Palace?", "Of his immediate predecessor, Inigo Jones, the Banqueting House in Whitehall, now used as a museum, remains a fragment of the splendid palace designed by him for James I. The classical revival began with Gibbs, when he built St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, whose Greek portico is the best and most perfect Greek example in London, if we except the caryatides of St. Pancras. The brothers Adam also flourished at this time, and introduced grace of line and much artistic skill in domestic establishments which they built in \"The Adelphi\" and elsewhere. Chambers with Somerset House, and Sir John Soane with the Bank of England, continued the classical traditions, but its full force came with Nash, \"the apostle of plaster,\" who planned the Quadrant and Regent Street, from Carlton House to Regent's Park, and the terraces in that locality, in the tawdry pseudo-classic stuccoed style, applied [Pg 137] indiscriminately to churches, shops, and what not. Not till the middle of the nineteenth century did the Gothic revival flourish. Pugin, Britton, and Sir John Barry then became prominent. The last named built the Houses of Parliament.", "The old mews were subsequently demolished and Trafalgar Square – another Nash design – built on the site between 1827 and 1835 while the National Gallery opened in 1838.", "By the third quarter of the century there was some reaction against this established taste; Robert Adam (1728–92) was able to create a fashionable style based on the introduction of neo-classical elements culled principally from the antique. Indeed, increasing interest in antiquity led to the ‘Greek Revival’ and to the further development of the Gothic Revival , the origins of which lie earlier in the century. Sir John Soane (1753–1837) developed an extremely personal neo-classical style, as in his now largely demolished works at the Bank of England from 1788, and played a part in architectural education and in furthering the status of the profession. His rival John Nash (1752–1835) was a versatile exponent of Picturesque architecture and was responsible for George IV 's metropolitan ‘improvements’ in the area of what is now Regent's Park, London (1821–30).", "John Nash engaged to remodel the Pavilion. Existing rooms are altered and notable additions include the Banqueting and Music Rooms and the Great Kitchen. The exterior is redesigned, inspired by Indian architecture. A lavish chinoiserie style dominates the interior.", "John Nash was the perfect professional partner for the Pavilion’s colorful patron. Subsequently criticised for an overly fashionable and reckless approach to architectural practice, and a resultant lack of purity in the finished product, Nash had planned Regent’s Street and Regent’s Park in London as a celebration of the rise of the new consumer classes.", "This was no problem to John Nash, the brilliant son of a poor Lambeth millwright who had already earned himself a great name as a designer of country houses. Two years later he published his first plan of Regent's Park. It was immediately clear that London was about to be transformed a new concept in style and stucco would be copied and reproduced throughout London in years to come.", "From the thirteenth century on the area was the site of the King's Royal Hawks and later the Royal Mews . In 1812 the Prince Regent - who would later become King George IV - asked architect John Nash to redevelop the area. After much delay work finally started in 1830. Nash had the terrain cleared but he died before his plans were realized and works were halted.", "The first remodelling began in 1762, to designs by Sir William Chambers costing �73,000. In 1820, King George IV ascended the throne and engaged architect John Nash to reconstruct the house. Some time near the end of 1826, the king decided to transform the house into a royal palace.", "Naturally Nash’s huge canvass of innovative works was hugely controversial. In 1824 one of his church buildings, All Souls, at Langham Place, sparked a parliamentary debate. The design mixed a Gothic spire, a classical rotunda and Corinthian columns sporting cherub heads as designed by Michelangelo. Nash was lambasted for creating this “deplorable and horrible object”.", "Between 1800 and 1812 Nash designed about twenty more country houses in a stunning variety of styles, Classical, Gothic, Palladian, Tudor or Jacobean; with estate cottages built in the English, Italian and Swiss styles. This brought him funds for an extra floor on the Castle and the purchase of North Heathfield Farm at Whippingham, Hamstead Farm near Shalfleet and in 1806, neighbouring Ningwood Manor. All the time he entertained enthusiastically “…peers and bishops, admirals, politicians, soldiers and lawyers” were invited to the Castle where the entertainment was lavish and generous. One of his guests, Mrs. Arbuthnot, described her host as “a very clever, odd, amusing man… with a face like a monkey’s but civil and good humoured to the greatest degree”.", "John Nash (1752-1835) was the son of a millwright, but he cast aside his father's profession and apprenticed with architect Sir Robert Taylor.", "John Nash helped define the style of an era. Through his friendship with the Prince Regent, his influence on Regency art and architecture cannot be overstated. He worked in many architectural styles, from Gothic to Italianate, Palladian, Greek, and picturesque. He was enthusiastic and impatient, yet a man blessed with great talent and creative vision.", "Decades later, in the 1770s, the noted physician William Battie lived there, and architect John Nash built elegant houses there, occupying one himself for a while (Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)", "English: This category is for images related to the British architect John Nash , 1752-1835. For the American mathematician, see category:John Forbes Nash .", "Into the 'decayed' country town that was Bath at the start of the 18th century, walked the wigged adventurer and dandy 'Beau' Richard Nash. A drop-out from Oxford University, the army and the law, Beau Nash earned his money as a gambler and immaculate socialite. With Queen Anne's visit to Bath in 1802 Beau Nash saw his chance to make fortune and influential friends. Immediately, Nash set about transporting Bath into the kind of fashionable resort in which his gambling skills would thrive. Within just three years he had raised a considerable sum of money for the repair of Bath's woeful roads. Beau Nash and his great new city of pleasure and social elegance grew side by side. As Nash's influence increased, Bath with its splendid new public buildings, orchestras and balls, began to rival London", "1775 23 Years Old On 28 April 1775, at the now demolished church of St Mary Newington, Nash married his first wife Jane Elizabeth Kerr, daughter of a surgeon. … Read More", "John Wood, the architect, though hardly as well known to posterity as Nash, must not be overlooked. Till he appeared in Bath in 1728, the city had been confined strictly within the Roman limits. The suburbs consisted merely of a few scattered houses. Wood improved and enlarged the city by his architectural efforts, which led to the quarrying of freestone found existing in the neighbourhood. His successors carried on his enterprise.", "1766 14 Years Old From 1766 or 67, John Nash trained with the architect Sir Robert Taylor; the apprenticeship was completed in 1775 or 1776.", "The College then also demolished a Georgian building - the house they had bought at 9 Queen Street. Once the site was cleared their architect, Thomas Hamilton started building what they hoped would be more practical premises - with lots of room for books. The Queen Street Hall was completed in 1846." ]

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[ "Richard Nixon, in full Richard Milhous Nixon (born January 9, 1913, Yorba Linda , California , U.S.—died April 22, 1994, New York , New York), 37th president of the United States (1969–74), who, faced with almost certain impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal , became the first American president to resign from office. He was also vice president (1953–61) under Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower . (For a discussion of the history and nature of the presidency, see presidency of the United States of America .)", "NARRATOR: On August 9, 1974, Richard Milhous Nixon became the first President in the history of the United States to resign from office. His staff gathered in the White House to bid him farewell, as millions of Americans watched on television, some in sorrow and disbelief, others glad to see him go. Richard Nixon had accomplished great things as President and had been reelected overwhelmingly, but he was also widely distrusted, sometimes ridiculed, even despised.", "Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States of America who was famous as the first U.S. President to resign from office because of his impeachment proceedings the Watergate Scandal.", "Nixon's Vice President, Spiro Agnew, had been forced to resign in 1973 after pleading \"no contest\" to charges of income tax evasion. He was replaced by Gerald Ford. Before the Watergate investigation was over, all but one of Nixon's aides were forced to resign. In March of 1974, a federal grand jury named the President as an unindicted coconspirator in an attempt to obstruct justice in the Watergate investigation. The House Judiciary Committee began to investigate the case for impeachment. The United States Supreme Court would not allow Nixon to claim Executive Privilege in order to avoid prosecution. Ultimately, The Judiciary Committee recommended impeachment to the full House of Representatives. Rather than face trial, on August 9, 1974, Richard Nixon became the first American President ever to resign from office. At noon on that same day, as Nixon was being flown to his retirement in California, Gerald Ford took the Oath of Office. The newly elected President granted Nixon a full pardon.", "President Richard M. Nixon resigned from office, the first U.S. president ever to do so. The House Judiciary Committee had, with bipartisan support, voted for three articles of impeachment: obstruction of justice, abuse of power and contempt of Congress.", "President Richard M. Nixon resigned from office, the first U.S. president ever to do so. The House Judiciary Committee had, with bipartisan support (the Democrats and one-third of the Republican members), voted for three articles of impeachment: obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress.", "August 8 - Richard Nixon becomes the first U.S. president to resign. Vice President Gerald R. Ford assumes the country's highest office. He will later pardon Nixon of all charges related to the Watergate case. Post Story", "Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–1974) and the only American president to resign from that office. He was also Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.", "The Watergate scandal erupted after it was revealed that Nixon and his aides had engaged in illegal activities during his reelection campaign–and then attempted to cover up evidence of wrongdoing. With impeachment proceedings underway against him in Congress, Nixon bowed to public pressure and became the first American president to resign. At noon on August 9, Nixon officially ended his term, departing with his family in a helicopter from the White House lawn. Minutes later, Vice President Gerald R. Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the United States in the East Room of the White House. After taking the oath of office, President Ford spoke to the nation in a television address, declaring, “My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over.”", "The 61-year old Mr. Nixon, appearing calm and resigned to his fate as a victim of the Watergate scandal, became the first President in the history of the Republic to resign from office. Only 10 months earlier Spiro Agnew resigned the Vice-Presidency.", "315 Answer: (D) resigned from office before the House could impeach him, which it was likely to do Explanation: After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1974 U.S. v. Richard M. Nixon decision that the White House tapes needed to be turned over to the Special Prosecutor, members of Nixon's Republican Party convinced him to resign rather than fight impeachment hearings. Nixon became the first president to resign from office.", "Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower.", "Richard Nixon has announced he is stepping down as president of the United States - the first man ever to do so.", "August 9, 1974 - Effective at noon, Richard M. Nixon resigned the presidency as a result of the Watergate scandal. Nixon had appeared on television the night before and announced his decision to the American people. Facing possible impeachment by Congress, he became the only U.S. President ever to resign.", "Following impeachment hearings started on May 9th Richard Nixonbecomes the first US president forced to resign after the Watergate Scandal on August 9th", "Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was the first president to visit all 50 states and the first to visit China. He is the only president to resign.[10]", "Ford broke with Nixon publicly on August 5, 1974, stating that the tapes made it impossible for the President to continue to claim that he was \"not guilty of an impeachable offense.\" As Nixon planned his next move, Ford met with his advisers and prepared to assume the presidency. On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation in a televised address to the American people. The next day, Gerald Ford became President of the United States, the first person ever to occupy that office who had not been sent there by the electorate.", "In August 1974, the House Judiciary Committee decided to move forward with the impeachment process, prompting Nixon to resign on Aug. 4, 1974, becoming the first president to do so.", "1832 – John C. Calhoun became the first Vice President of the United States to officially resign from office, opting to instead represent South Carolina in the U.S. Senate in the aftermath of the Nullification Crisis.", "Nov 2nd  - General George Washington, later 1st American President, bids farewell to his army after the American Revolutionary War", "U.S. Vice President under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson [1825-1832]; the first VP to resign office: became a U.S. Senator; died Mar 31, 1850", "On April 30, 1789, George Washington took the oath as the first president of the United States. The oath was administered by Robert R. Livingston, the Chancellor of New York, on a second floor balcony of Federal Hall, above a crowd assembled in the streets to witness this historic event. President Washington and the members of Congress then retired to the Senate Chamber, where Washington delivered the first inaugural address to a joint session of Congress. Washington humbly noted the power of the nations' call for him to serve as president and the shared responsibility of the president and Congress to preserve \"the sacred fire of liberty\" and a republican form of government.", "Onward and Upward. In 1783 Washington resigned his commission and returned to Virginia. Like Cincinnatus, the Roman general he so admired, Washington desired to return to farming after his heroic performance, but he was the indispensable man. Reluctant as he was to leave his estate, when the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia in 1787, he was present and elected chair. On 6 April 1789 the electors unanimously chose him to be first president of the United States, a post he held for eight years. His sense of duty and his calmness were enormously valuable to the political functioning of the new country. His Farewell Address in 1797 urged Americans to submerge the interests of parties and factions for the sake of national unity. He died in 1799, not only having made the existence of his country possible but, by his modesty in office, decisively shaping the democratic tradition of the presidency.", "Preliminary drafts of the Farewell Address revealed Washington’s bitterness over the political climate in 1796. Revisions by Alexander Hamilton softened many of the complaints and omitted the self-pitying passages. Even so, when placed in the context of the times, the farewell reads as a lament, an ambiguous end to the first President’s career. It illustrates Washington’s belief in the central importance of the presidency, yet at the same time demonstrates that as early as 1796, the emerging political system had begun to shape, constrain, and frustrate the executive.", "He is the only US President to have resigned from office His - HIST - 106", "He was the first President in 50 years to be voted out of office after one term.", "After the war, she opposed his agreeing to be President of the newly formed United States of America, and refused to attend his inauguration on April 30, 1789. Once he assumed office, as the First Lady, Martha Washington hosted many affairs of state at New York and Philadelphia during their years as temporary capitals. The socializing became known as \"the Republican Court\" And provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role. ", "1789 – For his presidential administration, George Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson as the first U.S. Secretary of State, John Jay as the first Chief Justice, Samuel Osgood as the first Postmaster General, and Edmund Randolph as the first Attorney General.", "Became the first Secretary of State in 1789 (until his resignation in 1793) under George Washington's government.", "1789 - Thomas Jefferson was appointed America's first Secretary of State. John Jay was appointed the first chief justice of the U.S. Samuel Osgood was appointed the first Postmaster-General. Edmund Jennings Randolph was appointed the first Attorney General.", "The vow was sincere but short-lived. Jefferson agreed, albeit reluctantly, to serve as a delegate to the Continental Congress in December 1782, where his major contribution was to set forth the principle that territories in the West should not be treated as colonies but rather should enter the Union with status equal to the original states once certain conditions were met. Then, in 1784, recognizing the need to escape the memories of Martha that haunted the hallways at Monticello, he agreed to replace Franklin as American minister to France; or, as legend tells the story, he agreed to succeed Franklin, noting that no one could replace him.", "Always deferential to civilian authorities, Washington let them be the first to return to New York City after the British evacuated it. He then gave a series of farewell addresses, in most of which he stated his intention to withdraw from public life. His returning to his farm revived the legend of Cincinnatus, the Roman hero whose plowing had been interrupted by a call to save the republic from invaders, and who had gone back to his lands when the job was done. (Washington’s behavior inspired the founding of the Order of Cincinnatus by former officers of the Revolutionary army; its name symbolizes that their greatest action was to return to being ordinary citizens again.) In retiring, Washington exhibited a disdain for office and power that only enhanced his charisma and increased his influence. He made it clear that he had no interest in any public position, certainly not as king, which many wanted him to become, but equally not as head of the republic. A disdain for office did not mean a lack of interest in the shape of the new nation. Washington understood that to have one nation, it would be necessary to have a central government with an executive—something not provided for in the Articles of Confederation. His resignation address to the Continental Congress had included a strong argument for such a government." ]

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[ "Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné) ( September 5 , 1638 – September 1 , 1715 ) ruled as King of France and of Navarre from May 14 1643 until his death just prior to his seventy-seventh birthday. He acceded to the throne a few months before his fifth birthday, but did not assume actual personal control of the government until the death of his First Minister (\"premier ministre\"), Jules Cardinal Mazarin , in 1661. Louis XIV, known as The Sun King (in French Le Roi Soleil) or as Louis the Great (in French Louis le Grand, or simply Le Grand Monarque, \"the Great Monarch\"), ruled France for seventy-two years—the longest reign of any French or other major European monarch. Louis XIV increased the power and influence of France in Europe, fighting three major wars —the Franco-Dutch War , the War of the League of Augsburg , and the War of the Spanish Succession —and two minor conflicts—the War of Devolution , and the War of the Reunions .", "Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi-Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1643 until his death. [1] His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a major country in European history . [2] In this age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIV's France was a leader in the growing centralization of power. [3]", "Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi-Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a major country in European history.", "Louis XIV of France (Louis the Great, the Sun King) died after reigning for 72 years and 110 days; he was succeeded by his great-grandson Louis XV who was five years old", "1715 – King Louis XIV of France (b. 1638) dies after a reign of 72 years — longer than any major European monarch.", "1715 - King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years�the longest of any major European monarch.", "1715-09-01 King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years—the longest of any major European monarch.", "Louis XIV, a.k.a. Le Roi-Soleil, King of France from 14 May 1643 to 1 September 1715 (died aged 76)", "The Sun King, also known as Louis XIV, was a 17th century French monarch who is widely regarded as one of the finest rulers in French history. Under the reign of the Sun King, France became a major power in Europe, with the prestige of the nation increasing thanks to extensive advances in culture under Louis XIV. Louis XIV is also known as the Great Monarch, in a reference to the considerable changes he wrought in France during his 72 year reign.", "While this lively debate exists in America, there is little discussion as to the greatest - or, at least, the most influential - king of early modern France. Louis XIV, the self-named 'Sun King', who was often referred to as Louis the Great, reigned for over 70 years in 17th- and 18th-century France.", "Note: During the reign of Louis XIV (1653–1715), France was a principal world power and cultural center of Europe.", "(To attendants at his deathbed), Why are you weeping?  Did you imagine that I was immortal? �Louis XIV, aka �Louis the Great� or �Louis the Sun King,� French monarch (1643-1715), 1638-1715", "At the tender age of five, le Roi Soleil (the Sun King) ascended the throne as Louis XIV (r 1643–1715). Bolstered by claims of divine right, he involved France in a rash of wars that gained it territory but terrified its neighbours and nearly bankrupted the treasury. At home, he quashed the ambitious, feuding aristocracy and created the first centralised French state. In Versailles , 23km southwest of Paris , Louis XIV built an extravagant palace and made his courtiers compete with each other for royal favour, reducing them to ineffectual sycophants. In 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes .", "Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (Louis le bien aimé), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity in 1723, his kingdom was ruled by Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans as Regent of France; the duke was his maternal great-uncle, as well as first cousin twice removed patrilineally. Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinal's death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom.", "As King of France and Navarre from 1643 to 1715, Louis XIV took particular pride in his sumptuously decorated, 73-meter-long (240-foot) hall of mirrors. That's where castle concerts, theater performances, and especially Louis' beloved dancing quadrilles took place.", "Initially, most of the other powers were willing to accept Anjou's reign as Philip V, but Louis's mishandling of their concerns soon drove the English, Dutch and other powers to join the Austrians in a coalition against France. The War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701 and raged for 12 years. In the end Louis's grandson was recognized as king of Spain, but he was obliged to agree to the forfeiture of succession rights in France, the Spanish Habsburgs' other European territories were largely ceded to Austria, and France was nearly bankrupted by the cost of the struggle. Louis died on 1 September 1715 ending his seventy-two year reign, the longest in European history.", "Louis XIV was a mere 5 years old when he became King of France in 1643. And because he lived to the ripe old age of 77, he had plenty of time to establish his place in French history.", "VERSAILLES. The seat of the French monarchy from 1682 to 1789, Louis XIV's chateau at Versailles had its origins in a modest hunting lodge built in 1623 for his father, Louis XIII. When Louis XIV (ruled 1643–1715) assumed personal control of the government in 1661, he embarked upon a building program at the site that continued almost unabated until his death. Versailles was first an intimate retreat for the king and then a royal residence for a still itinerant court before it became the permanent seat of the French royal family, court, and government in 1682. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), Louis XIV's indefatigable finance minister, was responsible for procuring the staggering sums needed to build the chateau that became the model for royal palaces across Europe .", "When Louis XIV. took the reins of government into his own hands, after the death of Cardinal Mazarin, there was a union of ability with opportunity, such as France had not seen since the days of Charlemagne. Moreover, Louis's career was no brief one. For upwards of forty years, for a period nearly equal to the duration of Charlemagne's reign, Louis steadily followed an aggressive and a generally successful policy. He passed a long youth and manhood of triumph, before the military genius of Marlborough made him acquainted with humiliation and defeat. The great Bourbon lived too long. He should not have outstayed our two English kings--one his dependent, James II., the other his antagonist, William III. Had he died in the year within which they died, his reign would be cited as unequalled in the French annals for its prosperity. But he lived on to see his armies beaten, his cities captured, and his kingdom wasted by disastrous war. It is as if Charlemagne had survived to be defeated by the Northmen, and to witness the misery and shame that actually fell to the lot of his descendants.", "The Sun King wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, like his ancestor Louis IX. He invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera . A tumultuous friendship was established between Lully and Molière . Jules Hardouin Mansart became France's most important architect of the period. Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. His reign began during the Thirty Years' War and during the Franco-Spanish war. His military architect, Vauban , became famous for his pentagonal fortresses, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert supported the royal spending as much as possible. French dominated League of the Rhine fought against the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664. The battle was won by the Christians, chiefly through the brave attack of 6,000 French troops led by La Feuillade and Coligny. [6] France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667. France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comté , but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to a peace at Aachen . Under its terms, Louis XIV did not annex Franche-Comté but did gain Lille .", "Louis XIV had shown wonderful tenacity of purpose during this disastrous war, and sometimes a nobler and more national spirit than during the years of his triumphs. But the condition of France was terrible. She was burdened with debt; the reforms of Colbert were ruined; and opposition to the king's regime began to make itself felt. Peace brought some relief to France, but the last years of the king's life were gloomy in the extreme. His numerous descendants seemed at one time to place the succession beyond all difficulty. But his eldest son, the dauphin, died in April 1711; his eldest grandson the duke of Burgundy in February 1712; and his great-grandson the duke of Brittany in March 1712. The heir to the throne was now the duke of Burgundy's son, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Louis XV . The king died on the 1st of September 1715, after the longest recorded reign in European history. The judgment of posterity has not repeated the flattering verdict of his contemporaries; but he remains the model of a great king in all that concerns the externals of kingship.", "The Sun King wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, like his ancestor Louis IX. He invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera. A tumultuous friendship was established between Lully and Molière. Jules Hardouin Mansart became France's most important architect of the time. Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. His reign began during the Thirty Years' War and during the Franco-Spanish war. His military architect, Vauban, became famous for his pentagonal fortresses, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert supported the royal spending as much as possible. France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667. France's defeat Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comté, but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to a peace at Aachen. Under its terms, Louis XIV did not annex Franche-Comté but did gain Lille.", "Louis intended to glorify France by making war on his neighbors. For six years he reformed the finances of his state and built formidable armed forces. France fought three wars between 1667 and 1697 and gained some minor territory. Maria Theresa died in 1683 and the next year he married Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon . She had great influence over him especially in matters of religion. Louis XIV was staunchly Catholic and he revoked the Edict of Nantes on 18 October 1685, undoing the religious tolerance established by grandfather, Henry IV, almost a hundred years before.", "King Louis XIV died on September 1, 1715 and was buried in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. He outlived his son, the dauphin Louis, and eldest grandson. His great-grandson, who became King Louis XV of France, and who spent his minority under the regency of Philippe II of Orléans, succeeded him as king.", "King of France , b. at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 16 September, 1638; d. at Versailles , 1 September, 1715; was the son of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria, and became king, upon the death of his father , 14 May 1643.", "* 1715: Louis XIV dies, leaving France greatly enlarged but deep in debt; The Regency takes power under Philippe d'Orleans.", "By the early 1680s, Louis XIV had greatly augmented his and France's influence and power in Europe and the world. Louis XIV's most famous minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert , who died in 1683, exercised a tremendous influence on the royal treasury and coffers — the royal revenue had tripled under his supervision. The princes of Europe began to imitate France and Louis XIV in everything from taste in art, food and fashion to political systems; many even took to taking official mistresses simply because it was done at Versailles. Outside Europe, French colonies abroad were multiplying in the Americas , Asia and Africa , while diplomatic relations had been initiated with countries as far afield as Siam, India and Persia. For example, the explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed and named, in 1682, the basin of the Mississippi River in North America \"Louisiane\" in honour of Louis XIV (Both the Louisiana Territory and the State of Louisiana in the United States formed part of Louisiane), while French Jesuits and missionaries could be seen at the Manchu Court in China .", "ruled French government until Louis XIV could take the throne, \"The Fronde\" took place under his rule ", "His influential years were marked by revolutionary actions against his mother and political adviser. These actions were referred to as “La Fronde.” Louis XIV disliked Paris immensely and had a great fear and distaste for revolutionaries and those working against the monarchy. This contributed to his decision to later move to Versailles permanently. He married Marie Therese, an Infanta from Spain, solidifying the relationship between France and Spain.", "During the Fronde he was terrorized by rebels, who stormed the royal palace. Even more serious for him, in 1658 he fell in love with Marie Mancini, a niece of Cardinal Mazarin. The necessity of a marriage alliance with Spain, however, caused Cardinal Mazarin to force the young Louis to abandon his plans for marrying Mancini and instead marry the Spanish Infante, Marie Theresa. It was a bitter disappointment to Louis XIV. Still his personal rule started off well. France prospered. It fought some small wars to expand and secure the northern and eastern borders. Things looked ever so good for Louis XIV and his country.", "**13 September - King Louis XIV, the Regent Queen Mother and Mazarin leave Paris for Rueil, then Saint-Germain-en-Laye. After negotiations with the Parlement, they accept the Parlements propositions and return to Paris on October 30.", "Often called \"The Sun King,\" Louis XIV presided over a period of great military success and artistic and architectural achievement. He was responsible for the construction of the Palace of Versailles, an architectural marvel. [MW]" ]

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[ "The sport of golf was apparently invented in the 1100s by shepherds in Scotland who knocked rocks into rabbit holes. The place where they invented the game is now known as the Old Course of St. Andrews (more on that later).", "Well, who actually did invent the game of Golf? The question has been asked and argued for many years with no true winner. Many countries have a valid claim to an early game that resembles the game of golf. Some of the countries that make this claim are England. Scotland, China, Rome, France, The Netherlands, Belgium and Laos. The most heated debate over who invented golf definitely comes from Great Britain and Scotland.", "The first reference of golf in 1353 was in fact in Flanders, Belgium. I read somewhere else that it was first invented in the Netherlands (Flanders was part of the Netherlands at that time) and exported to Scotland in the 15th century where it became popular.", "The origins of golf are unclear and much debated. However, it is generally accepted that modern golf developed in The Netherlands during the Middle Ages. The game did not find international popularity until the late 19th century, when it spread into the rest of the United Kingdom and then to the British Empire and the United States.", "The modern game of golf can be traced back to 15th century Scotland. It is a popular sport played socially as well as professionally. There are public and private golf courses all over the UK. St Andrews in Scotland is known as the home of golf.", "The modern game of golf is generally considered to be a Scottish invention. A spokesman for the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, one of the oldest Scottish golf organisations, said \"Stick and ball games have been around for many centuries, but golf as we know it today, played over 18 holes, clearly originated in Scotland.\" ", "Golf was likely invented by 15th-century Scottish shepherds, who entertained themselves by hitting anything they could find into holes and at targets. Their “game” evolved over the next few centuries, and in 1860 the first Open Championship—known in the U.S. as the British Open—was played at the Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland, marking the beginning of modern golf.", "Birth of Golf as a Modern Game: Golf was originated in Scotland during the fifteenth century. Since then, the sport has come a long way. With the passing time, golf has emerged as a global professional sport. The nineteenth and twentieth century saw the modernization of golf influenced by the British colonialism and the Industrial Revolution. In the beginning of the twentieth century, there was much advancement in the golf equipments. With all these innovations, golf came forth as a modern game.", "The classic sport of golf has been around for centuries, though it is disputed how the sport first originated. Scotland claims that it dates back to the 15th century and was first played in Edinburgh. Other historians speculate that the sport derives from an ancient Roman game called Paganica in which players used a stick to hit a stuffed leather ball. It is believed that the game spread from Rome throughout Europe as the Romans conquered the continent, from the first century BC onwards.", "The origin of golf has long been debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, which involved using a bent stick to hit a wool- or feather-stuffed leather ball. According to one view, paganica spread throughout several countries as the Romans conquered much of Europe during the 1st century bc and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan (ch’ui-wan) as the progenitor, a game played in China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and earlier and described as “a game in which you hit a ball with a stick while walking.” Chuiwan is thought to have been introduced into Europe by traders during the Middle Ages. However, upon close examination, neither theory is convincing.", "      The origin of golf has long been debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, which involved using a bent stick to hit a wool- or feather-stuffed leather ball. According to one view, paganica spread throughout several countries as the Romans conquered much of Europe during the 1st century BC and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan (ch'ui-wan) as the progenitor, a game played in China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and earlier and described as “a game in which you hit a ball with a stick while walking.” Chuiwan is thought to have been introduced into Europe by traders during the Middle Ages. However, upon close examination, neither theory is convincing.", "The game was apparently invented in Ireland in the 1830s as a distant cousin of golf and taken to England as a pastime of the aristocracy in the 1850s, and by the 1870 to its colonies. It may have evolved from the earlier mallet and ball game pall mall.", "      On the European continent the first golf course was laid in France at Pau in 1856. Until 1913, when the count of Gallifet was admitted as a member, the club “Golf de Pau” remained the preserve of Scottish residents at the foot of the Pyrenees, some of whom were descendants of Wellington's army. Biarritz Golf Club came into being in 1888, and Cannes Golf Club was founded by the “King of Cannes,” the Russian grandduke Michael, in 1891. The French golf federation, the Union des Golfs de France, was inaugurated in 1912. In Germany, golf was first played by English tourists in spas such as Bad Homburg and Wiesbaden. The first golf club in Germany, Berlin Golf Club, now Golf- und Landclub Berlin-Wannsee, was founded in 1895 and run by Anglo-Saxons. The German Federation (Deutscher Golfverband) was established in Hamburg in 1907. In Switzerland the first golf course, in Davos, was planned in 1895 by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who after its completion was annoyed by the fact that cows enjoyed chewing up the red flags that marked the greens.", "The game of golf most likely began when a few hardy Scottish souls used a stick to propel a round rock toward a predetermined target. The exact details have been lost in the mists of time. Between the 1500s and 1600s, the game became more formalized. Everyone played, from the peasants to the elite. However, not everyone favored the game. King James II of Scotland thought the youth of his era should be more focused on worthy pursuits, such as going to war, rather than honing their golf skills. In 1636, David Wedderburn included the Latin word for \"club\" in his Vocabula, a listing of terms related to golf. Also included was a term for \"golf hole,\" a critical element for defining the modern day game of golf.", "In 1603 James VI of Scotland succeeded to the throne of England. His son Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales and his courtiers played golf at Blackheath, London, from which the Royal Blackheath Golf Club traces its origins. There is evidence that Scottish soldiers, expatriates and immigrants took the game to British colonies and elsewhere during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In the early 1770s, the first African golf course was built on Bunce Island, in Sierra Leone, by British slave traders. The Royal Calcutta Golf Club (1829), the Mauritius Gymkhana Club (1844) and the club at Pau (1856) in south western France are notable reminders of these excursions and are the oldest golf clubs outside of the British Isles. The club at Pau is the oldest in continental Europe. However, it was not until the late 19th century that Golf became more widely popular outside of its Scottish home.", "The first golf club to form outside of Scotland was the Royal Blackheath in London in 1766. By the 21st century, there would be an estimated 60 million golfers worldwide and the sport would be played on every continent except Antarctica.", "A small rubber platform invented by Scotsmen William Bloxsom and Arthur Douglas was the world's first patented golf tee (British patent #12941 of 1889). The first known tee to penetrate the ground, in contrast to earlier tees that sat on the surface, was the peg-like \"Perfectum\" patented in 1892 by Percy Ellis of England. American dentist William Lowell introduced the most common form of tee used today, the simple wooden peg with a flared top. Details...", "During the 19th century as the might of the British Empire expanded to encompass the globe, so golf followed closely behind. The first golf club formed outside Scotland was the Royal Blackheath (near London) in 1766. The first golf club outside Britain was the Bangalore, India (1820). Others quickly followed included the Royal Curragh, Ireland (1856), the Adelaide (1870), Royal Montreal (1873), Cape Town (1885), St Andrew's of New York (1888) and Royal Hong Kong (1889).", "The premier golf course of the time was Leith near Edinburgh. Indeed King Charles I was on the course when given the news of the Irish rebellion of 1641. Leith was also the scene of the first international golf match in 1682 when the Duke of York and George Patterson playing for Scotland beat two English noblemen.", "St. Andrews is a venerable golf course in Scotland. The original course consisted of twenty-two holes, which was shortened to eighteen in 1764, thus creating the first modern golf course. The Old Course is still available for play, hosting the Open Championship in 2005.", "J. R. R. Tolkien, a professional philologist, nodded to the derivation from the Dutch word for club in his 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit. There he mentions (tongue-in-cheek) that the game of golf was invented when a club-wielding hobbit knocked the head off a goblin named Golfimbul, and the head sailed through the air and landed in a hole.", "By the 1880s golf clubs had been established in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa. Singapore followed in 1891. Courses were also established in several continental european resorts for the benefit of British visitors.", "The first mention of a specific ‘round’ of golf dates from 1503 when King James IV played with the Earl of Bothwell near Edinburgh.2 Subsequently numerous documents have been found that refer to the game in Edinburgh, Musselburgh, St Andrews, Montrose, Aberdeen and many other places. In 1744, the first rules for the game were written down in Edinburgh.  Playing golf remained mainly a Scottish game until the late 19th century when it began to be played in other parts of the world.", "The third event of this period, which comes in two parts, is surely one of the most important events in the long history of the game. Every individual who has made a living out of hitting a golf ball should hold April 20th 1851 as the nativity for that was the birth date of Young Tom Morris, one of the game's greatest early exponents. Similarly, every green-keeper, designer or administrator should express some word of gratitude on the 1st of July for it was on that day in 1851 that Old Tom Morris left for Prestwick to create the first purpose built golf course on the links of Monkton parish.", "      Another factor that greatly increased the popularity and playability of golf was the introduction of the golf tee, patented in 1899 by George F. Grant, one of the first African American golfers. Previously players forged a tee from a pinch of wet sand or used other early tees made from cardboard, rubber, or steel. Grant's invention increased the average player's chances of getting the ball airborne.", "Golf was introduced to the islands at the turn of this century, and has become one of the most popular sports. Several golf clubs and links in and around Manila attract players; there are practice driving ranges in the city.", "If golf as we know it had its birth in the dim and distant past of the 17th century and its upbringing under the Robertson family on the links of St Andrews, then its adolescence occurred abruptly between 1848 and 1852. Three highly significant events occurred in St Andrews that were to turn the game from the parochial into the global. The first of these events was the discovery of the \"gutta percha\" based ball, known as the \"gutty\" by James Patterson in 1848. More importantly, the durability of this new ball in turn encouraged the development of iron-faced clubs and so continued the process of evolution.", "the oldest extant golf course in the world, at least as far back at 1552. (Early Scottish versions of the game were called \"golf\" even though the game itself was not at that time all it would finally become.) However, golf wasn't always as regulated as it is now: Prior to standardization, early courses typically had any number of holes from five to twenty-four, and only over a long period of time did the game evolve to the point that eighteen became the standard number of holes for courses all over the world.", "Arnold Daniel Palmer is an American professional golfer, who is generally regarded as one of the greatest players in men's professional golf history. He has won numerous events on both the PGA Tour and Champions Tour, dating back to 1955. Nicknamed \"The King\", he is one of golf's most popular stars and its most important trailblazer, because he was the first superstar of the sport's television age, which began in the 1950s. Palmer's social impact on behalf of golf was perhaps unrivaled among fellow professionals; Palmer's humble background and plain-spoken popularity helped change the perception of golf as an elite, upper-class pastime to a more democratic sport accessible to middle and working classes. Palmer is part of \"The Big Three\" in golf, along with Jack Nicklaus and Gary Player, who are widely credited with popularizing and commercializing the sport around the world. Palmer won the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award in 1998, and in 1974 was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame. ", "On December 12, 1899, Grant patented a golf tee which raised the golf ball (made of rubber at that time) slightly off of the ground, enabling the player greater control with his wooden club and therefore of the direction and speed of the drive. The tee was made of a small wooden peg with a concave piece of rubber on top to hold the ball and in addition to helping with control over the direction of the shot, it also aided in promoting longer drives.", "the courses were originally fields of grass that sheep had clipped short in their characteristic grazing style. Golf balls were originally made of wood; wood was replaced in the 17th century by boiled feathers stuffed in a leather cover, in the 19th century by gutta-percha, and in the 20th century by hard rubber. Clubs, limited in number to 14, are known by the traditional names of \"irons\" (primarily for mid-range to short shots) and \"woods\" (primarily for longer shots); today irons are more likely made of stainless steel, and the heads of woods are usually made of metal such as steel or titanium.", "The USGA and the R & A, in a conference, complete a newly revised Rules of Golf . Although in 1951 the R & A and the USGA continue to differ over the size of the golf ball, all other conflicts are resolved in this momentous conference. The center-shafted putter is legalized worldwide. The out-of-bounds penalty is standardized at stroke-and-distance, and the stymie is finally and forever abolished." ]

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[ "Six players form a Rugby League scrum. They are a means of re-starting the game and create a good opportunity to attack. Scrums are awarded for knock-ons (losing the ball forward) or forward passes.", "A scrum is formed as near to where the infringement or stoppage occurred and at least five metres from either goal line. A normal scrum contains eight players from each team. If for some reason a team is reduced below fifteen men the scrum numbers can also be reduced, although there can never be fewer than five. The hookers binds with their props, the locks bind each other and their front row, with all the other players in the scrum binding to the locks. The referee makes a mark where the scrum is to be formed and waits for both teams to bind together. The referee then calls \"crouch\" (both front rows must crouch down) \"touch\" (the props touch each other's shoulders) \"pause\" and then \"engage\". However, a shortened sequence is currently being trialed in which the referee calls \"crouch\" (both front rows must crouch down) \"Bind\" (the props secure binds on each other's shoulders) and then \"Set\" at which point both packs rows engage. When engage (or set) is called the two front rows can come together and everyone in the scrum must stay bound until it is completed. Once the referee is happy with the engagement the scrum-half from the team awarded the fee throws the ball into the tunnel (gap) between the two front-rows.", "The scrum is one of rugby’s most recognizable structures. Eight players on each side are involved, and are referred to as the Pack . When both packs come together it generates an incredible amount of force. Although the forwards are the only players directly involved in the scrum, how they perform affects the entire team’s performance. This guide breaks down the responsibilities for each of the players involved in the pack.", "In terms of rules, the scrum consist of three forwards on each team, instead of the eight forwards in 15-player rugby, while line outs are usually limited to two players. Other differences from the 15-a-side game are that conversions must be drop kicked, instead of a place kick, and these kicks must take place 40-seconds after a try instead of the full minute in traditional rugby.", "Teams are composed of three forwards and four backs. Scrums are composed of three players from each team. Because of the speedy nature of the game, sevens players are often backs or loose forwards in fifteens rugby.", "The scrum consists of six players from each team in a 3-2-1 formation. The scrum is usually formed by each team's forwards, though any player can participate. The front row of the formation consists of the open-side prop (8), hooker (9) and blind-side prop (10). Behind the front row are the two second row forwards (11&12), and then the loose forward (13) at the back.", "Scrums in rugby tens is formed by five players on each team, with two rows instead of eight players in three rows in traditional rugby. As with seven-a-side rugby, the team that manages to score a try restarts the game, and only drop kicks can be used to score a goal. Conversions –as in rugby sevens – must be scored with a drop kick and done within 40-seconds of a try or it will be discounted. Similarly, suspensions also last two minutes instead of the 10-minutes in 15sgame.", "Rugby League has 13 players to a side and more closely resembles American football than Rugby Union in the sense that a team has the ball for the equivalent of 6 downs (called \"tackles\"). After the \"fifth tackle\" - or on \"6th down\" if you will - the team with the ball is able to kick the ball to the opponent to improve field position, much like a punt.", "A rugby union team consists of 15 players: eight forwards, numbered 1 to 8, and seven backs, numbered 9 to 15 [1] . Depending upon the competition, there may be up to seven replacements (substitutes or reserves). Professional rugby contains seven reserves, with a player being allowed to be substituted only once, unless they are a front-row specialist player and are replacing an injured front-row player. Another exception to this rule is the \"blood bin\", where a player with a visible and bleeding injury must leave the field and then return to continue play after receiving treatment providing this is within 15 minutes of the player leaving the field (actual time, not game clock). A player sent to the blood bin may be replaced by another player during treatment. If the bloodied player returns to play within 15 minutes, it is not counted as a substitution.", "This diagram shows all of the 15 player positions in a rugby team based on the situation where a rugby union scrum has been formed.", "Yet, ironically, the importance of the scrum to the playing of the modern game is rapidly diminishing. In the 2011 Rugby World Cup the average number of scrums per match was just seventeen, compared to twenty-seven in the 1995 tournament and thirty-one in internationals staged in 1983. The 2015 6Nations and 2014 Rugby Championship saw just 12 - roughly the same number as in league.  Moreover, the ‘contest for possession’ is also steadily declining in importance - the leading international sides now retain possession at the scrum and the line-out 85%-90% of the time. In 2005, the IRB discovered that the side in possession retained the ball thirteen out of fourteen times at the breakdown.", "Each team contributes 8 players organised into three rows – the front row containing three players, the second row containing two players and the remaining players behind them. The scrum is formed when these players interlock heads, engage with the opposition and proceed pushing against one another while one of the teams (dependent on which team caused the stoppage) puts the ball in. This is then contested by all scrumming players with their feet, as they attempt to hook the ball back on their side for the scrum-half (who delivers the ball) to retrieve and distribute.", "Scrum - A scrum is when eight forwards from one team push against eight forwards from the opposing team. One player feeds the ball into the middle of the scrum and the two sides then push to try and take control of the ball.", "A Union may authorise matches to be played with fewer than fifteen players in each team. When that happens, all the Laws of the Game apply except that each team must have at least five players in the scrum at all times.", "In a standard football game, there are 11 players on the field at a time for each team. The number of players on the field in rugby depends on the type being played. The two main versions are rugby union, in which there are 15 players on the field for each team, and rugby league, in which there are 13. In both sports, there also are variations that use fewer players, such as eight-man football and rugby sevens, which uses seven players for each team.", "A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows. The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker. The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation. Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed rolls the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel. The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession. The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half.", "During early rugby union games there were only really two positions; most players were in the forwards, who formed part of the scrimmage (which later was called \"scrummage\" and then \"scrum\"), and a few defensive \"tends\" (from \"goaltenders\"). Eventually, the attacking possibilities of playing close behind the scrimmage were recognised. The players who stationed themselves between the forwards and tends became known as \"half-tends\". Later, it was observed that the players outside scrimmage were not limited to a defensive role, so the tends and half-tends were renamed \"backs\" and \"half-backs\". As the game became more sophisticated, the backs positioned at different depths behind the forwards. They were further differentiated into half-backs, three-quarter-backs, and full-back. Specialised roles for the scrum also evolved with \"wing-forward\" (modern day flankers) being employed to protect the half-back. The first international between England and Scotland was played in 1871 and consisted of twenty players on each side: thirteen forwards, three half-backs, one three-quarter and three full-backs. The player numbers were reduced to fifteen in 1877. Numbers were added to the backs of players' jerseys in the 1920s, initially as a way for coaches and selectors to rate individual players.", "Drop-out The drop-out is a drop-kick taken by the defending team. The kick is taken from anywhere on or behind their own 22m line. If taken from behind the 22, the ball must reach that line from the drop-out . If it does not, the opposition can request it to be re-taken or choose a scrum - formed at the centre of the 22. The scrum - the object at the scrum is to gain possession of the ball and get it out to your own scrum half so that he can engineer an attacking move. Once the scrum is formed, the ball is put in by one of the scrum-halves, and the hooker attempts to hook the ball back to his team-mates, who in turn gradually hook it out to the scrum-half who will have taken up a position at the back of the scrum. The most effective way of gaining advantage is by pushing the opposing forwards backwards (a tug of war in reverse). When formed, the scrummage shall occur at the place where the infringement took place (or as near as possible).", "The props (1 and 3) bind on either side of the hooker (2) to form the front row of the scrum. The two locks (4 and 5) bind together and push on the props and the hooker. The flankers (6 and 7) bind to the side of the scrum and the number eight (8) pushes on the locks or a lock and a flanker. Once each team has formed its half of the scrum, the two front rows are brought together under the command of the referee. The scrum-half puts the ball into the middle of the scrum and then retrieves it from under the number eight's feet if it is won. The remainder of the team must be positioned at least five metres back from the scrum.", "Rugby union is a team sport that was developed from the rules used to play football at Rugby School in England . Two teams, each of 15 players have the task of outscoring the opposing team. Players clutch a prolate spheroid ball in their hands or arms, and may pass it backwards or laterally across the pitch, or kick it in any direction. The opposing players attempt to halt the ball-carrier by tackling him or her with their arms and bodies. When tackled, the ball carrier must release the ball, at which time a contest for possession of the ball commences (either a ruck or a maul ).", "A scrum in rugby is equivalent of a hockey face-off, except that it involves all playing the forward position on both teams.", "A scrum (short for scrummage) is a method of restarting play in rugby that involves players packing closely together with their heads down and attempting to gain possession of the ball. Depending on whether it is in rugby union or rugby league, the scrum is utilized either after an accidental infringement or when the ball has gone out of play. Scrums occur more often, and are now of greater importance, in union than in league. Starting play from the line of scrimmage in gridiron football is derived from the scrum.", "Collapsing the scrum : Sometimes during a scrumdown, a player in the front row of one pack will attempt to pull down an opposing player who is directly across from him/her. This is done in attempt to create a weak part in the other team’s scrum, making it easier to push that pack off the ball. Because all the forwards in a pack are connected during a scrum, if one player falls several more usually will, as well. Sometimes it happens naturally, but if the referee decides that one player is intentionally trying to force the other pack to the ground, that player will be called for collapsing the scrum.", "The scrum is what rugby is most famous for. A scrum is usually called after a minor infringement and the game needs to be restarted. This is where the forwards of both teams interlock, a ball is fed into the scrum, and it has to be kicked back while both teams drive against each other.", "GOLDMAN: There are kickoffs. Assistant Coach Andrew Locke leads a kickoff drill at this practice. There are positions such as prop and hooker, a player who hooks the ball with their feet to an open teammate. That happens during a scrum, the classic rugby scene where a group from each team locks shoulders and arms in what looks like a big, interconnected huddle. A score is called a try - rugby's version of a touchdown - where the runner crosses the try line and touches down the ball. That's the briefest of primers, or there's rugby 101 from Jillion Potter.", "Set pieces of the union code include the \"scrum\", in which packs of opposing players push against each other for possession, and the \"line-out\", in which parallel lines of players from each team, arranged perpendicular to the touch-line, attempt to catch the ball thrown from touch. A rule has been added to line-outs which allows the jumper to be pulled down once a players's feet are on the ground.", "The purpose of the scrum in rugby is to restart the play quickly, safely and fairly, after a minor infringement or a stoppage.", "The flanker is a curiosity in rugby union, being the only true all-rounder position with no set duties. It is therefore paradoxical that flankers are considered potential game-winning players. In the scrum, they are not big pushers and, although they must stay locked to the scrum until the ball is out (a recent introduction to the laws), they must respond quickly and unbind when it does.", "A rugby scrum restarts a rugby game after a minor infringement of the rules. Understand what goes on. Who puts in? How do you win?", "Players from both teams create a rugby maul by encircling the one with the ball attempting to gain ground. If the ball hits the ground or the ball holder emerges from the group, then that becomes the end of the maul. The referee may also end a maul by calling for a scrummage.", "One team caused the scrum. The other team gets the advantage of restarting the game by putting the ball in to the space between the opposing sets of forwards.", "A typical passage of rugby takes the following form: the team in possession of the ball moves the ball up the field in an effort to ground the ball over the opponents' goal line in order score a try until such time as the ball carrier is tackled. They then form a ruck in order to win the ball back. This process repeats until one team makes a mistake that violates the Laws of the game, moves off the field of play or a try or goal is scored." ]

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[ "Netball teams comprise of 7 players: GS, GA, WA, C, WD, GD & GK. A team may take to the court with no less than 5 players.", "Netball is a ball sport for two teams of seven players; its rules are published in print and online by the International Netball Federation. Games are played on a rectangular court divided into thirds, with a raised goal at each short end. The object of the game is for teams to score goals, by passing a ball and shooting it into their team's goal ring. Players are assigned \"positions\" that define their role within the team and restrict their movement on court.", "Netball — a team game with seven players on a side, similar to basketball except that players are restricted to certain sections of the court, and a player receiving the ball must stand still until they have passed it to another player.", "The International Netball Federation stipulates a maximum of 12 players per team, but only a total of seven may be on the court at any given time. At least five players from each team must be present on court to proceed with a standard game.", "Netball is a ball sport played by two teams of seven players. Its development, derived from early versions of basketball, began in England in the 1890s. By 1960, international playing rules had been standardised for the game, and the International Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball (later renamed the International Netball Federation (INF)) was formed. As of 2011, the INF comprises more than 60 national teams organized into five global regions.", "* Players: Each side only has five players on the court, compared with seven in normal netball competition.[http://nz.sports.yahoo.com/netball/fast-five/tournament/rules/ Rules] nz.sports.yahoo.com", "Different forms of indoor netball exist. In a seven-per-side version called \"action netball\", seven players per team play with rules similar to netball. However, a game is split into 15-minute halves with a three-minute break in between. This version is played in Australia, [57] New Zealand, [58] South Africa [59] and England. [60]", "As its name implies, Fast5 is a high-speed version of netball. Each quarter lasts only six minutes, and stoppages are kept to a minimum. Each team has only five players on court, which means there is more space to move the ball around. The coaches are allowed to give instructions to the players from the sidelines, and rolling substitutions are allowed throughout the match.", "A version called High Five Netball is promoted by the All England Netball Association . [71] It is aimed at 9- to 11-year-old girls and includes only five positions. [71] The players swap positions during the game. [72] When a player is not on the court, she is expected to help the game in some other way, such as being the timekeeper or scorekeeper. [71] High Five Netball has four six-minute quarters. [71] [72]", "A version called High Five Netball is promoted by the All England Netball Association. It is aimed at 9- to 11-year-old girls and includes only five positions. The players swap positions during the game. When a player is not on the court, she is expected to help the game in some other way, such as being the timekeeper or scorekeeper. High Five Netball has four six-minute quarters.", "Basketball is popular in Australia in terms of participation, especially among children. The National Basketball League (NBL) began in 1979 and is contested by eight teams—seven from Australia and one from New Zealand.[http://www.nbl.com.au/nbl-hq NBL HQ] The Women's National Basketball League (WNBL) is the top women's basketball league, having begun in 1981, and the national women's team (the Opals) has won medals at the Olympics since 1994. Netball has the highest participation rate of any women's sport in Australia. Established in 2008, the ANZ Championship is the premier netball league in Australia and New Zealand, featuring five teams from each country. The Australian national netball team (the Diamonds) is considered the best in the world, having won 10 of 13 World Netball Championships.", "Further developments to the sport are being trialled. A new shortened version of the sport is scheduled to be played in Manchester in October 2009, called the World Netball Series . The new version of the sport has been likened to cricket's Twenty20 , and will reportedly feature six-minute playing quarters, \"power plays\" in which goals count for double points, and two-point shots similar to three-point field goals in basketball. This new competition will be contested between the top six netballing nations, according to the IFNA World Rankings: Australia, New Zealand, England, Jamaica, Samoa and Malawi . [44]", "Today, netball is popular in Commonwealth nations, and is reportedly played by over 20 million people worldwide. It remains primarily a women's sport, although male participation is increasing in some countries. Netball is still largely an amateur sport, despite some countries having high local-level participation. Further developments to the sport are being trialled, including a shortened version of the game played in a World Series format; netball is also being advocated for possible inclusion in the Olympic Games.", "* Liz Ellis AM: Most capped Australian Netball player with 122 test caps. Liz has commentated the majority of Netball matches played in Australia for the ANZ Championship and the Constellation Cup since 2008. ", "During general play, a player with the ball can take no more than one step before passing it, and must pass the ball or shoot for goal within three seconds. Goals can only be scored by the assigned shooting players. Netball games are 60 minutes long, divided into 15-minute quarters, at the end of which the team with the most goals scored wins.", "Games are played on a rectangular  court  with raised goal rings at each end. Each team attempts to score goals by passing a ball down the court and shooting it through its goal ring. Players are assigned specific positions, which define their roles within the team and restrict their movement to certain areas of the court. During general play, a player with the ball can hold onto it for only three seconds before shooting for a goal or passing to another player. The winning team is the one that scores the most goals. Netball games are 60 minutes long. Variations have been developed to increase the game's pace and appeal to a wider audience.", "Netball is most popular in  Commonwealth nations , specifically in schools, and is predominantly played by women. According to the IFNA, netball is played by more than 20 million people in more than 80 countries. Major  transnational  competitions take place, including the  Netball Superleague  in Great Britain and the  ANZ Championship  in Australia and New Zealand. Three major competitions take place internationally: the  quadrennial   World Netball Championships , the  Commonwealth Games , and the yearly  World Netball Series . In 1995, netball became an  International Olympic Committee recognised sport .", "The sport is administered globally by the International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA), and is reportedly played by over 20 million people in more than 70 countries. Local-level participation is widespread in Commonwealth nations, particularly in schools, although international competition and domestic leagues receive substantial recognition in several countries. The highest level of international netball includes the Netball World Championships, the netball event at the Commonwealth Games, and the World Netball Series. In 1995, netball also became an Olympic-recognised sport.", "SPAR Under-21 National Netball Team: Deancke Rohde, Danielle Willemse, Mari-Lena Joubert, Lisa-Marie Wiese, Bongolethu Ngobeni, Izette Lubbe, Simphiwe Sithebe (captain), Nobubele Phuza, Rochelle Lawson (vice-captain), Shadine van der Merwe, Kefiloe Tsotetsi, Zandre Kruger.", "Netball is a particularly fast and highly skilled sport. It was created by an American basketball coach attempting to improve the skills of Basketball. He worked at Luton Teachers College in England where he introduced the sport to many of the graduating teachers. These teachers gained positions in schools all over England bringing this new and exciting game with them. Some of these teachers travelled the world teaching Netball in other countries. Netball is now played predominantly by women in 25 countries throughout the world, particularly in Australia, New Zeeland and the UK. Netball", "The Jamaica national netball team, commonly known as the Sunshine Girls, represent Jamaica in international netball competition. Netball is not only the number one women’s sport in Jamaica but also the number one team sport in the island, based on World Rankings and recent history and the majority of the schools in Jamaica participate. [1] Netball receives full media coverage on television, radio and in newspapers but still does not get as much coverage as less successful team sports such as Football & Cricket. [2] Jamaica were coached by former representative Oberon Pitterson, and captained by midcourt veteran Nadine Bryan up to the end of 2013. However, a Technical Director (Jill McIntosh) and new coach (Minneth Reynolds), were appointed in early 2014. As of 9 September 2014, Jamaica are fourth in the INF World Rankings . [3] While the senior Jamaican netball team is widely known as the Sunshine Girls, the Jamaican Fast 5 netball team is known as Jamaica Fast5 or the FAST5 Girls. [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]", "Netball is played on a hard court (like basketball). The court has scoring rings at both ends, and is divided into three parts by lines that indicate the boundaries of the areas in which members of each time are allowed to move. There are two hemispherical areas at each end called \"shooting circles.\" All scoring shots can only be taken within this designated area.", "The national women’s team has been crowned World Champions 10 times and has won two gold medals at the Commonwealth Games since the organisation’s first international match in 1938. They are widely considered to be the most successful netball team in the world and their rivalry against New Zealand’s team, the Silver Ferns, is considered the fiercest in the sport.", "On 8 September 2008, Netball Australia launched officially named the national team the Australian Netball Diamonds. Continuing the trend set by the Australian women's basketball team, the Opals, Netball Australia made the announcement and described it as a milestone event in the sport's 80-year history in Australia.", "Netball is an all inclusive sport, can be played by females and males of all ages, and a wide range of positions allows for different skill levels.", "A netball court is 30.5m long and 15.25m wide. The longer sides are called the side lines and the shorter sides the goal lines.", "A netball court size is 30.5 metres (100 feet) long and 15.25 metres (50 feet) wide, which is divided into thirds. There is a center circle with a diameter of 0.9 metres (3 feet) and two goal circles which are semi-circles measuring 4.9 metres (16 feet) in radius. All lines are part of the court and measure 50mm (2 inches) in width.", "While they remain amongst the world's very best, they have come under increasing challenge from New Zealand's national team, the Silver Ferns, in recent years. New Zealand won the 2006 Commonwealth Games final and the grand final of the 2003 World Netball Championships, which saw Australia lose the top world ranking. However, Australia regained their status as world champions after winning the 2007 World Netball Championships.", "Johannesburg, South Africa - Centre court player Simnikiwe Mdaka is one of the shining stars of the SPAR South African netball team.", "  A netball court's dimensions. The court is divided into thirds and shooting circles are at each end.", "Recently I was talking to my British friend about netball, that wonderful game we British school girls played during PE and in the school breaktime. I still play netball, as I approach 40, and have even found a few teams that play in the Washington, Maryland and Virginia areas. Believe it or not, I’ve also competed in the USA Netball Open Championships in Atlanta in 2013.", "“It is a shining example of what can be achieved. Netball embraced transformation as an imperative and has made great strides in this regard, having achieved greater transformation than many other sporting codes.”" ]

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[ "10. What is the maximum no of match points that can be held at one time in a tennis match at Wimbledon?", "Top-notch athletes train to wear down opponents slowly, but surely over the longevity of a match. Given that it only takes a maximum of seven points to win a game, a no-ad scoring match is over in a minimal amount of time in comparison to traditional tennis game scoring.", "The Isner–Mahut match at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships is the longest match in tennis history, measured both by time and number of games. In the Men's Singles tournament first round, the American 23rd seed John Isner defeated the French qualifier Nicolas Mahut after 11 hours, 5 minutes of play over three days, with a final score of 6–4, 3–6, 6–7(7–9), 7–6(7–3), 70–68 for a total of 183 games.", "This is sometimes played instead of a third set. A match tie-break (also called super tie-break) is played like a regular tie-break, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match tie-breaks are used in the Hopman Cup, Grand Slams (excluding Wimbledon) and the Olympic Games for mixed doubles; on the ATP (since 2006), WTA (since 2007) and ITF (excluding four Grand Slam tournaments and the Davis Cup) tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play.", "In 2001 the Australian Open replaced the final set of mixed doubles with a match tie-break (first to 10 points and win by two points wins the match). Despite some criticism of the change by fans and former pros, the US Open and the French Open have since gone on to join the Australian Open in using the same format for mixed doubles. Wimbledon continues to play a traditional best of three match, requiring an advantage set for the third set.", "There have been at least four matches where more than one maximum was compiled. Peter Ebdon compiled two maximum breaks during an 11-frame exhibition match at Eastbourne Police Club on 15 April 1996. In 2003 he also compiled two consecutive maximum breaks against Steve Davis in an exhibition match. [90] [91] In 2009 Jimmy White and Ronnie O'Sullivan compiled consecutive maximum breaks at an exhibition match in Ireland. [98] Mark King and Joe Jogia achieved the same feat at the Grove Open later in the same year. [99] The only player known to compile more than two maximum breaks on a single occasion is Adrian Gunnell , who compiled three maximums in four frames at a club in Telford in 2003 while practising against Ian Duffy . [100] [101]", "Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally (this differs from the old system, where players could only win a point on their serve). A match is the best of three games.", "On average, 42,000 balls are used and 650 matches are played at the annual Wimbledon tennis tournament", "Wimbledon: The Tie-break rule was to come into play at a score in games of 6-6 (instead of 8-8), with the exception of final sets.", "TOP FOUR SEEDS TITLE HOLDERS – The last time a player seeded outside of the Top 4 won the Wimbledon title was in 2001 when No. 125th-ranked Goran Ivanisevic took advantage of a wild card opportunity to defeat Patrick Rafter in a five-set Monday final. This is the longest current stretch of Top 4 titles of any Grand Slam tournament. Since 2002, when No. 1 Lleyton Hewitt won the title, four other players have won the Wimbledon crown – Federer (seven times), Djokovic (three times), Nadal (twice) and Andy Murray (once).  In fact, only seven players in the Open Era (since 1968) not seeded among the Top 4 have won the title.", "A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, he has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as he has three chances to win the game (or set). Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.", "A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, he has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as he has three chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.", "Matches are played over the best of three sets, with a Champions Tie-break (first to 10 points with a clear advantage of two) to decide the winner.", "A total of 128 players feature in each singles event, 64 pairs in each single-sex doubles event, and 48 pairs in Mixed Doubles. Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings. The Committee of Management and the Referee evaluate all applications for entry, and determine which players may be admitted to the tournament directly. The committee may admit a player without a high enough ranking as a wild card. Usually, wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments, or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating. The only wild card to win the Gentlemen's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanisevic (2001); no wild card has ever won the Ladies' Singles Title. Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton. The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round. There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles. No qualifier has won either the Gentlemen's Singles or the Ladies' Singles tournaments; in 1977, John McEnroe went farther than any other qualifier in history by reaching the semifinals.", "' - Seven-time champion Roger Federer can reach an 11th Wimbledon semi-final on Wednesday and become the most successful Grand Slam match winner when he tackles Croatia\\'s Marin Cilic. The 17-time major champion can also go level with <mark>Jimmy Connors</mark>\\' Wimbledon record of 84 wins if he beats Cilic for the sixth time in seven meetings. Federer, 34, has a 306-50 win-loss record in Grand Slam matches and is currently joint top of the list with Martina Navratilova (306-49) and ahead of...", "A set consists of a number of games (a minimum of six), which in turn consist of points, with a tiebreak played if the set is tied at six games per player. Tennis scoring rests on the premise that serving is advantageous over receiving, hence it is only possible to win a set or match by breaking the opponent's service game at least once, before a tiebreak is required. Likewise, it is not possible to win a tiebreak without winning at least one point during an opponent's turn at serve (called a mini-break).", "In snooker , the maximum break (or highest number of points that can be achieved from a break ) under normal circumstances is 147. [1] This is often known as a maximum, a 147, or verbally a one-four-seven, and is amassed by potting all fifteen", "In 1971 the tiebreak was introduced at Wimbledon when the score in any set except the final set reached 8–8 in games.", "The Championships, Wimbledon, The Wimbledon Championships or simply Wimbledon is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. It has been held at the All England Club in London, since 1877. It is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments (Majors), the others being the Australian Open, the French Open (Roland Garros) and the US Open. Since the Australian Open shifted to hard court in 1988, Wimbledon is the only Major still played on grass, the game’s original surface, which gave the game its original name of “lawn tennis”. The tournament takes place over two weeks in late June and early July, culminating with the Ladies’ and Gentlemen’s Singles Final, scheduled for the second Saturday and Sunday respectively. Each year five major, junior, and invitational events are held.", "The winner of a tennis game must win with a two point advantage. In other words, if the score is 40-0 and the server wins the next point, the server wins the game.", "The 1973 introduction of the tiebreak reduced the opportunity for such records to be broken. However, among the Grand Slams, only the US Open uses the tiebreak in the final set; the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon and Olympic tennis instead use the advantage set rules in the final set – in such a set there can be an indefinite number of games until there is a winner. This resulted, for example, in the record-obliterating Isner vs. Mahut match at Wimbledon 2010.", "Wimbledon: The longest Tie-break at Wimbledon was in the 1980 Mens Singles Final between John McEnroe (USA) and Bj�rn Borg (Sweden), with a score of 18-16 in favour of Bj�rn Borg.", "In other variants of snooker the value of the maximum break is different. In six-red snooker , the maximum is only 75 points, as there are fewer reds and thus fewer black-scoring opportunities. In snooker plus the maximum is 210 due to the additional, two high point-value colours, but this has never been achieved due to the distance between the highest value ball and the reds. [23]", "Wimbledon: The Wimbledon Championships are open to women for the first time. There are only 13 participants. Mens doubles was also introduced for the first time.", "Most Wimbledon Appearances - The most appearances at the Wimbledon Tennis Championships is 35 by Britain's Arthur William Charles “Wentworth” Gore from 1888 to 1927.", "Wimbledon is the only Grand Slam tournament where fans without tickets for play can queue up and still get seats on Centre Court, Court 1 and Court 2. Sequentially numbered queue cards were introduced in 2003. From 2008, there is a single queue, allotted about 500 seats for each court. When they join the queue, fans are handed queue cards. Anyone who then wishes to leave the queue temporarily, even if in possession of a queue card, must agree their position with the others nearby in the queue and/or a steward.", "Today, Wimbledon is considered to be one of the, if not the premier tennis tournaments in the world. It’s the oldest tennis tournament in the world and is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, along with the Australian Open, French Open, and US Open. Though Andy Murray tried this year, the last time a British man won the singles event was in 1936, when Fred Perry defeated Gottfried von Cramm in the quickest final of the 20th century (second quickest of all time). The last British woman to win the singles event at Wimbledon was Virginia Wade in 1977.", "Enjoy one of the tennis sporting events of the year at Wimbledon, one of four annual Grand Slam tennis tournaments held around the world.", "Wimbledon top 10: Matches under the roof - The Championships, Wimbledon 2017 - Official Site by IBM", "Ranking points for the ATP and WTA have varied at Wimbledon through the years but at present singles players receive the following points:", "Those numbers are of impressive quantity, but what about quality? We tapped into some of the best minds in tennis this fortnight and are proud to present what we think are Federer's 10 greatest Wimbledon matches. Here they are, in reverse order:", "Ranking points for the men (ATP) and women (WTA) have varied at the US Open through the years but presently singles players receive the following points:" ]

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[ "The World Snooker Championship is the leading snooker tournament both in terms of prestige and prize money. The first championship was held in 1927 and was won by Joe Davis. Davis won the first 15 championships before retiring from the event, undefeated, after his 1946 success. In the 1950s snooker went into a period of decline and the championship was not held after 1952, although an unofficial championship was held until 1957. In 1964 the championship was revived on a challenge basis and in 1969 the championship became a knock-out event again. Since 1977 it has been played at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The tournament is currently played over 17 days and ends on the first Monday in May. In the modern era (since 1969), the best record is that of Stephen Hendry, who won the title seven times. Steve Davis and Ray Reardon both won six times while Ronnie O'Sullivan has won five titles. The current champion is Mark Selby, who has won the tournament twice.", "In the United Kingdom, snooker is by far the most popular cue sport at the competitive level, and major national pastime along with association football and cricket. It is played in many Commonwealth countries as well, especially in Asia. Snooker is uncommon in North America, where pool games such as eight-ball and nine-ball dominate, and Latin America and Continental Europe, where carom games dominate. The first World Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it has been held annually since then with few exceptions. The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) was established in 1968 to regulate the professional game, while the International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF) regulates the amateur games. ", "The World Snooker Championship was first held at the venue in 1977 – when it was won by John Spencer, who beat Cliff Thorburn 25-21 – and it has been held at the Crucible ever since.", "While billiards was his favoured sport, Joe recognised that snooker was to be the way forward and played a significant part in organising the first World Snooker Championship in 1927, staged at Camkin’s Hall in Birmingham. As it turned out, Joe was to go on to win the trophy with a 20-11 win over Tom Dennis, a win that would start a 14-year winning streak which was ended only by the Second World War following the 1940 tournament. In 1946 however he was able to win the first tournament back after this enforced break, his 15th in all before he was to announce his sudden retirement from the World Championship competition.", "Coinciding with his peak as a billiards player, Davis's interests shifted to snooker and he helped to organise the first snooker world championship in 1927 and won the tournament by beating Tom Dennis, for which he won UK£6 10s. He went on to win the world championship every year until 1940. Joe's brother Fred, twelve years his junior, was also a snooker player and multiple World Champion. When Joe met Fred in the world championship final of 1940, Joe won 37–36.", "The event was revived in the form of several one-off tournaments throughout the 1990s and up to 2007. Pot Black helped transform snooker from a minority sport with just a handful of professionals into one of the most popular sports in the United Kingdom. Mark Williams holds the events' highest break record of 119. The World Championship was first televised in 1973. World Rankings were introduced in 1976, and, in 1977, the World Championship was held in the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, where it has been ever since. Daily television coverage of the World Championship began in 1978.", "One of the all-time legends of Welsh snooker, Griffiths had an outstanding playing career, highlighted by his World Championship triumph in 1979. He remains the only player to conquer the Crucible on his debut in the sport’s biggest tournament. “I’m in the final now, you know,” was his unforgettable comment, before he beat Dennis Taylor 24-16 to take the trophy.", "The World Open is a professional ranking snooker tournament established in 1982. The World Open was launched under the name of the Professional Players Tournament, however it was changed to the Grand Prix in 1984 and the name remained until 2001.", "Joe's first win over Tom Newman for the Professional Billiards Championship came in 1928, and his only defeats in the event were against Walter Lindrum in 1933 and 1934. Although quite capable of making century breaks, Walter never took to snooker. If he had, maybe the record books would read differently today. The Australian Lindrum is credited with the highest ever billiards break in match conditions of 4,137. As he amassed this total over two days on the 18th and 19th January 1932, it is perhaps no surprise that snooker was becoming more popular, at least among spectators. (In an exhibition session in 1907, Welshman Tom Reece had scored 499,135 points! It took him five weeks, and resulted in the rules of billiards being changed to prevent it happening again. Click HERE for more on this.)", "In 1924, Joe Davis, together with two billiard traders, first put forward the idea of a Professional Snooker Championship to the Billiards Association and Control Council, to complement the Amateur Championship which started in 1916. The idea was met with a marked lack of enthusiasm. The secretary of the governing body, the BA&CC, commented, \" The suggestion will receive consideration at an early date, but it seems a little doubtful whether snooker as a spectacular game is sufficiently popular to warrant the successful promotion of such a competition.\"", "The game of “Snooker” is reputed to have developed from a combination of the games of pool and pyramid pool.  Colonel Sir Neville Chamberlain invented it in 1875, whilst playing in the Officers’ Mess at Jubbulpore, India.   Royal Military Academy first year cadets were known as “Snookers.”    During the game when a participant missed a pot Chamberlain used the term “Snooker,” referring to the player, but it soon became the name of the new game.", "It was during 1907 that a professional 'Snooker's Pool Championship' was first played for. Admittedly each game was tagged on the end of a billiards match, which was promoted by Burroughes & Watts at their match room in Soho Square, London. This billiard equipment firm soon tumbled to the commercial realisation that compared to billiards a player needs more balls for snooker, and so promoted the game quite keenly. It was also noticed for the first time that the paying public began to show a great interest in the 22 ball game. The ultimate winner was Charles Dawson, billiard champion from 1899-1903, and curiously, the scoring was recorded in billiard terms, as it was the total aggregate points scored, and not the frames won, which decided the winner of this round robin event.", "1875 - It was in 1875 that Neville Chamberlain ( No, not that Appeasement British prime Minister ) created snooker. During the rainy season, young officers spent much of their time in the billiards room, and several of the games they played allowed for gambling. Two of the most popular games were ' pyramids' and 'black pool'.there were 15 reds, arranged in a pyramid, and each time a player potted a red his opponent had to pay a forfeit. In 'black pool', each player had a different coloured cue ball, and when an opponent potted potted it they had to pay a fee to rejoin the game. If the opponent potted the black ball after an opponents ball, the fee was greater.", "Snooker: in a repeat of the 1973 Final, Ray Reardon beats Eddie Charlton (31-30) to become World Snooker Champion for the fourth time.", "The game is generally regarded to have originated in the latter half of the 19th century. Billiards had been a popular activity amongst British Army officers stationed in India, and variations on the more traditional billiard games were devised. One variation, devised in the officers' mess in Jabalpur during 1874 or 1875, was to add coloured balls in addition to the reds and black which were used for pyramid pool and life pool The word snooker also has military origins, being a slang term for first-year cadets or inexperienced personnel. One version of events states that Colonel Sir Neville Chamberlain of the Devonshire regiment was playing this new game when his opponent failed to pot a ball and Chamberlain called him a snooker. It thus became attached to the billiards game now bearing its name as inexperienced players were labelled as snookers.", "During a visit to India in 1885, John Roberts, the world billiards champion, sought out Chamberlain in order to learn the game of snooker. He then introduced the game to England.", "The game of snooker was invented by a Brit, 'Colonel Sir Neville Chamberlain' of the British Army garrisons of India. The game is believed to have came about as a mix of other billiard games, mainly English Billiards , this new billiard sport of snooker surfaced around 1875.", "John Roberts (Junior), who was then Billiards Champion, visited India in 1885, met Chamberlain at dinner with the Maharajah of Cooch Behar and enquired about the rules of snooker. He then introduced the game into England, although it was many years before it became widely played there. Manufacturers of billiards equipment, however, soon realised the commercial possibilities of snooker, and by the end of the 1800's the game had developed as had the tables into as we know them today.", "The Hurricane had already gone primetime, snooker was merely catching up and now he found himself welcome at every bar in Great Britain. As his star grew throughout the 1970s, things began to get away from him. He had never lived a quiet life but suddenly here he was, drunk and running through a 35-room mansion as an equally drunk Oliver Reed chased him with an axe. At an exhibition match in Ilfracombe he threw his cue “spear-like” at a spectator who riled him. He missed tournament games to play more lucrative exhibition games and began drifting from match to match losing track of which mattered and which were for show.", "In the mid-1800s table maker John Thurston introduced the now-standard slate beds and rubber cushions; American pool was developed from English billiards; the use of side in a shot is apparently known in the US as �Putting a bit of English on it�; the developer of the modern game of snooker was Joe Davis (1901-78), a cue and ball Immortal; he won 15 consecutive world championships, was the first to achieve a maximum 147 break and the first to score 100 on television; his affable younger brother Fred also achieved prominence, becoming world champion in both billiards and snooker, like Joe; John Pulman was a multiple world champion in the next era; the ï¿½greats� of recent times are Steve Davis (no relation), Stephen Hendry & ambidextrous genius Ronnie O�Sullivan; the World Snooker Campionships is held annually at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, the home of a game now played globally; the 100th maximum 147 break in the history of professional snooker was made by Mark Selby in the 2013 UK Snooker Championship", "The game of snooker is a cue sport which emerged in its modern form in the late 19th century, with roots going back to the 16th century form of English billiards. Billiards was popular among the British Armed Forces stationed in India. As billiards was only a two player game, new games such as life pool and pyramid pool were developed in order to accommodate more players. Eventually, these two games were combined to form snooker.", "Snooker, generally regarded as having been invented in India by British Army officers, is popular in many of the English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, with top professional players attaining multimillion-pound career earnings from the game. The sport has become increasingly popular in China. Touring professional players compete regularly around the world, the premier tournament being the World Snooker Championship, held annually in Sheffield, England.", "Snooker, generally regarded as having been invented in India by British Army officers, is popular in many of the English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, with top professional players attaining multi-million-pound career earnings from the game. The sport is now increasingly popular in China. Touring professional players compete regularly around the world, the premier tournament being the World Championship, held annually in Sheffield, England.", "The first amateur snooker championship was staged during the Great War, with the result at that time decided by points aggregate after seven frames – a very early precursor to the shorter format of the  modern-day European and Asian Tour series.", "Mark Selby won his first world title by defeating defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan 18–14. This was Selby's fourth ranking title and made him the ninth player to complete snooker's Triple Crown of World Championship, UK Championship, and Masters titles. ", "Griffiths started the tournament by defeating Bernard Bennett and Jim Meadowcroft in the qualifying rounds. At the Crucible, he defeated Perrie Mans in the first round, followed by a 13–12 victory over Alex Higgins in the quarter-final. [1] In the semi-final, he was trailing 16–17 to Eddie Charlton before winning 19–17 at 1.40am, the latest finish of any match at the time. [2] Griffiths then beat future champion Dennis Taylor 24–16 in the final to win the world title at the first attempt. [2] [3] He became also the first qualifier to win the title at the Crucible. [4]", "Snooker, a cue sport, generally regarded as having been invented in Jabalpur by British Army officers, is popular in many of the English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, with top professional players attaining multimillion-pound career earnings from the game.", "Snooker, which has its origins in billiard games played by British Army officers in colonial India, is a remarkably difficult and delicate sport. Many players focus on potting the reds and colors—but the real skill of the game is the sublime way players move the white ball around. A good player is always setting up the next shot. Around this huge table with tiny pockets, it is Newton’s laws of physics applied to chess. In snooker, a single mistake is usually enough.", "This article is a stub , an article too short to provide more than rudimentary information about a subject. You can help The Snooker Wikia by expanding it .", "          Frederick William Lindrum I becomes Australia's first World Professional Billiards Champion, defeating the English master, John Roberts Sr.", "\"Snooker has reached the levels it has today because of him. He was the first exciting snooker player.\"", "PROFILE: The snooker world champion is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time." ]

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[ "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea is a story about the expedition of the Nautilus, captained by Captain Nemo and told from the perspective of Professor Pierre Aronnax. Like Melville’s Moby Dick, the story is ostensibly about an expedition chasing down a large sea creature, but there are metaphors throughout the book that are meant to symbolize society and civilization. ", "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (French:Vingt mille lieues sous les mers) is a science fiction fantasy adventure novel by the French author Jules Verne . It was first published in 1870. The main characters are a French scientist named Aronnax and the mysterious Captain Nemo. In order to escape repression in his homeland, Nemo has built a submarine called the Nautilus and roams freely through the world's oceans in it. The \"twenty thousand leagues\" of the title refers to the distance traveled, six times the diameter of the Earth. The greatest depth that the Nautilus descends to is four leagues. [1]", "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (French: Vingt mille lieues sous les mers) is a classic science fiction novel by French writer Jules Verne, published in 1870. It is about the fictional Captain Nemo and his submarine, Nautilus, as seen by one of his passengers, Professor Pierre Aronnax.", "From the classic Jules Verne tale of sea monsters and adventure, \"20,000 Leagues Under the Sea\", comes an all-new version of the famous submarine of Captain Nemo. Complete with a full interior incorporating a wealth of details from the Captains grand pipe organ to the musterious power supply orb, the Nautilus submarine is as exciting as the actual story that revolves around it and it's charismatic captain.", "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (Walt Disney Productions, 1954) Classic screen adaptation of Jules Verne's early vision of submarine warfare. James Mason is the mad Captain Nemo, who takes on the warmongering imperialist countries with his submarine Nautilus. Also stars Kirk Douglas and Peter Lorre. This Oscar winner (for special effects and set decoration) is a remake of a 1916 silent film.", "Perhaps the most famous of Verne’s protagonists is Captain Nemo, skipper of the magnificent submarine, the Nautilus.  In 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, adapted to film in 1953, Nemo led a one-man crusade against war, sinking the world’s warships in the cause of pacifism.", "The Nautilus is the fictional submarine captained by Nemo featured in Jules Verne's novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870) and The Mysterious Island (1874). Verne named the Nautilus after Robert Fulton's real-life submarine Nautilus (1800). Three years before writing his novel, Jules Verne also studied a model of the newly developed French Navy submarine Plongeur at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, which inspired him for his definition of the Nautilus. ", "Captain Nemo [ Naseeruddin Shah ], a scientific genius who roams the depths of the sea in his submarine, the Nautilus, in two of French author Jules Verne's novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870) and The Mysterious Island (1874).", "The Nautilus goes down in the Maelstrom on June 2, 1868, according to 20,000 Leagues Under The Sea, but may have survived. (The Mysterious Island gives this date as June 22, 1867.) Captain Nemo dies on the Nautilus under Lincoln Island in The Mysterious Island on October 15, 1868. Therefore, some chronological inconsistencies still exist: Cyrus and Gideon knew of Captain Nemo years before Aronnax published his story, Nemo being trapped under Lincoln Island all during the time in 20,000 Leagues Under The Sea.", "Nemo is the name of the famous undersea captain in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea . It's also the name of a little boy who goes on fantastic dream adventures .", "Want an exciting science fiction novel to enhance your students' love of reading? Then, explore the underwater world of Captain Nemo and the Nautilus in the pages of Jules Vernes' Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea. This 322-page paperback book for grades 7 and up is sure to captivate students, as they experience adventures to worlds unknown in this timeless classic! (Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea is required for English I).", "As an inspiration to the submarine pioneers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, no other literary figure loomed as large as Jules Verne, the \"father of science-fiction\" and the author in 1870 of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Educated as a lawyer, Verne lacked formal training in science and engineering, but nonetheless chose so shrewdly from the speculative technologies of his day in creating a futuristic submarine for his protagonist, Captain Nemo, that the essentials of his undersea vision have nearly all been realized. American submarine inventor Simon Lake, for example, credited his life-long interest in undersea exploration to having read Verne's novel as a boy - and in 1898, he was thrilled to receive a telegram of congratulations from the author himself when his own Argonaut completed its first substantial ocean-going voyage.", "Closed Circle : Even when the Nautilus travels around the whole world, Professor Aronnax , Conseil and Ned Land are confined to the submarine . They only talk with Captain Nemo (all the other crew talk a secret language).", "Loosely based on the celebrated novel by Jules Verne, the swashbuckler genre bumped into science fiction in 1954 for one of Hollywood's great entertainments. The Jules Verne story of adventure under the sea was Walt Disney's magnificent debut into live-action films. Kirk Douglas, Paul Lukas, and Peter Lorre star as shipwrecked survivors taken captive by the mysterious Captain Nemo, brilliantly portrayed by James Mason. Wavering between genius and madness, Nemo has launched a deadly crusade across the seven seas. But can the captive crew expose his evil plan before he destroys the world? Disney's brilliant Academy Award-winning (1955, Best Art Direction and Best Special Effects) adaptation of Jules Verne's gripping tale makes 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea a truly mesmerizing masterpiece. The art designs -- particularly those for the Nautilus -- are justly celebrated. At the time of its release, LEAGUES was the single most expensive motion picture ever made (ironically it would loose that dubious distinction later that same year to yet another film featuring James Mason: A STAR IS BORN), and every penny of the money spent shows in the onscreen result. But for all its beauty, it is the performances which make the film work.", "    In the novel, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea by Jules Verne, numerous unusual events are unfolding in the oceans of the world. Rumor has it that a large, narwal-like creature is damaging and sinking any ships it crosses paths with. Professor Pierre Aronnax, a marine biologist, is incredibly intrigued by this marine creature, and sets out to join an expedition with the goal of chasing and capturing it.", "* James Mason played Captain Nemo in the Walt Disney film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954).", "The film Nautilus depicted the famous submarine in the Jules Verne novel \"20,000 leagues Under the Sea.\" The theme park ride featured the USS Nautilus - the world's first nuclear-powered submarine that traveled below the polar ice cap of the artic ocean on August 3, 1958 with its crew of 116 to become the first ship to cross the geographic North Pole.", "Jules Gabriel Verne was a French author who pioneered the science-fiction genre. He is best known for his novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea(1870), A Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), and Around the World in Eighty Days (1873). Verne wrote about space, air, and underwater travel before air travel and practical submarines were invented, and before practical means of space travel had been devised. He is the second most translated individual author in the world, according to Index Translationum. Some of his books have also been made into live-action and animated films and television shows. Verne, along with Hugo Gernsback and H. G. Wells, is often popularly referred to as the \"Father of Science Fiction\".", "_20,000 Leagues Under the Sea_ is probably the greatest novel by the father of the entire science fiction genre.", "When Jules Verne wrote about the fantastic submersible ship Nautilus in 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, there had already been several very successful submarines built and tested. And Verne, who always did his homework, was certainly aware of these. Which was his inspiration?", "Nautilus: Not the REAL submarine -- Jules Verne's vessel from 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A classic SF tale that is also a sea story.", "USS Nautilus (SSN-571) is the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine . She was the first vessel to complete a submerged transit to the North Pole on 3 August 1958. Sharing names with the submarine in Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , and named after another USS Nautilus (SS-168) that served with distinction in World War II, Nautilus was authorized in 1951 and launched in 1954. Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation, and traveled to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines.", "As an inspiration to the submarine pioneers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, no other literary figure loomed as large as Jules Verne, the \"father of science-fiction\" and the author in 1870 of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Verne's plot in Twenty Thousand Leagues is relatively simple and serves largely as a framework for describing both the wonders of the underwater world and the technologies needed to realize the author's prophetic vision of undersea travel and exploration.", "The commander of the Nautilus. He is a mysterious man. He is often moved to tears, yet easily angered. He is a brilliant man who was formerly an engineer. He designed the Nautilus himself. His nationality remains unknown to the narrator.", "On 4 February 1957, Nautilus logged her 60,000th nautical mile (110,000 km; 69,000 mi, matching the endurance of her namesake, the fictional Nautilus described in Jules Verne's novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea. In May, she departed for the Pacific Coast to participate in coastal exercises and the fleet exercise, operation \"Home Run,\" which acquainted units of the Pacific Fleet with the capabilities of nuclear submarines.", "Verne took the name \"Nautilus\" from one of the earliest successful submarines, built in 1800 by Robert Fulton, who later invented the first commercially successful steamboat. Fulton's submarine was named after the paper nautilus because it had a sail. Three years before writing his novel, Jules Verne also studied a model of the newly developed French Navy submarine Plongeur at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, which inspired him for his definition of the Nautilus. ", "This is the logo of the futuristic submarine Nautilus, as envisioned by Jules Verne and seen in the hit 1950's movie 20,000 Leagues Under The Sea. This is a mint, unused patch measuring 3.5\" across.", "\"Brought to life in Walt Disney's 1954 film, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, the Nautilus was a marvel of both engineering and imagination. With an electrically charged hull for defense and a pointed pr...", "Namesake of the submarine in Jules Vern’s Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Nautilus was authorized in 1951 and launched in 1954. Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged for far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation and was able to travel to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction; this information was used to improve subsequent submarines.", "Jules Verne, \"Part 2, Chapter 18: The Devilfish,\" Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Lit2Go Edition, (1870), accessed January 18, 2017, http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/83/twenty-thousand-leagues-under-the-sea/1463/part-2-chapter-18-the-devilfish/.", "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea: SETTING / CHARACTER LIST / CONFLICT / PROTAGONIST / ANTAGONIST / CLIMAX by Jules Verne", "I just read Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and I really liked it. I kind of got lost in the classifying sometimes, but I loved reading about all the different underwater cultures the Nautilus encountered. The ending left me wanting more. This is the first book I've read by Jules Verne... which one should I read next?" ]

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[ "(P.C.) Plod: The name of the policeman in popular children's book Noddy ( actually Mr. Plod). The female version, generally used only by the police, is Plonk.", "* BIG-EARS , a wise, bearded brownie who lives in a toadstool house outside of ToyLand and is Noddy's best friend. He finds Noddy and brings him to Toyland at the start of the first book. * MR. PLOD (sometimes called PC Plod), is the Toyland policeman. He is a good friend of Noddy and thinks Toytown can't live without him. (He has not been featured in the franchise since 2009) * BUMPY DOG, in the original books, lives with Tessie Bear, but accompanies Noddy on many adventures. Noddy first met the Bumpy Dog in Toytown because he was injured and Noddy used his scarf to help him. Noddy felt he was unable to have Bumpy Dog live with him, so Tessie Bear offered to keep him. * MR. WOBBLY MAN, a funny little man who cannot lie down . He has a round base which he wobbles about on. He rocks back and forth to get around. (He has not been featured in the franchise since 2009). * MASTER TUBBY BEAR, Mr and Mrs Tubby Bear's son , and is sometimes called Bruiny. He was naughty in the books and older television series, but he was better behaved in Make Way for Noddy", "Noddy has many run-ins with PC Plod, the local policeman. Some are caused by Noddy's lack of understanding of how Toyland works. Other times it is because of a case of mistaken identity. Mr. Plod is generally long-suffering towards Noddy and Noddy likes Mr. Plod and frequently goes out of his way to help him. Mr. Plod often catches the mischief makers on his police bicycle, by blowing his whistle and shouting \"Halt, in the name of Plod!!\" before locking the culprits up in his jail.", "Mr. Plod (called PC Plod in some versions), the Toytown policeman. He is a good friend of Noddy and thinks Toytown can't live without him.", "Mr. Plod and Little Noddy. name written twice in pen on 'belongs to' page Mr. Plod falls off his ladder and has to go to hospital. Noddy Book 22. by Enid Blyton. Big-Ears was policeman while he was aw...", "Mr. Plod, P.C. Plod or Plodder: a British term that arose from the Noddy books by Enid Blyton, in which Mr. Plod was the village policeman. \"Plod\" has also commonly been used by the British police themselves, as has its (generally disparaging) female equivalent \"plonk\".", "Besides Noddy himself, other characters in the series include Bumpy Dog, Big Ears, Mr. Plod, Mr. Wobbly Man, Tessie Bear, the Tubby Bears and many more. Below is a list of Noddy books by Enid Blyton:", "Toyland is a fabulous world, filled with an imaginative cast of characters ranging from dinosaurs and trains to unicorns, robots and pirates. In Noddy Toyland Detective, Toyland’s most famous resident, Noddy, is stepping into the new role of detective. If there’s something lost, missing or unusual happening in Toyland, Noddy and his best friends, Bumpy Dog and Revs the car, are the investigating dream team who find out what’s going on and how to make things right. With the help of his Who-What-Where tablet, Noddy takes preschoolers on interactive adventures as he asks questions and uncovers clues to solve the mysteries of Toyland and save the day. Each episode is filled with music, mystery, friendship and fun to keep kids entertained all while learning how to investigate their own world.", "Below, stamps featuring characters from five childrens' books by the British writer Enid Blyton (1997). The series titles featured are: Noddy; The Famous Five; Secret Seven; Faraway Tree; and Malory Towers. Although not well known in the United States, Blyton's books have been translated into no fewer than 27 languages and some 8 million of her titles are sold each year. \"Noddy,\" a sweet-natured boy in a blue hat with big ears and a yellow hat, was perhaps her most famous creation.", "The original Noddy stories featured Golliwogs – black-faced woollen dolls. These dolls were popular in the UK at the time the stories were written, but have fallen out of favour and some consider them racist . The main villains became two goblins named Sly and Gobbo in 1989.", "Noddy is a little wooden boy who lives in his own little House-for-One in Toyland. The first book explains Noddy's origins. He was made by a woodcarve] in a toy store but ran away after the man began to make a wooden lion, which scared Noddy. As he wanders through the woods, with no clothes, money or home, he meets Big Ears, a friendly brownie. Big Ears decides that Noddy is a toy and takes him to live in Toyland. He generously provides Noddy with a set of clothing and a house for him. While Noddy is quite happy to be a toy, the citizens of Toyland are not sure that he actually is one. They put Noddy on trial and examine whether he is a toy or an ornament. Eventually, Noddy is declared a toy, but still has to convince the court that he is a good toy. The judge accepts that Noddy is good after a doll tells the court that he saved her little girl from a lion; and he is allowed to stay in Toyland. Noddy gets his car in the second book. It is given to him after he helps solve a local mystery.", "Noddy books: 154 books, 1949-1968. a series of books with bright and colourful illustrations and a strong central character designed for young children. Originally illustrated by Harmsen van der Beek and in later volumes by Robert Tyndall; widely merchandised and serialized as television and theatre shows.", "The first book explains Noddy's origins. He was made by a woodcarver in a toy store but ran away after the man began to make a wooden lion, which scared Noddy. As he wanders through the woods, with no clothes, money or home, he meets Big Ears, a friendly brownie. Big Ears decides that Noddy is a toy and takes him to live in Toyland. He generously provides Noddy with a set of clothing and a house. While Noddy is quite happy to be a toy, the citizens of Toyland are not sure that he actually is one. They put Noddy on trial and examine whether he is a toy or an ornament. Eventually, Noddy is declared a toy, but still has to convince the court that he is a good toy. The judge accepts that Noddy is good after a doll tells the court that he saved her little girl from a lion, and he is allowed to stay in Toyland. Noddy gets his car in the second book. It is given to him after he helps solve a local mystery.", "Nonetheless, the Noddy books became such an active signifier of racism that the mere mention of the name could provoke a ban, as happened with a production of David Wood's play Noddy in 1993. In the sanitised, homogenised versions of the books on sale now, all the golliwogs have been replaced by goblins, presumably because there is no racial group that can be offended by them. Noddy and Big Ears, who once liked to share a bed, now live in separate establishments. The BBC, producer of the animated TV series, introduced a new character, Dinah Doll, who it describes as a \"black, assertive, ethnic minority female.\" Because of – or perhaps in spite of - all this, Noddy generates annual sales of more than $80 million in Britain alone and, in the US, is more popular than Sesame Street.", "Noddy books were banned for many years, ostensibly because of their racism. Critics condemned Blyton for \"habitually presenting (golliwogs) ... in evil and menacing roles\", thereby giving children a negative impression of black people. Blyton herself protested that she depicted more bad teddies than golliwogs. Statistically she was right. A close examination of the Noddy books shows that golliwogs were wicked in only one story, out of twenty-four books in total, with the real villains more likely to be monkeys or goblins.", "Based on the classic character created by renowned children’s author Enid Blyton in 1949, Noddy is one of the most beloved children’s characters around the world, having entertained families for generations with stories set in the colourful world of Toyland. Noddy was first published in Noddy Goes to Toyland in 1949, and remains one of the most beloved characters worldwide. His television debut came in 1954 with The Adventures of Noddy and, in the same year, Noddy in Toyland appeared on the London stage. Noddy’s popularity took him to France in 1963 where he is known as Oui-Oui and remains a perennial favorite.", "By the 1990s, when Susan Sheridan was picked to voice the character, Noddy had been forced to clean up his act. The original stories had featured “golliwogs” who lived in Golly Town, including Mr Golly, the proprietor of Toyland’s garage. These characters had been dropped from the BBC’s television adaptation of the books in the 1980s and replaced by other soft toys. Also gone was Miss Rap, the schoolmistress who dished out spankings with a slipper.", "Noddyis a character created by English children's author Enid Blyton , originally published between 1949 and 1963. Television shows based on the character have run on British television since 1955 and continue to appear to this day. Portrayed by David Kaye , he is a little wooden boy.", "Item Description: Sampson Low, 1951. Softcover. Book Condition: Very Good. No Jacket. First edition.. 1st 1951. Slightly better than very good condition. Six small format paperwrap books contained in pictorial slipcase shaped like a house with opening door at front. B/w illustrations. The Tiny Noddy Books nos 1-6: A Tale of Little Noddy; Noddy Has More Adventures; Noddy Goes to the Seaside; Noddy has a Shock; Noddy Off to Rocking-Horse Land; Noddy and Big-Ears Have a Picnic. Each book is small format (3.5\" x 3\") with pictorial cardwraps, 36 b/w illustrations with text below. Books near fine with lightly browned pages. Remains of original box contained inside colour reproduction box. [S]. Book. Bookseller Inventory # 575620", "Blyton's Noddy, about a little wooden boy from Toyland, first appeared in the Sunday Graphic on 5 June 1949, and in November that year Noddy Goes to Toyland, the first of at least two dozen books in the series, was published. The idea was conceived by one of Blyton's publishers, Sampson, Low, Marston and Company, who in 1949 arranged a meeting between Blyton and the Dutch illustrator Harmsen van der Beek. Despite having to communicate via an interpreter, he provided some initial sketches of how Toyland and its characters would be represented. Four days after the meeting Blyton sent the text of the first two Noddy books to her publisher, to be forwarded to van der Beek. The Noddy books became one of her most successful and best-known series, and were hugely popular in the 1950s. An extensive range of sub-series, spin-offs and strip books were produced throughout the decade, including Noddy's Library, Noddy's Garage of Books, Noddy's Castle of Books, Noddy's Toy Station of Books and Noddy's Shop of Books.", "Based on the classic character created by renowned children’s author Enid Blyton in 1949, Noddy is one of the most beloved children’s characters worldwide, having entertained families for generations with stories set in the colorful world of Toyland.", "Noddy is a fictional character created by English children's author Enid Blyton, originally published between 1949 and 1963. Television shows based on the character ...", "Noddy is a wooden boy who ran away from his maker when the toymaker began carving a lion toy, which scared the then-nameless wooden boy. He was found and befriended by a brownie, Big Ears , who named the child Noddy because the boy nodded constantly while speaking, and took him to Toyland, even providing the boy with clothes and a house to live in.", "On 17 November 2008, it was announced that Enid Blyton's granddaughter, Sophie Smallwood, is to write a new Noddy book to celebrate the character's 60th birthday. It will be illustrated by Robert Tyndall, who has drawn the characters in the Noddy books since 1953. [1]", "Blyton in 1949 published perhaps her most controversial book, Little Noddy Goes to Toyland. It was a seemingly innocuous story of a little toy man who always ends up in trouble and had to seek help from his Toyland friends. Its sales exceeded expectations. Other Noddy books of various sizes and types followed in rapid succession. The stories were illustrated by Van Der Beek who died suddenly in Holland in 1953. The series also produced a play and a film. \"Noddy\" enchanted younger children and became a household name in England. As a result it became the subject of music hall jokes and sketches.", "Tony adds: Noddy actually made his debut when the first two books were serialised in the Sunday Graphic. Interestingly the second book, Hurrah for Little Noddy was the first to appear, serialised from June 5 to July 31, 1949 and this was followed by Noddy Goes to Toyland from August 7 to September 25, 1949. This was published as the first Noddy book in November of that year.", "The animation studio Cosgrove Hall made the series and it did a superb job bringing the Noddy stories to life. Much of the success of the series was due to Susan Sheridan, whose voice had been selected out of some 200 audition tapes. Explaining how she came up with Noddy’s sing-song cadences, she explained that she had studied the illustrations in the original Noddy books: “He’s got eyebrows that look surprised or cross, so that’s how I found the voice. He talks up and down like that most of the time.”", "This is a cool book. A1957 dated, softcover childrens book titled: Do look out Noddy by Blyton. 48 pages and in very good shape with light wear to the covers and pages starting to come loose from the ...", "Seven Deadly Wonders by Matthew Reilly , a character is nicknamed Noddy, while his best friend's nickname is Big Ears.", "Learn and talk about Noddy (character), Characters in children's literature, DreamWorks Classics, Enid Blyton characters, Fictional dolls and dummies", "* 1 Noddy * 2 Characters * 3 Noddy books * 4 Television productions and incarnations * 5 Adaptations * 6 Other media * 7 Derivative uses * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links", "Just like the Toy Story series makes room for every different type of doll you might have grown up with, Noddy covered the bases of early 20th century toy boxes, featuring characters such as Mr. Tubby Bear (a Teddy bear), Dinah Doll (a china doll) and the Golliwogs (a family of racist monstrosities)." ]

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[ "weeks of 7/29/01 and 8/5/01:  \"Wee, sleekit, cow'rin', tim'rous beastie,  O what a panic's in thy breastie!...\" - Robert Burns (1759-1796), from his poem \"To A Mouse\"", "Another word with which Burns has left his mark is wee, meaning ‘small’, which was originally a noun meaning ‘a little or young thing, a child’ and ‘a small quantity’. It is from Old English wēġ or wēġe, which was connected with weigh. The word is particularly associated with the opening of Burns’s poem ‘To a Mouse’ (1786): ‘Wee, sleekit, cowrin’, tim’rous beastie / O what a panic’s in thy breastie!’ Sleekit or sleeked means ‘having smooth, glossy skin or fur’.", "In this poem Burns consciously casts himself as the �heaven taught plowman.�� The plot, even in the Scots sections, is easy enough to follow for the Standard English speaker. Burns, in plowing a corn field, has upturned the nest of a little field mouse and does his best to console the �wee, sleekit, cow�rin, tim�rous beastie� (Wilkie 74).� This scene fits perfectly into, and profited from the popularity of, the primitivist vogue. Not only does Burns represent himself as a simple rustic, but further as a man so emotional and empathetic that he would care for this poor �mousie�s� woes � thus fulfilling the affective demands of the sentimentalism tradition (see McGuirk). This is in keeping with how Burns describes himself, in the dedication which prefaces his Edinburgh edition, as �A Scottish Bard, proud of the name, and whose highest ambition is to sing in his Country�s service� (Kay 113). He explains that the Scottish muse came to him �at the plow, and threw her inspiring mantle over [him],� commanding him to �sing the loves, the joys, the rural scenes [�] of my native soil, in my native tongue� (Kay 113). Burns employs Scots in this poem, and even (as Snyder points out) an exaggeratedly archaic Scottish dialect. The obscure farming terminology would have been beyond the Scots actually spoken by the purchasers of his volume (513), but he uses it in order to characterize himself as an idealized or archetypal Scottish farmer.", "Haggis is traditionally served with the Burns supper on the week of January 25, when Scotland's national poet , Robert Burns , is commemorated. He wrote the poem Address to a Haggis , which starts \"Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!\" During Burns's lifetime haggis was a popular dish for the poor , as it was very cheap, being made from leftover, otherwise thrown away, parts of a sheep (the most common livestock in Scotland), yet nourishing.", "For me, what shines through Robert Burns's poetry is his compassion for all living creatures: whether for a young girl accused of \"loose morals\" for embracing a boy, or for a field mouse whose nest had been destroyed by his plow, or for a daisy cut down before its time, or for himself when he had to part with someone he cherished.", "Burns uses this legend as a basis to craft a wonderful poem about a man, Tam o’Shanter, who never takes the advice of his wife Kate. He stays out at all hours, drinking his life away, until one night poor Tam has to flee for his life from witches, gathered to dance to the devil's bagpipes, at the old Kirk in Alloway. In the poem, Burns changes the witch's name to Nannie Dee and, instead of mentioning the ‘short sark’, Tam instead calls out \"Weel done, Cutty-sark\" – cutty sark being the old local name for a short undergarment or petticoat. The poem is populated by several unforgettable characters, besides Tam himself. There is his drinking pal, Souter Johnnie, Tam’s long suffering wife Kate, the young witch Nannie or ‘Cutty Sark’ and Tam’s gallant horse, Maggie. Tam o’Shanter is a poem that encompasses humour, horror and social comment as the unsightly, tailless condition of poor Maggie serves as an awful reminder to the Carrick farmers, not to stay too late drinking in Ayr. Written in 1790, it is one of Burns finest poems and his own favourite. Vivid and inventive, it turned a little known local tale of witches into an epic narrative loved the world over.", "In 1786 Burns wrote \"To a Haggis,\" a paean to the Scottish pudding of seasoned heart, liver, and lungs of a sheep or calf mixed with suet, onions, and oatmeal and boiled in an animal's stomach:", "To a Mouse featured in Burns' first volume of work, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect.", "Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect commonly known as the Kilmarnock volume or Kilmarnock edition, is a collection of poetry by Robert Burns, first printed and issued by John Wilson of Kilmarnock on 31 July 1786. It was the first published edition of Burns' work. It cost 3 shillings and 612 copies were printed. The volume was dedicated to Gavin Hamilton. The Kilmarnock volume contained, besides satire, a number of poems like \"Halloween\" (written in 1785), \"The Twa Dogs\" and \"The Cotter's Saturday Night,\" which are vividly descriptive of the Scots peasant life with which he was most familiar; and a group like \"Puir Mailie\" and \"To a Mouse\", which, in the tenderness of their treatment of animals, revealed one of the most attractive sides of Burns' personality.", "[3] This poem is, of course, the source of inspiration for Burns�s own feast poem, �To A Haggis.�", "He begins the poem by layering many distinctive Scots lexical elements (such as �bickerin�brattle,� �laith,� �wee,� �pattle,� etc.) and an emphasized long �a� vowel sound through the orthography.� The Scots here is connected to an emotional, immediate, and comforting voice. But then in the second stanza the poem slides effortlessly into a more reflective and controlled English: �I�m truly sorry Man�s dominion/ Has broken Nature�s social Union,/ An� justified that ill opinion/ Which makes thee startle� (74). The verses continue to balance Scots and English � moving towards the creature with a gentle, rural simplicity and vigor associated with Scots while further meditating on his despair in thoughtful, more distant English. As Carol McGuirk observes, Burns�s careful blending of �vernacular Scottish enlivens the sentimental, while the generalizing, self-consciously poetic English component broadens the significance of the vernacular [to create] an inimitable effect of meaningful simplicity, an effect by no means characteristic of all poets in the Scottish folk tradition� (xxii).� This would seem to follow in Ramsay�s footsteps since he links the pastoral mode and Scots, but Burns further incorporates English to introduce ideal dimensions to the folk model. He implies through his Anglo-Scottish hybrid that this real Scottish character has the sophistication to think philosophically in one language while commenting earnestly in another.�", "Robert Burns was born in Alloway, Scotland, on January 25, 1759. He died in Dumfries, Scotland, on July 21, 1796. He was a bard (poet) and wrote many poems, lyrics and other pieces that addressed political and civil issues. Perhaps his best known work is \"Auld Lang Syne\", which is sung at New Year's Eve celebrations in Scotland, parts of the United Kingdom, and other places around the world. Burns is one of Scotland's important cultural icons and is well known among Scottish expats or descendants around the world. He is also known as: \"Rabbie Burns\"; the \"Bard of Ayrshire\"; \"Scotland's favourite son\"; and in Scotland \"The Bard\".", "Robert Burns (1759–1796) used the word in his Merry Muses of Caledonia, a collection of bawdy verses which he kept to himself and were not publicly available until the mid-1960s. In \"Yon, Yon, Yon, Lassie\", this couplet appears: \"For ilka birss upon her cunt, Was worth a ryal ransom\". ", "Robert Burns, (born Jan. 25, 1759, Alloway , Ayrshire , Scot.—died July 21, 1796, Dumfries , Dumfriesshire), national poet of Scotland , who wrote lyrics and songs in the Scottish dialect of English. He was also famous for his amours and his rebellion against orthodox religion and morality .", "Those of Scotland have been most graphically described by that greatest of all poets of the people, Robert Burns. In his poem of “Hallow’een” he has given us a most vivid account of more than half a score of Hallow Eve charms and spells peculiar to the Scottish peasantry.", "Through this poem Burn's explores ideas of natural disaster and the vulnerability of all Earth's creatures. Burns was an early advocate against cruelty to animals and those who derived pleasure from causign such pain received the wrath of his pen on many occasions.", "The etymology of the Scots word kelpie is uncertain, but it may be derived from the Gaelic calpa or cailpeach, meaning \"heifer\" or \"colt\". The first recorded use of the term to describe a mythological creature, then spelled kaelpie, appears in the manuscript of an ode by William Collins, composed some time before 1759 and reproduced in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh of 1788. The place names Kelpie hoall and Kelpie hooll are reported in A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue as appearing in the 1674 burgh records for Kirkcudbright.", "Burns's formal education was unusual for an individual in his situation; it was more like the education of the son of a small laird. His references to Scots, English, and Continental writers provide evidence of his awareness of literary tradition; he was remarkably knowledgeable. Lines quoted from Thomas Gray's \" Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard \" (1751) acknowledge the literary precursor of the \"The Cotter's Saturday Night,\" while Fergusson's \"Farmer's Ingle\" was the direct, though unstated, model. Fergusson provides a less sentimental, more realistic, secular account of one evening's fireside activities. Fergusson and Ramsay were direct inspirations for Burns's vernacular works. He inherited particular genres and verse forms from the oral and written traditions, for example, the Spenserian stanza and English Augustan tone of \"The Cotter's Saturday Night\" or the comic elegy and vernacular informality drawn from such models in Standard Habbie as Sempill's \"The Life and Death of Habbie Simpson,\" used in \"The Death and Dying Words of Poor Mailie.\" His concern for feeling and sentiment would seem to connect him with the eighteenth-century cult of sensibility. Living in a time of extraordinary transition clearly enriched Burns's array of influences--oral and written, in Scots and English. These resources he molded and transmuted in extending the literary traditions he inherited.", "The 1780s brought publishing success to Robert Burns for his Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (1786). Drawing on the precedents of Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson, Burns demonstrated how Scottish idioms and ballad modes could lend a new vitality to the language of poetry. Although born a poor tenant farmer’s son, Burns had made himself well versed in English literary traditions, and his innovations were fully premeditated. His range is wide, from uninhibitedly passionate love songs to sardonic satires on moral and religious hypocrisy, of which the monologue Holy Willie’s Prayer (written 1785) is an outstanding example. His work bears the imprint of the revolutionary decades in which he wrote, and recurrent in much of it are a joyful hymning of freedom, both individual and national, and an instinctive belief in the possibility of a new social order.", "and dog's tongue. Breast weed (Saururus cernuus) was commonly known as lizard's tail or lizard's leg; the dogtooth violet (Erythronium dens-canis) was known as adder's tongue; fillet of snake was adder's meat or chickweed (Stellaria holostea); dog's tongue was tory weed (Cynoglossum officinale). Most ingredients mentioned in Macbeth and elsewhere were simply the common names of plants and herbs. Shakespeare added to the Pagan image of the witches by having them conjure Hecate, the Greek goddess of Witchcraft.", "Taken directly from the famous poem \"Tam o' Shanter\" by Robert Burns (nicknamed himself as 'the Bard of Ayrshire'), it includes the line... Auld Ayr, wha'm ne'er a town surpasses, For honest men and bonnie lasses. Very cultural.", "Burns Stanza: Also known as the six line stave or the Scottish stanza, the Burns stanza is a six line stanza with an aaabab rhyme pattern. It has tetrameter, a lines, and diameter b lines. However, the second b line may or may not be repeated. Though such stanzas are named after the Scottish poet Robert Burns, they were not invented by him; he just used them prolifically in his work. It was in use much before Burns and then it was known as the Standard Habbie. Examples of the Burn stanza include Robert Burns' To a Louse and Address to the Deil.", "This article is about the poem by Robert Burns. For other uses, see Tam o' Shanter .", "* Boatswain: pet of English poet Lord Byron and the subject of his poem \"Epitaph to a Dog\"", "In so doing, Burns switches from a thin Scots at the opening to pure Standard English in the final stanza � linking �self-control� with an increasingly anglicized voice.� This code-switching implies that the English stanzas are the careful ones, those more officially permissible yet drained of the passion of the opening Scots.� It is the English turned voice that is also linked to his supposed bardic failure. Of course, as Andrews points out, these lines are highly ironic �in light of Burns�s project of national identification through the representation of character.� Where Ramsay and Fergusson had been unable to create successful models for national unification [�], Burns�s appealed much more effectively to its national audience because of the �prudent, cautious self-control� at the heart of its representations of character� (330-1).� Burns�s bardic self allowed Scotsmen to see themselves as flawed yet genuine, as farmers also capable of philosophical thought, as both able to use English and able to choose Scots as best suits the moment.� This �offered them a national character that could not be incorporated or dissolved� even in the midst of the English pressures that were so forcefully present in Scotland the later eighteenth century (Andrews 331).", "Robert Burns was born on 25 January 1759 in the village of Alloway in Ayrshire . For much of his life he was involved with the land and physical toil and knew well the difficulties of poverty and deprivation. Nevertheless, as a young man he had taken to writing poetry, much of it in his native Scots language. This was unusual - by the end of the 18th century Scots was no longer regarded as the speech of \"educated\" men and women.", "Maxwell was also talented as an artist, and his sinuous line drawings of these amphibious and engaging creatures, and the homes they occupied, illustrate his story. This book stands as a lasting tribute to a man, his work, and his passion. It was received and has endured as a classic for its portrait not only of otters but also of a man who endured heartaches and disappointments, whose life embodied both greatness and tragedy. He writes with rare eloquence about his birth, his devotion to the beloved Scottish highlands, and the wildlife he loved, while refusing to ignore the darker aspects of his nature and of nature in its larger sense.", "The Scottish poet William McGonagall is famous for his doggerel, which is remembered with affection by many despite its seeming technical flaws, as in his poem \"The Tay Bridge Disaster\":", "1933/58 The Poems and Fables of Robert Henryson, Schoolmaster of Dunfermline. Edited from the Earliest Manuscripts and Printed Texts by H. Harvey Wood. Second edition, revised. Hardbound. Printed in Great Britain. Edinburgh & London: Oliver and Boyd. �18 from Minster Gate Bookshop, York, July, '98. Extra copy for $25 from Serendipity Books, Berkeley, August, '95.", "Some sources claim that it was mostly to be found in Caithness. Thomas Pennant made enquiries about the animal while in Ausdale in the county, and it is also mentioned in the work of Rob Donn, the Scottish Gaelic poet from Sutherland.", "*The tale appears to be cryptically referenced in the song \"John Brown\" (1988) by indie-rock band Masters of Reality. The lyrics are usually understood to be \"John Brown, bring him down; pull his body to the ground. Left him up, for long enough; let me be the Baby Gruff.\" ", "Warg: A person with the innate ability to slip inside the mind of an animal or animals. (See also: Skinchanger.)" ]

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[ "Edgar Degas was a painter who rejected the impressionist label even though it can be applied accurately to many of his paintings, which equally shared the realism style as well. Degas was best known for his paintings of ballet dancers and no other artist has ever covered this topic as well or in such detail. Renoir paintings also tackled various scenes around a Racecourse ground as well and this also produced respected art works.", "Edgar Degas was a French Impressionist painter, printmaker and sculptor with an extraordinarily long career from the mid-nineteenth century until after WWI. As one of the original group of Impressionists, although he preferred to be called a Realist, he traveled widely and employed the use of photography in his creative process. He is most renowned for his painting and drawings of ballet dancers in rehearsal and performances in the theatre.", "Degas, Edgar (July 19, 1834, Paris, France - September 27, 1917, Paris), French painter and sculptor, known especially for his paintings of ballet dancers. Other subjects that he frequently returned to include horse races, women bathing, and portraits of friends and relatives. Degas combined a modern focus on the creation of unusual compositions and the rendering of movement with a traditional emphasis on skillful drawing. An accomplished sculptor as well as painter, he molded, in wax and clay, exquisite small statues of dancers, female bathers, and horses in motion.", "Edgar Degas (born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas, 19 July 1834 – 27 September 1917), was a French artist famous for his work in painting, sculpture, printmaking and drawing. He is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism although he rejected the term, and preferred to be called a realist. A superb draftsman, he is especially identified with the subject of dance, and over half of his works depict dancers. These display his mastery in the depiction of movement, as do his racecourse subjects.", "[ilɛːʁ ʒɛʁmɛ̃ ɛdɡaʁ də ɡɑ] ; 19 July 1834 – 27 September 1917) was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints , and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance; more than half of his works depict dancers. He is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism , although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist . [1] He was a superb draftsman , and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects and female nudes . His portraits are notable for their psychological complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. [2]", "Edgar Degas was a 19th century artist from France who is best known for paintings, pastels and drawings of dancers, women at the toilette and Parisian street scenes. The product of a wealthy Parisian banking family, Degas studied art extensively and became a master draftsman by the 1860s. Although his style was more realistic and naturalistic, he joined the Impressionist school ( Claude Monet , Henri Matisse , et al) for exhibitions -- and has historically been linked to them aesthetically. Degas was known to have done hundreds of drawings before committing to a painting, and he experimented with media throughout his career. Some of his most famous paintings include Woman with Chrysanthemums (1865), The Dance Class (1873-76), L'Absinthe (1876) and After the Bath (1898). His sculptures from later in his career -- lots of dancers -- are seen all over the world.", "French artist, acknowledged as the master of drawing the human figure in motion. Degas worked in many mediums, preferring pastel to all others. He is perhaps best known for his paintings, drawings, and bronzes of ballerinas and of race horses.", "Large amount of paintings by Degas on the scene of ballet dancing won him the title of “ painter of ballet actresses ”.", "Modern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubists Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Jean Metzinger and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with \"wild\", multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Henri Matisse's two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting. It reflected Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm color of the figures against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of the dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism.", "Edgar Degas is believed to be the intellectual extension of Manet, but more radical for the impressionist community. Degas' subjects are the epitome of the impressionist era; he finds great inspiration in images of ballet dancers and horse races. His \"modern subjects\" never obscured his objective of creating moving art. In his 1860 piece Feunes Spartiates S'exercant a la Lute, he capitalizes on the classic impressionist nudes but expands on the overall concept. He places them in a flat landscape and gives them dramatic gestures, and for him this pointed to a new theme of \"youth in movement\". ", "Another example of nineteenth century French painting has been acquired by the Wilstach Collection, “The Ballet Class,” by Edgar Degas, one of the most distinguished draftsmen of the century. In announcing this purchase, the Park Commission said, “This important example of Degas’ painting was among the pictures purchased direct from the artist by Mary Cassatt, painter and friend of Degas, for her brother, Alexander J. Cassatt.”", "Dancers Practicing at the Barre | Edgar Degas | 29.100.34 | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art", "In this period, Matisse had initiated his fecund association with the Russian textile magnate and visionary collector, Sergei Shchukin . The artist created one of his major works La Danse specially for Shchukin as part of a two painting commission. Inspired by a circular dance-- perhaps a sardana - performed by fishermen at Collioure, this painting embodies the clash between the sacred and reality. Human hands link together, but they form a divine spirit. Moreover, Matisse all but abandoned perspective The work ’s flatness emphasizes the idea, colors, and material, a notion that made Matisse a model for Modernists. The other painting commissioned was Music , 1909.", "Edgar Degas, The Ballet Class, c.1880 Oil on canvas, 82.2 x 76.8 cm © PHILADELPHIA MUSEUM OF ART, PENNSYLVANIA", "Academic ballet as we know it  today came into being in the  year 1661, when King Louis XIV  of France founded the  Académie Royale de  Musique et de Danse. Although  individual Milanese  dancing-masters had been  renowned since the fifteenth  century, the permanent  Imperial Dancing Academy  connected with La Scala  Theatre was not opened until  1812. The Academy at Milan  influenced Paris and  especially Russia through the  rules of education drawn up by  Carlo Blasis, who became  director of the Academy in  1837 and rapidly made it the  centre of ballet  activity. By the middle of the  nineteenth century the ballet  centres of the world had  shifted from Paris and Milan  to St. Petersburg and Moscow.  The Russian School first  derived its technique from  France but by the middle of  the nineteenth century it had  acquired an international  aspect through the influence  of international artists. From  the beginning of the second  half of the nineteenth century  Russian ballet was dominated  by Marius Petipa, a Frenchman,  and Christian Johannsen, a  Swede. Then in 1874 Enrico  Cecchetti, the last great  exponent of the Italian  School, arrived in Russia.  These three men working on  generations of Russian dancers developed Russian ballet,  making it as much a system as  Italian or French ballet.  Actually the French method is  in the greatest proportion in  the Russian  School.", "Academic ballet as we know it today came into being in the year 1661, when King Louis XIV of France founded the Académie Royale de Musique et de Danse. Although individual Milanese dancing-masters had been renowned since the fifteenth century, the permanent Imperial Dancing Academy connected with La Scala Theatre was not opened until 1812. The Academy at Milan influenced Paris and especially Russia through the rules of education drawn up by Carlo Blasis, who became director of the Academy in 1837 and rapidly made it the centre of ballet activity. By the middle of the nineteenth century the ballet centres of the world had shifted from Paris and Milan to St. Petersburg and Moscow. The Russian School first derived its technique from France but by the middle of the nineteenth century it had acquired an international aspect through the influence of international artists. From the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth century Russian ballet was dominated by Marius Petipa, a Frenchman, and Christian Johannsen, a Swede. Then in 1874 Enrico Cecchetti, the last great exponent of the Italian School, arrived in Russia. These three men working on generations of Russian dancers developed Russian ballet, making it as much a system as Italian or French ballet. Actually the French method is in the greatest proportion in the Russian School.", "Ballet Dancers; 1885-1886; French; Post-Impressionism; The Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.; oil on plaster, transferred by canvas; 154 x 153 cm", "As revealed in the sumptuously illustrated pages of Ballets Russes , published by Assouline , the innovative showpieces of the relatively short-lived company had a significant and enduring influence on art, theater, ballet, and fashion. Diaghilev’s ballets also made it respectable for artists to collaborate. Through the life of the company, he employed nearly forty artists to design the sets, costumes, props, and promotional materials. These painters, sculptors, and designers added rich layers of complexity to groundbreaking choreography and more traditional productions, interpreting movements such as Cubism, Primitivism, Futurism, and Surrealism for the stage.", "In the Romantic period of the nineteenth century, a morbid fascination with death and the mysterious produced ballets such as the ballet des nonnes in Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera, Robert le Diable (1830), Giselle (1841), La Peri (1843), and La Bayad Ère (1877), all of which present scenes with ballerinas dressed in white, vaporous costumes representing spirits after death, floating on their toes or suspended by invisible wires and illuminated by moonlight fabricated by the technology of gas lighting. Many of these ballets are still performed, providing the ballerina with the artistic challenge—roles in Giselle or La BayadÈre —of a dramatic death scene followed by the difficult illusion of phantomlike, weightless spirituality.", "Marius Petipa was a French ballet dancer, teacher and choreographer who is noted for his long career as Premier Maître de Ballet of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres, a position he held from 1871 until 1903.   Marius Petipa created over fifty ballets and is considered to be the most influential ballet master and choreographer of ballet that has ever lived. ", "Edgar Degas was both an avid photographer and a collector of Japanese prints. His The Dance Class (La classe de danse) of 1874 shows both influences in its asymmetrical composition. The dancers are seemingly caught off guard in various awkward poses, leaving an expanse of empty floor space in the lower right quadrant. He also captured his dancers in sculpture, such as the Little Dancer of Fourteen Years.", "Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse (; 31 December 1869 – 3 November 1954) was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is known primarily as a painter. ", "During the 1880s Petipa restaged in Russia two ballets that had been very successful in Paris. The first was Giselle which he had been involved in the first time, and the second was Saint-Léon's Coppelia, (originally presented in 1870). Interestingly enough, it was the music to Coppelia which inspired Tchaikovsky to write music for the ballet. With Petipa as the chief ballet master, many more Russian born and trained ballerinas danced on the imperial stages at this time than did at the beginning of Russian ballet. Now the Russians are known the world over as ballet dancers of extreme quality.", "Charles-Louis Didelot (27 March 1767 – 7 November 1837) was a French dancer and choreographer. The son of Charles Didelot, the dance maestro of the King of Sweden, he studied dance with his father, who were instructor in dance at the Swedish Opera, and dubuted as dancer in the theatre of Bollhuset in Stockholm 1786. Didelot taught dance, having an important influence over the development of ballet.", "Auguste Rodin, born in Paris on November 12, 1840, was a sculptor whose work had a huge influence on modern art. Unlike many famous artists, Rodin didn't become widely established until he was in his 40s. Developing his creative talents during his teens, Rodin later worked in the decorative arts for nearly two decades. He eventually sculpted the controversial piece \"The Vanquished\" (renamed \"The Age of Bronze\"), exhibited in 1877. Among Rodin's most lauded works is \"The Gates of Hell,\" a monument of various sculpted figures that includes \"The Thinker\" (1880) and \"The Kiss\" (1882). Rodin didn't live to finish the intricate piece; he died on November 17, 1917, in Meudon, France.", "Jules-Joseph Perrot (August 18, 1810 – August 18, 1892) was a dancer and choreographer who later became Balletmaster of the Imperial Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia. He created some of the most famous ballets of the 19th century including Pas de Quatre, La Esmeralda, Ondine, and Giselle with Jean Coralli.Perrot danced often with the great Romantic ballerina, Marie Taglioni but their partnership was short-lived. She eventually refused to dance with him fearing that he would outshine her.Jules Perrot died on holiday in Paramé August 29, 1892.", "The Dancing Class (detail), c. 1870. Oil on wood, 19.7 x 27 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. (pp. 24-25)", "Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school. ", "Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev (; ; - 19 August 1929), usually referred to outside Russia as Serge, was a Russian art critic, patron, ballet impresario and founder of the Ballets Russes, from which many famous dancers and choreographers would arise.", "Not an Impressionist, drawn to Classicism. Observed ballet classes at the Paris Opera House and attended performances. Ballet became the major subject of his work in the 1870s. A bit of a recluse.", "A significant part of ballet terminology is in the French language, because ballet became formalized in France. The Paris Opera, originally known as the Royal Academy of Dance (founded in 1661 by King Louis XIV), features the oldest ballet company in the nation and arguably the world.", ", 1872–1929, Russian ballet impresario and art critic, grad. St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music, 1892. In 1898 he founded an influential journal, Mir Iskusstva [The World of Art]." ]

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[ "Ray Bradbury's novel \"Fahrenheit 451\" was an instant hit, and has remained in print since its publication in 1953. In its futuristic dystopia, learning is forbidden and books are banned. As the book explains in its opening pages, Fahrenheit 451 is \"the temperature at which book-paper catches fire, and burns.\" While the book may be the most lasting way that Bradbury has been remembered, the circumstances of its creation are less well known.", "Author Ray Bradbury died on Tuesday. He named his most famous book, Fahrenheit 451 , after “the temperature at which book-paper catches fire , and burns.” Does paper really burn at 451 degrees Fahrenheit?", "I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/634974150 Title: Fahrenheit 451 : Fahrenheit 451 - the temperature at which book paper catches fire and burns ; [a novel] Author: Ray Bradbury Publisher: New York [u.a.] : Simon & Schuster, 2003. ISBN/ISSN: 067187036X 9780671870362 067187229X 9780671872298 0743247221 9780743247221 OCLC:634974150", "Fahrenheit 451 is the temperature at which book paper burns. Fahrenheit 451 is a novel set in the (perhaps near) future when \"firemen\" burn books forbidden by a totalitarian \"brave new world\" regime. The hero, according to Mr. Bradbury, is \"a book burner who suddenly discovers that books are flesh-and-blood ideas and cry out silently when put to the torch.\" Today, when libraries and schools in this country and all over the world are still \"burning\" certain books, Fahrenheit 451 remains a brilliantly readable and suspenseful work of even greater impact and timeliness.", "Fahrenheit 451 : the temperature at which book paper catches fire and burns... : [a novel] (Book, 2003) [WorldCat.org]", "The novel, as is well known, is named for the temperature at which book paper catches fire and burns: 451 degrees Fahrenheit. But there's a problem. There is no set temperature at which all book paper ignites. In the course of his research for the book, Bradbury talked with a fireman (a regular one, rather than of the Guy Montag type) who told him that book paper catches fire and burns at 451 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale, and thus the title was born. But it would be more accurate to say that book paper catches fire at around 480 degrees Fahrenheit, but even this isn't quite true. If you put a thick book into an oven preheated to 480 degrees, it would still take the book a while to start burning. In truth, there is no set auto-ignition point for all book paper. It depends on how old the book is, how big it is, the thickness of the paper -- a number of factors.", "\"It was a pleasure to burn,\" says main character Guy Montag to begin \"Fahrenheit 451,\" the futuristic dystopian novel by Ray Bradbury. One of the most notable opening lines in literary history, this quote sets up the story of a world in which all books in society are burned at a temperature of 451 degrees.", "Ray Bradbury is an American fantasy, horror, science fiction, and mystery writer. Best known for his dystopian novel Fahrenheit 451 (1953) and for the science fiction stories gathered together as The Martian Chronicles (1950) and The Illustrated Man(1951), Bradbury is one of the most celebrated among 20th and 21st century American writers of speculative fiction and has been described as a Midwest surrealist. Many of Bradbury's works have been adapted into television shows or films. Modern Library has listed two of his novels (Fahrenheit 451 and Something Wicked This Way Comes) among the 100 best novels published in the twentieth century.", "He moved easily between the tender nostalgia of \"Dandelion Wine\" to the dystopian future of \"Fahrenheit 451\" -- which imagined a world where firemen burn books. (Its title was said to refer to the temperature at which paper burns.)", "His original title for one of his novels was \"The Fireman\". He called his local fire department and asked them what the temperature at which paper burns at - and was told \"451 Fahrenheit\". He reversed it to make it the title of his novel \"Fahrenheit 451\".", "In a career spanning more than seventy years, Ray Bradbury, who died on June 5, 2012, at the age of 91, inspired generations of readers to dream, think, and create. A prolific author of hundreds of short stories and close to fifty books, as well as numerous poems, essays, operas, plays, teleplays, and screenplays, Bradbury was one of the most celebrated writers of our time. His groundbreaking works include Fahrenheit 451, The Martian Chronicles, The Illustrated Man, Dandelion Wine, and Something Wicked This Way Comes. He wrote the screen play for John Huston's classic film adaptation of Moby Dick, and was nominated for an Academy Award. He adapted sixty-five of his stories for television's The Ray Bradbury Theater, and won an Emmy for his teleplay of The Halloween Tree. He was the recipient of the 2000 National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters, the 2004 National Medal of Arts, and the 2007 Pulitzer Prize Special Citation, among many honors.", "In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, Guy Montag has an emotional dilemma whether to go against the system or abide by the law. ... Guy Montag is a fireman who ironically sets books on fire instead of putting fires out. ... Ray Bradbury's novel Fahrenheit 451 takes place in a futuristic city while a war is taking place. ... The protagonist, Guy Montag, goes against society and steals books to read at home, meets a friend to help him in his brave stand against society but gets discovered, then barely escapes his punishment to join a group of people who attempt to preserve knowledge through me...", "Bradbury wrote one of the quintessential dystopian novels with \"Fahrenheit 451,\" practically required reading for many high-school students. He also authored the script for the 1956 film \"Moby Dick\" and wrote scripts for the classic TV show \"The Twilight Zone,\" with many of his stories forming the basis for television shows, radio, and films.", "A Pleasure to Burn: Fahrenheit 451 Stories is a collection of short stories and Fahrenheit 451 companion piece from author Ray Bradbury, first published August 17, 2010. First publishing under the Harper Perennial imprint of HarperCollins publishing was in 2011. ", "Widely known for his dystopian novel Fahrenheit 451 (1953) as well as his science fiction and horror story collections The Martian Chronicles (1950) The Illustrated Man (1951), and I Sing the Body Electric (1950). Bradbury was one of the most celebrated 20th- and 21st-century American writers.", "The three main sections of Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 all end in fire. The novel focuses on Guy Montag, a fireman. In the first section, we discover that Montag is a professional book burner, expected to start fires instead of putting them out. For years he has done his job obediently and well. Then one day, he is called upon to burn the books of a Mrs. Hudson, who prefers to die rather than leave her library. Furtively, Montag pockets some of her books, haunted by the idea that a life without books might not be worth living after all.", "The film Fahrenheit 451, directed by François Truffaut and distributed by Universal Pictures is an adaption of the dystopian novel by Ray Bradbury published in 1953. The film depicts the life in the world of a dystopian society that is ruled primarily by the Firemen- who exists to ensure that there are no books in the society. Those caught with books are sent to jail. Any books that are found in searches or during raids are publicly destroyed and burned by the Firemen in order to show the rest of the society what will happen if they are caught. The Firemen rely heavily on random searches and the citizens to report if someone is known to be in possession of the forbidden fruit in this society- books!", "Guy Montag is the protagonist (main character) in Fahrenheit 451. At the start of the novel, Guy is a fireman. He doesn't put out fires. He starts them. His job is to burn books that are forbidden by the state. To expand on this a bit, you can consider Guy an enforcer of state ideology and an enforcer of censorship. Fahrenheit 451 is a larger work Bradbury developed from a short story he wrote in 1947. The book burning can be seen as a reference to the Nazi book burnings during the rise of the Third Reich. The theme of censorship and limitation of freedom, when it comes to books and knowledge, may be a reference to the era, 1950's, of censorship carried out by McCarthy in the United States. In general, Guy's job is to extinguish any literature that might provoke citizens to question their societal conditions. Guy's title is fireman, but his function is to suppress free thinking by burning books. He is an agent of the state (“Big Brother”); that is, until he has his awakening. ", "Not quite. Bradbury’s title refers to the auto-ignition point of paper —the temperature at which it will catch fire without being exposed to an external flame. In truth, there’s no authoritative value for this. Experimental protocols differ, and the auto-ignition temperature of any solid material is a function of its composition, volume, density, and shape, as well as its time of exposure to the high temperature. Older textbooks report a range of numbers for the auto-ignition point of paper, from the high 440s to the low 450s, but more recent experiments suggest it’s about 30 degrees hotter than that. By comparison, the auto-ignition temperature of gasoline is 536 degrees, and the temperature for charcoal is 660 degrees.", "Between 1947 and 1948, Bradbury wrote the short story \"Bright Phoenix\" (not published until the May 1963 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction ) about a librarian who confronts a book-burning \"Chief Censor\" named Jonathan Barnes. Barnes is a clear foreshadow of the ominous Captain Beatty of Fahrenheit 451.", "“It was a pleasure to burn.” Why does Bradbury start Fahrenheit 451 in this way, as though it would be more pleasurable to burn books rather than read them?", "Several Internet contrarians claim that Bradbury confused Celsius and Fahrenheit , putting his estimate off by 391 Fahrenheit degrees. They cite as evidence the Handbook of Physical Testing of Paper , which lists paper’s ignition temperature as 450 degrees Celsius. (Wikipedia cites the same source .) It’s not entirely clear how this number was arrived at, but it is an extreme outlier. The author appears to have used paper made with rayon or cotton, which could have a different auto-ignition temperature from pure wood pulp paper, but 450 degrees Celsius still sounds wrong. It’s also possible that the experimenters didn’t wait long enough or that they (and not Bradbury) switched Celsius and Fahrenheit.", "Ray Bradbury, American novelist, short story writer, essayist, playwright, screenwriter and poet, was born August 22, 1920 in Waukegan, Illinois. He graduated from a Los Angeles high school in 1938.Although his formal education ended there, he became a \"student of life,\" selling newspapers on L.A. street corners from 1938 to 1942, spending his nights in the public library and his days at the typewriter.He became a full-time writer in 1943, and contributed numerous short stories to periodicals before publishing a collection of them, Dark Carnival, in 1947.", "FAHRENHEIT 451 BY RAY BRADBURY Important People in Montag’s Life In Partical Fulfillment Of English 2 Ms Irina Abramov... By Helen Hernandez November 9, 2012 “There are worse crimes than burning books. One of them is not reading them” -Ray Bradbury. In the past there were events that affected book writers. People will get together to burn books because they thought it was inappropriate or they were against their literature. Montag is a fireman in a futuristic society who would start...", "The 1953 book centers on Guy Montag, a fireman of the future charged with burning books. Montag joins a rogue group seeking to save the great writings of civilization through memorization. Mr. Bradbury said the story was inspired by the Nazi book bonfires of the 1930s that he saw in movie newsreels as a young man.", "One of the events in Ray Bradbury's childhood that inspired him to become a writer was an encounter with a carnival magician named Mr. Electrico who commanded him to \"Live forever!\" The 12-year-old Bradbury, intrigued at the concept of eternal life, revisited Mr. Electrico, who spurred his passion for life by heralding him as the reincarnation of a friend lost in World War I. After that memorable day, Bradbury began writing nonstop. ", "2. What was the 1953 novel by Ray Bradbury set in America at a time when books were banned?", "Bradbury's lifelong passion with books began at an early age. As a frequent visitor to his local libraries in the 1920s and 1930s, he recalls being disappointed because they did not stock popular science fiction novels, like those of H. G. Wells, because, at the time, they were not deemed literary enough. Between this and learning about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, a great impression was made on the young man about the vulnerability of books to censure and destruction. Later as a teenager, Bradbury was horrified by the Nazi book burnings and later Joseph Stalin's campaign of political repression, the \"Great Purge\", in which writers and poets, among many others, were arrested and often executed.", "Secondly, Bradbury’s opening line causes the reader to gain a glimpse into the mindset of the firemen, those who set fires by burning banned books and the homes that house them. This simple sentence presents concisely and clearly how these firemen are thinking as they wield their kerosene filled flame throwers as if they are the ultimate destructive force. This sentence gives the reader a taste of evil actions and a peek into evil thought processes.", "Ray Bradbury tale of a man haunted and hunted by a wind that wants to steal his soul.", "Guy Montag is a fireman. In his world, where television rules and literature is on the brink of extinction, firemen start fires rather than put them out. His job is to destroy the most illegal of commodities, the printed book, along with the houses in which they are hidden.", "The grandeur of the burning forest surpasses description. An immense sheet of flame, following to their tops the lofty trees of an almost impenetrable pine forest, leaping madly from top to top, and sending thousands of forked tongues a hundred feet or more athwart the midnight darkness, lighting up with lurid gloom and glare the surrounding scenery of lake and mountains, fills the beholder with mingled feelings of awe and astonishment. I never before saw anything so terribly beautiful. It was marvellous to witness the flash-like rapidity with which the flames would mount the loftiest trees. The roaring, cracking, crashing, and snapping of falling limbs and burning foliage was deafening. On, on, on travelled the destructive element, until it seemed as if the whole forest was enveloped in flame. Afar up the wood-crowned hill, the overtopping [227] trees shot forth pinnacles and walls and streamers of arrowy fire. The entire hill-side was an ocean of glowing and surging fiery billows. Favored by the gale, the conflagration spread with lightning swiftness over an illimitable extent of country, filling the atmosphere with driving clouds of suffocating fume, and leaving a broad and blackened trail of spectral trunks shorn of limbs and foliage, smoking and burning, to mark the immense sweep of its devastation." ]

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[ "\"The Ugly Duckling\" (Danish: Den grimme ælling) is a literary fairy tale by Danish poet and author Hans Christian Andersen (1805 – 1875). The story tells of a homely little bird born in a barnyard who suffers abuse from his surroundings until, much to his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a beautiful swan, the most beautiful bird of all. The story is beloved around the world as a tale about personal transformation for the better.[1] “The Ugly Duckling” was first published 11 November 1843 with three other tales by Andersen in Copenhagen, Denmark to great critical acclaim. The tale has been adapted to various media including opera, musical, and animated film. The tale is completely Andersen's invention and owes no debt to fairy or folk lore.", "\"The Ugly Duckling\" (Danish: Den grimme ælling) is a literary fairy tale by Danish poet and author Hans Christian Andersen (1805 – 1875). The story tells of a homely little bird born in a barnyard who suffers abuse from the others around him until, much to his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a beautiful swan, the most beautiful bird of all. The story is beloved around the world as a tale about personal transformation for the better. “The Ugly Duckling” was first published 11 November 1843, with three other tales by Andersen in Copenhagen, Denmark to great critical acclaim. The tale has been adapted to various media including opera, musical, and animated film. The tale is completely Andersen's invention and owes no debt to fairy tales or folklore.", "Hans Christian Andersen - (April 2 1805 - August 4 1875) Being an author of children's fantasy stories, he was a victim of dyslexia and showed the world that when you want something, nothing can stop you from obtaining it. The books that he wrote have been translated into hundreds of different languages and continue to be distributed even today in millions of copies. Hans wrote books such as \"The Emperor's New Clothes\", \"The Princess and the Pea\" \"Thumbelina\", \"The Snow Queen\", \"The Ugly Duckling\" and \"The Little Mermaid\".", "When he wrote The Ugly Duckling, the great 19th-century Danish story-teller Hans Christian Andersen was writing from experience. His own life began in painful obscurity; when he tried to make his way out, his awkwardness and odd appearance led him to make a fool of himself. But in the end, his great talent brought him fame and fortune. No wonder he called one of his autobiographies The Fairy-Tale of My Life.", "Andersen first conceived the story in 1842 while enjoying the beauty of nature during his stay at the country estate of Bregentved, and lavished a year's worth of attention upon it. He initially considered \"The Young Swans\" as the tale's title but, not wanting to spoil the element of surprise in the protagonist’s transformation, discarded it for \"The Ugly Duckling\". He later confessed that the story was \"a reflection of my own life\", and, when the critic Georg Brandes questioned Andersen about whether he would write his autobiography, the poet claimed that it had already been written — \"The Ugly Duckling\".[2]", "The Ugly Duckling, by Hans Christian Andersen. An awkward young cygnet, is called an ugly duckling by the other young waterfowl in the lake. Seeing his reflection in the watery surface, he can’t help but agree, and hangs his young head in shame. The other birds refuse to play with the pathetic creature, and he is left to himself. At last his mother finds him, and assures him that this phase will pass, and he will grow into the most beautiful bird of all - a magnificent snowy white swan. And as time passes, so he does.", "Hans Christian Andersen was a famous Danish fairy-tale write; his most notable work being \"The Ugly Duckling\". This statue features him sitting and reading to a stray duck. The 1956 work by sculptor Georg J. Lober was constructed with contributions from Danish and American schoolchildren. It was cast at Modern Art Foundry, Astoria, Queens, NY.", "The Ugly Duckling (\"Гадкий утенок\") (Children's opera) - Opera-Parable By Hans Christian Andersen. For Mezzo-Soprano (Soprano), Three-part Children's Choir And the Piano. 1 Act: 2 Epigraphs, 38 Theatrical Pictures. Length: Approximately 28 minutes. The opera version (Free transcription) Written by Lev Konov (Лев Конов) (1996). On music of Sergei Prokofiev : The Ugly Duckling, op. 18 (1914) And Visions Fugitives, op. 22 (1915-1917). (Vocal score language: Russian, English, German, French). The first representation in Moscow in 1997.", "1978 The Emperor's New Clothes.  Hans Christian Andersen.  Illustrated by Paul Degen.  Paperbound.  NY: The Best Book Club Ever: A Random House Pictureback:  Random House.  $4 from Robin Bledsoe, Boston, July, '16.", "Krull, Kathleen. \"Ugly Duckling or Little Mermaid? Hans Christian Andersen\" in Lives of the Writers Comedies, Tragedies and What the Neighbors Thought. (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994).", "Andersen's manuscript was at the printer's when he was suddenly inspired to change the original climax of the tale from the emperor's subjects admiring his invisible clothes to that of the child's cry. There are many theories about why he made this change. Most scholars agree that from his earliest years in Copenhagen, Andersen presented himself to the Danish bourgeoisie as the naïvely precocious child not usually admitted to the adult salon. \"The Emperor's New Clothes\" became his expose of the hypocrisy and snobbery he found there when he finally gained admission. ", "Adeline Virginia Woolf (/ˈwʊlf/; née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) was an English writer, and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century.", "Adeline Virginia Woolf (née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941), known professionally as Virginia Woolf, was an English writer and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century.", "In reviewing Hans Christian Andersen: A New Life by biographer Jens Andersen, British journalist Anne Chisholm writes “Andersen himself was a tall, ugly boy with a big nose and big feet, and when he grew up with a beautiful singing voice and a passion for the theater he was cruelly teased and mocked by other children\". The ugly duckling is the child of a swan whose egg accidentally rolled into a duck's nest. ", "Henry Graham Greene OM CH (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991), better known by his pen name Graham Greene, was an English novelist regarded by some as one of the great writers of the 20th century.", "George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic and polemicist whose influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from the 1880s to his death and beyond. He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman (1902), Pygmalion (1912) and Saint Joan (1923). With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, and in 1925 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "George Bernard Shaw (1856 – 1950) was an Irish playwright, essayist, novelist and short story writer and wrote more than 60 plays. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize in Literature (1925) and an Academy Award (1938).", "William Somerset Maugham (25 January 1874 – 16 December 1965) was an English playwright, novelist, and short story writer; often published as simply W. Somerset Maugham.", "  / ˈ w ʊ d . h aʊ s / ; 15 October 1881 – 14 February 1975) was an English humorist, whose body of work includes novels, short stories, plays, poems, song lyrics, and numerous pieces of journalism. He enjoyed enormous popular success during a career that lasted more than seventy years and his many writings continue to be widely read. Despite the political and social upheavals that occurred during his life, much of which was spent in France and the United States, Wodehouse's main canvas remained that of pre-1914 English upper-class society, reflecting his birth, education and youthful writing career.", "In 2003, George Clooney chose Tolstoy’s War and Peace as his book “as there may not be toilet paper, and that’s a huge book”. Tolstoy is the current runner-up to Dickens as the most popular author on the show, followed by Marcel Proust, Jane Austen, PG Wodehouse, Dante Alighieri, Kenneth Grahame (18 guests have selected The Wind in the Willows), and – equal eighth – Lewis Carroll and JRR Tolkien.", "The Benjamin Button movie was based on a story written by F. Scott Fitzgerald in 1922, you can imagine my shock, dismay, and utter panic when I thought that Andrew Sean Greer had bamboozled me and had ripped off Fitzgerald; I had put my credibility on the line for a book that now looked like an imposter — a derivative treatment that I had dared anyone to contest the greatness of. I felt like one of the voters who awarded the Best New Artist Grammy to Milli Vanilli.", "Joseph Heller (May 1, 1923 – December 12, 1999) was an American satirical novelist, short story writer, and playwright. The title of one of his works, Catch-22, entered the English lexicon, to refer to a vicious circle, wherein an absurd, no-win, contradictory choice, particularly in situations in which the desired outcome of the choice is a bureaucratic, or legal impossibility for artificial reasons, and hence, then regardless of the chosen option, a paradoxically negative outcome is a certainty. Although he is remembered primarily for Catch-22, his other works center on the lives of various members of the middle class and remain examples of modern satire.", "Haha. I’m 17 years old and this is the first time I’ve read/read along The Ugly Duckling, I’ve only heard the brief outline so thanks.", "Tropic of Cancer is Henry Miller's 1934 \"autobiography as novel\" about the impoverished, middle-aged writer's expatriate sojourn in depression-era Paris and France. Banned in the US until 1961 for its sexual content, Tropic of Cancer has been and remains a literary classic of a unique sort. \"A dirty book worth reading,\" Ezra Pound famously wrote, as he went on to compare it to James Joyce's Ulysses. Prominent 1930s literati including T. S. Eliot, John Dos Passos, Aldous Huxley, and George Orwell joined in praising this non-literary, literary work.", "On vacation from school, Denis goes to stay at Crome, an English country house inhabited by several of Huxley's most outlandish characters--from Mr. Barbecue-Smith, who writes 1,500 publishable words an hour by \"getting in touch\" with his \"subconscious,\" to Henry Wimbush, who is obsessed with writing the definitive \"History of Crome\". Denis's stay proves to be a disaster after his weak attempts to attract the girl of his dreams, and endures the ridicule regarding his plan to write a novel about love and art. Lambasting the post-Victorian standards of morality, Crome Yellow is a witty masterpiece that, in F. Scott Fitzgerald's words, \"is too ironic to be called satire and too scornful to be called irony.\"", "English novelist. He became a US citizen in 1955. His humorous novels and stories portray the accident-prone world of such characters as the socialite Bertie Wooster and his invaluable and impeccable manservant Jeeves, and Lord Emsworth of Blandings Castle with his prize pig, the Empress of Blandings.", "Charles Lutwidge Dodgson is better known by the pseudonym \"Lewis Carroll\". Although he was a mathematician, he is best known as the author of Alice's adventures in wonderland (1865) and Through the looking glass (1872), children's books that are among the most popular of all time. They are distinguished as satire and as examples of verbal wit. Dodgson wrote mathematical works under his own name but for his children's books he invented the pen name \"Lewis Carroll\" by translating his first two names \"Charles Lutwidge\" into Latin as \"Carolus Lodovicus\", then anglicising and reversing their order.", "Of course, such ways of thinking and writing can easily veer into the kind of whimsy that inspired Dorothy Parker to say of The House at Pooh Corner, \"Tonstant Weader fwowed up.\" White's whimsy is less twee than Milne's, but some readers dislike his personification for other reasons. In 2006, for example, Paul Theroux complained in Smithsonian about White's anthropomorphism. \"White's is not just a grumpy partiality toward animals,\" he wrote; \"rather, his frequent lapses into anthropomorphism produce a deficiency of observation. And this sets my teeth on edge, not for merely being cute in the tradition of children's books, but (also in the tradition of children's books) for being against nature.\" White would probably be as surprised to find himself described as \"against nature\" as he was when a reviewer of Charlotte's Web declared that White had written it \"with many a fearful glance backward for fear of horse laughs from the left.\"", "In the 1960s and 1970s, Bricusse enjoyed a fruitful partnership with Anthony Newley. They wrote the musical Stop the World - I Want to Get Off (1961) which was successful in London and on Broadway, and was made into a (poorly received) film version in 1966. Also in collaboration with Newley, Bricusse wrote The Roar of the Greasepaint—the Smell of the Crowd (1965) and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971), based on the children's book by Roald Dahl, and for which they received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song Score. When he collaborated with Newley, the two men referred to themselves as the team of \"Brickman and Newburg\", with \"Newburg\" concentrating mainly on the music and \"Brickman\" on the lyrics. Ian Fraser often did their arrangements.", "Norman Mailer 1923�2007 was novelist, journalist, playwright, film maker, actor and political candidate. His first novel The Naked and the Dead published in 1948 written while he was enrolled at the Sorbonne, a platoon invades the Japanese-held island of Anopopei. His best work The Executioner's Song about gary gilmore, published in 1979, and for which he won one of his two Pulitzer Prizes.  nonfiction book \"Miami and the Siege of Chicago\" was about the 1968 political conventions", "Author. His best known work is \"The Wind in the Willows\", later dramatised by A.A. Milne as \"Toad of Toad Hall\".", "Crane struggled to make a living as a free-lance writer, contributing sketches and feature articles to various New York newspapers. In October 1892, he moved into a rooming house in Manhattan whose boarders were a group of medical students. During this time, he expanded or entirely reworked Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, which is about a girl who \"blossoms in a mud-puddle\" and becomes a pitiful victim of circumstance. In the winter of 1893, Crane took the manuscript of Maggie to Richard Watson Gilder, who rejected it for publication in The Century Magazine." ]

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[ "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, often shortened to LWW, was written by C. S. Lewis and published in 1950. It records the adventure of four ordinary English children - Peter , Susan , Edmund , and Lucy Pevensie - who found their way into the magical land of Narnia by way of a wardrobe that they stumbled across in an old house.", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, completed by the end of March 1949 and published by Geoffrey Bles in the United Kingdom on 16 October 1950, tells the story of four ordinary children: Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie, who have been evacuated to the English countryside from London in 1940 following the outbreak of World War II. They discover a wardrobe in Professor Digory Kirke's house that leads to the magical land of Narnia. The Pevensie children help Aslan, a talking lion, save Narnia from the evil White Witch, who has reigned over the land of Narnia for a century of perpetual winter with no Christmas. The children become kings and queens of this new-found land and establish the Golden Age of Narnia, leaving a legacy to be rediscovered in later books.", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe tells the story of four ordinary children: Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie, who have been evacuated to the English countryside from London in 1940 following the outbreak of World War II. They discover a wardrobe in Professor Digory Kirke's house that leads to the magical land of Narnia. The Pevensie children help Aslan, a talking lion, save Narnia from the evil White Witch, who has reigned over the land of Narnia for a century of perpetual winter. The children become kings and queens of this new-found land and establish the Golden Age of Narnia, leaving a legacy to be rediscovered in later books.", "Once there were four children whose names were Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy, and it has been told in another book called The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe how they had a remarkable adventure. They had opened the door of a magic wardrobe and found themselves in a quite different world from ours, and in that different world they had become Kings and Queens in a country called Narnia. While they were in Narnia they seemed to reign for years and years; but when they came back through the door and found themselves in England again, it all seemed to have taken no time at all. At any rate, no one noticed that they had ever been away, and they never told anyone except one very wise grown-up.", "In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Lucy is the first of the Pevensies to enter Narnia through a magical wardrobe in the Professor's old house, into Narnia in the One Hundred Year Winter, under the rule of the White Witch, the evil self-proclaimed Queen of Narnia. There she meets Mr. Tumnus the Faun and, later, the Beavers.", "The, Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe tells the story of four displaced London children, Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy who are sent to the country to avoid the devastation in London from World War II.", "Based on the 2nd in the series of books by C.S. Lewis , \"The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe,\" the film tells the story of 4 children who go to live with an old professor during the war. One day, while playing hide and seek, Lucy, the youngest of the children, finds a wardrobe which leads to a magical land called Narnia. However Narnia is being ruled by the evil White Witch who has made it snow for 100 years and according to an old prophecy, Edmund, Lucy, Peter and Susan are the \"chosen ones\" who will defeat the Witch. They are assisted by the true ruler of Narnia, the lion, Aslan. With the good Narnians on their side all 4 children must now defeat the witch using all their strength and fulfill their destinies to become the new kings and queens of Narnia.", "The four Pevensie siblings are the main human protagonists of The Chronicles of Narnia. Varying combinations of some or all of them appear in five of the seven novels. They are introduced in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, and eventually become Kings and Queens of Narnia reigning as a tetrarchy: High King Peter the Magnificent, Queen Susan the Gentle, King Edmund the Just, and Queen Lucy the Valiant. Although introduced in the series as children, the siblings grow up into adults while reigning in Narnia. They go back to being children once they get back to their own world, but feature as adults in The Horse and His Boy during their Narnia reign.", "One year after their incredible adventures in the Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Peter, Edmund, Lucy and Susan Pevensie return to Narnia to aid a young prince whose life has been threatened by the evil King Miraz. Now, with the help of a colorful cast of new characters, including Trufflehunter the badger and Nikabrik the dwarf, the Pevensie clan embarks on an incredible quest to ensure that Narnia is returned to its rightful heir.", "Four kids travel through a wardrobe to the land of Narnia and learn of their destiny to free it with the guidance of a mystical lion.", "On another day, while hiding from the housekeeper Mrs. Macready in the wardrobe after they broke a window, the four siblings stepped into Narnia. Peter and Susan apologized for their earlier disbelief and Peter threatened Edmund until he apologized to Lucy. The siblings then go to to Mr. Tumnus's home wher they discovered that Mr. Tumnus had been taken by the Witch's secret police, led by captain Maugrim . They then meet two talking beavers that told them about Aslan . According to them, Aslan was on the move to take the control of Narnia from the White Witch. The four siblings had to help Aslan and his followers; it had been prophesied that when two sons of Adam and two daughters of Eve sat in the four thrones, the Witch's reign would come to an end.", "Four Pevensie Children, evacuated from London during the Blitz, found a portal to a magical kingdom called Narnia in C. S. Lewis’ The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Norse myths and Christian allegories intertwine in seven Narnia books, but The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is allegorically about Christ’s crucifixion. Christ-like figure in the book, Aslan (the eponymous lion) sacrifices himself for a sinner. The cross is replaced by a Stone Table (taken from Celtic religion), both of which are pagan symbols. The splitting of the Stone Table reflects the veil of the temple splitting at the point of Christ’s death. As with the Christian Passion, it is women who tend Aslan’s body after he dies and are the first to see him after his resurrection. (The freeing of Aslan’s body from the stone table by field mice an allusion to Aesop’s fable of “The Lion and the Mouse.”)", "Four children from the same family have to leave their town because of the bombings of WWII. A women and a professor take the children to their house. While playing a game of hide-and-seek, the youngest member of the family, Lucy, finds a wardrobe to hide in. She travels back and back into the wardrobe and finds a place named Narnia. After going in twice, the four children go in together for the last time. They battle wolves, meet talking animals, encounter an evil white witch and meet a magnificent lion named Aslan. Will this be the end of their journey to Narnia or will they stay? Written by John ewart", "One day all four children find themselves in the wardrobe trying to hide from the housekeeper Mrs. Macready. They discover that things have changed in Narnia. Mr. Tumnus is missing and his house has been ransacked. The children meet a new friend Mr. Beaver who invites them home for dinner. He warns the children that they are in grave danger from the White Witch. He tells them about a strange prophecy involving two Sons of Adam, two Daughters of Eve and a great Lion named Aslan. The children are nervous but excited because the prophecy tells of an epic battle where Aslan will break the power of the White Witch, place four children of Adam upon thrones and return spring to Narnia.", "The story follows four British children who are evacuated during the Blitz to the countryside and find a wardrobe that leads to the fantasy world of Narnia. There, they must ally with the lion Aslan against the forces of the White Witch, who has Narnia under an eternal winter.", "Description : Four kids travel through a wardrobe to the land of Narnia and learn of their destiny to free it with the guidance of a lion messiah.", "Soon afterward, all four children enter Narnia together after hiding in the wardrobe to avoid the professor's dour housekeeper, Mrs. Macready. Remembering the winter cold ahead, they take coats from the wardrobe before exploring. Lucy guides them to Tumnus's cave, but they find it ransacked, with a notice from Jadis (the White Witch) proclaiming his arrest for harbouring humans.", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is the second book in C.S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, a series that has become part of the canon of classic literature, drawing readers of all ages into a magical land with unforgettable characters for over fifty years. This is a stand-alone read, but if you would like to explore more of the Narnian realm, pick up The Horse and His Boy, the third book in The Chronicles of Narnia.", "The Chronicles of Narnia [0] Based on the classic novel by CS Lewis. Four London children are sent to a professors country home in order for protection during World War II. There they find a magic wardrobe which leads to a mystical land called Narnia, which is being ruled by an evil witch. To defeat the Witch, they must join forces with Aslan, the lion God of Narnia, and the great battle between good and evil.", "The series revolves around the adventures of children in the world of Narnia, guided by Aslan, a wise and powerful lion that can speak and is the true king of Narnia. The children heavily featured in the films are the Pevensie siblings, and a prominent antagonist is the White Witch (also known as Jadis).", "Most of the novel is set in Narnia, a land of talking animals and mythical creatures that one White Witch has ruled for 100 years of deep winter. In the frame story, four English children are relocated to a large, old country house following a wartime evacuation. The youngest visits Narnia three times via the magic of a wardrobe in a spare room. All four children are together on her third visit, which verifies her fantastic claims and comprises the subsequent 12 of 17 chapters except for a brief conclusion. In Narnia, the siblings seem fit to fulfill an old prophecy and so are soon adventuring both to save Narnia and their lives. Lewis wrote the book for, and dedicated it to, his goddaughter Lucy Barfield. She was the daughter of Owen Barfield, Lewis's friend, teacher, adviser, and trustee. ", "Lewis's landmark series, The Chronicles of Narnia, has seen a number of on-screen iterations, including a cartoon version of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe that was released in 1979 and a 1989 BBC film series. Additionally, in 2005, a big-screen adaptation of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe hit movie theaters, starring Tilda Swinton as the witch Jadis and Liam Neeson  as the voice of Aslan. Two more Narnia films were brought to theaters as well: Prince Caspian (2008) and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010). A movie version of The Silver Chair was slated to hit theaters later in the decade. ", "The Magician's Nephew is a prequel to the books of the same series. The middle third of the novel features creation of the Narnia world by Aslan the lion, centered at a section of a lamp-post brought by accidental observers from London during year 1900. The visitors then participate in the beginning of Narnia history, 1000 years before The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (which inaugurated the series in 1950). The frame story set in England features two children ensnared in experimental travel via \"the wood between the worlds\". Thus, the novel shows Narnia and our middle-age world to be only two of many in a multiverse that changes as some worlds begin and others end. It also explains the origin of foreign elements in Narnia, not only the lamp-post but the White Witch and a human king and queen.", "As with what happened to J.K. Rowling with her Harry Potter series, \"The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe\", the first book of C.S. Lewis's seven-book series \"The Chronicles of Narnia\", suffered an alteration made by American publishers. The book features a wolf named Maugrim, whose name was changed to Fenris Ulf in the American publication. The sixth book of the series is entitled \"The Magician's Nephew\" and tells how the Land of Narnia was created and discovered by Professor Digory Kirke when he was a boy.", "The events of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe occured between 1000 and 1015 NY , and in 1940 AD on Earth . After their reign of more than a decade in Narnia, the children returned to Earth at the exact moment they left (see Narnian Time for more information).", "*The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (1950): It is possible that the White Witch from C. S. Lewis's novel may be based on the Snow Queen, as she turned Narnia into a snow-covered land, is also depicted as wearing a white fur coat and first appears riding in a sleigh, and kidnapped a boy. '", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe | Children's Books Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe | Disney Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005) - Plot Summary - IMDb", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis - review | Children's books | The Guardian", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005) - Quotes - IMDb", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Reviews & Ratings - IMDb" ]

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[ "Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, DBE (née Miller; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English crime novelist , short story writer and playwright . She also wrote six romances under the name Mary Westmacott, but she is best known for the 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections that she wrote under her own name, most of which revolve around the investigative work of such characters as Hercule Poirot , Jane Marple , Parker Pyne , Harley Quin/Mr Satterthwaite and Tommy and Tuppence Beresford . She wrote the world's longest-running play, a murder mystery, The Mousetrap .[1] In 1971 she was made a Dame for her contribution to literature.[2]", "Agatha Christie (September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English mystery writer and until now stays the most translated author in the world. She remains the best-selling novelist of all time, and the novel \"And Then There Were None\" is the world's best-selling mystery ever.", "For the band, see Agatha Christie (band). For the video game series, see Agatha Christie (video game series). Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie DBE Born Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller 15 September 1890 Torquay, Devon, England, UK Died 12 January 1976 (aged 85) Wallingford, Oxfordshire, England, UK Resting place Church of St Mary, Cholsey, Oxfordshire, England Pen name Mary Westmacott Agatha Christie Occupation Novelist, short story writer, playwright, poet Genre Murder mystery, thriller, crime fiction, detective, romance Literary movement Golden Age of Detective Fiction Notable works Creation of characters Hercule Poirot and Miss (Jane) Marple, Murder On The Orient Express, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, The Murder at the Vicarage, Partners In Crime, The ABC Murders, And Then There Were None Spouse Archibald Christie (m. 1914; div. 1928) Sir Max Mallowan (m. 1930–76; her death)ChildrenRosalind Hicks (1919–2004)Websitewww.agathachristie.com Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, DBE (née Miller; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English crime novelist, short story writer, and playwright. She also wrote six romances under the name Mary Westmacott, but she is best known for the 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections she wrote under her own name, most of which revolve around the investigations of such characters as Hercule Poirot, Jane Marple, Parker Pyne, Harley Quin/Mr Satterthwaite, and Tommy and Tuppence Beresford. She wrote the world's longest-running play, The Mousetrap.[1] [more] [Less]", "Dame Agatha Christie died on 12 January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her Winterbrook House in the north of Cholsey parish , adjoining Wallingford in Oxfordshire (formerly part of Berkshire). She is buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey. She was survived by her only child, Rosalind Margaret Hicks.", "\" Agatha Christie died on January 12, 1976, after enduring failing health for several years. Her husband wrote in the \"Epiloge\" to Mallowan's Memoirs that she died \"peacefully and gently\" and left him with a great loss for \"Few men know what it is to live in harmony beside an imaginative, creative mind which inspires life with zest.\" - Dawn B. Sova, Ph.D. (Agatha Christie A to Z), 1996.", "Agatha Christie (1890-1976) was an English novelist who is best known for her detective novels featuring characters such as Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple. She has sold four billion novels altogether, making her the best-selling novelist of all time according to the Guinness Book of World Records.", "Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie DBE (née Miller; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was a British crime writer of novels, short stories, and plays. She also wrote romances under the name Mary Westmacott, but she is best remembered for her 66 detective novels and more than 15 short story collections (especially those featuring Hercule Poirot or Miss Jane Marple), and her successful West End plays.", "Dame Agatha Christie died on 12 January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home in Winterbrook, Cholsey. She is buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey, having chosen the plot for their final resting place with her husband Sir Max some ten years before she died. The simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and TV reporters some having travelled from as far away as South America. Thirty wreaths adorned Dame Agatha's grave including one from the cast of her long-running play The Mousetrap and one sent 'on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers' by the Ulverscroft Large Print Book Publishers. ", "On December 3, 1926, British mystery author Agatha Christie (1890-1976)  disappeared from her home. Her car was found abandoned several miles away, with some of her clothes and identification scattered around inside.  There were no signs of foul play, but newspapers immediately reported that the car was believed to have been deliberately run down Newlands corner with its brakes off. Agatha had written several confusing letters before vanishing. One, to her brother-in-law, said she was simply going for a vacation in Yorkshire; another, to the local chief constable, said she feared for her life. A quarter-mile from where her car was found was a lake called Silent Pool which Agatha used for inspiration for one of her character’s deaths. The police organized fifteen thousand volunteers to search the surrounding countryside.", "1926 – Agatha Christie , the British crime writer famously disappeared and, although she reappeared sometime later, the actual reason for her disappearance remains a mystery. [38]", "Today on January 12, there are 32 years to the date from the death of Agatha Christie, one year after having become a Dame of the British Empire. Christie died \"peacfully and gently\".", "Her first book was published in 1920, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. There, readers met Hercule Poirot, the eccentric Belgian detective with the funny-looking moustache. But Agatha's books first attracted attention in 1926 when she publised The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. Agatha made news herself when she disappeared for a few days after her husband wanted a divorce. She was soon found to be staying in a hotel under an alias. Her disappearance is still a mystery. She and Archibald divorced in 1928 (he died in 1962). When she was around 40 years old she went on a holiday and visited e.g. Iraq where she met archaeologist Max Mallowan, who was 14 years younger than her. They married in 1930 and Agatha Christie became Agatha Christie Mallowan. During World War II Agatha worked in the dispensary of University College Hospital in London. She often assisted her husband on excavations, e.g. in Iraq and Syria.", "Agatha Christie: An Autobiography (1977), also known as An Autobiography. Autobiographical account of Christie's life, written between 1950 and 1965/1966. Considered an intriguing but controversial work. Mostly because of a shift in focus and level of detail involved. The book contains a total of 544 written pages. The first 350 or so pages are devoted to her childhood and early life, her relationship with her mother Clarissa Margaret \"Clara\" Boehmer, and her first marriage to aviator Archibald \"Archie\" Christie. All covered in near-exhaustive detail and providing insight to her background and its influence on her work. This period ends with the death of her mother and the end of her marriage, both taking place in 1926. Of the remaining pages, most are devoted to the period 1930 to 1945. A period covering the first years of her marriage to archaeologist Max Mallowan, and their joined travels around the Middle East. The period 1945 to 1965 is covered in only 23 pages, providing only a bare-bones account of her life. The last decade of her life (1966-1976) is not mentioned at all. Most of her works are mentioned in laconic style, with some omitted entirely. A number of working relationships are barely mentioned. Including her decades-long co-operations with theatrical producer Peter Saunders and director Hubert Gregg.", "Christie's stage play The Mousetrap holds the record for the longest initial run: it opened at the Ambassadors Theatre in the West End on 25 November 1952 and as of 2015 is still running after more than 25,000 performances.[6][7] In 1955 Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America 's highest honour, the Grand Master Award , and in the same year Witness for the Prosecution received an Edgar Award by the MWA for Best Play. In 2013, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd was voted the best crime novel ever by 600 fellow writers of the Crime Writers' Association .[8] On 15 September 2015, coinciding with Agatha Christie's 125th birthday, And Then There Were None was voted as the \"World's Favorite Christie\", followed closely by Murder on the Orient Express and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd .[9] Most of her books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games and comics, and more than thirty feature films have been based on her work.", "British author Agatha Christie dies at the age of 85. World wide sales of her 80 books topped 300 million", "In 2013, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd was voted the best crime novel ever by 600 fellow writers of the Crime Writers' Association . [9] On 15 September 2015, coinciding with Christie's 125th birthday, And Then There Were None was voted as the \"World's Favourite Christie\", followed closely by Murder on the Orient Express and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd . [10] Most of her books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games and comics, and more than thirty feature films have been based on her work.", "Agatha Christie was born Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller on September 5, 1890, in Torquay, England. In 1914 she married Colonel Archibald Christie, an aviator in the Royal Flying Corps. They had a daughter, Rosalind, and divorced in 1928. By that time, Christie had begun writing mystery stories, initially in response to a dare from her sister. Her first novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, was published in 1920 and featured the debut of one of her most famous characters, the Belgian sleuth Hercule Poirot. Christie would go on to become the world’s best-selling writer of mystery novels.", "The year 1926 was a watershed year for Christie. It saw the publication of her first hugely successful novel, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, in which the narrator is the murderer, a plot twist that provoked great controversy about the ethics of the mystery writer. It was also a year of personal tragedy: her mother died, and then she discovered that her husband was in love with another woman. She suffered a nervous breakdown and on December 6 disappeared from her home; subsequently her car was found abandoned in a chalk-pit. Ten days later, acting on a tip, police found her in a Harrogate hotel, where she had been staying the entire time, although registered under the name of the woman with whom her husband was having his affair. She claimed to have had amnesia, and the case was not pursued further. The divorce came two years later.", "Many of the most popular books of the Golden Age were written by Agatha Christie, who produced a long series of books featuring her detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple , amongst others, and usually including a complex puzzle for the reader to try to unravel. Christie's novels include, Murder on the Orient Express (1934), Death on the Nile (1937), and And Then There Were None (1939). Also popular were the stories featuring Dorothy L. Sayers 's Lord Peter Wimsey and S. S. Van Dine's Philo Vance.", "Agatha Christie was undoubtedly the most popular author to emerge from this period. During her career she wrote a total of 66 detective novels, 150 short stories, and 6 plays (not including others which have been more recently adapted for the stage). Since the publication of her first novel in 1920, Agatha Christie has sold over 2 billion books. She has only been outsold by the Bible and the works of William Shakespeare, which have both been in publication at least 300 years longer than her titles. She is also one of the most widely translated authors ever—her books appear in over one hundred languages. She has subsequently been dubbed “The Queen of Crime.” Her play, The Mousetrap , celebrates its sixtieth year running in the West End in November.", "In 56 years Christie wrote 66 detective novels, among the best of which are The Murder of Roger Acroyd, MURDER ON THE ORIENT EXPRESS (1934), DEATH ON THE NILE (1937), and TEN LITTLE NIGGERS (1939). The film version of Ten Little Niggers (1945, US title: And Then There Were None) by the French director René Clair, starring Walter Huston and Barry Fitzgerald, is one of the most faithful Christie adaptations. In addition to these mysteries, Christie wrote her autobiography (1977), and several plays, including THE MOUSETRAP, which run more than 30 years continuously in London, and had 8 862 performances at the Ambassadors Theatre in London. The play was based on the short story 'Three Blind Mice', and was produced in 1952 in Nottingham and London. The original company at the Ambassadors Theatre included Richard Attenborough as the detective.", "Agatha Christie was born in Torquay, in the county of Devon, as the daughter of Frederick Alvah Miller, an American with a moderate private income, and Clarissa Miller. Her father died when she was a child. Christie was educated home, where her mother encouraged her to write from very early age. At sixteen she was sent to school in Paris where she studied singing and piano. Christie was an accomplished pianist but her stage fright and shyness prevented her from pursuing a career in music. In her books Christie seldom referred to music, although her detectives, Poirot and Miss Marple, show interest in opera and Poirot sings in THE A.B.C. MURDERS (1936) a World War I song. When Christie's mother took her to Cairo for a winter, she wrote there a novel. Encouraged by Eden Philpotts, neighbor and friend in Torquay, she devoted herself into writing and had short stories published.", "Agatha Christie ( Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller ) was born in Torquay, in the county of Devon, as the daughter of Frederick Alvah Miller , an American with a moderate private income, and Clarissa Miller ( Clarissa Margaret Boehmer ). The Millers, Agatha 's parents, had two other children: Margaret Frary Miller (1879–1950), called Madge, who was eleven years Agatha Christie 's senior, and Louis Montant Miller (1880–1929), called Monty, ten years older than Agatha . Later, in her autobiography, Agatha Christie would refer to her brother as \"an amiable scapegrace of a brother\".", "Christie's stage play The Mousetrap holds the record for the longest initial run: it opened at the Ambassadors Theatre in London on 25 November 1952 and as of 2012 is still running after more than 24,600 performances. [5] In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America 's highest honour, the Grand Master Award , and in the same year Witness for the Prosecution was given an Edgar Award by the MWA for Best Play. Many of her books and short stories have been filmed, some more than once ( Murder on the Orient Express , Death on the Nile and 4.50 from Paddington for instance), and many have been adapted for television, radio, video games and comics.", "Agatha Christie was born in Torquay in 1890 and became, quite simply, the best-selling novelist in history. Her first novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, written towards the end of the First World War, introduced us to Hercule Poirot, who was to become the most popular detective in crime fiction since Sherlock Holmes. She is known throughout the world as the Queen of Crime. Her books have sold over a billion copies in the English language and another billion in 100 foreign languages. She is the author of 80 crime novels and short story collections, 19 plays, and six novels under the name of Mary Westmacott.", "Fairly early in her career, in 1926, Christie came under fire for writing an “unfair” mystery novel. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, the killer turns out to be the narrator, and many readers and critics felt that this was too deceptive a plot twist. Christie was unapologetic, however, and today The Murder of Roger Ackroyd is considered a masterpiece of the detective genre.", "Hercule Poirot appears for the first time in Agatha Christie’s “The Mysterious Affair at Styles”, published in 1920. He is a retired Belgian police officer who came to England during World War I as a refugee. Poirot solves mysteries with his “little grey cells”, occasionally without even leaving his room. With his strong preference for symmetry, order and method, he has something of a comic book character. Captain Arthur Hastings is his best friend, who relies too much on his intuition to solve a mystery by himself, but often helps Poirot with his observations and accidental remarks. Poirot’s secretary, Miss Lemon, is very efficient, but in contrast to Hastings she doesn’t have any imagination. Chief Inspector Japp from Scotland Yard isn’t too bright, but Poirot often sends him in the right direction. Detective writer Ariadne Oliver, who is partly based on Agatha Christie herself, believes in female intuition. Poirot is surely one of the greatest fictional detectives, because he was involved in so many unforgettable crime novels, including “The Murder of Roger Ackroyd”, “Murder on the Orient Express” and “Death on the Nile”. Poirot was brought to life in movies by actors Albert Finney and Peter Ustinov, and by David Suchet (photo) in the ITV series.", "Few could challenge Agatha Christie’s reign as the eternal queen of crime fiction. Born in Torquay in 1890, the largely home-educated Christie continued to live in Devon for much of her life, the county and its coastline looming large in the later crime fiction that brought her almost unparalleled global fame.", "Cunning: Christie let his neighbour Timothy Evans take the fall for two of his murders - Timothy's wife Beryl Evans and their infant daughter Geraldine. He was hanged in 1950 for crimes he didn't commit ", "Agatha Christie is the world's best-selling mystery writer, often referred to as the \"Queen of Crime\", and considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation.[60][61][62] Some critics, however, regarded Christie's plotting abilities as considerably greater than her literary ones. Novelist Raymond Chandler criticised her in his essay \" The Simple Art of Murder \", and American literary critic Edmund Wilson was dismissive of Christie and the detective fiction genre generally in his New Yorker essay, \"Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?\"[63]", "Agatha Christie is the world's best-selling mystery writer, often referred to as the \"Queen of Crime\", and considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation. [68] [69] [70] Some critics, however, regarded Christie's plotting abilities as considerably greater than her literary ones. Novelist Raymond Chandler criticised her in his essay \" The Simple Art of Murder \", and American literary critic Edmund Wilson was dismissive of Christie and the detective fiction genre generally in his New Yorker essay, \"Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?\" [71]", "Torquay was the home of the writer Agatha Christie, who was born in the town and lived there during her early years. The town contains an \"Agatha Christie Mile\", a tour with plaques dedicated to her life and work. " ]

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[ "Adders are the only venomous snakes found in the wild in Britain and will normally only attack if they feel threatened.", "The adder is the only venomous snake native to Britain. Adders have the most highly developed venom injecting mechanism of all snakes, but they are not aggressive animals. Adders will only use their venom as a last means of defence, usually if caught or trodden on. No one has died from adder bite in Britain for over 20 years. With proper treatment, the worst effects are nausea and drowsiness, followed by severe swelling and bruising in the area of the bite. Most people who are bitten were handling the snake. Treat adders with respect and leave them alone.", "As Britain’s only venomous snake, the adder  automatically wins the title of Britain’s deadliest snake. Though as it is a somewhat shy and timid species you would have to be quite lucky to see one and very unlucky to get bitten by one.", "But snakes have not existed in Ireland for thousands of years. Britain, which had a land bridge to mainland Europe until about 6,500 years ago, was colonized by three snake species: the venomous adder, the grass snake, and the smooth snake.", "The black mamba also called the common black mamba or black-mouthed mamba,[4] is the longest venomous snake in Africa, averaging around 2.5 to 3.2 meters (8.2 to 10 ft) in length, and sometimes growing to lengths of 4.45 meters (14.6 ft). It is the fastest snake in the world, capable of moving at 4.32 to 5.4 metres per second. These fearsome snakes can strike up to 12 times in a row. A single bite is capable of killing anywhere from 10-25 adults. The venom is a fast acting neurotoxin. Its bite delivers about 100–120 mg of venom, on average; however, it can deliver up to 400 mg.", "While I did say that I would not include multiple sub-species in this list, the incredible Inland Taipan deserves a spot of its own. It has the most toxic venom of any land snake in the world. The maximum yield recorded for one bite is 110mg, enough to kill about 100 humans, or 250,000 mice! With an LD/50 of 0.03mg/kg, it is 10 times as venomous as the Mojave Rattlesnake, and 50 times more than the common Cobra. Fortunately, the Inland Taipan is not particularly aggressive and is rarely encountered by humans in the wild. No fatalities have ever been recorded, though it could potentially kill an adult human within 45 minutes.", "Toxicity of snake venom (based on laboratory tests conducted on Mice) is sometimes used to gauge the extent of their danger to humans, but this is not enough. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators whose venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate their preferred prey. A number of other factors are also critical in determining the potential hazard of any given venomous snake to humans, including their distribution and behavior. For example, while the inland taipan is regarded as the world's most venomous snake based on LD50 tests on Mice, it is a shy species and rarely strikes, and has not caused any known human fatalities. On the other hand, India's Big Four (Indian Cobra, Common Krait, Russell's Viper, and Saw-Scaled Viper), while less venomous than the inland taipan, are found in closer proximity to human settlements and are more confrontational, thus leading to more deaths from snakebite. In addition, some species, such as the black mamba and coastal taipan, occasionally show some aggression, generally when alarmed or in self-defence, and then may deliver fatal doses of venom, resulting in high human mortality rates.", "Brazilian wandering spider: World's most venomous arachnid on the loose in Britain after being discovered in Aldi bananas - Mirror Online", "Mole vipers and certain rear-fanged venomous snakes (including the moila and Montpellier snakes, sand snakes, twig snakes, the mangrove(otherwise known as the yellow-ringed catsnake), the boomslang, the re-necked keelback and the yamakagashi (otherwise known as the Japanese tiger snake)", "The Bushmaster is known to be the largest venomous snake in the Western Hemisphere and also the longest viper in the world. The largest Bushmaster snake was recorded over 3.65 meters. These snakes are called pit vipers because they have infrared pits between their eyes and nostrils helping them detect prey. They commonly eat small rodents .", "Any of various venomous snakes of the genus Micrurus, native to tropical America and the southern United States, characteristically having brilliant red, yellow, and black banded markings. Any of about 90 species of strongly patterned burrowing elapids. \"True\" forms are limited to the New World, chiefly the tropics, but similar species live in Asia and Africa. Secretive and docile, coral snakes rarely bite when handled, but the venom of some can kill a person. Most prey on other snakes. More than 50 species in the largest genus, Micrurus, range from the southern U.S. to Argentina. They are ringed with red, black, and yellow or white. The eastern coral snake, or harlequin snake (Micrurus fulvius), ranges from North Carolina and Missouri in the U.S. to northeastern Mexico and is about 30 in. (76 cm) long, with wide bands of red and black separated by yellow. The rhyme \"Red on yellow, dangerous fellow\" distinguishes it from similarly coloured but harmless species", "Found in lowland areas of Britain, the grass snake is widespread and common in some areas of the south and south east of England, absent from Scotland and rare in central Wales. It is absent from Ireland.", "Most venomous yield - Australia's most venomous (yield) snake is the King Brown. The snake is believed to have been involved in 22 of the past 38 deaths attributed to snakebite.", "About 100 snakes in Australia are venomous, of these 12 are more likely to be life threatening if you are bitten. A venomous snake is a snake that uses modified saliva, venom, delivered through fangs in its mouth, to immobilize or kill its prey. The deadliest snakes found in Australia include Brown Snakes, Death Adders, Red-bellied Black Snakes, Taipan Snakes, Copperheads, and Tiger Snakes.", "Adding to the repertoire of s#!t scary snakes, Dispholidus typhus is a swift, agile creature whose venom certain packs a punch. Thankfully, it’s shy, non-aggressive and difficult to track down in its home of sub-Saharan Africa, but that hasn’t stopped it from rightfully earning a fearsome reputation.", "Eastern brown snake is also known as common brown snake and is often cited as the second most venomous land snake in the world. It is found throughout the eastern half of mainland Australia and Indonesia and has an average length of 1.8m. They are fast-moving, aggressive and are particularly known for their bad temper. This formidable creature is responsible for most of the deaths caused by snakebite in Australia. Its venom causes progressive paralysis and if immediate dosage of antidote is not given then the victim may collapse in less than an hour. It preys mainly on rodents, birds and other small reptiles which is why it is often found around farm buildings.", "Let us be clear, however, in saying that while the inland taipan is the world’s most venomous snake, it is not the world’s deadliest snake. To be a deadly snake, you need more than just lethal venom.", "Endangered: A black adder, Vipera berus, in Sussex. Snakes like this are now extinct in a number of British counties", "This is the largest snake in the UK, growing to about 150 cm but more commonly up to around 75 cm (2.5 ft). It is normally a shade of green with short black vertical bars and/or spots running along its sides and sometimes along the back. There is a yellow or white coloured collar behind the head bordered to the rear with black markings.", "The most common snake in Japan is the venomous mamushi, whose bite is occasionally fatal. The yamakagashi is also venomous, but it’s more likely to run away or hide when confronted by humans, so it’s not much of a danger. The really dangerous snakes are the highly venomous habu, but thankfully they live only in Japan’s south west islands. The snake seen here is an Okinawa habu. It likes to hide in caves and old tombs, but also enters houses in search of mice and rats. Unlike the yamakagashi, it’s not scared of humans, and may attack with lightning speed if disturbed. If medical treatment is received promptly, the bites aren’t usually life-threatening, but they can still cause permanent injury. Bizarrely, Okinawan habu are hunted for use in making a rice-based spirit called habushu , which is reputed to have medicinal properties. Some manufacturers sell this in bottles with whole intact habu inside!", "There is only one type of snake found in Jersey – the grass snake. The grass snake is entirely harmless and the rarest of Jersey’s reptiles. ", "Snake's Characteristics: Tiger Snake is a dangerous poisonous snake found in Australia. It is very common and bites many humans in Australia. It has a very potent neurotoxic venom that attacks the nervous system. When aroused, it is aggressive and attacks any intruder. It flattens its neck making a narrow band. Its venom is produced in large quantities, with an average yield 35mg and a record of 180mg.", "Its tail. Most venomous snakes have a single row of scales on the underside of the tail. The venomous coral snake is an exception because it has a double row. A double row is common in most non-venomous snakes. (This method of identification is best performed on a skin that has been shed, not on a live snake!)", "), for instance, is the New World's largest venomous snake which can reach 3.5 m in length. It is an aggressive, slender, large-headed snake with a yellowish to tan body with black or brown blotches along it. Another large (up to 2.5 m), poisonous snake to be avoided is the", "A single drop of venom from the inland taipan can kill 100 men and quickly cause paralysis and haemorrhaging, but a Hunter Valley teenager has survived a rare bite from the world's most poisonous snake.", "The fierce snake produces drop for drop, the most toxic venom of any snake in the world. One bite possesses enough punch to drop 100 full grown men.", "They are usually around 60cm in length and like to eat other snakes called blind snakes. They are very unlikely to attack humans. Whilst they do have venom glands, they don’t carry enough venom to do any serious harm.", "Lives in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. It feeds on frogs, mice, rats, lizards and birds. The snake is most active at night and flee rather than attacking. If the snake is disturbed, it can attack and bite, but two thirds of these are stab with closed mouth or no venom is injected. One estimate is that every 10 bites results in death. Despite this, they kill around 3000 people each year. It is 2-2.5 feet long. Type of poison: neurotoxin.", "Living in central to southern Africa and is considered Africa's most dangerous snake because of its spread and to be the most common snake. Although the size, strength and quantity of the poison and his willingness to cut making it dangerous. The normal length between 1 to 1.8 meters and very thick. A particular feature of snake is that it moves laterally. Their diet consists of rodents, amphibians, birds and lizards. Type of poison: blood poison.", "Living in all of Africa, western and southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Becomes between 1,5-2 meters long and live on lizards, toads, frogs, birds, rats and mice. The poison is highly toxic and the snake has killed many people. Type of poison: neurotoxin.", "Great, this is a fast and highly poisonous snakes in Australia are d 2 to 3.6 meters in length.", "Lives in all of South East Asia, living on lizards and frogs but most rats, approximately 1-1.5 meters long, causing about 6,000 deaths a year. The high amount of deaths because the snake is very common, found in large numbers and in proximity to humans and attack rather than flee. Very aggressive. Type of poison: blood poison." ]

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[ "The ship is named after the fictional character \"Cutty-sark\" (Scots: a short chemise or undergarment), an erotic dancing witch in Robert Burns' 1791 comic poem Tam o' Shanter. She was designed by Hercules Linton and built in 1869 at Dumbarton, Scotland, by the firm of Scott & Linton, for Captain John \"Jock\" \"White Hat\" Willis, and launched November 23 of that year.", "The clipper Cutty Sark was built in 1869 at Dumbarton, Scotland.  The ship is named after a short chemise or undergarment called a sark. The famous Scottish Poet Robbie Burns created a character called Nannie Dee in his work ‘Tam o’ Shanter’ (1791). In the poem, Ms Dee wore a paisley linen sark that she had worn as a child and had outgrown, which explains why it was too short, or cutty. The vision of Ms Dee dancing in such a short undergarment caused the central character, Tam, to cry out, “Weel done, cutty-sark!” This became a popular catch-phrase of the time and thus the ship was named.", "CUTTY SARK is the sole surviving example of an extreme clipper of the late nineteenth century tea trade. She was built in 1869 on the Clyde in Dumbarton for ship owner Jock ‘white hat’ Willis and has connections to Scottish literary heritage, being named after a witch’s attire in Robert Burns poem ‘Tam O’Shanter’.  CUTTY SARK was designed by Hercules Linton and built by Scott & Linton - a relatively new firm, being only the sixth ship they had constructed.  ", "That is why, years later in 1869, when the sleek clipper ship was launched in Scotland, her owners named her \"Cutty Sark\" after Burns' fleet-footed witch and placed a figurehead of the witch with outstretched arm on the clipper's bow. In her racing days, after a fast passage, the apprentices would sometimes make a mare's tail from old rope, teased out and rubbed with gray paint to put in the figurehead's hand.", "Cutty Sark is a British clipper ship. Built on the Clyde in 1869 for the Jock Willis Shipping Line, she was one of the last tea clippers to be built and one of the fastest, coming at the end of a long period of design development which halted as sailing ships gave way to steam propulsion.", "It would take another 50 years before steam overtook wind as the power source of the biggest ships. The Cutty Sark was one of the last of its kind when launched in 1869 at the Scott & Linton yard in Dumbarton. Known as a clipper - a mid-19th century type of sailing ship built for speed - such vessels were characterised by a narrow hull and large total sail area. Cutty Sark was ordered by the shipping magnate John Willis and named after a character in Robert Burns’ classic poem Tam o’Shanter . Although famously associated with the Chinese tea trade, Cutty Sark spent most of her life at sea transporting wool from Australia. She last sailed in 1938 and became a cadet training ship. In 1954 the Cutty Sark was towed to a custom-built dry dock in Greenwich, south London, where she has remained ever since. The ship is a prominent landmark on the route of the annual London Marathon.", "The ship is named after the cutty sark (Scots: a short chemise or undergarment). This was the nickname of the fictional character Nannie (also the name of the ship's figurehead) in Robert Burns' 1791 comic poem Tam o' Shanter. She was wearing a linen cutty sark that she had been given as a child, therefore it was far too small for her. The erotic sight of her dancing in such a short undergarment caused Tam to cry out \"Weel done, Cutty-sark\", which subsequently became a well known idiom.", "The Clyde-built Cutty Sark was, in 1869, one of the last sailing clippers to be built. She is preserved in dry dock at Greenwich in London, but was damaged in a fire on 21 May 2007 while undergoing extensive restoration.", "Cutty Sark was designed by the well-known Scottish shipbuilder Hercules Linton (1836-1900), and constructed in 1869 by the firm of Scott & Linton at Dumbarton, Scotland. The contract price for Cutty Sark was “£17 per ton,” but if the tonnage exceeded 950 tons, there would be no extra payment. Thus, the total cost under the contract was £16,150, but the exacting specifications and labor involved in constructing Cutty Sark bankrupted the Scott & Linton yard. Cutty Sark was completed by the Dennys shipyard.", "In 1969, the British monarch Queen Elizabeth II named the ocean liner RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 after herself, instead of the older liner RMS Queen Elizabeth, by saying \"I name this ship Queen Elizabeth the Second. May God bless her and all who sail in her.\" On 4 July 2014 the Queen named the Royal Navy's new aircraft carrier HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08) with a bottle of single malt Scotch whisky from the Bowmore distillery on the island of Islay instead of champagne because the ship had been built and launched in Scotland.", "The ship is named after the fictional character “Cutty Sark,” an erotic dancing witch in the poem Tam o’ Shanter, written in 1790 by the iconic Scottish poet Robert Burns. In the poem by Burns, a young lad named Tam sees a number of witches dancing in the woods, one of whom is wearing a very revealing “cutty sark,” which is a kind of short shift or chemise. It is not at all uncommon in the history of sailing for builders and owners to attach womanly, if not suggestive, names to ships.", "The Queen Mary's design was criticized for being too traditional, especially when the Normadie's hull was revolutionary with a clipper-shaped, streamlined bow. Except for her spoon-shaped cruiser stern, she seemed to be simply a bulkier version of her Cunard and White Star predecessors from the pre-World War I era, and a typical Clyde-built ship. Her interior design, while mostly Art Deco still seemed restrained and conservative when compared to the ultramodern French liner. However, the Queen Mary proved to be a more popular vessel than its largest rival, in terms of passengers carried.", "Cutty Sark failed to win her most famous race, against the sailing ship Thermopylae, an extreme composite clipper ship built in 1868 in Scotland. On June 18, 1872, both Thermopylae and Cutty Sark left Shanghai, bound for London. Two weeks later, Cutty Sark lost her rudder in bad weather, after passing through the Sunda Strait. On Oct. 18, 1872, Cutty Sark arrived in London, remarkably only seven days behind Thermopylae and after making total passage in 122 days. Although losing the tea race to Thermopylae,Cutty Sark earned a reputation as a strong competitor when her captain chose to continue the race with an improvised rudder instead of putting into port for a replacement.", "Type: Extreme Clipper Launched: 22 Nov 1869 At: Dennys of Dumbarton shipyard on the Clyde Length: 280 feet (overall) Beam: 35 feet Draft: 22.5 feet Displacement: 963 tons gross Height of Main Mast: 152 feet main deck to truck Address: Cutty Sark Trust 2 Greenwich Church Street Greenwi... read more", "Cutty Sark was destined for the tea trade, then an intensely competitive race across the globe from China to London , with immense profits to the ship to arrive with the first tea of the year. However, she did not distinguish herself; in the most famous race, against Thermopylae in 1872, both ships left Shanghai together on June 18, but two weeks later Cutty Sark lost her rudder after passing through the Sunda Strait, and arrived in London on October 18, a week after Thermopylae, a total passage of 122 days. Her legendary reputation is supported by the fact that her captain chose to continue this race with an improvised rudder instead of putting into port for a replacement, yet was only beaten by one week.", "The Cutty Sark was destined for the tea trade, then an intensely competitive race across the globe from China to London, with immense profits to the ship to arrive with the first tea of the year. However, she did not distinguish herself; in the most famous race, against Thermopylae in 1872, both ships left Shanghai together on June 18 , but two weeks later Cutty Sark lost her rudder after passing through the Sunda Strait, and arrived in London on October 18, a week after Thermopylae, a total passage of 122 days. Her legendary reputation is supported by the fact that her captain chose to continue this race with an improvised rudder instead of putting into port for a replacement, yet was only beaten by one week.", "Originally called the British and North American Steam Packet Company, this legendary steamship line was founded by a Halifax, N.S. gentleman named Samuel Cunard. The company’s name was soon shortened to simply Cunard Company, in honor of its founder. Cunard’s first ship, the Britannia, made her maiden voyage in 1840. It was one of the first regular steamship lines to be inaugurated on the Atlantic trade. Despite competition from other companies – Collins, White Star, Hamburg-Amerika, French, and others – Cunard thrived on its reputation for reliability and safety. Their motto was, “We never lost a life.”", "The Cutty Sark was destined for the China tea trade, at that time an intensely competitive race across the globe from China to London, with immense profits to the ship to arrive with the first tea of the year. However, she did not distinguish herself in this trade; in the most famous race, against Thermopylae in 1872, both ships left Shanghai together on June 18, but two weeks later Cutty Sark lost her rudder after passing through the Sunda Strait, and arrived in London on October 18, a week after Thermopylae, for a total passage of 122 days. Her legendary reputation is supported by the fact that her captain chose to continue this race with an improvised rudder instead of putting into port for a replacement, yet was only beaten by one week.", "The character takes her name from the historical Jean Brodie (aka Jean Watt), common law wife or mistress of Willie Brodie—whom the fictional Miss Brodie claims as a direct ancestor; thus, she is the fictional namesake of the real Jean Brodie. The real Willie Brodie was indeed a cabinet-maker and fashioner of gibbets; he was a deacon of the Kirk o' Scotland; he did rob the Excise Office; and he was executed on a gibbet that he may indeed have designed himself.", "OCEANIC, Admiralty armed merchant cruiser, ex-passenger ship, 17,274/1899, first vessel to exceed the length of Brunel’s Great Eastern, 21kts, White Star Line, Liverpool-reg, hired 9/8/14, c6-4.7in, joined 10th CS Northern Patrol 27/8, 400 crew, Capt William Slayter i/c, master, Cdr H Smith RNR, departed Lerwick in the Shetlands on 6th, now steaming in daylight but in dense fog. Ran aground on Hoevdi Grund rocks, 2.5 miles E by S of South Ness, Foula Island (wi - on the Shaalds, Hoevdi Rock, 2.4 miles E of Foula, in 60.07.03N, 01.58.18W), stranded, attempts made to refloat her, declared total loss three days later; no lives lost, crew taken off by fishing trawler Glenogil, then in civilian service, believed transferred to armed merchant cruiser HMS Alsatian, taken to Liverpool. Wreck bought for �200 and broken up on the spot through until 1924 (+J/Lr/Mn/C/Cn/D/dk/ke/ss/wd/wi; ADM. 53/53135)", "Cutty Sark means ‘short skirt’ in Scottish, popularly referred to the clothes of the witch Nannie Dee in Robert Burns’ poem Tam O’ Shanter, published in 1791. The Cutty Sark had, a figurehead of Nannie Dee in her scanty outfit as described in the poem.", "Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800. The industrial belt ran across the country from southwest to northeast; by 1900 the four industrialised counties of Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire, and Ayrshire contained 44 per cent of the population. Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as \"the Second City of the Empire\" after London. Shipbuilding on Clydeside (the river Clyde through Glasgow and other points) began when the first small yards were opened in 1712 at the Scott family's shipyard at Greenock. After 1860 the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron (after 1870, made of steel), which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world. It became the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. Clydebuilt became an industry benchmark of quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts for warships.J. Shields, Clyde Built: a History of Ship-Building on the River Clyde (1949).", "‘DUNFERMLINE’ Built 1890. Steel four-mast barque of 2902 Tons. Length; 308.6 ft. Breadth; 45.2 ft. Depth; 25.1 ft. Built by Potter for McVicar, Marshall and Co. Master; Captain John Woodward. He was lost overboard on 28th November 1905 and her mate, David Bailie took command and brought her to Belfast, Ireland. She was later sold to the Vinnens of Germany and renamed ‘Carl Rudget Vinnen’ in 1911. She was again sold and renamed ‘Burrowa’ and she sailed under this name in her final years.[General Carrier]", "‘EDINBURGH’ Built 1855, Iron Screw Steamer of 2197 Tons. Master: Captain Cummings. Owned by the G.L.N Y. Company of Glasgow. She was placed in the Liverpool-Calcutta trade.[Passenger Liner]", " 'ALUMBAGH’ Built 1863. Wood ship of 1138 Tons. Length: 190 ft. Breadth: 36 ft. Depth: 23.8 ft. Built by Laing of Sunderland for Dunbar. [Passenger and General Carrier]", "Cunard steamship Caledonia departed Liverpool on 19 September 1840 on her maiden voyage to Halifax and Boston .  She continued this service until November 1849; early in 1850 she was sold to the Spanish Navy and in 1851 was wrecked near Havana.", "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (; 26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907) was an Irish and Scottish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824. At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging discipline of physics in its modern form. He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work. He also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the transatlantic telegraph project he was knighted by Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariner's compass, which had previously been limited in reliability.", "The 227-foot-long iron hulled steamer in 1850 was said to have been the first propeller-driven liner built for trans-Atlantic service, thus replacing the old paddle-wheeled steamships of that day. She was built by Tod & Macgregor of Partick, Glasgow, and became the first steamship to sail from Glasgow to New York when it made its maiden voyage.", "Built in 1933 at a cost of �62,000 at William Dennys in Dumbarton. It provided excursions on the Clyde for 1500 passengers. The ship was bought to London in the 1980s as a pub/restaurant with spaces for hire and was refurbished in 1997.", "1. Cutty Sark takes her name from a poem by Robert Burns called Tam O’Shanter. It refers to a short nightie worn by one of the main characters in the poem, a young, attractive witch called Nannie.", "Loch Ryan ( Gaelic : Loch Rìoghaine, pronounced ) is a Scottish sea loch that acts as an important natural harbour for shipping, providing calm waters for ferries operating between Scotland and Northern Ireland . The town of Stranraer is the largest settlement on its shores, with ferries to and from Northern Ireland operating from Cairnryan further north on the loch.", "Loch Ryan (Gaelic: Loch Rìoghaine, pronounced) is a Scottish sea loch that acts as an important natural harbour for shipping, providing calm waters for ferries operating between Scotland and Northern Ireland. The town of Stranraer is the largest settlement on its shores, with ferries to and from Northern Ireland operating from Cairnryan further north on the loch." ]

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[ "Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills which form most of Holyrood Park, described by Robert Louis Stevenson as \"a hill for magnitude, a mountain in virtue of its bold design\".[1] It is situated in the centre of the city of Edinburgh, about a mile to the east of Edinburgh Castle. The hill rises above the city to a height of 250.5 m (822 ft), provides excellent panoramic views of the city, is relatively easy to climb, and is popular for hillwalking. Though it can be climbed from almost any direction, the easiest and simplest ascent is from the east, where a grassy slope rises above Dunsapie Loch.", "Arthur's Seat is a remarkably wild piece of highland landscape in the centre of the city of Edinburgh", "Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills which form most of Holyrood Park, a remarkably wild piece of highland landscape in the centre of the city of Edinburgh, about a mile to the east of Edinburgh Castle. The hill rises above the city to a height of 251 m (823 feet), provides excellent panoramic views of the city, is quite easy to climb, and is a popular walk. Though it can be climbed from almost any direction, the easiest and simplest ascent is from the East, where a grassy slope rises above Dunsapie Loch.", "Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of mountains in Edinburgh, United Kingdom which form most of Holyrood Park, described by Robert Louis Stevenson as \"a hill for magnitude, a mountain in virtue of its bold design\". It is situated in the centre of the city of Edinburgh, about 1 mi to the east of Edinburgh Castle. The hill rises above the city to a height of , provides excellent panoramic views of the city, is relatively easy to climb, and is popular for hillwalking. Though it can be climbed from almost any direction, the easiest and simplest ascent is from the east, where a grassy slope rises above Dunsapie Loch. At a spur of the hill, Salisbury Crags has historically been a rock climbing venue with routes of various degrees of difficulty; however due to hazards rock climbing is now restricted to the South Quarry and a free permit is required.", "Arthur's Seat is one of the seven hills of Edinburgh and looming over the city which offer many different walks for everyone. Without question the best views are to the west over looking Edinburgh Castle, Old Town and the New Town. On a good day, the Ochil Hills beyond the Forth Road Bridge and the Firth of Forth can be clearly seen.", "Arthur had also resided in Bath, Winchester, London, Cardiff (in Wales), and a whole lot of places throughout England. Some of writers even say that he lived in Brittany.", "Arthur’s Seat lies entirely within Holyrood Park, for years protected by the Queen’s own ranger service, but more recently directly managed by Historic Scotland . It’s an odd thing to come across in the centre of a city, a ranger service. What on earth is there to do on such a small patch of 640 acres? The answers are found on information points around the hills; bat walks, history tours and educational events, such as the popular teddy bears’ picnic.", "CAMELOT - Arthur's capital. According to the romances, it was named after a pagan king called Camaalis. At the time when Joseph of Arimathea arrived in Britain, it was the chief city of the country. In Joseph's time, King Agrestes ruled it. He seemed to embrace Christianity but, after Joseph's departure, persecuted the Christians until God drove him mad. The city is first mentioned by Chrétien in his LANCELOT. Malory tells us the chief church was St. Stephen's. Attempts have been made to identify Camelot. In Roman times Colchester was called Camulodunum, which has a not-too-dissimilar sound. In modern times, some have thought it was Cadbury Castle (Somerset) where, as we know from archaeology, there was a leader's fortified dwelling during the Arthurian period. A tradition that Camelot was Cadbury Castle also existed in the sixteenth century. See: WINCHESTER. # 156", "Camelot, Arthur's capital and seat of his court. First mentioned by Chrétien de Troyes, though he said Arthur's main seat was at...", "Winchester is the site of a Roman town (Venta Bulgarum), a fifth-century cemetery, the Anglo-Saxon capital city under Alfred the Great, and a medieval cathedral city. Malory claimed that Winchester was the site of Arthur's famous court which the French writers called Camelot. The Round Table which hangs in the Great Hall of Winchester Castle was claimed, by Henry VIII and others, to have belonged to Arthur. Most likely this eighteen-foot tabletop originated as a thirteenth century pageant device repainted in the Tudor era.", "There were two towns in Roman Britain named Camulodunum, Colchester in Essex and Slack in West Yorkshire, derived from the Celtic god Camulos, and this has led to the suggestion that they originated the name. However, the Essex Camulodunum was located well within territory usually thought to have been conquered early in the 5th century by Saxons, so it is unlikely to have been the location of any \"true\" Camelot. The town was definitely known as Colchester as early as the in 917. Even Colchester Museum argues strongly regarding the historical Arthur: \"It would be impossible and inconceivable to link him to the Colchester area, or to Essex more generally\", pointing out that the connection between the name Camuloduum and Colchester was unknown till the 18th century. Other places in Britain with names related to \"Camel\" have also been suggested, such as Camelford in Cornwall, located down the River Camel from where Geoffrey places Camlann, the scene of Arthur's final battle. The area's connections with Camelot and Camlann are merely speculative.", "Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, is a large, mainly Gothic abbey church in the City of Westminster , London, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster . It is one of the United Kingdom's most notable religious buildings and the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Between 1540 and 1556, the abbey had the status of a cathedral . Since 1560, however, the building is no longer an abbey nor a cathedral, having instead the status of a Church of England \" Royal Peculiar \"—a church responsible directly to the sovereign. The building itself is the original abbey church.", "The parks highest point is Arthurs Seat, an ancient volcano, and sits 251m above sea level giving excellent view of the city; it is also the site of a large and well preserved fort.  This is one of four hill forts dating from around 2000 years ago.  With its diverse range of flora and geology it is also site of Special Scientific Interest. ", "Lambeth is a borough of inner southwest London . Within the London Borough of Lambeth, there is the South Bank complex (location of the Royal Festival Hall, the National Theatre and the National Film Theatre), London Waterloo station and its surrounds (the Old Vic and Young Vic Theatres and the BFI IMAX Cinema), the official residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth Palace, St. Thomas' Hospital, County Hall and the London Eye. Lambeth includes the districts of Kennington, home of the Imperial War Museum and The Oval Cricket Ground and Brixton.", "Camden Town, often shortened to Camden (ambiguously also used for the much larger London Borough of Camden of which it is the central neighbourhood), is an inner city district of London, north of the centre of London. It is one of the 35 major centres identified in the London Plan.", "The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in the City of Westminster , London , United Kingdom , located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster . It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English , later British and later still (and currently) monarchs of the Commonwealth realms . The abbey is a Royal Peculiar and briefly held the status of a cathedral from 1540 to 1550.", "      former English royal residence located in Westminster ( Westminster, City of ), London , on a site between the Thames River and the present-day St. James's Park. York Place, the London residence of the archbishops of York since 1245, originally occupied the site.", "Located along the Thames in the western part of London, and to the east of St. James's Park, Westminster is the political heart of London, home of the British parliament and the prime minister's residence at Number 10 Downing Street. It is also the location of one of the world's great religious structures, Westminster Abbey . Westminster has more historic buildings and fewer commercial sites than any other part of London and also encompasses the area known as Victoria, which gets its name from the Victoria Station stop on the Underground.", "Trafalgar Square is a square in central London , England . With its position in the heart of London, it is a tourist attraction; and one of the most famous squares in the United Kingdom and the world. At its centre is Nelson's Column, which is guarded by four lion statues at its base. Statues and sculptures are on display in the square, including a fourth plinth displaying changing pieces of contemporary art, and it is a site of political demonstrations.", "Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is the largest and most populous settlement of the unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the 2001 Census, increasing to 329,608 at the 2011 Census. Chester was granted city status in 1541.", "Lambeth Palace is the official London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury in England, in north Lambeth, on the south bank of the River Thames, 400 m south-east of the Palace of Westminster which has the Houses of Parliament on the opposite bank.", "Chester, Cheshire is a city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 118,925 inhabitants, and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the 2001 Census. Chester was granted city status in 1541.", "Trafalgar Square is a square in central London , England . With its position in the heart of London, it is a popular tourist attraction; its trademarks are Nelson's Column, which stands in the centre, the four lion statues that guard the Column, and the large number of pigeons that live in the square. Other statues and sculptures are also on display in the square, including a fourth plinth displaying changing pieces of contemporary art, and it is a frequent site of political demonstrations.", "According to the Welsh tradition and early Arthurian authors, like Geoffrey of Monmouth, say that the castle of Caerleon in Wales was his capital, not Camelot. The Welsh called it Caer Llion, while Geoffrey called it City of Legions. Geoffrey say that when Arthur established an empire in western Europe, he made the City of Legions as plenary court, which he ruled this empire from. This is also the court, according to Wace, where Arthur had constructed the Round Table.", "Militarily, the location makes sense as a place where refugees and the southwestern Brythons of Dumnonia could have defended themselves against attacks from the east. If Arthur was indeed conceived at Tintagel, as tradition asserts, he may have been a prince of Dumnonia and used Cadbury as a stronghold on his eastern frontier.", "St David's is the smallest city in the United Kingdom, with a population of under 2,000 people. It lies on the River Alun, on Saint David's peninsula in Pembrokeshire, Wales. St David's is the de facto ecclesiastical capital of Wales and the final resting place of Saint David, the patron saint of Wales.", "The first of these trips starts on your doorstep. You’ll explore the City of Westminster, the centre of government, as well as entertainment. You’ll see Trafalgar Square, the Houses of Parliament (with Big Ben), Buckingham Palace and Piccadilly Circus.", "How can one get to Arthur's Seat by public transport or walking? Would I need boots (with treads) or could I get by with street shoes or trainers?", "When Arthur was about seven, he was sent to stay with one of his mother’s posher friends: Miss Burton, sister of the Scottish historiographer royal. She lived at Libberton Brae, two miles out of the smelly centre of “Auld Reekie”, and Arthur was to attend the nearby school, Newington Academy, ruled by a pock-marked, tawse-wielding, one-eyed simulacrum of Wackford Squeers. It’s speculated that Mary Doyle wished to spare him scenes of drunkenness, though this seems unlikely as the Doyle family soon moved to a house in Newington, and Arthur returned. At this period he remembered scrapping with a boy called Eddie Tulloch who lived on the prosperous side of their road, Sciennes Hill Place. Arthur described himself as champion of the boys from the poorer side: he may equally have been ighting as a “Pape” against a “Proddy”, since Tulloch’s father was a Baptist minister. Anyway, manly isticufs would become one of his great delights. he battler exchanging black", "The following is a brief gazetteer of sites in Britain that are affiliated with Arthur in history, myth, and legend. It is representative rather than comprehensive. Included with each entry is a grid reference for locating the sites on Ordnance Survey maps.  Sites marked with an asterisk are linked to Christopher A. Snyder, \"A Gazetteer of Sub-Roman Britain (AD 400-600): The British Sites\" in Internet Archaeology 3 (Summer 1997), which provides more detailed archaeological discussion for those interested.  (Note: To access the full article, you must register with Internet Archaeology.  Registration is free.)", "King Arthur’s Court of Camelot evokes visions of lofty church spires and bustling city streets, a vast post-Roman-cum-Medieval Capital from where the mightiest of British Kings dispensed justice and oversaw peace and prosperity. From where did this over-romanticized view come though, and where is Camelot today?", "In the British Isles, the bindings of culture and history are as strong as King Arthur’s sword." ]

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[ "5. The popular British pub name \"The Royal Oak\" is named after which King?  Charles II who hid in oak trees after losing battles", "\"The Royal Oak\" is one of the most popular names for pubs in England today. The signs usually show Charles II peering through the leaves of an oak tree, looking more like a boy who's been caught stealing apples than a king escaping his enemies.", "Rating: 90. The Royal Oak is a Michelin starred, 17th century pub in the hamlet of Paley Street in Berkshire, some 30 miles west of London. The name refers to the oak tree in Boscobel wood in which Charles II hid to escape Cromwell's troops after the battle of Worcester in 1651. The pub was opened in 2001 by Sir Michael Parkinson and his son Nick. In January 2007 Dominic Chapman became the head-...", "The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that this day takes its name from a corruption of shitsack, a derogatory term for the Nonconformists, Protestants who did not follow the doctrines and practices of the established Church of England. It was later applied to those who did not wear the traditional sprig of oak on May 29, or Royal Oak Day —the birthday of Charles II and the day in 1660 on which he made his triumphal entry into London as king after a 12-year interregnum.", "Pubs often have traditional names. A common name is the \"Marquis of Granby\". These pubs were named after John Manners, Marquess of Granby, who was the son of John Manners, 3rd Duke of Rutland and a general in the 18th century British Army. He showed a great concern for the welfare of his men, and on their retirement, provided funds for many of them to establish taverns, which were subsequently named after him. All pubs granted their licence in 1780 were called the Royal George , after King George III, and the twentieth anniversary of his coronation.", "Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy , Duke of Aquitaine , Duke of Gascony , Lord of Cyprus , Count of Anjou , Count of Maine , Count of Nantes , and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was known as Cœur de Lion, or Richard the Lionheart, even before his accession, because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. [1] The Saracens called him Melek-Ric or Malek al-Inkitar – King of England. [2]", "Image caption The King Edward VII - known to locals as 'The Prussia' is still a pub in Stratford Broadway, London", "Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy (as Richard IV), Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Poitiers, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. The Muslims called him Melek-Ric (King Richard) or Malek al-Inkitar (King of England). He was also known in Occitan as Oc e No (Yes and No), because of his ability to change his mind.", "The Principality of Wales was incorporated into the Kingdom of England under the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, and in 1301 King Edward I invested his eldest son, the future King Edward II, as Prince of Wales. Since that time, except for King Edward III, the eldest sons of all English monarchs have borne this title. After the death of Queen Elizabeth I without issue, in 1603, the crowns of England and Scotland were joined in personal union under King James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. By royal proclamation, James styled himself \"King of Great Britain\", but no such kingdom was created until 1707, when England underwent legislative union with Scotland to form the new Kingdom of Great Britain, during the reign of Queen Anne. ", "When Henry VIII defied the papal bull of 1538, he incorporated a bull’s head into his coat of arms and the name became popular as a pub sign, indicating loyalty to both the crown and the new Protestant religion.  However, the prevalence with Bilston pubs with names including bulls may have a more prosaic origin. Many landlords found that they could not live by brewing and selling beer alone, and often combined tavern- keeping with another trade. Names such as the Bull’s Head, Bull and Mouth, and Round of Beef, indicates that the host was once, or is a butcher.", "The amount of religious symbolism in pub names decreased after Henry VIII's break from the church of Rome. For instance, many pubs now called the King's Head were originally called the Pope's Head.", "In 1920, George V created his second son, Prince Albert, as Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney.  These titles reverted to the Crown when Bertie succeeded to the throne following his brother, Edward VIII's abdication.    Eight years,  King George created his third son, Henry, as Duke of Gloucester, Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden.  Ulster is in what is now Northern Ireland, and Culloden is in Scotland.", "The Royal Arms have changed and evolved over the nine centuries since they were first used by Richard I (The Lionheart). Richard I's Coat of Arms was simply the three lions, referred to as 'Gules three lions passant guardant or'. This remained the Royal Arms of England until King Edward III quartered the arms with the fleur-de-lis, the arms of the french kings, to symbolize his claim to the French throne. This remained the Royal Arms until the reign of James I, and thus are shown above in the Royal Arms of Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was officially titled Queen of France, but the title was a hollow one. Calais, England's last French territory, was lost in the reign of Mary I. James I quartered the arms further, adding the Scottish arms and the harp of Ireland. The Royal Arms was altered again by subsequent monarchs, but the simplified version adopted by Queen Victoria remains the official Royal Arms today.", "Edward of Woodstock among the first English princes to hold the title Prince of Wales. His great-grandfather Edward I had wrested the title from the Welsh during a succession conflict and given it to his son, the ill-fated Edward II, from which it passed, mostly from generation to generation, until the present day. In addition to that title, he was also variously known as the 14th Earl of Chester, the 1st Duke of Cornwall, and Prince of Acquitaine. When Edward III and his son returned from France, fresh from a series of victories, the king formed the now-famous Order of the Garter in the 1340s; the young Prince Edward was one of its first twenty-five members.", "King of England between 1272 and 1307. Edward was nicknamed Longshanks because of his long legs, which made him a superb horseman. His skeleton, exhumed In 1776, confirms he was exceptionally tall for the age he lived in.", "The High Street was originally called \" Vai Regius\" which translated means Way of the King. The High Street was built by King James VI", "The Red Lion - this pub name became popular when James I ordered red lions to be displayed outside all public places.", "It would be centuries before the first recognisable pubs opened. Religious houses ran the earliest true inns to cater for pilgrims and knights on their way to the Crusades in the Holy Land. Ye Olde Trip to Jerusalem, whose cellars are carved from the rocks beneath Nottingham Castle, is just such an example. Established in 1189, it claims the title of the oldest pub in England and was a stopover point for forces on their way to meet with Richard the Lionheart. Other signs on this theme are the Turk’s Head, Saracen’s Head and Lamb & Flag – the lamb representing Christ and the flag the sign of the crusaders.", "*Pubs called The Great Western or Great Western Hotel, are named after Isembard Kingdom Brunel's Great Western Railway. Examples range form Wolverhampton, West Midlands to Exeter, Devon,", "According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the mythical king of the Britons King Leir founded the city of Kaerleir (Leicester). He was supposedly buried by Queen Cordelia in a chamber beneath the River Soar near the city dedicated to the Roman god Janus, and every year people celebrated his feast-day near Leir's tomb. William Shakespeare's King Lear is loosely based on this story.", "The Angel and Royal, situated on the High Street, is widely regarded as \"the oldest surviving English Inn\". The main building façade as it appears today was built about 600 years ago, but the site had already been an inn for 200 years. It was originally built as a hostel for the Knights Templar. King John is reputed to have visited with his Royal Court in 1213. The inn was extended in the mid-14th century and again in the 15th century.", "If you are an Iron Duke enthusiast, you can drink in 53 pubs called the Duke of Wellington , as well as 37 that go by an unadorned \"Wellington\". And that’s just in England. The Duke of Wellington is the oldest licenced pub in Melbourne, and now serves a variety of gastropub food. And then of course there are the countless pubs called simply The Duke. Just don't feel the need to get a pint in each one.", "In common with the other Inns, Lincoln's Inn also has a \"Royal Bencher\"—a member or members of the Royal Family who have been elected Benchers. The present Royal Bencher is Duke of Kent who was elected after the death of the previous incumbent Princess Margaret. In 1943, when she was elected as Royal Bencher, Queen Mary became the first female Bencher in any Inn. His Royal Highness Prince Andrew Duke of York was elected a Royal Bencher in December 2012.", "Because of the famous event, the term Royal Oak was adopted, and still used, by a host of companies and institutions. The Royal Oak is one of the most common pub names throughout England. The Royal Oak in Oxford was a favorite haunt for my pals in my undergraduate days, and remains so for those who still live there. Royal Oak lunches were classics of traditional English pub food (more later).", "The Inn’s name probably derives from Henry de Lacy, the third Earl of Lincoln (1249-1311), who is said to have been the patron of the Inn and to have lived in nearby Shoe Lane. The lion from the de Lacy family’s coat of arms still features on the Inn’s crest. The mill-rinds also visible on the crest were derived from the arms of Richard Kingsmill, a bencher who played a leading role in the 1580 acquisition of the whole of the current site.", "An attempt to enumerate the King's Head taverns of London would be an endless task. It must not be overlooked, however, that one of the most notable houses so named stood in Fenchurch Street, on the site now occupied by the London Tavern. This is the tavern for which a notable historic association is claimed. The tradition has it that when the Princess Elizabeth, the", "The Admiral Of The Humber is a JD Wetherspoons pub named in reference to the Royal charter granted to the city of Hull in 1447. You know what you’re getting with Wetherspoons pubs - cheap food, cheap drink and sports on the TV. Perfect.", "Charles's second visit to the town was on his way to Scotland on 31 May 1633, when he was entertained by Bishop Morton. His third visit on 4 February 1647 was in less lavish circumstances, as a prisoner. Morton had fled the town in 1640 and the castle was empty. Consequently, the king had to stay in a public house off the Market Place owned by Christopher Dobson. ", "Many of London's pubs are known to have been used by famous people, but in some cases, such as the association between Samuel Johnson and Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese, this is speculative, based on little more than the fact that the person is known to have lived nearby. However, Charles Dickens is known to have visited the Cheshire Cheese, the Prospect of Whitby, Ye Olde Cock Tavern and many others. Samuel Pepys is also associated with the Prospect of Whitby and the Cock Tavern.", "*The King's Head, Aylesbury, the oldest pub with a coaching yard in the south of England and one of some thirty or more pubs in England run by the National Trust.", "Reputed to be the oldest pub in England, The Trip to Jerusalem is said to have been built in 1189 and is shrouded in history...", "Have a drink in one of the city's excellent pubs. The city centre features two pubs dating from Tudor times, the Red Lion in High Street in particular is steeped in history." ]

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[ "The University of Oxford is the oldest university in Britain. While there is no precise date for its founding, the university has existed in some form since 1096.", "Oxford University is the oldest in Britain. The university now has 38 colleges (in 2008 Green and Templeton Colleges merged) ( see the list of colleges ).", "The University of Oxford (informally Oxford University or simply Oxford) is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England, United Kingdom. While having no known date of foundation, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest surviving university. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled northeast to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two \"ancient universities\" are frequently jointly referred to as \"Oxbridge\".", "The UK has been a centre of learning for the past 1,000 years and possesses many ancient and distinguished universities. Many former polytechnics and other colleges have been promoted to university status over the past 25 years , and there are now over 120 degree-awarding institutions in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The two most famous (and oldest) universities are Oxford and Cambridge (often referred to as Oxbridge by many Britons), but England also has several other world-class institutions, including several in London (notably Imperial College, the London School of Economics, University College London and King's College London, all are part of London University). Outside of London in England the top universities are located in Durham, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Exeter, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, York, Nottingham, Kent, Bath, Loughborough, Newcastle, Southampton and Warwick.", "The first objection to London's claim is that dating by royal charter does not reflect historical reality as a royal charter is not necessary to be a university. Ordering British universities by date of royal charter places Cambridge (charter 1231) as the oldest rather than Oxford (charter 1248) and moves St Andrews (charter 1532 ) down to third oldest in Scotland, behind Glasgow (charter 1453 ) and Aberdeen (charter 1495 ). Related to this is the fact that most British universities have been created under acts of parliament (particularly the Further and Higher Education Act 1992) rather than by royal charter, and so would be missing entirely from an ordering drawn up by royal charter. While this does not entirely invalidate London's claim, it means that the critical question (besides whether official status should be the deciding factor at all) is whether Durham gained official university status under its 1832 act of parliament, which was discussed in the previous section.", "This is part of the definition used by the European University Association's four-volume series, A History of the University in Europe, which lists Durham as the third oldest university in England (from 1832) with London as the fourth oldest (from 1836) and UCL and King's only as colleges of London. The full definition used is \"institutions of higher education founded or recognized as universities by the public authorities of their territory and authorized to confer academic degrees in more than one discipline\", thus excluding single-faculty universities (which is unimportant for this debate). ", "The University of Oxford , located in the city of Oxford is one of the oldest and most highly revered Universities in Europe. It was the first university established in Britain. Oxford is situated about 57 miles (90 km) north-west of London in its own county of Oxfordshire. The city lies at the confluence of the Rivers Cherwell and Thames, or \"Isis\", as it is locally known, giving the opportunity to enjoy such pleasant pursuits as boating and punting, or a stroll along river banks. The story of Oxford is one of a war, plague, religious persecution, heroes and the emergence of one of the greatest Universities in the world. Known as the city of \"Dreaming Spires,\" Oxford is dominated by the Medieval architecture of the University, and the exquisite gardens within.", "The University of Cambridge (informally Cambridge University or simply Cambridge)The corporate title of the university is The Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Cambridge. is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's fourth-oldest surviving university. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople. The two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as \"Oxbridge\".", "Durham University's 1837 charter is now the oldest current royal charter of any university in England. Having sustained amendments, London's current charter stands from 1863, UCL's from 1977 and King's College London's from 2009.", "4. University of Cambridge (Cambridge, England, Founded in 1209)- Founded by scholars leaving Oxford after a dispute caused by the execution of two scholars in 1209, and royal charter was granted in 1231. The university takes 1209 as its official anniversary.The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world (after the University of Oxford), and the seventh-oldest in the world.", "Established in 1826 as London University by founders inspired by the radical ideas of Jeremy Bentham, UCL was the first university institution to be established in London, and the first in England to be entirely secular and to admit students regardless of their religion. UCL makes the disputed claim of being the third-oldest university in England.The title of third-oldest university in England is claimed by three institutions: Durham University as the third-oldest officially recognised university (1832) and the third to confer degrees (1837), the University of London as the third university to be granted a Royal Charter (1836), and University College London as it was founded as London University (1826) and was the third-oldest university institution to start teaching (1828). A fourth institution, King's College London, officially claims to be the fourth-oldest university in England; it was the third university institution to receive a Royal Charter (1829) and some claim it as third oldest on that basis. Deciding which is the \"third oldest university\" depends largely on the definition of university status. In 1836, UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a royal charter that year. It has grown through mergers, including with the Institute of Neurology (in 1997), the Royal Free Hospital Medical School (in 1998), the Eastman Dental Institute (in 1999), the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (in 1999), the School of Pharmacy (in 2012) and the Institute of Education (in 2014).", "Balliol, University, and Merton Colleges each claim to be the 'oldest' in the University, with founding dates in the 13th century, although the exact year may be unclear or contested. They are fine examples of the collegiate Gothic architecture for which Oxford is renowned.", "Let’s complete the list with a visit to Wales, and one of the nation’s oldest higher education institutions,  Aberystwyth University . Founded in 1872, the university currently ranks 491-500* in the world. It lays claim to having established the world’s first official department for international politics, which was founded in 1919 in the wake of World War I. The university’s Old College building resembles a medieval castle and serves as the main site for most of Aberystwyth University’s administration, plus the departments of Welsh and education.", "Not all universities in the United Kingdom possess charters, with the \"post-92\" institutions explicitly deriving their university status from the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, and Newcastle University from the Universities of Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne Act 1963. Even more relevant to Durham's case are the examples of Oxford and Cambridge, both of which operated for many years without a charter following their respective foundations – indeed, by date of charter Cambridge is the senior – while neither was formally incorporated until 1571. ", "The ancient universities are seven extant British and Irish medieval universities and early modern universities. Four of these are located in Scotland, two in England, and one in Ireland. The ancient universities in Britain and Ireland are amongst the oldest extant universities in the world.", "Glasgow University, University Avenue (subway: Hillhead), ☎ +44 141-330 5511, [27] . Exterior and campus always visible; Visitor centre M-Sa 9:30AM-5PM. Founded as an institution in 1451, the University itself is the fourth oldest in the entire United Kingdom, and one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the country. Contains the Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, including a reconstruction of Mackintosh's house. The exterior of the main building is fine in its own right; the current main University building is neo-gothic and dates from 1870, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott (the man who also designed London's St Pancras railway station). The main building has an interesting visitor's centre (open all year round) which is free and sits atop a drumlin with commanding views over Kelvingrove Park and the western fringes of the city. Free.   edit", "There has been a town in Cambridge since Roman times, but the modern city owes its fame to the great university which stands at its heart. The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209 by scholars from Oxford, who left after an argument there to set up their own rival institution. Today the two universities stand at the top of the British educational system, with Cambridge now often ahead of Oxford in its ranking among the world’s ten greatest universities. It currently has around 18,000 students.", "But the history of the English Universities must be considered as that of communities into whose lives colleges were introduced for a social rather than a scholastic purpose. Cambridge grew into a seat of learning during the latter half of the twelfth century, but the first College, Peterhouse, was not founded till 1284. Till then, the scholars who resorted to the place lodged where they could in the town. This was the practice at every university in Europe; and, even to-day, the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin afford the only exceptions to it.", "The University of Birmingham has traced formal medical lectures to 1767 through the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary, a precursor to Birmingham Medical School which was founded in 1825 and received a Royal Charter as Queen's College, Birmingham in 1843. The University of Manchester traces its teaching (through the Victoria University of Manchester and Owen's College) to the Royal School of Medicine and Surgery, founded in 1824, and also (through UMIST) to the Manchester Mechanics Institute, also founded in 1824; Manchester's logo incorporates the statement \"Manch'est 1824'er University\". Similar claims have been made by other redbrick institutions such as the University of Liverpool through the Liverpool Royal Institution (a society established 1814 \"for promoting the increase and diffusion of Literature, Science and the Arts\" and held lectures on these subjects (Royal Charter 1821, dissolved 1948), the archives of which were transferred to University College, Liverpool. A number of 'modern' universities also claim descent from earlier Mechanics' Institutes, including Liverpool John Moores University, from a Mechanics' Institute founded in 1825; Birkbeck, University of London, founded in 1823 as the London Mechanics Institute; and Leeds Beckett University from the 1824-founded Leeds Mechanics Institute. ", "The official creation of the University was in 1231 , when King Henry III of England gave to the people there the right to teach students and lower taxes . A letter from Pope Gregory IX in 1233 also gave the right to everyone who got a degree from Cambridge to teach in any place in the Christian world. [7]", "One of the very earliest notices of Oxford as a seat of study is found in a description by Giraldus Cambrensis, the Welsh traveller and historian. About the year 1185 he visited the town and read \"before the faculties, doctors, and students\" his work on the Topography of Ireland. 1306  The school was evidently of some importance to attract such a man. Walter Map, archdeacon of Oxford, is called by Giraldus \"an Oxford master.\" The first degree known to have been conferred was given to Edmund Rich, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. From Geraldus it is evident that the masters were grouped in faculties. As early as 1209 and in consequence of the hanging of three students by the mayor, there was a migration of masters and students, said to have been three thousand in number, from which the University of Cambridge had its beginning. 1307", "** Wales: As with England, there are multiple claims to be the oldest university in Wales.", "Claimed to be the oldest university in the English speaking world, there is no clear date... View the full answer", "University, which ranks as the oldest college, though its connexion with King Alfred , said to have founded it in 872, is absolutely legendary. It was really founded by Archdeacon William of Durham in 1249, and acquired its present site a century later. None of the buildings are more than two hundred years old. Frederick William Faber, the famous Oratorian, was a member of this college, which was much identified with the Catholic revival in James II's reign.", "The university celebrated its 35th anniversary year in May 2002 with a major event in Guildford Cathedral. It was also marked by the unveiling of the Surrey Scholar sculpture (by Allan Sly FBS) to mark the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen and as a gift to the people of Guildford. The Surrey Scholar is located at the bottom of Guildford High Street. Understanding the Real World, a visual history of the university, by Christopher Pick, was published to coincide with this anniversary.", "Although the earliest beginnings of the university were previously traced back to the Queen's College which is linked to William Sands Cox in his aim of creating a medical school along strictly Christian lines, unlike the London medical schools, further research has now revealed the roots of the Birmingham Medical School in the medical education seminars of Mr John Tomlinson, the first surgeon to the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary, and later to the General Hospital. These classes were the first ever held outside London or south of the Scottish border in the winter of 1767–68. The first clinical teaching was undertaken by medical and surgical apprentices at the General Hospital, opened in 1779. The medical school which grew out of the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary was founded in 1828 but Cox began teaching in December 1825. Queen Victoria granted her patronage to the Clinical Hospital in Birmingham and allowed it to be styled \"The Queen's Hospital\". It was the first provincial teaching hospital in England. In 1843, the medical college became known as Queen's College.", "This is a list of Universities in the United Kingdom by the date of their foundation as universities.", "Founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germany's oldest university and one of the leading research institutions in Europe. The university's history is inextricably linked to the history and development of the city of Heidelberg.", "The University of Coimbra (UC) was founded in 1290 and is one of the oldest universities in Europe. It is located in the city of Coimbra, in the Portugal's Central Region between Porto and Lisbon.", "Morell and the history of the foundations. [21] In 1963 the University opened with 216 undergraduates, 14 postgraduates, and 28 academic and administrative staff. [25] The University started with six departments: Economics, Education, English, History, Mathematics, Politics. [22] At the time, the university consisted of three buildings, principally the historic King's Manor in the city centre and Heslington Hall , which has Tudor foundations and is in the village of Heslington on the edge of York. A year later, work began on purpose-built structures on the Heslington Campus, which now forms the main part of the university.", "The OU was established in 1969 and the first students enrolled in January 1971. The University administration is based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, but has regional centres in each of its thirteen regions around the United Kingdom. It also has offices and regional examination centres in many other European countries. The university awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as non-degree qualifications such as diplomas and certificates or continuing education units.", "The university was basically established to study for religious purposes. The earliest teaching sessions of the University were carried out in churches or private houses. This was obviously unsatisfactory, and so the University authorities began to establish buildings for its own use. Some of these early 'schools' still exist on the site known, appropriately, as the 'Old Schools'. During the 14th and 15th Centuries, the University gradually gained its independence from the church, with the Chancellor taking on both religious and civil duties." ]

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[ "Failed gunpowder plot ringleader Guy Fawkes was born in York in 1570. The legendary highwayman Dick Turpin was executed and (reputedly still) buried in York in 1606.", "Dick Turpin was a butcher's son, born in Hempstead, Essex in 1705. He was also a violent highwayman who was executed in York, after being charged for murder.", "Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York . He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York, [nb 1] and his wife, Edith. [nb 2] Guy's parents were regular communicants of the Church of England , as were his paternal grandparents; his grandmother, born Ellen Harrington, was the daughter of a prominent merchant, who served as Lord Mayor of York in 1536. [4] However, Guy's mother's family were recusant Catholics , and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest. [5] Guy was an uncommon name in England, but may have been popular in York on account of a local notable, Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton. [6]", "Richard \"Dick\" Turpin (bapt. 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft. Turpin may have followed his father's trade as a butcher early in life, but, by the early 1730s, he had joined a gang of deer thieves and, later, became a poacher, burglar, horse thief and killer. He is also known for a fictional 200 mi overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpin's death.", "Richard \"Dick\" Turpin (bapt. 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft . Turpin may have followed his father's trade as a butcher early in life, but, by the early 1730s, he had joined a gang of deer thieves and, later, became a poacher , burglar , horse thief and killer. He is also known for a fictional 200-mile (320 km) overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpin's death.", "Richard (Dick) Turpin (bap. 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English  highwayman  whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for  horse theft . Turpin may have followed his father's profession as a butcher early in life, but by the early 1730s he had joined a gang of deer thieves, and later became a  poacher ,  burglar , horse thief, and murderer. He is best known for his fictional 200-mile (320 km) overnight ride from London to York on his steed Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the  Victorian  novelist  William Harrison Ainsworth  almost 100 years after Turpin's death.", "Guy Fawkes, the only son of a Edward Fawkes and his wife, Edith Jackson, was born in York in 1570.", "Guy Fawkes was born in April 1570 in York. Although his immediate family were all Protestants, in keeping with the accepted religious practice in England at the time, his maternal grandparents were 'recusant' Catholics, who refused to attend Protestant services. When Guy was eight, his father died and his widowed mother married a Catholic, Dionis Baynbrigge. It was these early influences that were to forge Fawkes' convictions as an adult.", "Guy Fawkes was born on April 13th, 1570 at Stonegate in Yorkshire. Fawkes was the only son of Edward Fawkes and his wife Edith. He went to the Free School of St. Peter’s and among the other pupils there were Christopher and John Wright. Fawkes was tutored by John Pulleyn who some at the time believed to be a Catholic.", "...Guy Fawkes Guy Fawkes, also known as Guido, was born on April 13,1570 in Stonegate York. He was the only son of Edward Fawkes and Edith Blake, they had two more daughters. Fawkes was taught at at Saint Peters in York. In Fawkes teen years, his father died and his mother remarried a man of catholic back round. Later, Fawkes joined the Spanish army and held a post when the...", "The first is the tercentenary of the birth of Dick Turpin, who entered the historical record when his baptism was noted in the parish register of Hempstead in Essex on September 21 1705, son of a butcher named John Turpin and his wife, Mary. The second is the bicentenary of the novelist, essayist, and literary editor William Harrison Ainsworth, born in Manchester on February 4 1805. Although now more or less forgotten, Ainsworth was one of the bestselling authors of the 1830s and 40s, a leading figure in the literary London of his day. As I researched my book on Dick Turpin and the Turpin legend, I realised that the stories of these two very different men were inextricably linked. For it was Ainsworth, in a novel published nearly a century after Turpin's execution at York in 1739, who created Dick Turpin as we know him.", "1) The Head Honcho was Guy Fawkes. He was born in 1570 in York and died in the year 1606.", "Guy Fawkes was born in Yorkshire in 1570. A convert to the Catholic faith, Fawkes had been a soldier who had spent several years fighting in Italy.  It was during this period that he adopted the name Guido (Italian for Guy) perhaps to impress the ladies! ", "On 19th April, 1739, Dick Turpin rode through the streets of York in an open cart, bowing to the gawking crowds. At York racecourse he climbed the ladder to the gibbet and then sat for half an hour chatting to the guards and the executioner! At last, seemingly bored with the proceedings, he stood up and, without help, threw himself off the ladder and was dead in a few minutes. In death, Turpin attained some of the gallantry that had eluded him in life.", "Dick Turpin was born in East Ham, in Essex, and received quite a good education, learning how to read and write. It was this good education which, as we will see, proved to be his ultimate downfall. At a young age he was apprenticed to a butcher, and having learnt a trade, established his own business after completing his term as an apprentice. It was when he set up his own business that he began to act as a receiver of stolen livestock for a gang of poachers called the Essex Gang. Although the exact details of Turpin’s involvement with the Essex Gang are unclear, it seems he became ever more deeply involved with them, and some historians have implicated him in the robbery of William Mason’s house – a farmer who lived in Essex – during which his daughters were raped.", "This charming old inn is the reputed birthplace of a man who is still burned on bonfires 400 years after his death. Guy Fawkes arrived in the world in 1570 and was baptised at St Michael le Belfrey church in York. He was born into Protestantism but his mother’s second marriage was to a Catholic and it is likely that this event prompted her son’s conversion as well.", "There is a story that Dick Turpin was apprenticed as a butcher in Whitechapel, and – whatever the truth of it – he returned consistently to this area of East London. There are further stories connecting him to the Red Lion in Whitechapel and the Nag’s Head in the Hackney Rd. Yet, as one who led an elusive transitory criminal existence and who achieved fame only after his death, the actuality of Dick Turpin’s life remains uncertain, overshadowed by the vivid fictions that were contrived later.", "After the killing of Tom King, Turpin took refuge in Epping Forest where he shot one of the Forest-Keepers who tried to capture him, and the offer of a reward for his arrest for murder published in the Gentleman’s Magazine  in June 1737 gives the only contemporary description – “Turpin was born at Thackſted in Eſſex, is about Thirty, by Trade a Butcher, about five Feet nine Inches high, brown Complexion, very much mark’d with the Small Pox, his Cheek-bones broad, his Face thinner towards the Bottom, his Viſage ſhort, pretty upright, and broad about the Shoulders.”", "It having been repreſented to the King, that Richard Turpin did on Wedneſday the 4th of May laſt, barbarouſly murder Thomas Morris, Servant to Henry Tomſon, one of the Keepers of Epping-Foreſt, and commit other notorious Felonies and Robberies near London, his Majeſty is pleaſed to promiſe his moſt gracious Pardon to any of his Accomplices, and a Reward of 200l. to any Perſon or Perſons that ſhall diſcover him, ſo as he may be apprehended and convicted. Turpin was born at Thackſted in Eſſex, is about Thirty, by Trade a Butcher, about 5 Feet 9 Inches high, brown Complexion, very much mark'd with the Small Pox, his Cheek-bones broad, his Face thinner towards the Bottom, his Viſage ſhort, pretty upright, and broad about the Shoulders.", "Born in Essex, Turpin was a member of the violent Gregory Gang, becoming a highwayman when they split up.  Having shot and killed a man who attempted to capture him he fled to Yorkshire.  He stole horses in Lincolnshire and returned with them to Brough to sell, a trade which was exposed while he was in Beverley House of Correction having shot his landlord’s cockerel.  He gave his name as John Palmer.", "Dick Turpin was born in 1706 in rural Essex, the son of John Turpin, a small farmer and some-time keeper of the Crown Inn. Some biographers say he was born in Thackstead, others name Hempstead. Young Dick probably served an apprenticeship with a butcher in Whitechapel- in those days, a village on the fringes of the capital. During his apprenticeship he \"conducted himself in a loose and disorderly manner.\" When his apprenticeship was over, he opened a butcher shop, and began to steal sheep, lamb and cattle. Caught in the act of stealing two oxen, he fled into the depths of the Essex countryside to save himself. After resurfacing, he tried his hand at smuggling, but proved as inept at this venture as he had at cattle rustling. Before long customs agents compelled Turpin and his gang to lay low. Many people think of Dick Turpin as a lone highwayman, however for the majority of his criminal career he was a member of the Essex Gang (also known as the Gregory Gang). Members of Turpin's gang are known to have included: Thomas Barnfield, Mary Brazier, John Fielder, Jasper Gregory, Jeremy Gregory, Samual Gregory, Herbert Haines, John Jones, James Parkinson, Joseph Rose, Thomas Rowden, Ned Rust, William Saunders, Richard Turpin, Humphry Walker, and John Wheeler. There may have been other members who were either not identified or who were only occasional associates of the Gang.�", "1705 Birth Richard \"Dick\" Turpin was born at the Blue Bell Inn (later the Rose and Crown) in Hempstead, Essex, the fifth of six children to John Turpin and Mary Elizabeth Parmenter. He was baptised on 21 September 1705, in the same parish where his parents had been married more than ten years earlier. … Read More", "The gang lived in or around London. For a time Turpin stayed at Whitechapel , before moving to Millbank . [20] On 4 February 1735 he met John Fielder, Samuel Gregory, Joseph Rose, and John Wheeler, at an inn along The Broadway in London. They planned to rob the house of Joseph Lawrence, a farmer at Earlsbury Farm in Edgware . Late that afternoon, after stopping twice along the way for food and drink, they captured a shepherd boy and burst into the house, armed with pistols. They bound the two maidservants, and brutally attacked the 70-year-old farmer. They pulled his breeches around his ankles, and dragged him around the house, but Lawrence refused to reveal the whereabouts of his money. Turpin beat Lawrence's bare buttocks with his pistols, badly bruising him, and other members of the gang beat him around the head with their pistols. They emptied a kettle of water over his head, forced him to sit bare-buttocked on the fire, and pulled him around the house by his nose, and hair. Gregory took one of the maidservants upstairs and raped her. For their trouble, the gang escaped with a haul of less than £30. [21]", "The gang lived in or around London. For a time Turpin stayed at Whitechapel, before moving to Millbank. On 4 February 1735 he met John Fielder, Samuel Gregory, Joseph Rose, and John Wheeler, at an inn along The Broadway in London. … Read More", "Turpin is no hero to James Sharpe, who sets out to cut him down to size, just another ‘callous, brutal and violent’ criminal, an ‘unpleasant thug’, hardly distinguishable from so many others, so that when The Lives of Noted Highwaymen was published around 1750 he was not deemed worthy of inclusion. Within the limits he sets himself, Sharpe’s book is admirable: in the first two-thirds he provides an account of Turpin’s life, of 18th-century highwaymen and of the criminal justice system of the day which could scarcely be bettered. Before he became a highwayman Turpin belonged to a gang of poachers in Essex. When they robbed a 70-year-old farmer, Joseph Lawrence, in 1735, they beat him on the bare buttocks, poured boiling water over him, and sat him on the fire in order to force him to say where his money was kept. Turpin played an active part in torturing Lawrence, though not in raping his maidservant, Dorothy Street. When he was eventually arrested, four years later, he was living in Yorkshire under the pseudonym of John Palmer. He came to the attention of the authorities only because, returning one day from hunting, he had shot a tame bird; reprimanded by a bystander, he replied that if the man would only stay while he charged his piece, he would shoot him too.", "‘The said Richard Turpin was born at Thacksted, in the County Essex, is about Thirty Years of Age, by Trade a Butcher, about Five Feet Nine Inches high, of a brown Complexion, very much marked with the Small Pox, his Cheek bones broad, his Face thinner towards the Bottom, his Visage short, pretty upright, and broad about the Shoulders.’", "Bill Oddie of The Goodies , born in Rochdale (a sattelite town of Manchester), would often play up his Northernness, for instance in the episode where he introduced the world to Ecky Thump, the Lancashire art of self-defense (consisting of hitting people over the head with a black pudding). There's also this bit from the I'm Sorry I'll Read That Again version of Othello:", "As a young Englishman, Guy Fawkes converted to Catholicism, a faith he exercised devoutly. He left England for the Low Countries, where he fought for the Spanish Catholics against the Protestant Dutch in the Eighty Years’ War. He later returned and met Thomas Wintour and Robert Catesby, who were planning to assassinate the Protestant King James I and his government by blowing up the Parliament building; this would later become known as the Gunpowder Plot. Prompted by an anonymous letter, authorities searched the space underneath the House of Lords and found Fawkes guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder. He was sentenced to death by hanging, drawing and quartering, but leaped from the scaffolding, committing suicide to avoid the misery.", "Since his death, the character and life of Dick Turpin has been romanticized and the idea of Dick Turpin as a ‘gentleman highwayman’ has emerged. In a novel by William Harrison Ainsworth, a Victorian novelist, called Rookwood Dick, Turpin was portrayed as a hero, when he was, in reality, a vicious criminal.", "^ Fawkes's mother's maiden name is alternatively given as Edith Blake, [2] or Edith Jackson. [3]", "Nowadays Turpin is often remembered as a swashbuckling sort of loveable rogue, but familiarise yourself with the particulars of his crimes and it soon becomes apparent that he was an awful, awful man. We like to picture Turpin stood in the middle of roads, wielding dual pistols with a scarf tied round his face, patiently awaiting a carriage of rich folk who he’d order to stand and deliver. The truth, however, is a lot less romantic and a lot more violent and distressing.", "The real Richard Turpin was finally caught after shooting a man's chicken in the street. The only real surprise here was that he managed to hit the chicken. Turpin had hardly distinguished himself as a marksman: one of his first victims was a member of his own gang, who he accidentally shot \"in two places\"." ]

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[ "Spencer Perceval was Prime Minster from October 4, 1809 until his murder on May 11, 1812. He is the only British Prime Minster to have been assassinated.", "On 11 May 1812, Spencer Perceval was assassinated. He remains the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated.", "Spencer Perceval, (1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812) was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 4 October 1809 until his death on 11 May 1812. He is the only British prime minister to have been assassinated. He is also the only solicitor general or attorney general to have been prime minister, and the only prime minister whose entire lifetime was spent in the reign of the sovereign under which he held office, George III (who had become king in 1760 and survived Perceval to 1820).", "Spencer Perceval is the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated. He was shot in the lobby of the House of Commons by John Bellingham, a ruined businessman, in May 1812.", "Uniquely in British history Spencer Perceval is the only Prime Minister to have been assassinated.   This was on the 11th May 1812 when he was shot in the lobby of the House of Commons, still six months short of his fiftieth birthday.  His assassin, an aggrieved business man John Bellingham, was tried and executed within the week.", "Spencer Perceval (external - login to view) was one of the younger sons of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont (external - login to view) who first sought a career in the law and then politics. He first entered Parliament in 1796 and having served as both Solicitor-General (external - login to view) and Attorney-General (external - login to view) he became the Chancellor of the Exchequer (external - login to view) in 1807 following which he became Prime Minister in October 1809 and remained in office held until the 11th May 1812 when he was shot dead in the lobby of the House of Commons (external - login to view), earning for himself the distinction of being the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated whilst in office.", "Only once has a British Prime Minister been assassinated. Two hundred years ago, on the 11th May 1812, John Bellingham shot dead the Rt. Hon. Spencer Perceval as he entered the House of Commons. David C. Hanrahan tells the story.", "1812 British Prime Minister Spencer Percival was assassinated in the House of Commons, apparently mistaken by his killer, bankrupt broker John Bellingham, for someone else. He is the only Prime Minister in Britain to have been assassinated. Although goodness knows there have been more worthy candidates...", "The previous Palace of Westminster was also the site of a prime-ministerial assassination on 11 May 1812. While in the lobby of the House of Commons, on his way to a parliamentary inquiry, Spencer Perceval was shot and killed by a Liverpool merchant adventurer, John Bellingham. Perceval remains the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated. ", "2. Spencer Perceval was assassinated on 11 May 1812, shot by a pistol in the lobby of the House of Commons. His killer, John Bellingham, had been obsessively pursuing a claim to compensation from the government.", "The assassination of Prime Minister Spencer Perceval in 1812 in the lobby of the House of Commons", "1812 - Prime Minister Spencer Perceval is assassinated in the House of Commons by a disgruntled bankrupt", "Spencer Perceval - 1809 - 1812 - Tory - (The only British Prime Minister to be assassinated).", "Spencer Perceval (1762-1812) remains the only British Prime Minsiter to ever be assassinted. He was shot in the House of Commons by a merchant called John Bellingham, who believed that the government owed him compensation for imprisonment in Russia [Getty Images]", "On May 11, 1812, while on his way to attend an inquiry into the recent Luddite riots, Perceval was shot and mortally wounded by John Bellingham, a bankrupt merchant who had tried unsuccessfully to recover his losses from the government. He died in the lobby of the House of Commons, and became the only British Prime Minister to be assassinated. Although he was deemed insane, Bellingham was subsequently executed for his crime, on May 18, 1812.", "   ON the 11th of May, in the year 1812, an event occurred which excited deep regret in the minds of the whole of the British public -- the death of the Right Honourable Spencer Perceval, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, by the hand of an assassin.", "Perceval bears a dubious distinction as the only British prime minister to be assassinated. As chancellor of the exchequer he moved in to 10 Downing Street in 1807, before rising to the office of prime minister two years later. His 12 young children - some born while he was in office - also lived in the PM's crowded residence. Against expectations, he had skilfully kept his government afloat for three years despite a severe economic downturn and continuing war with Napoleon. He was shot dead in the lobby of the House of Commons on 11 May 1812 by a merchant called John Bellingham who was seeking government compensation for his business debts. Perceval's body lay in 10 Downing Street for five days before burial. Bellingham gave himself up immediately. Tried for murder, he was found guilty and hanged a week later.", "After a late entry into politics, his rise to power was rapid; he was solicitor and then attorney general in the Addington Ministry, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in the Portland Ministry, and became prime minister in October 1809. At the head of a weak ministry, Perceval faced a number of crises during his term in office including an inquiry into the Walcheren expedition, the madness of King George III, economic depression and Luddite riots. He overcame these crises, successfully pursued the Peninsular War in the face of opposition defeatism, and won the support of the Prince Regent. His position was looking stronger by the spring of 1812, when he was assassinated by John Bellingham, a merchant with a grievance against the government, who shot him dead in the lobby of the House of Commons.", "Given the endless conflicts, both internal and external, with which Britain has been involved since Robert Walpole was the first to hold the office of Prime Minister, it is almost surprising that only one premier has been assassinated. The IRA came close in Brighton in 1984 to killing Margaret Thatcher , but Spencer Perceval remains the only such figure to have fallen victim to an assassin.", "Prime Minister Spencer Perceval was assassinated by John Bellingham in the lobby of the House of Commons in London – the only assassination of a British Prime Minister.", "If Churchill had been assassinated in 1942 or Lloyd George in 1917, then it would be seen as one of the most important events in British, if not world, history. Perceval died during a major war but if he is remembered it is for the manner of his death rather than for anything that he did during his life.", "May 11: Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval, assassinated � shot as he entered the House of Commons by a bankrupt Liverpool broker, John Bellingham, who was subsequently hanged", "In such circumstances it is no surprise that John Bellingham was found guilty of Spencer Perceval’s murder by a jury that took only fourteen minutes to reach a verdict. On the following Monday he was executed and his body sent for dissection to St. Bartholomew’s hospital. He is remembered in history as the only assassin ever of a British Prime Minister.", "Spencer Perceval is the only prime minister in British history to have been assassinated. John Bellingham, the man who killed him, did so after an unsuccessful attempt to petition Parliament.", "At the time of his execution, Bellingham was aged 35. On his assassination, Prime Minister Spencer Perceval was 50.", "Blood in the House of Commons! Two hundred years on, the shocking story of Spencer Perceval, the only British PM to have been assassinated", "In his book The Assassination of the Prime Minister David Hanrahan gives a vividly detailed account of that sunny Monday afternoon in May when at about a quarter past five the 49-year-old Spencer Perceval entered the lobby of the House of Commons on his way into the chamber. A man who had been sitting quietly by the fireplace stood up, walked towards the prime minister, took a pistol out of his overcoat and fired it at Perceval, hitting him in the chest. The prime minister staggered and fell, crying out ‘I am murdered!’", "Spencer Perceval enjoys the unfortunate distinction of being the only British Prime Minister to die at the hands of an assassin. His political career coincided with a period of upheaval created by the French Revolution. Having pursued a successful legal career, he was slowly drawn into politics.", "It happened when, on this day, he entered the lobby of the House of Commons where his assassin, John Bellingham, had been sitting quietly by a fireplace. As Perceval entered, Bellingham got up, walked towards him, pulled a pistol out of his coat and fired at the Prime Minister, fatally hitting him in the chest. “I am murdered!” Perceval cried out as he slumped to the floor. And he was right.", "Perceval was shot through the heart at close range while walking through the lobby of Parliament in the late afternoon. His killer was John Bellingham, a merchant from Liverpool � though born in St Neots - ruined by five years of unjust imprisonment in Russia. He felt the government failed him there; and resented its refusal of compensation.", "The Assassination of Prime Minister Spencer Perceval|MurderMap - London Homicide Reported Direct from The Old Bailey", "Murder: Perceval was ambushed in the lobby of the House of Commons, and shot in the heart" ]

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[ "The next tallest form of grass is miscanthus, also called elephant grass or Ugandan grass. It is native to the grasslands of East Africa. It typically grows up to 10 feet in height and can reach up to 22 feet. It resembles bamboo in many respects and is a perennial plant. Miscanthus is most often used for animal fodder, but is also being developed as an alternative to corn in biofuel production.", "The tallest ornamental grass is the bamboo Dendrocalmus giganteus, which grows to more than 100 feet. Arundo donax, a giant reed, is the tallest non-bamboo ornamental grass at an average of 20 feet.", "Grass is a type of plant which is used to cover the ground, in a lawn. Grass can grow very tall and can reach height up to 100 metres .Bamboo is the tallest grass. Grasses usually have long, narrow leaves and grow along the ground.", "Calamagrostis brachytricha (Korean Feather Reed Grass) – Growing to 3’, it is one of the tallest grasses that is shade tolerant.  Attractive and airy pink inflorescences appear in September.  Full sun to shade, with soils that are moist to well drained.", "Giant reed (Arundo donax) thrives in full sun, but will tolerate light shade. The upright stems reach heights of 14 to 20 feet tall, and the gray-green leaves are 3 inches across. The leaves turn bronze colored in freezing temperatures. The reddish-brown flower plumes grow 1 to 2 feet above the foliage. As they dry, they puff out and turn silver in color. This is a drought tolerant ornamental grass that is one of the tallest in the world. The large plumes are commonly used in dried floral arrangements.", "Ornamental grasses are any plants resembling grass that are attractive and suitable for landscaping. Tall grasses are usually 4 feet or taller and include bamboos, rushes and sedges. Tall ornamental grasses are used to create screens to hide unpleasant views, cut out noise from frequently traveled areas and provide areas of privacy. Most ornamental grasses establish themselves within 4 years. They need little maintenance besides an annual trimming to keep them growing vigorously each year.", "Tall fescues are also more disease resistant and wear tolerant, making them ideal for heavy foot traffic areas and athletic fields. Like bluegrass, they are considered a cool season grass, remaining green for eight to nine months out of the year.", "Tall fescue is one of the more important cool season grasses. It is known for its dark green color, wear resistance and heat tolerance. Of all the types of grass, this is one of the few cool season grasses that can do well in areas outside of what is considered its normal adaptation zone. It even does well in the dry heat of southern California, where it is a popular turfgrass.", "��������� Bamboos occur in most tropical areas, but they are especially abundant in the monsoon regions of Eastern Asia.� They are the largest of the grasses with woody stems that sometimes reach one foot in diameter and a height of over 10 feet.� There are many species in the families Arundinaria, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Phyllostachys, and other genera.� The stems are used for all kinds of construction in areas where these plants grow.� Exported bamboo is used in the manufacture of furniture, fishing rods and implements of various kinds.� Bamboo splits are made into baskets and brushes.", "Improved tall fescue grass varieties have been bred to offer major improvements for lawns, sports fields, pastures and more over the traditional Kentucky 31 Tall Fescue. The name \"tall fescue\" is misleading in that all turf type tall fescues released in the last 20 years are not tall at at all. If left un-mown tall fescue will produce seed heads of about 3' with leaves and foliage usually reaching a height of less than 20 inches. These new varieties of Tall Fescue Grass Seed offer an improved turf type grass that outperforms and looks nothing like the old Kentucky 31 variety. Single variety Turf-type Tall Fescue Grass seed such as Titan RX Tall Fescue Grass Seed is one of these improved varieties that make a fast growing, dense, drought tolerant turf quality lawn or sports field of low maintenance.", "Type of grass - various Fescues, Bent grasses, Wavy Hair grass, Sweet Vermal, Marram, Sea Lyme", "Kentucky 31 tall fescue and Alta are examples of the older varieties. They were originally a forage grass, but were sometimes used as a turf grass. If you ever purchased Kentucky 31 tall fescue, you may have noticed that the bag is labeled \"For fields and lawn use\". These field types are a larger plant with blade widths 1/2 inch wide or more and reaching twenty-four inches high. If left uncut in the field, the stems and seed heads can reach four feet. They do not produce a thick turf and are not compatible with warm season grasses, such as bermudagrass. Whenever these field type tall fescues are growing in dormant bermudagrass, the fescue has the tendency to grow in large clumps. During the winter, these clumps stand out like a sore thumb.", "Arundo donax. Cane grass or cow cane. It grows up to 20 feet high. The canes can be used for stakes.", "The Poaceae (English pronunciation:) or Gramineae are the large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses. The Poaceae include the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and cultivated lawns (turf) and pasture. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. With ca 780 genera and around 12,000 species, Poaceae are the fifth-largest plant family, following the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae. ", "Turf-Type Fescue - Turf-type fescue a relatively coarse-leaved, dark-green grass that is almost as shade-tolerant as St. Augustinegrass. Consider it as a permanent lawn for shady areas in the northern portion of the state. Tall fescue has short rhizomes, but it does not spread well and should be managed as a bunch-type grass. It goes dormant in summer in sunshine and eventually thins out in the shade; so you should expect to reseed on a regular basis. Fortunately, the seed is not expensive and does not require extensive soil preparation to accomplish a successful reseeding.", "Sometimes suggested as a rapid screen, giant reed grass (Arundo donax) has been declared an invasive weed by the California Invasive Plant Council and environmental protection agencies in several other states, among them Hawaii, Oregon, Texas and Tennessee. The primary source of reeds for clarinets, oboes and other wind instruments, the grass is farmed in France. In Mediterranean climate zones along the American West Coast, this 9- to-30-foot out-of-control plant flourishes in estuaries and along rivers, threatening native wetland plants. It must be dug out, with rhizomes as deep as 10 feet into the soil removed to stop invasive growth. While once touted as a screening plant, giant reed grass is no longer welcome in a growing number of regions and states.", "These beautiful thorn trees line the banks of many of the larger rivers in the far north of South Africa. They qualify as huge in height, thickness, and canopy spread. The largest recorded individual stands 30 metres tall, with a trunk three metres thick and a canopy spreading to 35.1 metres.", "Dunescape. Dominant grasses are beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) and sand-reed (Calamovilfa longifolia). Kohler Andrae State Park, Sheboygan County.", "any species of the large and widely distributed genus Poa, chiefly range and pasture grasses of economic importance in temperate and cool regions. In general, bluegrasses are perennial with fine-leaved foliage that is bluish green in some species.", "The photo shows Turf-Type Tall Fescue from BWI. It is a five variety blend. It is an excellent product and one I have used many times. This comes in 50# bags.", "Grass of Parnassus, Pamassiapalustris.—A very hand-some plant of wet peat bogs and highland meadows. Stemssimple, with one or two sessile leaves and large, solitary,white flowers; root leaves cordate, on long stalks; heightsix or eight inches. Grows in scattered masses among thegrass, never in dense masses. Very fine for moist places in herbaceous plants. 3 arockery or in moist lawns. P. Caroliniana is au Ameri-can plant about twice as tall as the preceding one. Stemssimple, one-leaved, bearing one solitary large white flowerwith greenish veins. Hoot leaves orbicular or reniform.Banks of meadow-brooks. Flowers in July. Alum Root, Heuchera.—Most of the species of thisfjeuus are of no importance as ornamental plants. TheMexican alum root (H. sanguined) is, however, an exceed-ingly beautiful plant with tufted, heart-shaped or rounded,slightly lobed leaves and leafless peduncles bearing a panicleof bright red flowers. A fine plant for moist places in rock-eries. Grows best in a mixtur", "Tall fescue is divided into two groups. They are the \"coarse fescues\" and \"fine fescues\". Coarse fescue is the type most commonly seen growing in the full sun sections of lawns.", "The largest species of fern is probably Cyathea brownii of Norfolk Island , which may be 20 m (66 ft) or more in height. [59]", "Arundo donax ‘Peppermint Stick’ (Giant Reed Grass) – A very showy giant reed that has white and green striped leaves.  The color holds up very well during the hotter part of the summer and it truly out performs other variegated forms.", "Fribourg, H.A., Hannaway, D.B. & West, C.P. 2009. Tall Fescue for the Twenty-first Century. Agronomy Monograph 53. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. 539 pp.", "The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on Earth. Grasses are found on every continent, and are absent only from central Greenland and much of Antarctica. ", "Since the spot was somewhat moist, early in the season as it was the grass grew thick and high all around, making a fine screen to prevent prying eyes from seeing what was to be hidden there.", "Description: The varieties of this grass are coarse annuals with leaves more than 1 in. wide; large, terminal, dense panicle of pairs of small spikelets , one sessile and fertile and the other stalked and sterile but well developed, each with one floret .", "Finesse Q Tall Fescue: Finesse Q is an extremely persistent, high yielding, densely tillered, soft-leaf fescue with a semi-late heading date.", "POLYPODY (Cloch reathneih) Polypodium vulgare P  20cm. Fern with a creeping rhizome that is a useful remedy for coughs and catarrh. Moist, shaded site.", "Poa bulbosa L. Tufted <20 cm, bulb-like thickening at the base. Principal plant in semi- arid and fallow vegetations on chernozem and chestnut soils, dries off in summer but highly productive and nutritious in spring and autumn.", "In southern Europe, the seasonally arid Mediterranean climate inhibits growth unless summer watering is provided. Although there are several specimens in Yugoslavia, Italy, and Spain, the trees have not survived climatic conditions in Greece and Albania. In southern France, specimens are found more commonly at higher elevations where more mesic conditions prevail. By far the largest specimens in all of Europe are those in the palace grounds at La Granja, Spain, northwest of Madrid. In a warm climate and with regular lawn watering, the larger specimen is 13 ft dbh and 130 ft tall, while the smaller of the two is more than 10 ft dbh and 133 ft tall (Fig. 30). These two specimens were planted in the late 1800s. Because they grow in the open, they have retained their branches down to the ground and display a form that is rarely seen in its native habitat." ]

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[ "Dendrology is the study of trees and other woody plants, such as shrubs and woody vines. Dendrologists study every aspect of wooded plants to determine various characteristics of their structural systems.", "Dendrology is a specialized approach to studying and identifying over 100,000 different types of trees, and dendrologists study the complex systems of trees to determine evolutionary patterns. Dendrology is also useful for determining economic uses for trees and woody plants. However, dendrology is scientifically limited, because some types of trees and woody plants belong to families that include non-woody species. Dendrology is often classified as a subcategory of botany.", "Dendrology is the study of woody plants; typically trees but there are other things such as shrubs and vines that bear similarities to trees so they are studied as well. Dendrology is a science that studies, identifies, and even names plants that have woody structural systems. These woody systems hold a lot of information about the tree, about the evolution of the tree, and how we can best care for and protect each species of tree. Dendrology may not seem like the most interesting science at first glance, but it is grossly complicated and interesting.", "Trees are easy to identify in general terms because they are set apart in the way that they have one woody trunk leading to a whole system of woody branches and support systems, but if it hadn’t been for people who study dendrology we might not know how to distinguish one woody plant from another. With over 100,000 different species of trees, dendrology is a huge area of study and it’s a massive undertaking to try to learn more about each species than what meets the eye, and also attempt to find and identify new species of trees all the time.", "‘The process of naming plants and classifying them into those groupings is called nomenclature; the study of trees themselves is called dendrology.’", "The study of the growth of tree rings is known as dendrochronology. The study of the relationship between climate and tree growth in an effort to reconstruct past climates is known as dendroclimatology.", "The aims are to promote the study and enjoyment of trees and other woody plants, to bring together dendrologists from all round the world, and to protect and conserve rare and endangered plant species worldwide. This last aim is now even more relevant with increasing industrial development and threats to plant species.", "Modern dendrochronologists seldom cut down a tree to analyze its rings. Instead, core samples are extracted using a borer that's screwed into the tree and pulled out, bringing with it a straw-size sample of wood about 4 millimeters in diameter. The hole in the tree is then sealed to prevent disease.", "Dendrochronology is another archaeological dating technique in which tree rings are used to date pieces of wood to the exact year in which they were cut down. In areas in which scientists have tree rings sequences that reach back thousands of years, they can examine the patterns of rings in the wood and determine when the wood was cut down. This works better in temperate areas that have more distinct growing seasons (and this rings) and relatively long-lived tree species to provide a baseline.", "A grove of Bristlecones keeps a silent vigil atop the White Mountains of eastern California. “The idea of a single individual surviving for 5,000 years rooted in place is truly remarkable and I think strikes awe in most of us,” said UA dendrochronologist Chris Baisan, who first established the age of Prometheus, the oldest known tree. (Image: Rex Adams/LTRR)", "BC in some areas. Dendrochronology is of immense importance for archaeology, especially for its contribution to the refining of", "UA dendrochronologist Rex Adams holds up the innermost piece of the roughly 5,000-year-old tree, Prometheus. (Image: Beatriz Verdugo/UANews)", "Dendrochronology makes available specimens of once-living material accurately dated to a specific year. Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where \"present\" refers to 1 January 1950.", "Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field. The term \"botany\" comes from the Ancient Greek word (botanē) meaning \"pasture\", \"grass\", or \"fodder\"; is in turn derived from (boskein), \"to feed\" or \"to graze\". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 400,000 species of living organisms of which some 260,000 species are vascular plants and about 248,000 are flowering plants.", "The study of ferns and other pteridophytes is called pteridology. A pteridologist is a specialist in the study of pteridophytes in a broader sense that includes the more distantly related lycophytes.", "Winter offers the best opportunity for the study of tree forms. Our common elm shows at least five different patterns. The first is the \"vase form,\" the commonest and most beautiful. This is best realized by old trees which have had plenty of room. In it the branches spread gradually upward at first but at a considerable height sweep boldly out forming a broad, rounded, or flattened head. Second is the \"plume form,\" in which two or three main limbs rise to a great height before branching, and then break into feathery spray. Trees crowded in woods are likely to take this form. Third, the \"oak tree form\" shows a horizontal habit of branching, and an angularity of limbs usually more noticeable among oaks. Fourth, the \"weeping willow form,\" where trees have short trunks, from which the branches curve rapidly outward and end in long, drooping branchlets. Fifth is the \"feathered elm,\" marked by a fringe of short twigs which outline the trunk and limbs. This \"feathering\" is caused by the late development of latent buds. It may occur in any of the tree types just mentioned, but it is more noticeable in individuals of the plume form.", "* Arboriculture is the study of, and the selection, plant, care, and removal of, individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants.", "Amateurs in landscape object to the scientific treatment of pine forest, complaining that it creates a tiresome monotony. It is quite true that a plantation of Scots pines of middle age is not an interesting subject of contemplation, except to foresters. Nevertheless, it is half-way to what may become one of the most impressive scenes in nature. The most beautiful tract of Scots pine forest I have ever seen is that which clothes the slopes of the Wishart Burn, near Gordon Castle. This was planted about 180 to 190 years ago, and it is evident that the trees have gone through strict discipline of close company in early life, for their trunks are lofty, perfectly clean and even, carrying their girth well up to the branches at 50 or 60 feet from the ground. The tallest tree measured by Mr. Elwes in this wood seven years ago was about [167] 117 feet high, with a girth at breast height of 1 inch short of 11 feet. He estimated that it contained 345 cubic feet of timber. Many of the trees in this wood have been felled; but there remain about sixty to the acre—say, 6000 cubic feet per acre. They would be easily saleable standing at 6d. a foot, or £150 per acre.", "It is necessary to get some book on the subject to discover the names of trees one studies, and to act as teacher at times. A book makes a good staff, but a poor crutch. The eyes and the judgment are the dependable things. In spring the way in which the leaves open is significant; so are the flowers. Every tree when it reaches proper age bears flowers. Not all bear fruit, but blossoms come on every tree. In summer the leaves and fruits are there to be examined. In autumn the ripening fruits are the special features.", "This article by  John Healey , Professor of Forest Sciences,  Bangor University  and  Fritz Kleinschroth , PhD Graduate and Researcher at CIRAD,  Bangor University  was originally published on  The Conversation . Read the  original article .", "University of British Columbia professor Suzanne Simard, has discovered through her research that “trees in a forest ecosystem are interconnected with the largest, oldest ‘mother trees’ serving as hubs”.  This research has found that all trees in dry interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) forests are interconnected, with the largest, oldest trees serving as hubs, much like the hub of a spoked wheel, where younger trees establish within the mycorrhizal network of the old trees.", "Arthur Plotnik, in consultation with The Morton Arboretum, brings the tree lover a different kind of tree identification book - a book that brilliantly transcends traditional and oftentimes dry tree texts. I often check to see what Mr. Plotnik has to say about a tree beyond the technical prose of more prescriptive texts. This book explores interesting and much more readable tree facts. ( Buy From Amazon.com ) Check Amazon rating »", "Big Trees have not succeeded in cultivation in our Eastern states, but for many years have been favorites in European gardens and parks. In the native groves the seedlings do not show the virility of the redwoods, though to the south the range of the species is being gradually extended. No tree is more prodigal in seed production and more indifferent, when mature, to the ills that beset ordinary forest trees; yet government protection must be strengthened, private claims must be bought, and scientific forestry maintained in order to prevent the extinction of the species, with the destruction of trees that are, as they stand to-day, the greatest living monuments in the world of plants.", "In winter the smooth pale bark of the \"Virgilia,\" as the [Pg 184] nurseryman calls it, reminds one of the rind of the beech. The broad rounded head, often borne on three or more spreading stems, is formed of drooping graceful branches, ending in brittle twigs. Summer clothes these twigs with a light airy covering of compound leaves, of seven to eleven broadly oval leaflets, on a stalk less than a foot in length. In autumn, the foliage turns yellow.", "If you look carefully at any large dead tree, or large trees with dead branches, then you will see nature’s apartment blocks. If there is no danger in leaving dead trees or branches in place, then consider waiting for nature to take its course. Dead wood is a source of insects for birds and other animals, as well as providing important nesting places for woodpeckers, owls and other birds such as the Eurasian wryneck (Jynx torquata), which nested one year in a hole in one of our large oak trees. Even once they have fallen, dead branches continue to provide cover, basking sites or foraging sites for lizards, birds and small mammals. Don’t remove fallen logs if you don’t need to, or if they fall in an inconvenient place simply move them to another spot in the garden.", "Fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that stand erect (see footnote under spruce). [p157]", "Next, watch Derek Muller of Veritasium ask people where they think a tree's mass comes from. As you watch, make note of the hypotheses suggested by people being interviewed and be prepared to compare your notes with the class.", "The way needles are arranged on a twig is a key feature. Many conifers are characterized by this observation criterion.", "It has been demonstrated that some trees are interconnected through their root system, forming a colony. The interconnections are made by the inosculation process, a kind of natural grafting or welding of vegetal tissues. The tests to demonstrate this networking are performed by injecting chemicals, sometimes radioactive, into a tree, and then checking for its presence in neighboring trees. ", "These trees grow only in California. There are two species: the common redwood (S. sempervirens), noted for its lumber, and the big or mammoth tree (S. washingtoniana), so remarkable for its great size. Geological evidence indicates that the genus was once represented by many species on both hemispheres, but that all disappeared during the glacial period save the two here noted.", "Now if these noble firs, instead of being scattered among trees of inferior height, were planted in close forest, so as to be drawn up with clean boles to a single leader, they would protect each other from the gale. Then might be seen something of the true character of the silver fir as it is developed in such forests as that of the Vosges, in Eastern France, where a tract fifty miles long is clad principally with this species, or in the Jura, where a forest of silver fir 10,600 acres in extent yields annually 170 cubic feet of timber per acre felled. British foresters and wood merchants set a low value on such timber as the silver fir produces in this country; and small blame to them, because, grown as we are in the habit of growing it, branchy and full of great knots, it is almost worthless; but in some districts of Europe where silver forest is well managed and felled in rotation, the deals are more sought after and command a readier market than spruce. The thinnings make excellent pitwood, and although, like spruce, the timber is not naturally durable enough for outdoor purposes, it can be made so by creosote treatment.", "CLUE: These trees are called CONIFERS (cone-bearing) and most are EVERGREEN (trees with needles or leaves that remain alive and on the tree through the winter and into the next growing season)." ]

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[ "The group includes the blue whale, the largest animal on Earth that can reach lengths of 100 feet.", "Blue whales are thought to be the largest animal ever to live on the Earth. They reach lengths up to about 100 feet and weights of an amazing 100-150 tons.", "45. The largest animal on earth is the blue whale.  It can grow to be over 100 feet long and to weigh over 200 tons.   It is known as a baleen whale; it feeds primarily on krill. It is so enormous that its tongue alone can weigh 6,000 pounds, or about as much as an adult female elephant!", "By volume and weight, the largest known living animal is the blue whale , an endangered species whose official record length is 33.58 m (110 ft 2 in), and weight 190 short tons (172 metric tons) (for a pregnant female). The largest living land animals by mass are male ( bull ) African Bush Elephants (Savannah Elephants or Bush Elephants); one known example weighed roughly 27,000 lb (12 t). Some extinct land animals, including many dinosaurs , were much larger still. A 1985 study concluded that the theoretical limit for land-dwelling animals based on known types of body plans was between 100 and 1000 metric tons. [9]", "The Blue Whale is the largest known mammal that has ever lived, and the largest living animal, at up to 110 feet long and 150 tons.", "The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest living terrestrial animal and the largest ruminant. Its species name refers to its camel-like shape and its leopard-like colouring. Its chief distinguishing characteristics are its extremely long neck and legs, its horn-like ossicones, and its distinctive coat patterns. It is classified under the family Giraffidae, along with its closest extant relative, the okapi. The nine subspecies are distinguished by their coat patterns.", "The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales (Mysticeti). At up to 30 m in length and with a maximum recorded weight of 173 tonne and probably reaching over 181 tonnes (200 short tons), it is the largest animal ever known to have existed. ", "Blue whale – Up to 100 ft. (70 – 90 average)  long and up to 180 tons", "The largest animal alive is the blue whale. Fully grown, these great creatures reach a length of over 30 metres and weigh as much as twenty-four large elephants, or more than 1,500 men. The heart of a blue whale is more than a metre in diameter.", "The white rhino is the largest rhino species and can weigh over 3500 kg (7700 lb) and is the largest land mammal after the elephant.  Elephants can grow to be 7,000 kg (15,000 lb)", "24.    The largest land animal (?) in the world is the Kodiak bear. It weighs about 862 kilograms, which is roughly the same as 14 male gymnasts.", "Capybara world's largest, Weighing up to 110 lbs. or more, the capybara is the largest member of this order of mammals", "Quite a few dinosaurs fit this trope. In particular Amphicoelias was by some estimates the single largest land-based animal — never mind dinosaur — on record. 40 to 60 metres (130 to 200 ft) in length, and may have had a mass of up to 122 metric tons (135 short tons). Unfortunately, it's only known from a single piece of vertebrae that was mysteriously lost over a century ago.", "~Some of the largest land mammals that ever lived are Rhinos that are currently extinct. One of these in particular is the Baluchitherim. This mammal lived in Asia about 37 million to 25 million years ago. They had a height of about 18 feet, and a length of about 23 feet.", "The largest living rodent is the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), native to most of the tropical and temperate parts of South America east of the Andes , always near water. Full-grown capybaras can reach a top size of 80 kg (180 lb), 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long, and 90 cm (3.0 ft). The largest known rodent ever is Josephoartigasia monesi , an extinct species known only from fossils . It was approximately 3 metres (10 ft) long and 1.5 metres (5 ft) tall, and is estimated to have weighed around 1 tonne . [17] Prior to the description of J. monesi, the largest known rodent species was Phoberomys insolita. However, this species is known only from very incomplete remains and so its size cannot be estimated with any precision. An almost complete skeleton of its slightly smaller Late Miocene relative Phoberomys pattersoni was discovered in Venezuela in 2000; it was 3 m (10 ft) long, with an additional 1.5 m (5 ft) tail, and probably weighed around 700 kg (1,540 lb).", "Baleen whales are some of the largest of all the whale species; the smallest species (the pygmy right whale) still reaches 6m (19ft) long. With a length of around 30m (98ft), the blue whale is the biggest creature ever to have lived on this planet! As you can probably imagine, they need to eat plenty to survive—the equivalent of you eating 300 chocolate bars every day! But blue whales obviously don’t eat chocolate; they prefer a diet of krill (small shrimp-like creatures). They consume about 40 million krill every day—that’s about the weight of a female African elephant.", "*An ancient relative of ungulates, Andrewsarchus, may have been the largest carnivorous land mammal ever, despite almost all living species being herbivorous. Known only from a skull found in Mongolia, about twice the length of a brown bear skull, this great beast has been estimated to range as high in size as 2 m at the shoulder and in length. Weight estimates range anywhere from 454 to based on the unknown proportion of the skull's size relative to the body size. ", "In comparison to the blue whale the largest living land animal (overall) is the African bush elephant , which can reach a maximum height of 13.8 feet and weigh as much as 27,000 pounds.", "*The largest living member of Canidae is the gray wolf (Canis lupus). The largest specimens from the Mackenzie Valley wolf (C. l. occidentalis) or the Eurasian wolf (C. l. lupus) weigh up to 80 – and measure up to in total length and tall at the shoulder. Eurasian wolves from the Russian area have even been reported to weigh as much as 90 –, though these figures require verification. Domestic dogs can occasionally grow heavier, up to . The largest known canid is an extinct member of subfamilly Borophaginae, Epicyon haydeni. The largest known specimen of this species weighed an estimated 170 kg. ", ", mammal of Central and much of South America. It is the largest living member of the order Rodentia (the rodents) reaching a length of 4 ft (120 cm) and a weight of 75 to 100 lb (34–45 kg).", "While rodents, such as prairie dogs, are generally small, there are a few which grow to the size of small people. The largest rodent (excluding extinct species) is the capybara, vaguely resembling a hairy hippopotamus, as seen here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capibara_1.jpg . They are indigenous to Brazil, and can reach lengths of nearly four and a half feet (134 cm) and weigh as much as 150 pounds (66 kg).", "Capybaras are rodents with the size of a dog, making them the largest living rodent today. They are semi-aquatic mammals found in the steamy plains of South America. They can weigh up to 100 lbs., which is about the same size of a full-grown Labrador retriever.", "The capybara is the largest living rodent. Haunting the steamy plains of South America, these semi-aquatic beasts top out over 45 kilograms (100 lb), about the size of labrador retrievers.", "An aardvark's weight is typically between 60 and(-). An aardvark's length is usually between 105 and(-), and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to 70 cm) is taken into account. It is 60 cm tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about 100 cm. It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.", "Megalodon : an extinct giant shark, one of the largest predators ever, up to 65 feet long", "The largest organism found on Earth can be measured using a variety of methods. It could be defined as the largest by volume , mass , height , or length . Some organisms group together to form a superorganism , though this cannot truly be classed as one large organism. (The Great Barrier Reef , the world's largest coral reef (stretching 2,000 km) is a collection of many organisms).", "The largest organism found on Earth can be measured using a variety of methods. It could be defined as the largest by volume, mass, height or length. Some organisms group together to form a superorganism , though this cannot truly be classed as one large organism. (The Great Barrier Reef , the world’s largest coral reef , stretching 2,000 km, is a collection of many organisms.)", "assuming that the monster is 100 ft long, 20 ft high and 20 ft wide it would be 4 x 104 cu ft", "the largest organism in the world is a honey fungus which covers more than 3.4 square miles (8.9 km²) and is thousands of years old?", "So I have cultivated this list of land carnivores and have given their average masses and dimensions leaving the decision up to you. Once enough people have partaken in the voting, I will re order the list to match. Hopefully we will be able to end a much argued debate on what is the largest land carnivore as even amongst scientists the number one spot is still disputed.", "A summary of the largest organisms alive today, and some information about the largest organisms to ever live.", "It can be longer than 6 feet (2 m) and weigh more than 15 pounds (6.8 kg). The fangs of a large adult may exceed two inches (5 cm) in length." ]

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[ "For starters, while other substances form liquids, precious few do so under the conditions of temperature and pressure that prevail on our planet's surface. In fact, next to mercury and liquid ammonia, water is our only naturally occurring inorganic liquid, the only one not arising from organic growth. It is also the only chemical compound that occurs naturally on Earth's surface in all three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas. Good thing, otherwise the hydrological cycle that most living things rely on to ferry water from the oceans to the land and back again would not exist. As science journalist Philip Ball writes in his informative book", "Other matter changes too, but often only exists in two states or requires the help of humans and technology to move through all three phases. Water is the only matter on earth that can be found naturally in all three - solid, liquid and a gas.", "Ice, ocean, cloud: Water is the only chemical compound on our planet's surface that comes naturally in all three physical states. Enlarge Photo credit: © Peter Tyson", "Figure 1. Water can exist in all three states of matter on Earth, while only in one state on our two nearest neighboring planets. The above graph is from http://www.crseo.ucsb.edu/IOM2/Triple_Point.html .", "I heard Mercury and water are the only substances to go through all 3 phases of matter. Is that true, and if not what are the other substances?", "Halogens can exist in all three classical states of matter: solid , liquid , and gas .", "Iron is one of the most common elements on earth. Almost all construction of man contains at least a little iron. It is also one of earliest used metals and was first fashioned into ornamental objects at least 3,500 years ago. Iron is a metal which cannot be found naturally in a pure form on Earth. The only pure iron known to exist naturally comes from the fallen meteorites. It always occurs as a mineral where the iron atoms are combined with other chemicals (such as Oxygen ). These minerals are magnetite, siderite, limonite and hematite. Those minerals near the surface of the earth that have the highest iron content are known as iron ores which can be mined commercially.", "When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such \"native elements\" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.", "Apart from the hydrogen and helium in the universe, which are thought to have been mostly produced in the Big Bang, the chemical elements are thought to have been produced by one of two later processes—either cosmic ray spallation (important for lithium , beryllium and boron ), or stellar nucleosynthesis (which produces all elements heavier than boron ). Oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth's crust, making up almost half of its mass Relatively small amounts of elements continue to be produced on Earth as products of natural transmutation processes. This includes production by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), or as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.", "Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water. Uranium is the 51st element in order of abundance in the Earth's crust. Uranium is also the highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements. Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, it is only naturally formed in supernovae. The decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium-40 in the Earth's mantle is thought to be the main source of heat that keeps the outer core liquid and drives mantle convection, which in turn drives plate tectonics.", "Lavoisier's Traite Elementaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry, 1789, translated into English by Robert Kerr) is considered to be the first modern chemical textbook. It contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and sulfur. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list, however, also included light and caloric, which he believed to be material substances.", "Carbon, the sixth most abundant element in the universe , has been known since ancient times. Carbon is most commonly obtained from coal deposits, although it usually must be processed into a form suitable for commercial use. Three naturally occurring allotropes of carbon are known to exist: amorphous, graphite and diamond.", "The abundances of the noble gases decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most plentiful element in the universe except hydrogen . All the noble gases are present in Earth’s atmosphere and, except for helium and radon, their major commercial source is the air , from which they are obtained by liquefaction and fractional distillation . Most helium is produced commercially from certain natural gas wells. Radon usually is isolated as a product of the radioactive decomposition of radium compounds. The nuclei of radium atoms spontaneously decay by emitting energy and particles, helium nuclei ( alpha particles ) and radon atoms.", "Mg and Ca are the eighth and sixth most abundant elements in Earth's crust at 2.5 and 3.6 percent, respectively. Be, Sr, and Ba comprise 0.001, 0.025, and 0.05 percent, respectively. Ra is radioactive, and since its longest-lived isotope 226Ra has a half-life of 1,600 years, there is very little Ra in Earth's crust. It is nonetheless present because 226Ra is continuously formed by the decay of uranium (238U). Alkali earth elements are very reactive and strongly reducing in character; thus, none occurs in a free state in the environment. They readily react with oxygen, and the pure metals tarnish in air, forming a surface layer of the oxide. The metals are soluble in liquid ammonia, forming covalent compounds with the general formula M(NH3)6. These solutions are strongly basic and frequently find application in industry.", "To search for extraterrestrial life, astronomers must first decide exactly what to look for. Only carbon seems able to build the backbones of the complicated molecules required for life. (Although silicon can form long-chain molecules, its ability to do so is limited and there is no evidence that silicon-based life is possible.) In addition to carbon there are just five other elements that are found in all metabolizing living organisms, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur - CHNOPS for short. Other elements - sodium, magnesium, chlorine, potassium, calcium, iron, manganese, copper and iodine - are regularly but not always found in living cells. Altogether, two-thirds of the 92 naturally occurring elements are found in various living organisms, but never all together in the same one. Clearly, living material is distinguished from the inanimate not by its constituent atoms, but by its complex organized structure and active metabolism.", "..... Click the link for more information.  (At), formerly known as alabamine, is a radioactive element also classed as a halogen; its most stable isotope (which does not occur in nature) has a half-life of less than 8 1-2 hr. The chemical and physical properties of astatine are not well known; it is believed to resemble iodine. The halogens are the best-defined family of chemical elements. Chemically they closely resemble one another; they are nonmetallic and form monovalent negative ions. They also exhibit an almost perfect gradation of physical properties. Fluorine, a pale yellow gas, is the least dense and chemically the most active, displacing the other halogens from their compounds and even displacing oxygen from water. Chlorine, a yellow-green gas, is more dense and less reactive than fluorine. Bromine is a dark red liquid. Iodine is a grayish black solid and is the least chemically active of the four; however, among the nonmetals only oxygen is more reactive than iodine. Pure halogens exist as diatomic molecules, e.g., Cl2; they form interhalogen compounds, i.e., compounds between two halogens. The halogens form numerous compounds with other elements. With hydrogen they form hydrogen halides, whose water solutions are called hydrohalic acids, e.g., the water solution of hydrogen chloride hydrogen chloride,", "The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP), are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2); ", "In 1789 the French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier published what might be considered the first list of elemental substances based on Boyle’s definition. Lavoisier’s list of elements was established on the basis of a careful, quantitative study of decomposition and recombination reactions. Because he could not devise experiments to decompose certain substances, or to form them from known elements, Lavoisier included in his list of elements such substances as lime, alumina , and silica , which now are known to be very stable compounds. That Lavoisier still retained a measure of influence from the ancient Greek concept of the elements is indicated by his inclusion of light and heat (caloric) among the elements.", "Free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth because of oxygen in the atmosphere and chlorine in the ocean. Oxygen and chlorine are abundant enough in the upper layers of the Earth's crust to prevent the formation of native metal cobalt. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth (see below). Though the element is of medium abundance, natural compounds of cobalt are numerous. Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals.", "Helium (atomic number 2, symbol He) is a non-toxic, tasteless, odorless, and colorless gas. Heading the noble group, it is an inert monoatomic gas, and its melting and boiling points are some of the lowest compared with other elements. Except in extreme conditions, helium exists as gas only. Helium is also the second most abundant and the lightest element, which is present in around 24 percent of the elemental mass. This makes over twelve times the combined mass of heavier elements. The abundance of helium is similar to this percentage in Jupiter and the Sun because of its high binding energy. Due to its binding energy, helium-4 is abundant, being the product of radioactive decay as well as nuclear fusion. Helium-4 accounts for most of the helium found in the universe. According to researchers, it was during the Big Bang when helium-4 was formed. The nuclear fusion of hydrogen which takes place in the stars accounts for the formation of new helium today.", "Earth's environment is near the triple point of water - water serves as the solvent for organic chemicals to interact = life. Titan is an excellent place to search for new forms of life based on methane as a solvent", "Named by Lavoisier, hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The heavier elements were originally made from Hydrogen or from other elements that were originally made from Hydrogen.", "If there ever was a primitive soup, then we would expect to find at least somewhere on this planet either massive sediments containing enormous amounts of the various nitrogenous organic compounds, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines and the like, or alternatively in much metamorphosed sediments we should find vast amounts of nitrogenous cokes. In fact no such materials have been found anywhere on earth… There is, in other words, pretty good negative evidence that there ever was a primitive organic soup on this planet that could have lasted but a brief moment. [29]", "Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9. It occurs naturally in its only stable form 19F. ", "Those that can be found on earth now are artificially generated synthetic elements , via nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. The half lives of these elements show a general trend of decreasing with atomic number. There are exceptions, however, including dubnium and several isotopes of curium . Further anomalous elements in this series have been predicted by Glenn T. Seaborg , and are categorised as the “ island of stability .”", "Xenon is a colorless, odorless, unreactive gas which liquefies at -111.7�C (161.4 K).  It is found in the Earth's crust at a concentration of 2 ppt, making it the 83rd most abundant element; it is found in the atmosphere at a concentration of 90 ppb (by volume).  Xenon which is used commercially is extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation.", "Lithium (from Greek: λίθος lithos, \"stone\") is a chemical element with symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silver-white metal belonging to the alkali metal group of chemical elements. Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable. For this reason, it is typically stored in mineral oil. When cut open, lithium exhibits a metallic luster, but contact with moist air corrodes the surface quickly to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. Because of its high reactivity, lithium never occurs freely in nature, and instead, only appears in compounds, which are usually ionic. Lithium occurs in a number of pegmatitic minerals, but due to its solubility as an ion, is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines and clays. On a commercial scale, lithium is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.", "Adamantite! Rearden Metal! Uru! Durasteel! Dalekanium! Unobtanium! Thousands of fictional characters have fought and died for these equally fictional super-materials. So what is the real-life strongest substance on our puny, sun-warmed planet?", "Is Earth unique, then? Does life require more than oxygen, water and suitable temperatures? Are a fortuitous primordial collision and a moon also necessary, along with a churning liquid core? How repeatable might the circumstances be that gave rise to our world, with its crust filmed with life, shielded from a hostile cosmos by a 3.5-billion-year-old internal engine of heat and iron?", "today we know there are many different parts of an atom but only three are used in everyday chemistry of most substances", "If it came from outer space, maybe it will contain some iron, maybe not. That piece most likely came from the Earth, not outer space. And not likely to be carbonado; one doesn't just happen to find large chunks of carbonado just anywhere.", "This week, we're hunting for the chemical that was named after France. But you'll need very good eyesight because there's less than a kilogram of it across the entire earth. Know what it is yet? Here's Peter Wothers." ]

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[ "The Elephant is the ONLY animal with 4 knees. All of the other ones with \"4 legs\" only have 1 set/pair of knees", "There is a common misconception that elephants are the only animals that have 4 knees, but elephants are the same as all other quadruped mammals, like horses and dogs, in that they have knees only in the back legs. Skeletal images clearly depict that the front leg joint bends in the same way as human elbows rather than knees. In animals like the horse, the front joint that looks like a knee is more appropriately compared to a human wrist, making the long lower leg more comparable to the third metacarpal of a middle finger. All mammals' skeletal structures are very similar due to the fact that they descend from common ancestors.", "ok to clarify: I'm telling you most people didn't spend their youth reading books about animals so they have no frickin idea what animals are built what way and a common myth is that elephants are the only animals with 4 knees, which makes sense in people's minds because they picture the elephant's foot bending inwards like a knee but THEY ARE WRONG, elephants aren't freaky muta-mammals and so BET AGAINST EVERYONE YOU CAN that elephants have only 2 knees and REAP THE REWARDS.", "● Elephants are the only animals that cannot jump. (Hippos and Rhinos have only two knees and can jump. Elephants have four knees).", "The femur (, pl. femurs or femora) or thighbone, is the most proximal (closest to the center of the body) bone of the leg in tetrapod vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs. In vertebrates with four legs such as dogs and horses, the femur is found only in the hindlimbs. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and kneecap forming the knee joint. By most measures the femur is the strongest bone in the body. The femur is also the longest bone in the body.", "Many animals that do not use bipedal locomotion in nature can be trained to walk on hind legs. This includes dogs, elephants, horses and pretty much every mammal or reptile that has 4 legs. Animals missing limbs due to injury or congenital deformity may adapt to bipedal motion, either on two hind legs or on one front and one back leg.", "The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), or hippo, is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae (the other is the pygmy hippopotamus). The name comes from the ancient Greek for “river horse” . After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third-largest type of land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyl. Despite their physical resemblance to pigs and other terrestrial even-toed ungulates, their closest living relatives are cetaceans (whales, porpoises, etc.) from which they diverged about 55 million years ago. The common ancestor of whales and hippos split from other even-toed ungulates around 60 million years ago. The earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, date to around 16 million years ago.", "The femur is the thigh bone in all vertebrates that have four limbs including elephants, lions and humans.", "Horses are odd-toed ungulates, or members of the order Perissodactyla. This order also includes the extant species of rhinos and tapirs, and many extinct families and species. Members of this order walk on either one toe (like horses) or three toes (like rhinos and tapirs). This is in contrast to even-toed ungulates, members of the order Artiodactyla, which walk on cloven hooves, or two toes. This order includes many species associated with livestock, such as sheep, goats, pigs, cows and camels, as well as species of giraffes, antelopes and deer. ", "Limited examples of bipedalism are found in some other mammals. One exception is found among some primates who live in forests that are often flooded, the bonobo ape and proboscis monkey . These primates will wade through water in a bipedal stance. On occasion bonobos and proboscis monkeys, and less frequently some other primates, will also walk or stand bipedely on land. A number of animals, such as rats , will squat on their hindlegs in order to manipulates food objects. The raccoon often stands erect or squats in water to use its hands to manipulate food and rocks/sticks. Beavers will also move bipedally at times when carrying branches. Some animals, such as the bear , may raise up and move bipedally during physical confrontation, so as to better be able to use their forelegs as weapons. Also a number of mammals, such as ground squirrels or meerkats will stand on their hind legs, but not walk on them, in order to survey their surroundings. Finally gerenuk antelope are known to stand on their hind legs in order to eat leaves from trees. The extinct giant ground sloth had hip joints whose form indicates that they also did this. Another extinct group, the bizarre rhino / gorilla -like chalicotheres may also have behaved similarly.", "The hippopotamus is recognizable by its barrel-shaped torso, enormous mouth and teeth, nearly hairless body, stubby legs and tremendous size. It is the third largest land mammal by weight (between 1½ and 3 tonnes), behind the white rhinoceros (1½ to 3½ tonnes) and the three species of elephant (3 to 9 tonnes). The hippopotamus is one of the largest quadrupeds (four legged mammals) and despite its stocky shape and short legs, it can easily outrun a human.", "Most vertebrates—the amphibians, the reptiles and some mammals such as humans and bears—are plantigrade, walking on the whole of the underside of the foot. Many mammals, such as cats and dogs are digitigrade, walking on their toes, the greater stride length allowing more speed. Digitigrade mammals are also often adept at quiet movement. Some animals such as horses are unguligrade, walking on the tips of their toes. This even further increases their stride length and thus their speed. A few mammals, namely the great apes, are also known to walk on their knuckles, at least for their front legs. Giant anteaters and platypuses are also knuckle-walkers.", "A hoofed mammal, such as a horse, pig, deer, buffalo, or antelope, belonging to the former order Ungulata, now divided into several orders including Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.", "The main axes of both the front and the rear feet pass through the third toe, which is always the largest. The remaining toes have been reduced to varying degrees. Tapirs, which are adapted to walking on soft ground, have four toes on their forefeet and three on their hindfeet. Living rhinos have three toes on both the front and hind feet. Modern equines possess only a single toe. Their feet are equipped with hooves, however, which cover the toe almost completely; rhinos and tapirs, by contrast, have hooves covering only the leading edge of the toes, with the bottom being soft.", "The patella, also known as the kneecap or kneepan, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. The patella is found in many tetrapods, such as mice, cats, and birds, but not in whales or most reptiles and amphibians such as snakes or frogs.", "Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a relatively ancient group of browsing and grazing animals that first arose less than 10 million years after the dinosaurs became extinct. In the past, this order contained twelve families, but only three families — Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day. The earliest equids known as Hyracotherium developed approximately 54 million years ago, during the Eocene period. One of the first true horse species, it had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. By the Pleistocene era, as the horse adapted to a drier, prairie environment, the 2nd and 4th toes disappeared on all feet, and horses became bigger. These side toes first shrunk in size until they have vanished in modern horses. All that remains are a set of small vestigial bones on either side of the cannon ( metacarpal or metatarsal) bone, known informally as splint bones, which are a frequent source of splints, a common injury in the modern horse. Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared and until they were a hoofed animal capable of running at great speed.", "Astragali (bone of the ankle) of the raoellid Indohyus (RR 224), the pakicetid Pakicetus (H-GSP 98148), a modern pig (3/84), and a modern deer (2/93). This shape of the astragalus, with a proximal trochlea (hinge joint) as well as distal trochlea, only occurs in even-toed ungulates (artiodactyls)", "Quadrupedal - Quadrupeds are animals with four feet; \"quadrupedal\" describes these animals. Source: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.)", "Hippos are recognizable by their barrel-shaped torsos, enormous mouths and teeth, nearly hairless bodies, stubby legs and great size, adults average 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) and 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) for males and females respectively, making them the largest species of land mammal after the 3 species of elephants and the white and Indian rhinoceros. Despite its stocky shape and short legs it can easily outrun a human, being capable of reaching 30 km/h (19 mph) over short distances. The hippopotamus is one of the most aggressive and unpredictable creatures in the world and, as such, ranks among the most dangerous animals in Africa. Nevertheless, they are still threatened by habitat loss and poaching for their meat and ivory canine teeth.", "The wolverine (Gulo gulo), also referred to as a glutton and occasionally as a carcajou, skunk bear, quickhatch, or gulon , is the largest land-dwelling species of the Mustelidae (weasel) family in the genus Gulo (Latin: \"glutton\"). It is a stocky and muscular carnivore, more closely resembling a small bear than other mustelids. The wolverine has a reputation for ferocity and strength out of proportion to its size, with the documented ability to kill prey many times its size.", "Approximately 50 million years ago, in the early-to-middle Eocene, Hyracotherium smoothly transitioned into Orohippus over a gradual series of changes. Although its name means \"mountain horse,\" Orohippus was not a true horse and did not live in the mountains. It resembled Hyracotherium in size, but had a slimmer body, an elongated head, slimmer forelimbs, and longer hind legs, all of which are characteristics of a good jumper. Although Orohippus was still pad-footed, the vestigial outer toes of Hyracotherium were not present in the Orohippus; there were four toes on each forelimb, and three on each hind leg.", "An animal with two feet is called a biped. The word comes from Latin, and the equivalent term for an animal with four feet is \"quadruped.\"", "The largest of the wild asses, the Tibetan wild ass Equus kiang is also known as the kiang. Native to the Tibetan Plateau, it historically inhabited plains, hills, basins, broad valleys, and other types of open terrain. Today, this species’ range is limited to Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, plains of the Tibetan plateau, and northern Nepal along the Tibetan border. Reaching almost 900 pounds in weight and 7 feet in length, the Tibetan wild ass sports a large head, with a blunt muzzle and a rounded nose. The mane is upright and relatively short, topping a chestnut-color coat, which turns darker brown in winter and reddish brown in summer. The legs, underparts, end of the muzzle, and the inside of the ears are all white. A broad, dark chocolate-color dorsal stripe runs from the mane to the end of the tail, which ends in a tuft of blackish brown hairs.", "The Asian wild asses are the Kulan, Onager and Kiang, grouped together as the hemionines or hemionids. Today, the Kulan and Onager are generally considered subspecies of the same species – E. hemionus – while the Kiang (also called the Tibetan wild ass, Khyang or Gorkhar) of the Tibetan Plateau is E. kiang. It’s the largest of the asses, reaching a shoulder height of 1.4 m (that’s 13.3 hands, apparently) and with big males weighing 400 kg. As is typical for equids from seasonally cool places, its summer coat is far shorter than the much darker winter one. Kiang are chestnut coloured dorsally and with a dark brown dorsal stripe, and white muzzle, legs and underparts. However, there’s quite some variation in how dark even the summer coat is. This has, combined with differences in body size, led to the idea that there are three Kiang subspecies: the Western kiang (E. k. kiang), Eastern kiang (E. k. holdereri) and Southern kiang (E. k. polyodon), the last of which is so rare that it was thought extinct prior to the reported rediscovery of about 100 animals in 1996. There's some suspicion that the three forms grade into one another and simply represent a cline: molecular work is needed on the different populations.", "A hoofed mammal. There are two kinds of ungulates: those having an even number of toes (artiodactyls) and those having an odd number of toes (perissodactyls).", "Asinus is a subgenus of Equus (single-toed (hooved) grazing animal) that encompasses several subspecies of Equidae commonly known as asses, characterized by long ears, a lean, straight-backed build, lack of a true withers, a coarse mane and tail, and a reputation for considerable toughness and endurance.", "Many non-human animals also have some kind of opposable thumb or toe. An animal species is said to have opposable thumbs if the thumb is capable of bending in such a way that it can touch all the other digits on the hand or foot. Most species do not have opposable thumbs. Opposable thumbs are a signature feature of the primate family, and played a large role in the ancient humans' invention and use of tools.", "The joint between the femur and the tibia on the hind leg is our knee but the stifle in animals.", "4. the upper part of the foreleg of an animal. skof, blad منْكَب плешка quarto dianteiro rameno das Schulterstück bov σπάλα paletilla laba كول lapa épaule שכם कन्धा gornji dio prednje noge životinje, rame lapocka bagian atas bógur spalla 肩肉 (식용 짐승 등의) 전신부 petukas gurns; ciska; stilbs belakang schouder bog łopatka کول quarto dianteiro umăr лопатка rameno pleče lopatica bog เนื้อขาหน้าช่วงบนของสัตว์ sırt , kürek 動物的前肢上部 лопатка جانوروں کے اگلے پیر کا اوپری حصہ thịt vai 肩胛（动物前肢的上部），前腿连肩肉", "Had long arms (75% length of legs), with inflexible hands with three central fingers (to bear weight when it’s quadrupedal)", "They rarely descend from treetops to ground; when they do, they usually walk on all fours (quadrupedal).", "All three species are approximately 36 in (100 cm) long, 20 in high and weigh between 44 and 77 lbs (20 and 35 kg). They have short legs, a thick, muscular body with a large square head, short neck, round ears and very small eyes. Their hind-legs are longer than their fore-legs." ]

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[ "Insulin was discovered by Frederick Banting, Charles Best, J.B. Collip and J.J.R. Macleod in late 1921 and was successfully used to treat patients in January 1922. 1 The initial results were published in CMAJ 2 months later. 2 Much has been written about the discovery and the discoverers. As this year represents the 80th anniversary of insulin therapy, it seems an appropriate time to relate an interesting but little-known story, the sad saga of E. Clark Noble.", "1921 - Insulin was discovered by Sir Frederick Banting (1891-1941), a Canadian medical scientist, and Charles Herbert Best (1899-1978), an American-Canadian medical scientist. Banting received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1923 (along with John James Rickard Macleod) when he was 32 years old. He is still the youngest ever Nobel Laureate for Medicine.", "History of Insulin: In 1921, Frederick Grant Banting and Charles H. Best discovered insulin while they were working in the laboratory of John J.R. Macleod at the University of Toronto. Banting and Best extracted material from the pancreas of dogs. They first used this material to keep diabetic dogs alive and in 1922 they used it successfully on a 14-year-old boy with diabetes. In 1923, James B. Collip, a biochemist, discovered that purifying the extract prevented many of the side effects.", "In the early 1920s Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin under the directorship of John Macleod at the University of Toronto. With the help of James Collip insulin was purified, making it available for the successful treatment of diabetes. Banting and Macleod earned a Nobel Prize for their work in 1923.", "Insulin: (first isolated) Sir Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best, Canada, 1921; (discovery first published) Banting and Best, 1922; (Nobel Prize awarded for purification for use in humans) John Macleod and Banting, 1923; (first synthesized), China, 1966.", "The endocrine role of the pancreas in metabolism, and indeed the existence of insulin, was not further clarified until 1921, when Sir Frederick Grant Banting and Charles Herbert Best repeated the work of Von Mering and Minkowski, and went further to demonstrate they could reverse induced diabetes in dogs by giving them an extract from the pancreatic islets of Langerhans of healthy dogs. [55] Banting, Best, and colleagues (especially the chemist Collip) went on to purify the hormone insulin from bovine pancreases at the University of Toronto. This led to the availability of an effective treatment—insulin injections—and the first patient was treated in 1922. For this, Banting and laboratory director MacLeod received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923; both shared their Prize money with others in the team who were not recognized, in particular Best and Collip. Banting and Best made the patent available without charge and did not attempt to control commercial production. Insulin production and therapy rapidly spread around the world, largely as a result of this decision.", "Some of the awards have been controversial. The person who was deserving of the 1923 prize for the discovery of insulin as a central hormone for controlling diabetes (awarded only a year after its discovery) has been heatedly debated. It was shared between Frederick Banting and John Macleod; this infuriated Banting who regarded Macleod's involvement as minimal. Macleod was the department head at the University of Toronto but otherwise was not directly involved in the findings. Banting thought his laboratory partner Charles Best, who had shared in the laboratory work of discovery, should have shared the prize with him as well. In fairness, he decided to give half of his prize money to Best. Macleod on his part felt the biochemist James Collip, who joined the laboratory team later, deserved to be included in the award and shared his prize money with him. Some maintain that Nicolae Paulescu, a Romanian professor of physiology at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest, was the first to isolate insulin, in 1916, although his pancrein was an impure aqueous extract unfit for human treatment similar to the one used previously by Israel Kleiner. In the paper that brought him the Nobel, Paulescu already held a patent for his discovery (10 April 1922, patent no. 6254 (8322) \"Pancreina şi procedeul fabricaţiei ei\"/\"Pancrein and the process of making it\", from the Romanian Ministry of Industry and Trade). ", "Sir Frederick Banting, the codiscoverer of insulin, noticed in 1929 in Panama that, among sugar plantation owners who ate large amounts of their refined stuff, diabetes was common. Among native cane-cutters, who only got to chew the raw cane, he saw no diabetes.", "In the spring of 1921, Banting traveled to Toronto to explain his idea to J.J.R. Macleod, who was Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto, and asked Macleod if he could use his lab space to test the idea. Macleod was initially skeptical, but eventually agreed to let Banting use his lab space while he was on vacation for the summer. He also supplied Banting with ten dogs on which to experiment, and two medical students, Charles Best and Clark Noble, to use as lab assistants, before leaving for Scotland. Since Banting required only one lab assistant, Best and Noble flipped a coin to see which would assist Banting for the first half of the summer. Best won the coin toss, and took the first shift as Banting's assistant. Loss of the coin toss may have proved unfortunate for Noble, given that Banting decided to keep Best for the entire summer, and eventually shared half his Nobel Prize money and a large part of the credit for the discovery of insulin with the winner of the toss. Had Noble won the toss, his career might have taken a different path.", "As the experiments proceeded, the required quantities could no longer be obtained by performing surgery on living dogs. On November 16, 1921, Banting hit upon the idea of obtaining insulin from the fetal pancreas. He removed the pancreases from fetal calves at a William Davies slaughterhouse and found the extracts to be just as potent as the dog pancreases. Pork and beef would remain the primary commercial sources of insulin until they were replaced by genetically-engineered bacteria in the late 20th century. In spring of 1922, Banting established a private practice in Toronto and began to treat diabetic patients, including the daughter of the U.S. Secretary of State. ", "Banting and Best took to injecting themselves with insulin before testing it on their first human research subject. After establishing the safety of this crude form of insulin, Banting was ready for his first patient. In January of 1922, he injected it into a 14-year-old diabetic boy. The turnaround in his condition was both rapid and conclusive. A month later Banting would inject insulin into the veins of a childhood friend, bringing about such an improvement in his health that friends and family thought it a miracle.", "Insulin is isolated for the first time by Canadian Sir Frederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best (1899-1978).", "...Insulin. By J. J. R. MACLEOD, Professor of...Toronto and F. G. BANTING, Research Professor...given by Prof. Macleod and one by Prof. Banting in January, 1923...description given by Macleod is most instructive...ments by Dr. Banting with Dr. C. H...", "Who deserved the fame and tributes for the discovery of insulin? The press would have something to say about that by the way it covered the story. After the May 3 announcement, Banting, the country surgeon, and Best, the student, dissolved into the background and were replaced by Macleod and the clinicians. During the summer of 1922, the circumstances changed. Collip was gone, Best was working as director of Connaught’s insulin production to help pay for medical school, and Macleod was doing research at the Marine Biological Station in St. Andrew’s, New Brunswick, preparing extracts from islet tissue of a species of bony fishes (teleosts). These islet tissues are anatomically separate from the rest of the pancreatic tissue. It was a simple matter for Macleod to prepare extracts from the different tissue sources. Whereas the islet tissue was a potent source of insulin, none could be obtained from the pancreatic tissue proper. Thus, Macleod provided the first strong direct experimental evidence for the hypothesis that insulin is derived from the insular and not the acinar tissue of the pancreas ( 50 ).", "Banting, Sir Frederick Grant Canadian physician who, with Charles H. Best, was one of the first to extract (1921) the hormone insulin from the pancreas. Injections of insulin proved to be the first effective treatment for diabetes, a disease in which glucose accumulates in abnormally...", "Sir Frederick Grant Banting, KBE, MC, FRS, FRSC, co-discoverer of insulin , Nobel laureate, medical scientist, painter (born 14 November 1891in Alliston, ON ; died 21 February 1941 near Musgrave Harbour , Newfoundland ). Banting is best known as one of the discoverers of insulin. Following the discovery of insulin , he became Canada’s first professor of medical research at the University of Toronto . Banting was also an accomplished amateur painter with links to A.Y. Jackson and the Group of Seven .", "Banting, on the other hand, insisted that he alone had the idea that led to the discovery of insulin and that Macleod had been critical and discouraging of his work at every turn. Banting had no memory of any of Macleod’s specific suggestions; what he did remember was that Macleod had not done a single experiment. According to Banting, Collip had joined the project only after the important advances had been made. He was willing to credit Macleod only with the investigation of insulin’s physiologic action, but he and Best had discovered insulin well before that study was begun. In an appendix to his 1922 account, Banting listed several more examples of Macleod showing “a lack of trust and co-operation” ( 36 ). This ungenerous, self-centered report reveals Banting’s insecure personality and his fear of becoming sidelined.", "On the night of 31 October 1920, after reading a routine article in a medical journal while preparing a talk to medical students, Frederick Banting wrote down an idea for research aimed at isolating an internal secretion of the pancreas that might prove to be a cure for diabetes — a substance long sought by other researchers. The next morning, he discussed the idea with F.R. Miller, a professor of physiology at Western , who advised him to seek support for his proposed research at the University of Toronto . On 17 May 1921, Banting began work under the direction of Professor J.J.R. Macleod and assisted by C.H. Best .", "In 1920, Canadian surgeon Frederick Banting visited the University of Toronto to speak to the newly appointed head of the department of physiology, John J.R. Macleod. Macleod had studied glucose metabolism and diabetes, and Banting had a new idea on how to find not only the cause but a treatment for the so-called \"sugar disease.\"", "1899 Charles Best was born (died 1978). Co-discoverer in 1921 (with Dr. F. Banting) of the hormone insulin, used to treat diabetes.", "Sir Frederick Grant Banting, KBE, MC, FRS, FRSC, co-discoverer of insulin, Nobel laureate, medical scientist, painter (born 14 November 1891in Alliston, ON; died 21 February 1941 near Musgrave Harbour, Newfoundland).", "Banting met twice more with Macleod. Whether it was the persistence, the boundless enthusiasm, or the possibility of more reliable results with the new glucose methods on small volumes of blood, Macleod may have considered Banting’s proposal worth thinking about. Finally, having cautioned Banting about the time it would take and the likelihood of negative results, Macleod agreed to provide laboratory space ( 17 ). Now Banting became cautious. He did not want to give up his appointments in surgery and physiology in London to get negative results, even if they were of “great physiological value”, as Macleod repeated several times. He told Macleod he would consider the whole matter carefully. Although there was nothing new in producing atrophy of the acinar tissues by duct ligation, there was interest in the relative degeneration of the acinar and islet cells. Nobody had tried to administer an extract from a fully degenerated pancreas. The great difficulty had been in getting ligation to work so that the pancreas atrophied. It was not until March 8, 1921, that Banting wrote to Macleod saying he would like to spend the second half of May plus June and July in Macleod’s laboratory, if the offer of facilities was still open ( 17 ). Whatever the experimental surgical techniques were to be, the results would be measured by tests of glucose in the blood and urine.", "Banting became interested in diabetes when working at the University of Western Ontario. In the early 1920s doctors hypothesised that lack of insulin , a hormone made in the pancreas, caused the illness. However, insulin had proved impossible to extract from the pancreas.", "Moses Barron published an article in 1920 which described experimental closure of the pancreatic duct by ligature; this further influenced Banting's thinking. The procedure caused deterioration of the cells of the pancreas that secrete trypsin, but left the islets of Langerhans intact. Banting realized that this procedure would destroy the trypsin-secreting cells but not the insulin. Once the trypsin-secreting cells had died, insulin could be extracted from the islets of Langerhans. Banting discussed this approach with J. J. R. Macleod, Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto. Macleod provided experimental facilities and the assistance of one of his students, Dr. Charles Best. Banting and Best, with the assistance of biochemist James Collip, began the production of insulin by this means.", "Frederick Grant Banting ~ A Canadian of partly Scottish descent, he was one of the team headed by J. J. R. Macleod that discovered insulin.14", "...July 24th. INSULIN. J.J.R. Macleod F.R.S., M.B., CH.B. ABERD...UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. [Prof. Macleod gave an historical survey of...the pancreas furnished by Banting and Best, their experiments...know also from the work of Banting and Best on depancreated dogs...", "Insulin was first publicly announced by Macleod at a medical conference. He received a standing ovation. Banting did not attend.", "Banting regained his self-confidence, but something new soon set him off again. There were more headlines, confrontations, and clashes in his ongoing war with Macleod. On September 6, the Toronto Star ran a story on the impact insulin was having overseas. It quoted a letter to The Times of London by Professor Sir William Bayliss of University College. Bayliss, codiscoverer with Starling of secretin, was one of Britain’s leading physiologists and a friend of Macleod. He complained that Macleod was not getting proper credit for the duct-ligation method of producing pancreatic extracts, and he dismissed Banting as one of the collaborators who had possibly helped in the clinical application. Best showed the article to Macleod, who denied having anything to do with the letter and told Best he did not want to get involved in a newspaper controversy by refuting it. Probably meaning to explain that every scientist had to learn to adapt to the attention and distortions in the press, Macleod said, “Banting will have to get used to it”. Hearing this second hand, it sounded like Macleod was saying that Banting had better get used to all the credit going to Macleod. It was not long before Banting was in Macleod’s office with the reporter who wrote the story, asking for a correction of Bayliss’s statements. Macleod’s response did not satisfy Banting or Best, nor did the follow-up story satisfy Macleod ( 17 )( 36 )( 51 ).", "Macleod’s letters to Bayliss, Collip, and others during this period made passing references to “this fresh outbreak of Banting’s”, “an extremely uncomfortable position here”, and “unbelievable trouble” and show how unpleasant the situation had become ( 51 ). Macleod also complained that Banting wanted “full credit for all the work which has been done subsequent to this [duct-ligation] experiment. This I will of course not do since he has participated very little in the work, and not at all during the past six months” ( 52 ). The modus vivendi worked out that spring had completely broken down. The old suspicions, misunderstandings, and distrust had reappeared. The controversy between Banting and Macleod was well underway. The discovery of insulin was up for grabs.", "The leading investigators of diabetes were there. Two of them, Kleiner and Scott, had made extracts that reduced hyperglycemia and glycosuria. Participants asked many questions about the experiments, some of which were difficult for Banting to answer satisfactorily. It was obvious to Banting how badly he spoke and that he had failed to convince the audience that their results proved the presence of an internal secretion of the pancreas any more effectively than had previous investigators. Macleod came to his rescue by joining the discussion and trying to answer the friendly but serious criticisms. What especially bothered Banting was how smoothly Macleod had stepped in as though he owned the project, referring to “our work” and using the word “we” although he had never done a single experiment. Banting began to revisit all the previous negative interactions with Macleod. It was this intervention in the discussion that convinced Banting, who had never liked Macleod or felt at ease in his presence, that Macleod was trying to take over the project and steal his results and the fame. He began telling this to his friends ( 9 )( 17 )( 36 )( 39 ).", "Banting, driven by conviction and passion, was eager for the work to advance more rapidly to testing humans with diabetes. He asked Macleod if J.B. Collip, a biochemist who was spending part of his sabbatical in the department of pathological chemistry, could join them. Collip had met Banting and learned about the insulin project shortly before Macleod left for Scotland. Macleod advised against expanding the team at this stage. He wanted Banting and Best to complete their independent research as originally planned. If the results continued to be satisfactory, Macleod would join them with his assistants ( 18 ). So they went back to their dogs.", "In retrospect, Banting, Best, Macleod, and Collip all made significant contributions, and Macleod’s role was greater than what he has been credited with by the conventional history. Despite professional rivalry and personality conflicts, they showed that the missing factor in diabetic patients is in the islets of Langerhans and that a material can be extracted and purified from the islets that greatly extends the life of type I diabetic patients. A key player in their success was the new methodology of sugar analysis using small volumes of blood, which made frequent determinations possible in small animals and patients." ]

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[ "Death Valley National Park — The hottest, driest and lowest place in America, Death Valley is one of three national parks located in the Mohave Desert with more than three million acres of wilderness and hundreds of miles of backcountry roads. The park includes an amazing variety of terrain and historic sites. Visitors can hike the Golden Canyon, view the salt flats or pose for photos near the sign marking North America’s lowest point (282 feet below sea level).", "Death Valley , as its name suggests, is famous as the hottest, driest, lowest place in North America. Average highs in the summer months in these barren salt flats regularly hit above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius). The greatest number of consecutive days with a maximum temperature of 100 F or above was 154 days in the summer of 2001, according to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The summer of 1996 had 40 days over 120 F, and 105 days over 110 F, making it the hottest summer on record.", "Death Valley National Park is the lowest, hottest and driest place in North America. It's a \"land of extremes,\" the  National Park Service said, and yet \"despite its morbid name, a great diversity of life survives in Death Valley.\"", "Death Valley, structural depression primarily in Inyo county, southeastern California , U.S. It is the lowest, hottest, driest portion of the North American continent. Death Valley is about 140 miles (225 km) long, trends roughly north-south, and is from 5 to 15 miles (8 to 24 km) wide. The valley is bounded on the west by the Panamint Range and on the east by the Black, Funeral, and Grapevine mountains of the Amargosa Range . It lies near the undefined border between the Great Basin and the Mojave Desert .", "Death Valley is a desert valley located in Eastern California. It is the lowest, driest, and hottest area in North America.", "The largest national park south of Alaska, Death Valley is known for extremes: It is North America's driest and hottest spot (with fewer than two inches/five centimeters of rainfall annually and a record high of 134°F), and has the lowest elevation on the continent—282 feet below sea level. Even with its extremes, the park still receives nearly a million visitors each year.", "Death Valley is a desert valley situated within the Mojave Desert. Aptly named due to its harsh conditions, it is the lowest, hottest and driest place in the United States. Inaugurated as a national park in 1994, Death Valley is in fact the largest national park in the United States, spanning an impressive 3.4 million acres.", "Death Valley is the lowest point in the continent of North Africa with elevation of 282 feet below the sea level. This desert valley is situated in Eastern California, within the Mojave Desert. There are many other reasons of Death Valley’s popularity i.e. it is not only the driest place in North America but also the hottest location in the World.", "to glacial valleys, which are U-shaped. One famous valley is Death Valley, in the Mojave Desert, California. It is the lowest and driest area in North America, with average summer temperatures exceeding 37 °C. The valley is home to the Native American Timbisha tribe, who have inhabited the valley for over 1000 years. This landform has been designated a National Park. If you look at the first page of this chapter, there is a photograph of the Grand Canyon, which is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River. For thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans and was considered a holy site by the Pueblo people. The Grand Canyon is a National Park and a popular tourist site.", "Considered to be the hottest, driest place in the United States, Death Valley often reaches temperatures greater than 120 degrees Fahrenheit during the summer and averages only around two inches of rain each year.", "If you've had it up to your hairline with ice storms and snow days, plan a getaway to the hottest, lowest place in the United States: Death Valley . It may sound like a depressing destination, but this place boasts some of the most adaptable plant and animal life on the planet.", "In the SW United States are the deserts of the basin and range province, with the hottest and driest spots in the United States. Along the Pacific coast are the Mediterranean-type climate of S California and, extending north into SE Alaska, the marine West Coast climate. The Pacific Northwest is one of the wettest parts of the United States and is densely forested. The Rocky Mts., Cascades, and Sierra Nevada have typical highland climates and are also heavily forested. In addition to the Grand Canyon in Arizona and Great Salt Lake in Utah, widely publicized geographic marvels of the United States include Niagara Falls Niagara Falls,", "The lowest point in North America, in Death Valley (282 ft/86 m below sea level), is there. The largest basin in the region is the Great Basin , an area of interior drainage (the Humboldt River is the largest stream) and of numerous salt lakes, including the Great Salt Lake . Between the Intermontane Region and the Pacific Ocean is the Pacific Mountain System, a series of ranges generally paralleling the coast, formed by faulting and volcanism. The Cascade Range , with its numerous volcanic peaks extends S from SW Canada into N California, and from there is continued south by the Sierra Nevada , a great fault block. Mt. Whitney (14,495 ft/4,418 m), in the Sierra Nevada, is the highest peak in the conterminous United States.", "(~3,900 square kilometers/1,500 square miles) dry basin in the U.S. states of California and Nevada, the lowest point in North America (86 meters/282 feet below sea level).", "The desert has extreme elevations which range from a high point of 11,049 feet at Telescope Peak to a low point of 282 feet below sea level at Death Valley. Along with the extremes in elevations comes a wide range of temperatures. The higher elevations can become extremely cold, especially at night. Death Valley, on the other hand, is the hottest place in the United States with a world record high temperature of 134 degrees F and an average annual rainfall of less than 2 inches.", "North America, extending to within 10° of latitude of both the equator and the North Pole, embraces every climatic zone, from tropical rain forest and savanna on the lowlands of Central America to areas of permanent ice cap in central Greenland. Subarctic and tundra climates prevail in N Canada and N Alaska, and desert and semiarid conditions are found in interior regions cut off by high mountains from rain-bearing westerly winds. However, a high proportion of the continent has temperate climates very favorable to settlement and agriculture.", "North America's highest temperature ever recorded is 134 degrees Fahrenheit (56.7 degrees Celsius), which occurred at Death Valley, California on July 10, 1913 at Greenland Ranch.", "Death Valley , in the southeast, is 282 ft below sea level, the lowest point in the nation. Mt. Whitney (14,491 ft) is the highest point in the contiguous 48 states. Lassen Peak is one of two active U.S. volcanoes outside of Alaska and Hawaii; its last eruptions were recorded in 1917.", "In La Rinconada, a mining town in the Peruvian Andes that, at more than 16,700 feet, is the highest permanently inhabited town in the world, water will boil at about 181 degrees. Were you of a mind to brew yourself a nice cup of tea at the peak of Mount Everest (29,029 feet), you’d only have to bring your water up to about 162 degrees for it to boil. At another extreme, in Death Valley, Calif. – the lowest point in the U.S., at 282 feet below sea level – water boils at slightly above 212 degrees.", "Antarctica is the driest continent on earth. The amount of moisture received by the polar plateau is comparable to that falling on the world’s hot deserts.", "No other United States location has come close to experiencing such intense heat. Indeed temperatures over 120 degrees F (48.9 °C) are unusual events, even in the hottest places of the United States, except Death Valley. At the National Park's, weather station, now called Furnace Creek, the thermometer rises above 120 on five to twenty days a year.", "The climate is humid over the eastern half of the basin, with large quantities of winter and spring runoff generated over the Tennessee, Ohio, and southern Mississippi river basins. A north-south band of subhumid climates, neither fully humid nor semiarid, extends from central Texas northward to eastern North Dakota . To the west are the semiarid climates of the Great Plains, and along the Rocky Mountain crests an alpine climate prevails, in which winter snowfalls are released as spring and early summer meltwater runoff.", "A land of extremes and superlatives, there are locations within the park that allow the visitor to see both the lowest and highest elevations in the 48 contiguous United States on a clear day. As far as US phenomena occur, not only does it feature the hottest recorded temperature, but also reports the lowest annual precipitation, the tallest sand dunes, and at 13,628 square kilometers, is the largest National Park in the 48 contiguous United States.", "The mean annual temperature for Unalaska, the most populated island of the group, is about 38 °F (3.4 °C), being about 30 °F (−1.1 °C) in January and about 52 °F (11.1 °C) in August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 °F (26 °C) and 5 °F (−15 °C) respectively. The average annual rainfall is about 80 in (2,030 mm), and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said to be one of the rainiest places within the United States", "“For those of us who survive here in the summer, it was no surprise that it’s the hottest place on the world,” said Charlie Callaghan, a Death Valley National Park ranger who personally recorded a 129-degree day here a few years back.", "The lowest point in South America is Laguna del Carbon at 344 feet below sea level. Located in Argentina in the province of Santa Cruz, it is the seventh lowest point on Earth, according to the U.S. National Park Service.", "3. Move heat over the surface of the earth. Results in a cool, dry environment along the west coast of S. American, vs a mild climate into western Europe and British Isles.", "This summer has been a scorcher in many parts of the nation, but this sweat-inducing heat has nothing on the highest temperature ever recorded in the United States, the whopping 134 degrees Fahrenheit that sent the mercury soaring in Death Valley on July 10, 1913.", "On average, May is the wettest month, averaging 5.9 inches of rainfall. Triple-digit temperatures (≥38 °C) are observed on average 11 days per year, sometimes exceeding 105 °F from July to early September, usually accompanied by high humidity brought in by southerly winds; The highest recorded temperature recorded was 115 °F on August 10, 1936. Lack of air circulation due to heat and humidity during the summer months leads to higher concentrations of ozone, prompting the city to release \"Ozone Alerts\", encouraging all parties to do their part in complying with the Clean Air Act and United States Environmental Protection Agency standards. The autumn season is usually short, consisting of pleasant, sunny days followed by cool nights. Winter temperatures, while generally mild, dip below 10 °F on 3 nights, and occasionally below 0 °F, the most recent such occurrence being a reading on January 6, 2014. Seasonal snowfall averages , and, , only three winters on record have officially recorded a trace or no snow, the most recent being 1910–11. The lowest recorded temperature was on January 22, 1930.", "A unique climate, found in only five locations in the world, that is characterized by hot, dry summers with very little rainfall. These climates are located on the west side of continents, between 30 and 40 degrees latitude", "At Badwater, significant rainstorms flood the valley bottom periodically, covering the salt pan with a thin sheet of standing water. Each newly-formed lake does not last long though, because the 1.9 in (48 mm) of average rainfall is overwhelmed by a 150 in (3,800 mm) annual evaporation rate. This, the United States' greatest evaporation potential, means that even a 12-foot-deep, 30-mile-long lake would dry up in a single year. While the basin is flooded, some of the salt is dissolved; it is redeposited as clean crystals when the water evaporates.", "Due to the primarily dry climate, large diurnal temperature variations occur in less-developed areas of the desert above 2,500 feet. The swings can be as large as 50 °F (28 °C) in the summer months. In the state's urban centers, the effects of local warming result in much higher measured night-time lows than in the recent past." ]

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[ "With “e” being so common in the English language, one would think that it would start the most words. Actually “t” begins the most words, followed by “o.” “E” is the letter which most commonly occurs third in a word, and is the third most common second letter in a word. The most common second letter in a word in English is h.", "E is most common letter in the English language, with A the second most common vowel. R is the most common consonant in English, followed by T. The most common first letter of a word is S.", "E is the most commonly used vowel in the English alphabet, while T is the most commonly used consonant in the English alphabet. A is the second most common vowel while consonants' runner up is N. R, D and S are also close. I just recognize this frequency process when i solve codewords, arrowwords, etc.", "The average distribution of letters, or the relative frequency of each letter's occurrence in text in a given language can be obtained analyzing large amounts of representative text. This information can be useful in cryptography and for other purposes as well. Letter frequencies vary in different types of writing. In English, the most frequently appearing ten letters are e, t, a, o, i, n, s, h, r, and d, in that order, with the letter e appearing about 13% of the time.", "The most used letter in the English alphabet is ‘E’, and ‘Q’ is the least used!", "12. The most used letter in the English alphabet is 'E', and 'Q' is the least used.", "Letters may be used as words. The words a (lower or uppercase) and I (always uppercase) are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for \"Oh\" in poetic situations. In extremely informal cases of writing (such as SMS language) individual letters may replace words, e.g. u may be used instead of \"you\" in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word.", "The most used letters were given the shorter sequences of dots and dashes. For example, the most commonly used letter in the English language — E — is represented by a single dot.", "In teleprinter code the letters most frequently used are represented by the fewest holes in the tape, which is to say by the fewest crosses, in B.P. notation. 130 For instance E, the commonest letter of English, is x••••, and T, the next most frequent, is ••••x. The table in the right-hand column gives the 5-bit teleprinter code for each character of the teleprint alphabet.", "English alphabet: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.", "comment number 10, I believe you are neglecting to consider that the article above says that T is the most common letter to start off words in the english language. How many times a day do you use the word \"the?\" Several I am sure.", "This is way off base. \"S\" is definitely the most commonly used letter. Don't believe me? Take out your favorite dictionary and hold the entire s-section together. Now while still holding this section together hold the entire T-section together. You will observe that S is significantly thicker.", "The standard version of the pangram has 35 letters, in which all 26 letters of the English alphabet occur at least once. The letters t, h, u, and r are used twice; e three times; and o four times.", "E has the most tiles at 12 (it is the most frequently used letter in the English language)", "English uses two orthographic ligatures, � and œ. The first of these was a full-fledged letter of the alphabet, called ash, in Old English. Although it fell out of use early in the Middle English period, thanks to the interference of Norman scribes, it should still be retained in such Old English names as �lfric and �thelred. � is found in a few of the earliest Old English manuscripts, but it was very soon abandoned because the non-phonemic sounds ([�] and [�ː]) that it represented merged with those of e ([ɛ] and [eː]).", "The letter “x” is used more often in Math than it is in the English language", "\"Long U\". Its upper-case form came into English as our almost-a-vowel letter \"y\" (a short \"long e\"). It also went into Latin as \"V\", which has the \"ooh\" sound (\"vir quisque vir\"). When English needed a letter for the \"v\" sound, it used the Latin \"V\" and rounded its bottom for a range of vowel sounds that we call \"u\". Doubled \"V\" kept the \"ooh\" sound, which is what our almost-a-vowel \"w\" (the French call it \"double V\") now has.", "For some reason letters from the second half of the alphabet are much more likely to be chosen. Even people who change their names to something starting with A to get to the top of an alphabetical list seem to never use just A.", "The English language only became standardized in the last few centuries; therefore, spelling variations are common among early Anglo-Saxon names. As the form of the English language changed, even the spelling of literate people's names evolved. Birdseye has been recorded under many different variations, including Birsty, Bursty, Berstie, Bersty, Berstie, Birchensty, Burchensty, Berchensty, Birchenstey, Birchsty, Burchsty, Berchsty, Berdsey, Berdesly, Birdseye and many more.", "Some variants are also more common in certain countries due to keyboard layouts . For example, the smiley =) may occur in Scandinavia , where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other. However, the :) variant is without a doubt the dominant one in Scandinavia, making the =) version a rarity. Diacritical marks are sometimes used. The letters Ö and Ü can be seen as an emoticon, as the upright version of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy) respectively.", "The modern English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters (each having an uppercase and a lowercase form) – the same letters that are found in the ISO basic Latin alphabet:", "The table below shows the frequency of letter usage in a particular sample of written English, although the frequencies vary somewhat according to the type of text.", "terminology - Is \"Roman alphabet\" what we use for English? - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange", "There are also a few \"natural\" instances: English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French chaise longue (\"long chair\") became the American \"chaise lounge\" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). It has also been speculated that the English \"curd\" comes from the Latin crudus (\"raw\"). Similarly, the ancient English word for bird was \"brid\".", "There are a number of Latin abbreviations which are sometimes used in English texts. Here are the commonest ones with their English equivalents:", "A very rare letter. The second form probably exists so that the letter doesn’t appear discontinuous.", "The letter is named . It has two forms, depending on its position in the word:", "Usage varies both within English and in other languages, but the usual convention in printed English text is as follows:", "Other alphabetic or partially alphabetic systems have also been devised. Among these is Teeline, a system used extensively in Great Britain.", "In the UK, it is used in speech and writing. It's not very common but common enough to be well known. It's a little formal.", "In the current and modern society, letters come in all forms. We use letters to communicate with other people anywhere in the world. In business, employees create business letters at one point in time, and include counting the characters. To simplify things, the users utilize software to type the document and count the number of words and characters they use. Another way to count the number of characters or words in letters is through a character counter online.", "In the following table, which words are spelled in American English and which in British English? Can you give the alternative spelling in each case?" ]

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[ "The Statue of Liberty holds a golden torch in her right hand, representing enlightenment, and a tablet in her left hand. The tablet is engraved with the roman numerals for 1776, the year America was founded and the Declaration of Independence written.", "The Statue of Liberty is located in New York on Liberty Island. It is a statue of a woman holding a torch in her right hand and a tablet in her left hand with the date of the Declaration of Independence in Roman numerals: July 4, 1776. Her crown has seven points that represent rays of light and also the seven seas and continents; the original name for the statue is “Liberty Enlightening the World.” There are broken chains, or shackles, at her feet that also symbolize her freedom.", "The Statue of Liberty (“Liberty Enlightening the World”) is a 225-ton, steel-reinforced copper female figure, 151 ft 1 in. (46.05 m) in height, facing the ocean from Liberty Island1 in New York Harbor. The right hand holds aloft a torch, and the left hand carries a tablet upon which is inscribed: “July IV MDCCLXXVI.”", "The Statue of Liberty torch, raised in her right hand is actually one of Liberty's most recognizable features. Apart from being a symbol of enlightenment, Statue of Liberty torch can also be interpreted several different ways.", "The statue stands on Liberty Island in New York. France presented the statue to the United States in 1884 as a symbol of friendship and of the liberty that citizens enjoy under a free form of government. The statue's proper name is Liberty Enlightening the World. Liberty is personified by a proud woman, dressed in a loose robe that falls in graceful folds to the top of the pedestal on which the statue stands. The right arm holds a great torch raised high in the air. The left arm grasps a tablet bearing the date of the Declaration of Independence. A crown with huge spikes, like sun rays rests on her head. At her feet is a broken shackle, which symbolizes the overthrow of tyranny.", "A gift from France to New York City, the Statue of Liberty was designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and was constructed just 50 years after Delacroix's masterpiece. The statue, with a raised right arm holds a torch proudly, very similar to the pose in which Liberty holds the French flag.", "her toes to the torch she held in her raised right hand. Her name was Liberty.", "The Statue of Liberty is located at the Liberty Island in the New York City. It is a monumental representation of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence and marks the establishment of friendship between the two countries, France and the United States during the American Revolution. It features a woman standing with a torch in her hand wearing a crown and a stola, trampling a broken chain. This is the mark of American Liberty.", "The Statue of Liberty was designed by Fredéric Auguste Bartholdi of Alsace as a gift to Americans from the people of France. The statue of a female figure holding a torch in her raised hand was accepted on Oct. 28, 1886, by President Grover Cleveland. The 225-ton steel-reinforced copper structure stands on Liberty Island in New York Harbor. It is 152 ft tall and stands on a 150-foot pedestal.", "However, by that time the right arm and torch were completed. This part of the statue was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia , where visitors were charged 50 cents to climb the ladder to the balcony. The money raised this way was used to start funding the pedestal.", "Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half-hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground.[22] Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, a keystone-shaped tablet[29] used to evoke the concept of law.[30] Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe \"JULY IV MDCCLXXVI\" on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.[29]", "The Statue of Liberty faces outward toward the nations, holding aloft the torch of freedom, the flame of hope, the promise of the future. She holds this torch high in the daytime and during the night as well. She shines her light in the midst of darkness.", "The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in the middle of New York Harbor, in Manhattan, New York City. The statue, designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and dedicated on October 28, 1886, was a gift to the United States from the people of France. The statue is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States: a welcoming signal to immigrants arriving from abroad. ", "The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World, French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, designed by Frédéric Bartholdi and dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue has become an icon of freedom and of the United States.", "A team of ten French metalworkers constructed a new torch on Liberty Island using the same techniques and tools as Bartholdi. [1] While no cosmetic changes were made during the process, Lady Liberty’s torch was replacedon October 8th, 1984 the NY Times reported that the torch “will be constructed by French craftsmen, just as the original was. [2] Lady Liberty’s other hand embraces a tablet inscribed with the date of American independence, July 4, 1776 (in Roman numerals), which is symbolic of a nation governed by law. [1] Lady Liberty’s copper skin was hand hammered using the repoussé technique and is supported by an iron framework designed by Gusteve Eiffel. [1]", "To prepare for the statue�s centennial year in 1986, a French-American rehabilitation project repaired and cleaned the statue, replacing its glass-and-metal torch with one covered in gold leaf. Ferries from Battery Park in New York City take visitors to Liberty Island. Visitors ride an elevator or climb 192 steps to an observation area at the top of the pedestal. A museum inside the pedestal details the history of the monument and features the original torch and flame. The full climb of 354 steps (the equivalent of a 22-floor building) takes the most ambitious visitors from the pedestal to the crown, which offers outstanding views of New York Harbour and New York City. ", "In 1867, French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi unveiled a design for a giant statue of a woman brandishing a torch to symbolize \"Egypt bringing light to Asia\" through the canal. Local support for the statue waned eventually and it ultimately ended up in New York harbor in 1886, and was renamed the Statue of Liberty .", "The base of the Statue of Liberty's pedestal contains exhibits on the monument's history, including the original 1886 torch. Visitor access to the Statue of Liberty's torch was halted for good after German operatives set off an explosion on the nearby Black Tom peninsula in July 1916, during World War I.", "The Statue of Liberty (originally called \"Liberty Enlightening the World\") is a massive sculpture which stands on Liberty Island in New York Harbor. A gift of the people of France, and designed by Frédéric Bartholdi, it was dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue has become an iconic symbol of political freedom.", "Liberty Enlightening the World (French: La libert? ?clairant le monde), known more commonly as the Statue of Liberty (Statue de la Libert?), is a large statue that was presented to the United States by France in 1886. Originally, the statue was meant to be placed in Egypt, but the French decided to give it to America in response to their help in their war (At the time, Egypt was controlled by the British). It currently stands at Liberty Island (part of New York but physically on the New Jersey side of the New York Harbor) as a welcome to all visitors, immigrants, and returning Americans. The copper patina-clad statue, dedicated on October 28, 1886, commemorates the centennial of the United States and is a gesture of friendship from France to the U.S. Fr?d?ric Auguste Bartholdi sculpted the statue and obtained a U.S. patent useful for raising construction funds through the sale of miniatures. Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (designer of the Eiffel Tower) engineered the internal structure. Eug?ne Viollet-le-Duc was responsible for the choice of copper in the statue's construction and adoption of the repouss? technique.", "In 1984, after almost a decade of replacing the lamps inside the Liberty's torch, plans were proposed to renovate flaming torch and have it reconstructed back to how it was originally. According to the experts, the torch of the statue itself has been badly degraded and changed so that it had lost its true essence of why it was even placed there.", "My new book, Liberty’s Torch: The Great Adventure to Build the Statue of Liberty, tells the improbable journey of the statue from one artist’s whimsical inspiration to the feverish labors of supporters from Gustave Eiffel to Mark Twain to the penny donors of old New York tenements.", "Which direction does she face? The Statue of Liberty faces Southeast and was strategically placed inside of Fort Wood which was a perfect base for the Statue. The Statue's position was also perfect for ships, entering the harbor, to see her as a welcoming symbol.", "The Statue of Liberty was engineered to withstand heavy winds. . Winds of 50 miles per hour (80 km/h) cause the Statue to sway 3 inches (76 mm) and the torch to sway 5 inches (130 mm). ^  ", "Product(s) :Statue of Liberty - Lady Liberty - Seafoam Green w Gold Flame. Subject Matter :Statue of Liberty - Lady Liberty. Handmade Sculpture. \" MASTER ENGRAVERS, EXPERT CRAFTSMEN / WOMEN & GRAPHIC ...", "For now, the torch statue near the traffic tunnel remains the de facto memorial. A replica of the Statue of Liberty's torch, it was donated in 1987 by the International Herald Tribune newspaper as a symbol of French-American friendship.", "The copper statue of the goddess of Liberty was a present by France, as a centennial gift to the U.S. and a sign of friendship between the two nations. The pedestal was constructed by the United States. The Statue of Liberty is often used as a symbol that personifies the entire nation of the United States, much like Uncle Sam. In a more general sense, the Statue of Liberty is used to represent liberty in general and is a favored symbol of libertarians. Her British counterpart is Britannia, a forerunner of Lady Liberty, Britannia represents British values and was especially well-known at the height of the British Empire.", "How many Torches have there been on the Statue? The Statue's current torch, added in 1986, is a copper flame covered in 24K gold. It is reflective of the sun's rays in daytime and lighted by floodlights at night. The original torch was removed in 1984 and is now a display piece inside the Pedestal lobby.", "The Statue of Liberty is 46 m (151 ft) high. Its base and pedestal increase the height of the monument to 93 m (305 ft). The surface of the statue is composed of hammered copper sheets 2.4 mm (0.01 in) thick that are riveted to an iron framework. ", "A cherished symbol of freedom and democracy, the Statue of Liberty was a gift from the French people to the people of the United States as a symbol of the international friendship forged during the American Revolution. Guided tours reveal the engineering behind this beloved landmark.", "Bartholdi’s colossal sculpture, Liberty Enlightening the World, is better known to us as the Statue of Liberty. It was formally dedicated in New York City’s harbor on October 28, 1886. However, it was born as an icon not in copper, iron, and steel, but first on paper! Bartholdi patented his design for the Statue of Liberty on February 18, 1879. The patent includes a drawing of the statue as we know it.", "Presented to America by the people of France in 1886, the Statue of Liberty sits on a 12-acre island in New York Harbor. Her crown has 25 windows and seven spikes. Timothy A. Clary/AFP/Getty Images hide caption" ]

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[ "Furlong - A unit of measurement - the side length of one square of an acre. One furlong is approximately 1/8 of a mile, 201.17 meters and 220 yards.", "A furlong is a unit of length or distance, commonly used in the US, the UK, Australia, and some other countries of the world. The origin of this unit name goes back in time to the epochs of Alngo-Saxon farming communities. A furlong is equal to 1/8th of a mile, as well as 220 yards or 660 feet.", "Furlong – This term is often used in horse racing and is a unit of distance equal to 1/8 of a mile or 220 yards.", "When I was in high school, for example, I heard someone use the expression “furlongs per fortnight,” an odd juxtaposition of measurements that struck me as very funny. I thought it would be interesting to figure out how to express the speed of light in furlongs per fortnight. It turned out to be a huge number, over 1.8 trillion (1,802,617,500,000, to be exact). A furlong is of course defined as 40 rods, a rod being an equally obscure unit of length measuring 16.5 feet. Thus you can also express a furlong as 220 yards, 660 feet, 201.2 meters, or 1/8 of a mile. (The only people who normally work with furlongs are those who design race tracks for horses—clearly, an animal whose height is measured in hands needs a special term to describe how far it runs.) A fortnight is 14 days (or nights, as the case may be). So something moving at the speed of one furlong per fortnight (f/f) would be moving very slowly indeed. Interestingly enough, though, 1 f/f is almost exactly equal to 1 centimeter per minute; therefore, furlongs per fortnight would be a good unit of measurement for a snail’s pace, which ranges from a bit less than 1 f/f to about 30.5 f/f.", "After Roman control of Europe fell, the British retained much of these original units of measure, and published specific measurements by the 1300s. Furlongs were especially important, since they tended to be the measurement of a row or furrow in an acre. The British acre was essentially one furlong long and one chain, 22 yards (20.12 m), wide. The American football field is about half a furlong in length.", "Let's start with the acre. Now that is 4,840 square yards , which is equivalent to the area of a rectangle one furlong in length and one chain in breadth. If we remember that the acre was the standard unit of area measurement and that a mediaeval ploughman with a team of eight oxen was required to till one acre a day, the significance of the furlong \"furrowlong\" is easily grasped. A furrow 220 yards long was about the most four yoke of oxen could pull steadily through heavy soil before they had to rest.", "The name furlong derives from the Old English words ' (furrow) and ' (long). Dating back at least to early Anglo-Saxon times, it originally referred to the length of the furrow in one acre of a ploughed open field (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips). The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plough was difficult. This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible. An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain (66 feet or 22 yards) wide. For this reason, the furlong was once also called an acre's length, though in modern usage an area of one acre can be of any shape. The term furlong, or shot, was also used to describe a grouping of adjacent strips within an open field. ", "Unit of length, equal to 220 yards, or 10 chains. There are 8 furlongs to the mile. The name seems to derive from the length of a furrow, somehow. This unit is still used, especially so in horse-racing.", "Now let's look down the acre, the length of the furrow. Where the oxen turned and rested, where one acre butted on the next, small mounds rose from the ground. They were called butts and were utilised, as butts are today, as protection for those who stood behind the archery targets. During the many centuries in which archery was a compulsory recreation in both England and Scotland, the yew longbow in the hands of a yeoman with a strong draw could hurl the grey goose-feathered, ash clothyard about 220 yards, a furlong.", "When “Gunter's chain” is used without qualification, and always in the United States, the unit is (17th century – present), = 1⁄10 furlong = 4 perches= 22 yards = 66 feet = 20.1168 meters.", "The practice of using surveyor's chains, and perch-length rods made into a detachable stiff chain, came about a century later when iron was a more plentiful and common material. A chain is a larger unit of length measuring 66 feet (20.1168 meters), or 22 yards, or 100 links, or 4 rods (20.1168 meters). There are 10 chains or 40 rods in a furlong (eighth-mile), and so 80 chains or 320 rods in one statute mile (1760 yards, 1609.344 m, 1.609344 km); the definition of which was set by Royal surveyor (called the 'sworn viewer' ) John Ogilby only after the Great Fire of London (1666).", "The Scots mile is longer than the English mile, as mentioned by Robert Burns in the first verse of his poem \"Tam o' Shanter\". It comprised 8 (Scots) furlongs divided into 320 falls or faws (Scots rods). It varied from place to place but the most accepted equivalencies are 1,976 Imperial yards or 1.81 km, i.e., 1.086 United States statute miles. ", "Originally, the Roman lineal measure of 1,000 paces (mille passus or passuum), computed to have been about 1,618 yards. Hence, the unit of measure derived from this, used in the British Isles and in other English-speaking countries. Its length has varied considerably at different periods and in different localities, chiefly owing to the influence of the agricultural system of measures with which the mile has been brought into relation (see furlong). The legal mile in Britain and the U.S. is now 1,760 yards (5280 feet). The Irish mile of 2,240 yards is still in rustic use. The obsolete Scottish mile was longer than the English, and probably varied according to time and place; one of the values given for it is 1,976 yards.", "A furlong is a measure of distance within Imperial units and U.S. customary units, and is equal to 660 feet or 201.168 metres. There are eight furlongs in a mile.", "The exact conversion of the furlong to SI units varies slightly among English-speaking countries. In Canada [9] and the United Kingdom, [10] which define the furlong in terms of the international yard of exactly 0.9144 metres, a furlong is 201.168 m. Australia [11] does not formally define the furlong, but it does define the chain and link in terms of the international yard.", "The furlong (meaning furrow length) was the distance a team of oxen could plough without resting. This was standardised to be exactly 40 rods.", "Furlong: A scale used in European and American racing which is equivalent to approximately 200m. e.g. 3 furlongs = approx. 600m.", "If the mile originated with 5,000 Roman feet, how did we end up with a mile that is 5,280 feet? Blame the furlong. The furlong wasn't always just an arcane unit of measure that horseracing fans gabbed about; it once had significance as the length of the furrow a team of oxen could plow in a day. In 1592, Parliament set about determining the length of the mile and decided that each one should be made up of eight furlongs. Since a furlong was 660 feet, we ended up with a 5,280-foot mile.", "Furlong: In its original meaning, a furlong was the length of land a team of oxen could plough without needing to stop and rest. After a while this was standardised to a measurement of 40 rods in length. In modern terms this is 660 feet long.", "furlong - English unit of measurement equaling 660 feet, which was the length of the traditional furrow on English farms; from furrow long.", "The introduction of the yard as a unit of length came later, but its origin is not definitely known. Some believe the origin was the double cubit. Whatever its origin, the early yard was divided by the binary method into 2, 4, 8, and 16 parts called the half-yard, span, finger, and nail. The yard is sometimes associated with the “gird” or circumference of a person’s waist, or with the distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the thumb on the body of Henry I. Units were frequently “standardized” by reference to a royal figure.", "The first standards were attempted in 1864 in Oxford and Cambridge: The length of the course was set to 120 yards (109.7 m) and over its course, runners were required to clear ten 3 foot 6 inch (1.07 m) high hurdles. The height and spacing of the hurdles have been related to Imperial units ever since. After the length of the course was rounded up to 110 metres in France in 1888, the standards were pretty much complete (except for Germany where 1 metre high hurdles were used until 1907).", "a traditional unit of length for yarn, varying with the weight of the fibers in the yarn. Typically a lea of wool is 80 yards (73 meters); a lea of cotton or silk 120 yards (110 meters); and a lea of linen 300 yards (274 meters). For cotton and wool, a lea is equal to 1/7 hank . A lea is sometimes called a skein.", "The yard (abbreviation: yd) is an English unit of length, in both the British imperial and US customary systems of measurement, that comprises 3 feet or 36 inches. It is by international agreement in 1959 standardized as exactly 0.9144 meters. A metal yardstick originally formed the physical standard from which all other units of length were officially derived in both English systems.", "an old English unit of land area equal to 1/4 hide. This is roughly 30 acres or 12 hectares. The virgate was also called the yardland or yard of land", "Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was 6999914398416000000♠0.914398416 metres. [12]", "The Imperial system recognizes a yard as a linear measurement unit for measuring length or distance. Yard is commonly used in modern US system of measurement. A yard is equal to 36 inches or 3 feet. A unit of length equal to 3 feet; defined as 91.44 centimeters; originally taken to be the average length of a stride. The abbreviation is \"yd\".", "53a. [Quarter of a yard] is the old unit of measure called the SPAN. It’s nine inches, so a quarter of 36 inches.", "What's A Furlong - The Standard Unit of Measure in Racing | Getting Out Of The Gate", "Our basic unit of the yard will have to be translated into the meter. A yard, in origin a pace (a fairly long one), is 36 inches; a meter, in origin 1/40,000,000 of the circumference of the Earth, is 39.27 inches, so we are fairly lucky. The Pacer's legs should stretch a bit more.", "King: (Strokes beard, and paces up and down for a while) A yard is half a fathom, and a fathom is the length from the thumb of the outstretched hand of a man, to the thumb of the other outstretched hand. The nose is in the middle of this distance, so the lawful yard henceforth is the distance from my nose to the thumb of my outstretched hand.", "Yardarm – The very end of a yard. Often mistaken for a “yard”, which refers to the entire spar. As in to hang “from the yardarm” and the sun being “over the yardarm” (late enough to have a drink)." ]

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[ "Diamonds (means \"unbreakable\" in Greek) are crystallized carbon created under extreme heat and pressure, carbon in its most concentrated form. Diamonds are the hardest substance in nature and the only gemstone composed of a single element. Diamonds are not only hardest gemstone but also the farest light reflected among the gems. Even though diamond is only one level higher on the Moh's scale than corundum, diamond can be anywhere from ten to hundreds of times harder than this class of gems. It is the molecular structure that makes diamonds so hard (carbon atoms linked together in a lattice structure). These transparent crystals are also notable for its high dispersion index and high thermal conductivity. It has been associated with purity and fearlessness since ancient times and, more recently, with love.", "Diamond is the hardest mineral on earth and the only gem composed of a single element, carbon. The highly uniform arrangement of carbon atoms gives diamonds their superior durability, hardness and brilliance.", "Diamond is the only gem material comprised of a single chemical element: pure carbon, like graphite. But the atoms in diamond have been forced into a compact, three-dimensional structure by the high pressures in the upper mantle, where it is formed.", "One example of a mineral composed of a single element is gold. Other single-element minerals include silver, diamonds, and copper.", "Peridot, a gem-quality variety of the mineral olivine, is one of the few gemstones that occur in only one color. Its green color comes from iron and ranges from yellow to olive to brownish green in addition to bright green.", "Peridot is a gemstone from the mineral olivine. Like citrine, peridot is one of the very few gemstones that have only one color: green, though shades of the green gemstones range from olive green, to brownish, to almost yellow — all with glassy luster. Peridot is the modern birthstone for the month of August in the Western calendar.", "Gemstone is a mineral stone that formed from the results of geological processes that elements consist of one or several chemical components that have a high selling price. Gemstone of the most expensive in the world's most desirable is the crystalline like Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire and Emerald. The gem is perfect used jewelry.", "Cubic zirconium (singular) is a man-made gemstone that is commonly used as a diamond simulant. It is a true synthetic since a cubic form of zirconium oxide exists in nature. However, the natural counterpart, which was discovered in the late 1930’s, was of little gemological importance. Cubic zirconia, or CZ, can be found in every color of the rainbow through the use of dopants. Dopants are chemical elements that are added to the synthesis to alter the selective absorption of light. Pink CZ was the first color developed, and was originally marketed as pink ice. CZ is a very durable and affordable alternative to diamond. It is produced by the skull method of synthesis.", "Amber is one of the few precious substances on earth we consider a gem which is not of mineral origin. Diamonds and jet - both derived from various stages of coal - and amber are the only gems of vegetative origin. The valuation of any gemstone is tied directly to its rarity. The level of succinite contained in amber as well as the rarity of its color determines its quality and value.  Baltic amber contains the highest level of succinic acid, and thus Baltic amber is the most highly valued form.  Amber can be found in incredible varieties as it comes in 256 defined colors; ranging from the traditional honey amber one thinks of, to green, cognac (reddish in color), orange, yellow, champagne, white (milk)and even butterscotch.  Cherry amber (red) does not occur naturally and has been heat treated or is a reproduction of glass or plastic, including bakelite. ", "In the gemstone and jewelry market, almost all of the attention goes to a small group of gems known as \"the big four\": diamond , ruby , sapphire , and emerald . Two of these, ruby and sapphire, are gem corundums.", "Sapphire is a gemstone variety of the mineral corundum, an aluminium oxide (). Whilst typically associated with the color blue, sapphires can also naturally occur in a wide variety of colors such as blue, yellow, purple, orange, green colors - which are also called \"fancy sapphires\". \"Parti sapphires\" are those sapphires which show two or more colors in a single stone. The only color which sapphire cannot be is red - as red colored corundum is called ruby, another corundum variety.", "All gems are cut and polished by progressive abrasion using finer and finer grits of harder substances. Diamond, the hardest naturally occurring substance, has a Mohs hardness of 10 and is used as an abrasive to cut and polish a wide variety of materials, including diamond itself. Silicon carbide, a manmade compound of silicon and carbon with a Mohs hardness of 9.5, is also widely used for cutting softer gemstones. Other compounds, such as cerium oxide, tin oxide, chromium oxide, and aluminum oxide, are frequently used in polishing gemstones.", "Lapis lazuli is an opaque to translucent precious gemstone composed mainly of lazurite and calcite. Origin of name from the Persian \"lazhward\", which was the name of a place in modern Turkestan known for its deposits of lapis lazuli (�stone of lazhward�). The finest colour is intense blue, lightly dusted with small flecks of golden pyrite. Polished Lapis can be made into jewellery. In the past it was also ground and processed to make the pigment Ultramarine for tempera paint and oil paint.", "Sapphire: This extremely hard gemstone is from the Corundum class of minerals. It is one of the four precious gemstones, the other three being diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. Available in a multitude of eye-catching colors, sapphires of blue and pink hues are the most popular kind used today.", "Almandine, sometimes incorrectly called almandite, is the modern gem known as carbuncle (though originally almost any red gemstone was known by this name). The term \"carbuncle\" is derived from the Latin meaning \"live coal\" or burning charcoal. The name Almandine is a corruption of Alabanda, a region in Asia Minor where these stones were cut in ancient times. Chemically, almandine is an iron-aluminium garnet with the formula Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; the deep red transparent stones are often called precious garnet and are used as gemstones (being the most common of the gem garnets). Almandine occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists, associated with minerals such as staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, and others. Almandine has nicknames of Oriental garnet, almandine ruby, and carbuncle.", "Spinel is known as the greatest imposter in gemstone history, by occupying in many crown jewels as famous rubies. The famous Black Prince's ruby in the Imperial State Crown of England of the British Crown Jewels is a 170 carat red spinel. The Timor Ruby now owned by Queen Elizabeth and with the names of some of the Mogul emperors who previously owned it being Tourist Directory 2015 Lustrous Gems & Gem Mining in Sri Lanka | 115 engraved on its face is a 361 carat red spinel.", "Tourmaline is a complex gemstone found in a tremendous range of colors that includes green, blue, yellow, pink, red, black and the watermelon variety, which is both pink and green. Its pyroelectric quality — if rubbed or heated, it will develop a static charge that attracts lightweight particles to its surface — was probably the source of its name. According to Barbara Walker's The Book of Sacred Stones, the Sinhalese word turamali, meant both \"colored stone\" and \"attractor of ashes.\" Like quartz, it also has a piezoelectric effect, and becomes electrically charged when bent or stressed in certain directions. Walker's book states that tourmaline was recognized as a gem in Europe in 1703 when Dutch traders brought it back from the East, but Christopher Cavey's Gems and Jewels: Fact and Fable states that tourmalines have \"only been identified as a separate gem species for the last two hundred years. The stones originally found in Brazil in the sixteenth century were mistaken for emerald, and it was not until the eighteenth century that this error was corrected.\"", "This blue/purple gemstone was first discovered in 1967 in northern Tanzania at the base of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Officially called blue zoisite it was marketed as tanzanite by Tiffany & Co. who wanted to capitalize on the rarity of this gem that is only found in Tanzania. Tanzanite is the only gem discovered in the last 100 years that has been added to the birthstone list, as a December birthstone.", "Topaz is a fairly common and inexpensive gemstone. It can be found in huge and flawless crystals, which can be faceted into giant gemstones which can weigh thousands of carat s. Some of the largest gemstone pieces ever cut were of Topaz.", "Tourmaline has become a favorite gemstone among jewelry designers, and gem collectors all over the world. Since it is available in a wide variety of colors, it is ideally suited to almost anyone's taste. Tourmaline also is known for displaying several colors in the same gemstone. These bi-color or tri-color gems are formed in many combinations; gemstones with clear color distinctions are highly prized. One multi-color variety is known as watermelon tourmaline, and features green, pink, and white color bands to resemble its namesake. This gemstone has an endless number of faces, and for that reason it suits all moods. No wonder that magical powers have been attributed to it since ancient times. In particular, it is the gemstone of love and of friendship, and is said to render them firm and long-lasting.", "Another fragile candidate mineral is sphalerite (zinc blende). Gem-quality material is usually a strong yellow to honey brown, orange, red, or green; its very high RI (2.37) and dispersion (0.156) make for an extremely lustrous and fiery gem, and it is also isotropic. But here again, its low hardness (2.5–4) and perfect dodecahedral cleavage preclude sphalerite's wide use in jewelry. Two calcium-rich members of the garnet group fare much better: these are grossularite (usually brownish orange, rarely colorless, yellow, green, or pink) and andradite. The latter is the rarest and most costly of the garnets, with three of its varieties—topazolite (yellow), melanite (black), and demantoid (green)—sometimes seen in jewelry. Demantoid (literally \"diamond-like\") especially has been prized as a gemstone since its discovery in the Ural Mountains in 1868; it is a noted feature of antique Russian and Art Nouveau jewelry. Titanite or sphene is also seen in antique jewelry; it is typically some shade of chartreuse and has a luster, RI (1.885–2.050), and dispersion (0.051) high enough to be mistaken for diamond, yet it is anisotropic (a high birefringence of 0.105–0.135) and soft (hardness 5.5).", "An extremely hard mineral, aluminum oxide, Al2O3, sometimes containing iron, magnesia, or silica, that occurs in gem varieties such as ruby and sapphire and in a common black, brown, or blue form used chiefly in abrasives.", "Peridot is the gem variety of olivine, a magnesium silicate containing iron (about 9 Mg atoms for every Fe atom). Peridot is usually transparent,", "The garnet was adopted as the State gem in 1969. Garnets are used in jewelry and are a dark red color.", "Single-crystal material: A material that is composed of a single crystal or a few large crystals.", "Garnet is not a specific gemstone. Rather, it is a group of common silicate minerals that have similar structures and components.", "In the eighteenth century, French mineralogist René Just-Haüy (1743-1822) had observed that both emeralds and the mineral beryl had similar properties. French chemist Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin (1763-1829) in 1798 identified the element they had in common: beryllium (Be), which has an atomic number of 4 and an atomic mass of 9.01 amu. Some three decades passed before German chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882) and French chemist Antoine Bussy (1794-1882), working independently, succeeded in isolating the element.", "Andradite is the last garnet and is different from the others in several ways. It has iron, but in a different state and position within the structure than almandine. Therefore, it does not create red. Instead, andradites can be golden or brown or even other colors if mixed.", "Properties of a gemstone mineral that has been held in high regard for thousands of years.", "Gemstone: Any crystallized mineral structure (natural or synthetic) used in jewelry making. This includes all precious and semi-precious stones but excludes all types of plastics and glass.", "Melanite is a lustrous, black, opaque variety of garnet that is not often seen in jewelry. It is a titanium garnet of the Andradite group and is sometimes called \"titanian andradite.\"", "Gemstone: A substance that has beauty, durability, and rarity and that can be fashioned into an item of personal adornment." ]

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[ "The flag of New Zealand is a defaced Blue Ensign with the Union Flag in the canton, and four red stars with white borders to the right. The stars represent the constellation of Crux, the Southern Cross, as seen from New Zealand.", "The flag of New Zealand is a defaced Blue Ensign with the Union Flag in the canton, and four red stars with white borders to the right. The stars' pattern represents the asterism within the constellation of Crux, the Southern Cross. ", "The current flag of New Zealand was officially adopted on June 12, 1902. It includes the British Blue Ensign (upper left), and a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, one that uses only four stars.", "…New Zealand Fast Facts Since 1902, the official flag of New Zealand has featured the Union Flag and four red stars with white borders. The stars represent the constellation of Crux, the Southern Cross. The stars of the constellation shown on the flag are: Alpha Crucis (also known as Acrux), Beta…", "As a self-governing territorial democracy of New Zealand, the Cook Island's flag features the Union Jack (upper left), recalling New Zealand's long association with Great Britain. The 15 stars represent the 15 main islands of the group.", "The New Zealand Red Ensign with the Union Flag in the first quarter, and the Southern Cross, represented by four five-pointed white stars featured in the fly became the official flag in New Zealand for merchant vessels in 1901.[http://flagspot.net/flags/nz_ens.html#cen NZ Ensign], Flagspot. Previously a plain red ensign was used.", "The Cooks Islands, associated with New Zealand, also has a flag based on the Blue Ensign, with a circle of fifteen 5-pointed white stars. It was adopted in 1979.", "The Australian flag adopted in 1901 also has the Union Flag in the canton and the Southern Cross on the fly. The cross on the New Zealand flag is composed of the four prime stars of the Southern Cross constellation, each being a red five pointed star with a white outline. The Australian flag has six white stars, five of which have seven points (the Commonwealth Star) and a five pointed star, Epsilon Crucis, the smaller star of the Southern Cross constellation which does not form part of the actual cross itself is also included. Australia's flag features a large Commonwealth Star below the Union Flag as it is a symbol of Australia.", "New Zealand prime minister John Key had led the campaign to change the flag. Flown since 1902, the current design has a blue background, with the UK's Union Jack in one quadrant and a quartet of stars.", "The stars on New Zealand's flag represent the Southern Cross, a constellation of stars, forming the ends of a cross, that shine brightly in the skies of the Southern Hemisphere.", "Which Oceanic nation's flag features six stars? A) Australia B) New Zealand C) Fiji D) Samoa?", "CONTENTS Introduction to New Zealand Flag Facts ..................................................................... 3 Flag Facts section ONE: Referendum process ....................................................... 8 Flag Facts section TWO: Māori and flags ............................................................. 20 Flag Facts section THREE: The Union Jack ......................................................... 39 Flag Facts section FOUR: Creating the New Zealand flag ................................... 50 Flag Facts section FIVE: Legislation behind the New Zealand flag ...................... 65 Flag Facts section SIX: The silver fern ................................................................. 81 Flag Facts section SEVEN: Schools and the flag ................................................. 94 Flag Facts section EIGHT: The New Zealand military and flags ......................... 112 Flag Facts section NINE: The ‘change the flag’ debate ...................................... 126 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 142", "The New Zealand flag is the symbol of the realm, government and people of New Zealand. Its royal blue background is derived from the ensign of the Blue Squadron of the Royal Navy. The stars of the Southern Cross emphasise this country's location in the South Pacific Ocean. The Union Jack in the first quarter recognises New Zealand's historical origins as a British colony and dominion.", "The first flag of New Zealand was adopted 9 (or 20) March 1834 by a vote made by the United Tribes of New Zealand, a meeting of Māori chiefs convened at Waitangi by British resident James Busby. The United Tribes later made the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand at Waitangi in 1835. Three flags were proposed, all designed by the missionary Henry Williams, who was to play a major role in the translation of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. The chiefs rejected two other proposals which included the Union Flag, in favour of a modified St George's Cross or the White Ensign, which was the flag used by Henry Williams on the Church Missionary Society ships. This flag became known as the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand and was officially gazetted in New South Wales in August 1835, with a general description not mentioning fimbriation or the number of points on the stars. The need for a flag was pressing, not only because New Zealand-built ships were being impounded in Sydney for not flying a national flag, but also as a symbol of the independence declared by the Māori chiefs.", "A popular alternative to the current defaced Blue Ensign was designed by Kyle Lockwood (left). It won a Wellington newspaper flag competition in July 2004 and appeared on TV One in 2005 after winning a poll which included the present national flag. The fern represents the people of New Zealand and the stars represent the location of New Zealand. The blue colour represents the ocean, the red represents the Māori and also sacrifices during wartime, and white is a reference to the \"Land of the Long White Cloud\" (translated from the Māori \"Aotearoa\").", "The New Zealand flag, adopted on March 24, 1902, features the Union Jack of Great Britain and the Southern Cross.", "As Scorpius/ Te Matau a Maui sets in the west, his arch enemy, and our summer constellation, Orion rises towards the east along with Taurus and Canis Major. The bright star Antares, which marks the heart of the Scorpion, is also known as Rehua to Maori. It represents one of the four Pou, or pillars, that hold Ranginui, the sky father up in the sky. It sits just above the south western horizon at around 11pm at the beginning of the month. These four pou form the basis of a celestial compass, a map of the night sky that was used to navigate the vast oceans of our planet and bring our ancestors to Aotearoa/ New Zealand.", "\"The time is right for New Zealand to make changes to our flag. Too many people confuse our flag with the Australian one and it also becomes embarrassing when New Zealanders cannot tell the difference either. Clearly the silver fern and the kiwi makes us different. I would be happy to see a flag that incorporates those two emblems along with the stars and something British that signifies our past.\"   ", "NZ FLAG FACT NUMBER 45 A MAIN PURPOSE OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLAG WAS TO INSTIL PATRIOTISM Although confusion existed regarding which flag represented New Zealand at the turn of the twentieth century, there is no doubt as to one of the main intentions behind the New Zealand Ensign Act. Premier Richard John Seddon, speaking in the House of Representative on 19 September 1900, said: [T]he flag with the Southern Cross upon it has been generally recognised as the New Zealand flag … We shall Historical", "Officially the flag with the Southern Cross was for maritime purposes only but it came to be used on land, even though the Union Jack remained the legal flag of New Zealand. Further confusion was caused by the introduction of an International Code of Signals, which led to the adoption of a signalling flag in 1899. The signalling flag displayed the red stars of the Southern Cross inside a white disc.", "In 1953, the Australian Government passed the Australian Flags Act which formally replaced the Union Jack with the Australian blue ensign as its national flag, though the Union Jack would continue to fly in Australia as well. The Union Jack continued to fly alongside the blue ensign national flag in New Zealand well into the 1950's, and in some cases instead of it. The Union Jack was featured on the New Zealand coat of arms until 1956, when it was replaced with a crown. Eventually, the Union Jack was phased out in New Zealand in favour of only the blue ensign national flag. Australia and New Zealand replaced 'God save the Queen' with their own national anthems in the late 1970's. As in Canada, 'God save the Queen' remained as a royal anthem only in Australia and New Zealand with limited use to royal visits and occasions. In 2015 and 2016, New Zealand held two referenda on adopting a new national flag replacing the Union Jack in the top left corner with a silver fern, which is the nation's symbol. The first referendum was to choose from five new designs and the second referendum put the most favoured new design up against the existing flag. The existing New Zealand flag won the referendum by 55% and Fiji decided to retain its existing flag after much opposition. Calls for a new Australian flag went nowhere.", "• While the Australian flag features the Commonwealth Star, the New Zealand flag does not have it. This is because the Commonwealth star is a symbol of Australia.", "When the Northern Territory and ACT were created as Federal Territories in 1911, the number of points on the Federation Star was not increased and remained at seven. The red ensign remained the Civil flag and the blue ensign the Government flag.", "New Zealand forces made dual use of the Union Jack and the national flagâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the New Zealand flag. The British Navy White Ensign remained the Navyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ensign, however, until the New Zealand White Ensign replaced it in 1968.", " New Zealand For a small country, New Zealand has consistently produced sportsmen of global significance in a wide variety of sports. These include the mountaineer Edmund Hillary, the cricketer Richard Hadlee, the runner Peter Snell, Ivan Mauger in speedway, Michael Campbell in golf, and the yachting crew that, in 2000, made New Zealand only the fourth country to win the America’s Cup. Rugby union, though, dominates New Zealand sports, producing a source of national unity symbolized in the haka, the Mãori war dance and poetic chant performed by New Zealand rugby teams before matches. In no other colonial country do the colonialists regard a “native” war dance as a key component of their culture. The other principal symbol of New Zealand rugby is the “All Black” strip or uniform worn by the national teams. Yet, at the international level, New Zealand has underachieved, winning the world title only once, when hosting a relatively low-key inaugural affair in 1987.", "The notice that appeared in the New Zealand Gazette on 27 June 1902 gave this technical description of the stars and their positions on the New Zealand Flag:", "When the six British colonies federated to form Australia in 1901, New Zealand decided not to join the federation. Instead, the British colony of New Zealand became a self-governing dominion in 1907. It was offered complete independence under the 1931 Statute of Westminster, although it did not adopt this until 1947. All remaining constitutional links with the United Kingdom were severed with the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act by both parliaments in 1986, though Queen Elizabeth II in right of New Zealand remains the Head of State (with a local Governor-General (appointed only after local advice) as her representative in New Zealand.", "The current flag was introduced in 1869. It was initially used only on government ships, but was adopted as the de facto national flag in a surge of patriotism arising from the Second Boer War in 1902. To end confusion between various designs of the flag, the Liberal Government passed the Ensign and Code Signals Bill, which was approved by King Edward VII on 24 March 1902, declaring the flag as New Zealand's national flag. The United Tribes flag design also features on the back of the Second Boer War medals presented to soldiers who served in the war, which indicates that the United Tribes flag was used widely in New Zealand until around this time.", "The current New Zealand flag was officially approved around 1902. For many years its relevance to modern day New Zealand (Aotearoa) has been debated not to mention its likeness to the Australian equivalent. Flag campaigns have come and gone and still we remain (and rightly so) a nation it seems reluctant to ditch a flag that our ancestors so gallantly fought under.", "The New Zealand Flag can be flown any day of the year, especially on days of national commemoration, such as Anzac Day, and other important occasions.", "Admiral Sir Albert Hastings Markham, KCB designed the New Zealand Flag. Read a Wikipedia profile of Admiral Markham here.", "For several years, some people in New Zealand have been calling for a change to the official New Zealand flag that signifies New Zealand's independence from Britain." ]

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[ "The 26 code words in the NATO phonetic alphabet are assigned to the 26 letters of the English alphabet in alphabetical order as follows: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.", "Answer: Juliet, all of the listed things describe a part of the NATO phonetic alphabet: Foxtrot, golf, hotel, India, and finally Juliet.", "The 26 code words in the NATO phonetic alphabet are assigned to the 26 letters of the English alphabet in alphabetical order as follows: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu. Some of the 26 words have altered pronunciations: Charlie can be either \"char-lee\" or \"shar-lee\", and Uniform is either \"you-nee-form\" or \"oo-nee-form\", neither of which is the English pronunciation of the word. Oscar is pronounced \"oss-cah\" and Victor as \"vik-tah\" without the 'r', even by people who would normally pronounce it. Papa is pronounced \"Pa-PAH\" with the accent on the second syllable instead of the first. The code word Quebec is pronounced as French \"keh-beck\". The ICAO and FAA use the standard number words of English (zero, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine) with four altered pronunciations (tree, fower, fife, niner), whereas the ITU and IMO use ten code words for numbers (nadazero, unaone, bissotwo, terrathree, kartefour, pantafive, soxisix, setteseven, octoeight, novenine).", "The NATO phonetic alphabet is a common name for the international radiotelephony spelling alphabet which assigns code words to the letters of the English alphabet so that critical combinations of letters (and numbers) can be pronounced and understood by those who transmit and receive voice messages by radio or telephone regardless of their native language, especially when the safety of navigation or persons is essential. It is used by many national and international organizations, including the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is a subset of the much older International Code of Signals (INTERCO), which originally included visual signals by flags or flashing light, sound signals by whistle, siren, foghorn, or bell, as well as one, two, or three letter codes for many phrases. The same alphabetic code words are used by all agencies, but each agency chooses one of two different sets of numeric code words. NATO uses the normal English numeric words (Zero, One), except for 3, 5, and 9, which are pronounced \"tree\", \"fife\", and \"niner\", whereas the IMO uses compound numeric words (Nadazero, Unaone).", "(US) NATO phonetic alphabet for the letter \"T\" and for \"Target\" (or enemy). Example: \"We have two Tango's at 3 o'clock – I'll take the right one.\"", "There are also 25 military time zones which follow the 15 degrees longitudes. These are named according to the NATO phonetic alphabet: Alpha , Bravo , Charlie , etc. and are used in aviation, at sea, and in telecommunications.", "The NATO phonetic spelling alphabet is a useful reference for language and communications study and training.", "A – ALFA; B – BRAVO; C – CHARLIE; D – DELTA; E – ECHO; F – FOXTROT; G – GOLF; H – HOTEL; I – INDIA; J – JULIETT; K – KILO; L – LIMA; M – MIKE; N – NOVEMBER; O – OSCAR; P – PAPA; Q – QUEBEC; R – ROMEO; S – SIERRA; T – TANGO; U – UNIFORM; V – VICTOR; W – WHISKEY; X – XRAY; Y – YANKEE; Z – ZULU", "A common name for this spelling alphabet, \"NATO phonetic alphabet,\" exists because it appears in Allied Tactical Publication ATP-1, Volume II: Allied Maritime Signal and Maneuvering Book used by all allied navies of NATO, which adopted a modified form of the International Code of Signals. Because the latter allows messages to be spelled via flags or Morse code , it naturally named the code words used to spell out messages by voice its \"phonetic alphabet\". The name NATO phonetic alphabet became widespread because the signals used to facilitate the naval communications and tactics of NATO have become global. [2] However, ATP-1 is marked NATO Confidential (or the lower NATO Restricted) so it is not available publicly. Nevertheless, a NATO unclassified version of the document is provided to foreign, even hostile, militaries, even though they are not allowed to make it available publicly. The spelling alphabet is now also defined in other unclassified international military documents. [3]", "First, some background: the spelling alphabet most commonly used in the world, and the one we’re most familiar with from movies, is formally called the “NATO phonetic alphabet.” It was originally developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization in the 1950s to unify the different alphabets and radio standards in use at the time; after exhaustive tests, it was adopted by Western military and civilian organizations. Today, it’s used worldwide in situations where voice messages need to be transmitted and understood in adverse conditions, in the presence of static or low bandwidth audio artifacts.", "Athletics, Basketball, Boxing, Canoe Sprint, Cycling (mountain bike), Diving, Football, Gymnastics (rhythmic), Handball, Hockey, Modern Pentathlon, Sailing, Taekwondo, Volleyball, Wrestling (freestyle)", "(US) NATO phonetic alphabet for the letter C. During the Vietnam War was a general term for the Vietcong by shortening of Victor Charlie.", "There are several spelling alphabets in use in international radiotelephony. The most widely used spelling alphabet is the NATO phonetic alphabet, which is also used in aviation like in communication between a pilot and the control tower.", "FIFA World Cup · Confederations Cup · Olympic Football · FIFA U-20 World Cup · FIFA U-17 World Cup", "In Rugby you got over 100 countries that play it. In AF you just got 18 countries that play it. So the popular #1 is Rugby you can google ti", "1. n (ball) → pallone m (Sport) (Brit) → calcio (000) (Am) → football m americano", "A common name for this spelling alphabet, \"NATO phonetic alphabet,\" exists because it appears in Allied Tactical Publication ATP-1, Volume II: Allied Maritime Signal and Maneuvering Book used by all allied navies of NATO, which adopted a modified form of the International Code of Signals. Because the latter allows messages to be spelled via flags or Morse code, it naturally named the code words used to spell out messages by voice its \"phonetic alphabet\". The name NATO phonetic alphabet became widespread because the signals used to facilitate the naval communications and tactics of NATO have become global. ", "The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting U.S. practices. The roughly 1,300 Standardization Agreements (STANAGs) codifies the standardization that NATO has achieved. Hence, the 7.62_51 NATO rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. Fabrique Nationale's FAL became the most popular 7.62 NATO rifle in Europe and served into the early 1990s. Also, aircraft marshalling signals were standardized, so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base. Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use.", "Without question, football (USA: Soccer) is Albania’s favorite sport. Championship matches in Albania date from 1930, and an Albanian Football Federation was founded in 1932 which became a member of the International Football Federation (FIFA). Albanian teams have taken part in both Balkan and European championships. For example, in 1967, an Albanian team eliminated the Federal German team while in 1965, one eliminated Northern Ireland (by draws in both cases). Today, Albanians fervently follow the fortunes of British, German, and Italian football teams. Second only to football is volleyball where both men and womens’ teams have become Balkan champions. Basketball is becoming increasingly popular, and many Albanian cities have fielded teams of both sexes who enter into their respective national and international competitions. Chess continues to gain favor — especially with youngsters, and tennis, having been long touted by the communists as a “capitalist” sport, is steadily winning enthusiasts.", "“Soccer” is one of the few words, in which c followed by e is pronounced [k]. Others are recce (military slang for reconnaissance) and arced, arcing.", "Sports are popular in Denmark, with association football reigning supreme in popularity and counted as the national sport, followed by Gymnastics, (olympic) Handball and Golf. Along with the other Nordic countries as well as Germany and France, Denmark is among the Handball superpowers and matches among those teams or world and European cups are closely followed by Handball enthusiasts.", "I repeat that other versions of phonetic spelling alphabets exist. The NATO alphabet above is the original and most widely used.", "Sierra - noun 2 communications in the NATO alphabet: the word used to denote the letter 'S'", "Before the acceptance of the NATO phonetic alphabet, the British already had their own version. It was as follows:", "For complete information about spelling variants for the NATO phonetic alphabet, plus other alphabets in use internationally, see:", "Dominant sport in: Germany, France, UK, Italy, Brazil, Russia, Mexico, Spain, Turkey, Netherlands, Nigeria. S. Arabia", "^ NATO uses British English spelling. This convention is discussed in its online frequently asked questions : \"Q: Why do you spell 'organisation' with an 's' and not a 'z'? A: By tradition, NATO uses European English spellings in all public information documents...\". NATO has two official languages, English and French, defined in Article 14 of the North Atlantic Treaty.", "The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) is the international governing body for the sport of athletics. It was founded on 17 July 1912 as the International Amateur Athletics Federation by representatives from 17 national athletics federations at the organization's first congress in Stockholm, Sweden. Since October 1993, it has been headquartered in Monaco.", "The team's logo, ASF-SFV, represents the Swiss Football Association's initials in Switzerland's official languages: ASF represents both French (Association Suisse de Football) and Italian (Associazione Svizzera di Football), and SFV is German (Schweizerischer Fussballverband). In Romansh, the association is abbreviated as ASB (Associaziun Svizra da Ballape).", "    Alphabet soup - A reference to the abbreviations of various sanctioning bodies that name a “world champion.” The 1980s gave birth to a number of these bodies.", "Another bet offered on the single zero game is \"finals\". Most often pronounced finaal, but also finale (common with Italian speakers), and finals.", "Subbuteo ist ein aus England stammendes Tisch-Fußballspiel für zwei Spieler. Gespielt wird Subbuteo auf einem grünen Tuch (meist aus Baumwolle oder einer Art Micro-Kunstrasen), das etwa 80 Zentimeter breit und 120 Zentimeter lang ist. Anders als etwa bei Tipp-Kick verfügt jeder Spieler über zehn frei bewegliche Feld-Spielfiguren. Diese sind etwa zwei Zentimeter hoch und stehen auf einem abgerundeten Sockel. Der Spielball hat einen Durchmesser von ebenfalls etwa zwei Zentimetern. Der jeweilige Torwart ist an einer Stange befestigt, so dass der Spieler ihn von der Rückseite des Tores aus bedienen kann.Gespielt wird Subbuteo, indem man den Zeige- oder Mittelfinger durch Druck auf das Spieltuch (nicht auf den Daumen) spannt und eine Spielfigur „schnippt“, also schnellen lässt. Der Ball wird dann je nach Richtung und Kraft der Spielfigur bloß berührt oder vorangetrieben. Die Art dieser Bewegung ist vergleichbar mit der beim Billard oder Carrom. Dadurch, dass alle Figuren beweglich sind und grundsätzlich nur durch Schnippen bewegt (also nicht etwa von Hand an die gewünschte Stelle platziert) werden dürfen, spielen bei Subbuteo – anders als bei den meisten anderen Tischfußballspielen – auch Strategie und Taktik eine große Rolle. In dieser Hinsicht kommt Subbuteo dem echten Fußballspiel nahe.Im Laufe der Jahre hat sich Subbuteo von einem Spiel zum Wettkampfsport entwickelt. So werden heute Deutsche Meisterschaften genauso ausgespielt wie Europapokalwettbewerbe und Weltmeisterschaften." ]

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[ "Columbus was not the first person to say that the Earth was not flat. The credit of that theory belongs to Aristotle.", "It was Isaac Newton who first claimed that the Earth is not spherical, but \"oval\". Newton imagined two wells going down to the center of the Earth: one drilled from the North Pole, and one drilled from the equator, both filled with water. The water in the equatorial well is subject to the centrifugal force, and the water in the Polar well is not. For the two columns of water to be in equilibrium, it follows that the equatorial well must be longer..", "Isaac Newton first proposed that Earth was not perfectly round. Instead, he suggested it was an oblate spheroid—a sphere that is squashed at its poles and swollen at the equator. He was correct and, because of this bulge, the distance from Earth's center to sea level is roughly 21 kilometers (13 miles) greater at the equator than at the poles.", "Beginning in the 19th century, a historical myth arose which held that the predominant cosmological doctrine during the Middle Ages was that the Earth was flat. An early proponent of this myth was the American writer, Washington Irving, who maintained that Christopher Columbus had to overcome the opposition of churchmen to gain sponsorship for his voyage of exploration. Later significant advocates of this view were John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, who used it as a major element in their advocacy of the thesis that there was a long lasting and essential conflict between science and religion. Subsequent historical research has demonstrated two flaws in this approach. First, studies of medieval science have shown that the preponderance of scholars in the Middle Ages, including those read by Christopher Columbus, maintained that the Earth was spherical. Second, studies of the relations between science and religion over the course of time have demonstrated that the model of an essential conflict is a vast oversimplication, which ignores the positive elements of the relations between them. ", "In 1898, during his solo circumnavigation of the world, Joshua Slocum encountered a group of flat-Earthers in Durban. Three Boers, one of them a clergyman, presented Slocum with a pamphlet in which they set out to prove that the world was flat. Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal Republic, advanced the same view: \"You don't mean round the world, it is impossible! You mean in the world. Impossible!\" ", "Anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains \"in the same place because of its indifference\", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in On the Heavens.[14] Its curious shape is that of a cylinder[15] with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass.", "Hecataeus of Miletus believed the earth was flat and surrounded by water. Herodotus in his Histories ridiculed the belief that water encircled the world, yet most classicists agree he still believed the earth was flat because of his descriptions of literal \"ends\" or \"edges\" of the earth. ", "After Rowbotham's death, Lady Elizabeth Blount created the Universal Zetetic Society in 1893 in England and created a journal called Earth not a Globe Review, which sold for twopence, as well as one called Earth, which only lasted from 1901 to 1904. She held that the Bible was the unquestionable authority on the natural world and argued that one could not be a Christian and believe the Earth is a globe. Well-known members included E. W. Bullinger of the Trinitarian Bible Society, Edward Haughton, senior moderator in natural science in Trinity College, Dublin and an archbishop. She repeated Rowbotham's experiments, generating some interesting counter-experiments, but interest declined after the First World War. The movement gave rise to several books that argued for a flat, stationary earth, including Terra Firma by David Wardlaw Scott. ", "Anaximander (611-547 B.C., Ionian) was a Greek philosopher who made the first detailed maps of the Earth and the sky. He knew that the Earth was round, and believed that it was free-floating and unsupported. He measured its circumference, and was the first to put forward the idea that celestial bodies make full circles in their orbits. One of his greatest contributions was the fact that he was the first to conceptualize space as having depth.", "The problem with the idea of concentric spheres was that it did not explain the full complexity of planetary motion, and the model could not explain how the moon and planets varied in size and brightness. Hipparchus (2nd Century BCE) was the first to suggest a new model to explain this and suggest why the seasons varied in length. Hipparchus believed that the earth did not lie at the very center of the universe, but lay slightly off center. Ptolemy took this idea further and expanded upon the idea, proposing the famous theory of epicycles.", "Whereas a number of previous Greek philosophers presumed the earth to be spherical, Aristotle (384–322 BC) is the one to be credited with proving the Earth’s sphericity. Those arguments may be summarized as follows:", "The second ingredient was the idea of a hollow earth . At the end of the seventeenth century, the British astronomer Sir Edmund Halley first suggested that the earth was hollow, consisting of four concentric spheres. The hollow earth theory fired many people�s imaginations, especially with the publication in 1864 of French novelist Jules Verne�s Voyage to the Center of the Earth.", "Even the best astronomers of the day stumbled when they turned their attentions Earthward. In a paper published in 1692, Edmond Halley, later famed for charting the orbit of his eponymous comet, argued that Earth was mostly hollow, consisting of three concentric shells rotating around a core. He estimated that the outermost shell — the one we live on — was 500 miles thick. (Halley based his calculations on a mistaken result by Isaac Newton regarding the relative masses of the moon and Earth, leading Halley to grossly underestimate Earth’s mass.) Atmospheres of glowing gas separated the shells, each of which had its own magnetic poles. Halley believed the inner shells might even be inhabited and lit by subterranean suns.", "A spherical Earth had been the general opinion of Ancient Greek science, and this view continued through the Middle Ages (for example, Bede mentions it in The Reckoning of Time). In fact Eratosthenes had measured the diameter of the Earth with good precision in the 2nd century BC. Where Columbus did differ from the generally accepted view of his time was in his incorrect arguments that assumed a significantly smaller diameter for the Earth, claiming that Asia could be easily reached by sailing west across the Atlantic. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy's correct assessment that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, and dismissed Columbus's claim that the Earth was much smaller, and that Asia was only a few thousand nautical miles to the west of Europe. Columbus's error was attributed to his insufficient experience in navigation at sea.Morison, Samuel Eliot, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: The Life of Christopher Columbus Boston, 1942", "Additional contributions include his prediction that the Earth was likely shaped as an “oblate spheroid” – i.e. a sphere that experienced flattening at the poles. This theory would later be vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others. This in turn helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes.", "Throughout most of recorded history, man believed that Earth was the center of the universe. This belief, which we now call the geocentric theory of the universe, was so strong that the few who dared to challenge it were often persecuted or even killed for their heretical beliefs. The persecution suffered by Italian mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei during the early seventeenth century for expressing his views opposing the prevailing geocentric model is well known. On the other hand, few are familiar with the story of Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno. Bruno was burned as a heretic in 1600 for supporting the same position as Galileo, namely that the Sun was actually the center of the universe and Earth revolved around it while rotating on its own axis. For centuries it had been an integral part of man's belief system that Earth was the center of the universe. This belief was not easily overturned.", "12 History of Science: Shape of the Earth: Middle Ages: Aquinas] Lectures in the medieval universities commonly advanced evidence in favor of the idea that the Earth was a sphere. Also, \"On the Sphere of the World\", the most influential astronomy textbook of the 13th century and required reading by students in all Western European universities, described the world as a sphere. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica, wrote, \"The physicist proves the earth to be round by one means, the astronomer by another: for the latter proves this by means of mathematics, e.g. by the shapes of eclipses, or something of the sort; while the former proves it by means of physics, e.g. by the movement of heavy bodies towards the center, and so forth.\" ", "Nicolaus Copernicus (2/19, 1473 – 5/24, 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.  The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus' lifetime was the one that Ptolemy published in his Almagest circa 150 CE.  The most popular modern geocentric description consists of a stationary Earth (neither rotating nor orbiting the sun) at the center of the universe.  As in the Tychonic system, the Sun is thought to revolve around the Earth once per day, and the rest of the solar system orbits the Sun with Keplerian orbits.  Modern geocentrists have been known to point to certain astronomical observations as evidence which could be interpreted as placing the earth at the center of the universe. ", "In the Early Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville's widely read encyclopedia presented the term \"antipodes\" as referring to antichthones (people who lived on the opposite side of the Earth), as well as to a geographical place; these people came to play a role in medieval discussions about the shape of the Earth. In 748, in reply to a letter from Saint Boniface, Pope Zachary declared the belief \"that beneath the earth there was another world and other men, another sun and moon\" to be heretical. In his letter, Boniface had apparently maintained that Vergilius of Salzburg held such a belief. ", "As far back as the 3rd century BC, Eratosthenes had correctly computed the circumference of the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast by objects at two different locations: Alexandria and Syene (modern-day Aswan ). Eratosthenes's results were confirmed by a comparison of stellar observations at Alexandria and Rhodes , carried out by Posidonius in the 1st century BC. These measurements were widely known among scholars, but confusion about the old-fashioned units of distance in which they were expressed had led, in Columbus's day, to some debate about the exact size of the Earth.", "Although epicycles do not exist, Copernicus was the first to set to prove that the earth, and all planets, rotated around a stable sun not earth. His idea that the Earth and planets orbited about the sun became know as the “heliocentric theory.” He wrote about it in his book “De Revolutionibus, ” which translates to “Concerning the Revolutions.”", "Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical coincidence between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa, and to propose continental drift as an explanation. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way: [5]", "Ptolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the center of the universe. If the Earth was substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.", "Claudius Ptolemaeus (commonly called Ptolemy by speakers of English) of Alexandria (a Greek city in what is now Egypt) around AD 140 (about 1860 years ago) described a geocentric (= earth-centered) model of the universe, with the Earth in the center of the Universe, the Sun as one of the wanderers (\"planetes\" in Greek) that move relative to the stars, and the stars fixed to the outermost celestial sphere. In this model, the stars and the Sun were completely different. The universe described in this book (which book came to be known as the Almagest) was accepted as the truth by practically everybody for the next 14 centuries, mostly because it was endorsed by the Roman Catholic Church, which became very powerful during that time. This model described fairly accurately how planets move, but not why they moved in just that way, and it lumped the Sun together with the planets rather than with the stars.", "Hermannus Contractus (1013–1054) was among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with Eratosthenes' method. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the most important and widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, believed in a spherical Earth; and he even took for granted his readers also knew the Earth is round.When Aquinas wrote his Summa, at the very beginning ([http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1001.htm#1 Summa Theologica Ia, q. 1, a. 1]; see also [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2054.htm#2 Summa Theologica IIa Iae, q. 54, a. 2]), the idea of a round Earth was the example used when he wanted to show that fields of science are distinguished by their methods rather than their subject matter... \"Sciences are distinguished by the different methods they use. For the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same conclusion - that the earth, for instance, is round: the astronomer proves it by means of mathematics, but the physicist proves it by the nature of matter.\" [http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp", "In the 1400s, the folk concept that the earth was �flat� was subjected to intellectual consideration. Clearly the moon was a sphere. Although the concept of �gravity� was not articulated, there was no observational evidence that would preclude the idea that the �flat� areas of human experience were not actually small patches on the surface of a great sphere. Indeed, the sailors watched the mast of ships appear on the horizon before the hull and as they traveled distanced from home, the orientation of the stars in the sky changed predictably relative to the horizon. The navigators of the Mediterranean, forced to sail north and south in the Atlantic from Britain to Africa, were becoming more and more certain that they stood on a great sphere like the moon.", "Italian scientist, formulated terrestrial laws and modern law of Inertia; he also provided edvidence for the Copernican hypothesis.", "The basic purpose of his book was to refute from scripture and common sense, the impious pagan beliefs that the earth was a sphere, and the center around which the heavens which were also a sphere, revolved. He also wrote against antipodes which means that people would be standing on their heads on the other side of the spherical earth.", "The flat earth and geocentric world are examples of wrong scientific beliefs that were held for long periods. Can you name your favorite example and for extra credit why it was believed to be true?", "who was the first person to complete a cosmology model that combined mathematics, physics, and astronomy", "Father of modern Geology. His theory of Uniformitarianism was the basis of the explanation of the geological history of the earth, which had in his words \"no vestige of a beginning, no concept of an end\". Published his \"Theory of the Earth\" in 1785.", "* \"There are rivers that flow for hundreds of miles towards the level of the sea without falling more than a few feet — notably, the Nile, which, in a thousand miles, falls but a foot. A level expanse of this extent is quite incompatible with the idea of the Earth's convexity. It is, therefore, a reasonable proof that Earth is not a globe.\"" ]

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[ "Conductivity is the measured amount of eddy current generation created on a metal target's surface. Contrary to popular belief, gold in its purest state is not a better conductor of electricity than pure silver. Silver is the best conductor when compared to all other metals detected with metal detectors.", "To my knowledge, silver is the best conductor of both heat and electricity among metals with a thermal conduction value of about 430 W/(mK).  Gold and copper both come respectably close to silver, and with Copper being significantly less costly it is often chosen over silver in many applications.", "The primary use of copper is for electrical applications. Copper is the best non-precious conductor of electricity (only silver is superior) and sets the standard to which other conductors are compared. Compared to copper, aluminium has worse conductivity per unit volume, but better conductivity per unit weight. Gold is sometimes used to plate fine wire applications not because it is a better conductor, but because it is extremely resistant to surface corrosion.", "Answer: The most electrically conductive element is silver , followed by copper and gold. Silver also has the highest thermal conductivity of any element and the highest light reflectance. Although it is the best conductor , copper and gold are used more often in electrical applications because copper is less expensive and gold has a much higher corrosion resistance. Because silver tarnishes, it is less desirable for high frequencies because the exterior surface is less conductive.", "Materials of high conductivity include metals, especially copper and silver. Silver actually has the highest electrical conductivity but is too expensive for general use for electrical wiring. Copper is the next best choice and is normally used for any type of electrical wiring. Gold is also a good conductor, although not as good as copper and more expensive than silver, but it does have the additional advantage of being corrosion resistant and so is often used as a plating for electrical contacts. Aluminium is often used for overhead power lines because it is a reasonable conductor but has the additional advantage of being light in weight.", "densities than group 1 or 2 elements. Group 11 includes the traditional coinage metals such as copper, silver, and gold (see Figure 13-02c). They are also known as the \"noble metals\". They are all relatively inert, hard-to-corrode metals which have been used for minting coins, hence their name. Many metals form coloured compounds, (e.g., iron pyrite ), and many metals have a coloured sheen. These metals, especially silver, have unusual properties that make them essential for industrial applications outside of their monetary or decorative value. They are all excellent conductors of electricity. The most conductive of all metals are silver, copper and gold in that order. Silver is the most", "Although silver is the most electrically conductive element, copper and gold are more commonly used in wiring and electronics. Copper is used because it is less expensive. Gold is used because it does not corrode as easily as other metals. Nickel, iron, platinum, zinc and aluminum also have high electrical conductivity. Alloys like bronze and brass are also electrically conductive.", "Aluminium is an excellent conductor of both heat and electricity. The great advantage of aluminium is that by weight, the conductivity of aluminium is around twice that of copper. This means that aluminium is now the most commonly used material in large power transmission lines.", "Pure copper has the best electrical and thermal conductivity of any commercial metal. Today, over half of the copper produced is used in electrical and electronic applications and this leads to a convenient classification of the types of copper into electrical (high conductivity) and non-electrical (engineering). Read more .", "Silver has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal.", "Materials through which electric current can pass through easily are called conductors of electricity. Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to allow the flow of an electric current. Among solids metals and graphite are good conductors of electricity which have high electrical conductivity. Some liquids are also good conductors.  ", "Because metals are good conductors of electricity, they are valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over long distances with little energy loss or dissipation. Thus, electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for example, are wired with copper for its good conducting properties and easy machinability. The high thermal conductivity of most metals also makes them useful for stovetop cooking utensils.", "At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation. On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas) through the material much like free electrons.", "Calcium metal has a higher electrical resistivity than copper or aluminium, yet weight-for-weight, due to its much lower density, it is a better conductor than either. Its use as such in terrestrial applications is usually limited by its high reactivity with air; however, it has potential for use as wiring in off-world applications. ", "Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas). ", "Do you remember the copper atom that we discussed? Do you remember how its valence shell had an electron that could easily be shared between other atoms? Copper is considered to be a conductor because it Âconducts the electron current or flow of electrons fairly easily. Most metals are considered to be good conductors of electrical current. Copper is just one of the more popular materials that is used for conductors.", "carrying a single electric current. Bus bars are also conductors. Conductors may be classed with respect to their conducting power as; (a) good; silver, copper, aluminum, zinc, brass, platinum, iron, nickel, tin, lead; (b) fair; charcoal and coke, carbon, plumb ago, acid solutions, sea water, saline solutions, metallic ores, living vegetable substances, moist earth; (c) partial; water, the body, flame, linen, cotton, mahogany, pine, rosewood, lignum vitae, teak, and marble.", "Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.", "Copper is often used in electric wiring because of its superior ability to conduct electricity and", "Copper has a high electrical and thermal conductivity, second only to silver among pure metals at room temperature.", "As the transition metal copper can be found pure in nature, it was known to the ancients. Originally popular for its high malleability, the extremely high electrical conductivity of copper (second only to silver) makes it the conductor of choice for most wires.", "Tin hadn't been studied for this purpose before. But Xu and his colleagues found that when tin atoms are arranged in a single, honeycomb layer, the elements' properties change. It becomes a perfect conductor of electricity at room temperature, with not a single stray electron lost, the researchers reported in November 2014. ", "Aluminium conductors were originally indiscriminately used with wiring devices intended for copper conductors. This practice was found to cause defective connections unless the aluminium was one of a special alloy, or all devices — breakers, switches, receptacles, splice connectors, wire nuts, etc. — were specially designed for the purpose. These special designs address problems with junctions between dissimilar metals, oxidation on metal surfaces and mechanical effects that occur as different metals expand at different rates with increases in temperature.", "Metals are excellent electric and thermal conductors , exhibit high luster and density, and are malleable and ductile. More »", "Very good corrosion resistance (can be alloyed to extend beyond stainless steels), good high temperature and mechanical performance, fairly good conductor of heat and electricity", "a shiny grayish white metallic element that has the highest thermal and electric conductivity of any substance.", "A bluish silver-white malleable ductile light trivalent metallic element that has good electrical and thermal conductivity, high reflectivity, and resistance to oxidation and is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust .", "Electrical conductors Materials that have electrons that are free to move throughout the material; for example, metals", "METALLIC BOND, metals pack the ions closely together and leave the outermost electrons free to move independently. This lets them be hammered thin, form wire and conduct electricity.", "In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulating materials, but are free to move within the metal lattice. These conduction electrons can serve as charge carriers, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conductive because there are a large number of these free electrons, typically one per atom in the lattice. With no external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the average speed of these random motions is 106 metres per second. Given a surface through which a metal wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the surface at an equal rate. As George Gamow wrote in his popular science book, One, Two, Three...Infinity (1947), \"The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current.\"", "Metal that is used especially as a protective covering for steel, in rechargeable batteries and in nuclear reactors (control rods).", "Conductor -- A material that has a loose grip on its electrons, so an electrical current can pass through it." ]

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[ "The Binary System is a base 2 number system that uses only two (bi) numbers or digits (0 and 1) to represent all values.", "Binary is the simplest kind of number system that uses only two digits of 0 and 1. By using these digits computational problems can be solved by machines because in digital electronics a transistor is used in two states. Those two states can be represented by 0 and 1. That is why this number system is the most preferred in modern computer engineer, networking and communication specialists, and other professionals.", "When you learn most types of computer programming , you touch upon the subject of binary numbers. The binary number system plays an important role in how information is stored on computers because computers only understand numbers—specifically base 2 numbers. The binary number system is a base 2 system that uses only the numerals 0 and 1 to represent off and on in a computer's electrical system. The two binary digits, 0 and 1, are used in combination to communicate text and computer processor instructions.", "* Mathematics: the number system understood by most computers, the binary system, uses 2 digits: 0 and 1.", "Binary is simply a different way of representing numeric values. It is a numbering system like decimal. Rather than having ten digits, binary only has two: 0 and 1.", "In a given numeral system, if the base be an integer, the number of digits required would always equal to the absolute value of the base. For example, the decimal system (base 10) has ten digits (0 through to 9), whereas binary (base 2) has two digits (0 and 1).", "In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number expressed in the binary numeral system or base-2 numeral system which represents numeric values using two different symbols: typically 0 (zero) and 1 (one). The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by almost all modern computers and computer-based devices. Each digit is referred to as a bit.", "Binary numbers and arithmetic let you represent any amount you want using just two digits: 0 and 1. Here are some examples:", "In binary we’re only allowed two symbols: 0 and 1. But using those two symbols we can create any number that a decimal system can.", "Base Two: Binary (base 2) numbers have only two digits, 0 and 1. Left from the \"binary point\" are the one's, two's, four's, eight's, etc. positions. Going to the right of the \"binary point\" are the half's, fourth's, eighth's, etc. The binary number 1101.101 represents 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8, or 13.625 (1*10 + 3 + 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000) in decimal form.", "Binary is a base-2 number system that uses two mutually exclusive states to represent information. A binary number is made up of elements called bits where each bit can be in one of the two possible states. Generally, we represent them with the numerals 1 and 0. We also talk about them being true and false. Electrically, the two states might be represented by high and low voltages or some form of switch turned on or off.", "In mathematics we use decimal numbers, that is, 0 to 9. But in digital system we use binary number system which has only 0 and 1. There are other number systems such as octal and hexadecimal which are used in digital systems. A decimal number has a base of 10, a binary number has a base of 2, an octal number has a base of 8 and a hexadecimal number has a base of 16.", "With only two numerals, 1 (one) and 0 (zero), counting in binary is pretty simple. Just keep in mind the following:", "Now we take a look at the base 2 number system [binary]. The only unique integers in this system are 0 and 1. Counting with it looks like this:", "Binary is also called a base 2 number system because it is composed of two digits. Decimal is a base 10 numbering system because its composed of ten digits. There are other numbering systems composed of more or less digits. A single digit numbering system the simplest numbering system but is very inefficient to work with.", "To represent 124 marbles in binary, we would follow the same thought process as we would in decimal (see Figure 2), but this time we have only two digits (0 and 1). For ease of understanding, the arithmetic is done in decimal.", "Each digit \"1\" in a binary number represents a power of two, and each \"0\" represents zero:", "The binary number system is a method of storing ordinary numbers such as 42 or 365 as patterns of 1's and 0's. Because of their digital nature, a computer's electronics can easily manipulate numbers stored in binary by treating 1 as \"on\" and 0 as \"off.\" Computers have circuits that can add, subtract, multiply, divide, and do many other things to numbers stored in binary.", "Hexadecimal: A number system used in computers in which numbers are composed of combinations of 16 digits, using 0-9 then the letters A-F to represent 10-15. Hex allows binary numbers to be expressed in a more compact and comprehensible form. For example, 255 = FF (hex) = 11111111 (binary). See Binary .", "Notice that the bases of the binary and hexadecimal numbering systems are multiples of 2: 2 and 24, respectively. Because of this, there is a convenient relationship between these numbering systems. The numbering-system equivalence table shown in Figure 1 illustrates that a single hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (01112 = 716, 11012 = D16, 10102 = A16 where subscripts are used to indicate the base of the numbering system). Notice that in hexadecimal, or \"hex,\" letters are used to represent the six higher order digits.", "But you don't have to use 10 as a \"Base\". You could use 2 (\"Binary\"), 16 (\"Hexadecimal\"), or any number you want to!", "Because the binary code system has only 2 numbers, powers of 2 plays an important role. Numbers always have to be 2 to the power of ???.", "The decimal system is base-10 which most people are used to and comfortable using because we have 10 fingers. The binary system is base-2 which most computers are used to and comfortable using because they have two voltage states.", "In the base 2 (binary) number system, integer powers of 2 are written as 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent. For example, two to the power of three is written as 1000 in binary.", "Now we need to do the remaining digits. One idea is to \"shift\" them. It is also easy to see that multiplying and dividing by 2 shifts everything by one column: two in binary is 10, or (1*2^1). Dividing (1*2^1) by 2 gives us (1*2^0), or just a 1 in binary. Similarly, multiplying by 2 shifts in the other direction: (1*2^1)*2=(1*2^2) or 10 in binary. Therefore", "Start with any two-digit number. Multiply each digit by itself then add these answers. Do the same thing to this new number and so on until something happens. For example 32 becomes 9+4 which is 13, 13 becomes 1+9 which is 10, 10 becomes 1+0 =1. This one ends at 1. What else happens when you start with different numbers?", "The binary system works in exactly the same way, except that its place value is based on the number two.", "Floating-point numbers are stored in two parts: a binary fraction and a binary exponent. Let's see how this is done.", "The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz. Leibniz had developed the concept early in his career, and had revisited it when he reviewed a copy of the I ching from China. Binary numbers came into common use in the 20th century because of computer applications.", "More generally, in a system with radix b (), a string of digits denotes the number , where . ", "Taking that further, let’s plug in some values for the digits. What if you had a binary number like: 10011011? That would mean an values of:", "As you can see, numbers can become rather long and appear to be cumbersome in the binary system. For example, to show the number 10, we need four light switches, or four places." ]

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[ "3 Which scientist was born in Germany in 1879, became a Swiss citizen in 1901 and later became a US citizen in 1940?", "Born on March 14, 1879, in the southern German city of Ulm, Albert Einstein grew up in a middle-class Jewish family in Munich. As a child, Einstein became fascinated by music (he played the violin), mathematics and science. He dropped out of school in 1894 and moved to Switzerland, where he resumed his schooling and later gained admission to the Swiss Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich. In 1896, he renounced his German citizenship, and remained officially stateless before becoming a Swiss citizen in 1901.", "1901 Albert Einstein becomes a Swiss citizen, completes his first scientific paper on the capillary forces of a straw, and moves to Bern. ", "Einstein was born a German citizen. At the age of 17, on January 28 , 1896, he was released from his German citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father. He remained stateless for five years. On February 21 , 1901 he gained Swiss citizenship, which he never revoked. Einstein obtained Prussian citizenship in April 1914 when he entered the Prussian civil service, but due to the political situation and the persecution of Jewish people in Nazi Germany , he left civil service in March 1933 and thus also lost the Prussian citizenship. On October 1, 1940 , Einstein became an American citizen . He remained both an American and a Swiss citizen until his death on April 18, 1955 .", "Einstein was born a German citizen. At the age of seventeen, on January 28, 1896, he was released from the German citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father. He remained stateless for five years. On February 21, 1901 he gained Swiss citizenship, which he never revoked. Einstein regained German citizenship in April 1914 when he entered German civil service, but due to the political situation and the persecution of Jewish people in Nazi Germany, he left civil service in March 1933 and thus also lost the German citizenship. On October 1, 1940, Einstein became an American citizen. He remained both an American and a Swiss citizen until his death on April 18, 1955.", "Albert Einstein lived in Switzerland, Germany and America. He was born 14 March 1879 and died 18 April 1955.", "In the early 1930s, Einstein took to spending his winters at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, and was also a guest lecturer at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. When, in 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and promptly passed the \"Law of the Restoration of the Civil Service\" removing Jews and politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, the Einsteins prudently moved to the U.S.A., buying a house in Princeton. The Nazis froze his German bank account and seized his home, and Einstein remained in the United States for the rest of his life, becoming a citizen in 1940 (although he also retained his Swiss citizenship). Over time, he became so well known in his adopted America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\".", "In 1900, he was granted a teaching diploma by the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH Zurich). Einstein then wrote his first published paper on the capillary forces of a drinking straw, wherein he tried to unify the laws of physics, an attempt he would continually make throughout his life. (It was titled \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen,\" which translated is \"Consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena,\" found in \"Annalen der Physik\" volume 4, page 513.) Shortly thereafter, Einstein was accepted as a Swiss citizen in 1901; he kept his Swiss passport for his whole life.", "He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences . He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. [9] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project . Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell , Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto , which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey , until his death in 1955.", "Otto Hahn, (born March 8, 1879, Frankfurt am Main , Ger.—died July 28, 1968, Göttingen , W.Ger.), German chemist who, with the radiochemist Fritz Strassmann, is credited with the discovery of nuclear fission . He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1944 and shared the Enrico Fermi Award in 1966 with Strassmann and Lise Meitner.", "During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton * . He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.", "Albert Einstein grew up in Munich, where his father founded an electrical engineering company. After studying at the ETH university in Zurich, Einstein worked at the patent office in Bern, during which time he produced several pioneering works in the field of physics. He was later employed at universities in Bern, Zurich, and Prague, and from 1914, in Berlin. After the Nazis seized power in Germany, Einstein immigrated to the US, where he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Albert Einstein married twice and had three children by his first marriage.", "Einstein had been born German and a Jew. He died an American citizen in 1955. Einstein was in America when Hitler came to power. He decided it would be a bad idea to return to Germany, and renounced his German citizenship. Einstein did not practice Judaism, but strongly identified with the Jewish people persecuted by the Nazi Party, favoring a Jewish homeland in Palestine with the rights of Arabs protected.", "He later settled in the United States, where he accepted a post at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He would remain there for the rest of his life, working on his unified field theory and relaxing by sailing on a local lake or playing his violin. He became an American citizen in 1940.", "An enormous influence was exerted on modern science by A. Einstein, who was a professor at the University of Zürich from 1909 to 1911 and from 1912 to 1914. Einstein formulated the special theory of relativity, the quantum theory of light, and the theory of Brownian movement. Beginning in the late 1920’s the development of physics in Switzerland was associated with the research of W. Pauli, who helped develop quantum mechanics and the relativistic quantum field theory; Pauli received a Nobel Prize in 1945. R. Wolf established a connection between solar activity and variations in the Earth’s magnetic field.", "In 1940 Pauli was appointed to the chair of theoretical physics at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J., and in 1946 he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Following World War II he returned to Zurich.", "After the Fermi publication, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann began performing similar experiments in Berlin. Meitner, an Austrian Jew, lost her citizenship with the \"Anschluss\", the occupation and annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938, but she fled in July 1938 to Sweden and started a correspondence by mail with Hahn in Berlin. By coincidence, her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, also a refugee, was also in Sweden when Meitner received a letter from Hahn dated 19 December describing his chemical proof that some of the product of the bombardment of uranium with neutrons was barium. Hahn suggested a bursting of the nucleus, but he was unsure of what the physical basis for the results were. Barium had an atomic mass 40% less than uranium, and no previously known methods of radioactive decay could account for such a large difference in the mass of the nucleus. Frisch was skeptical, but Meitner trusted Hahn's ability as a chemist. Marie Curie had been separating barium from radium for many years, and the techniques were well-known. According to Frisch:", "The physicist Max Born, born in Germany, was listed as which nationality when awarded his Nobel Prize - he had fled to that country when Hitler was in power?", "In 1933, Einstein took on a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey and never went back to his native land. It was here that he would spend the rest of his life working on a unified field theory—an all-embracing paradigm meant to unify the varied laws of physics. Other European scientists also left regions threatened by Germany and immigrated to the states, with there being concern over Nazi strategies to create an atomic weapon. ", "On June 20, 1945, the U.S. Secretary of State approved the transfer of von Braun and his specialists to America; however, this was not announced to the public until October 1, 1945. Von Braun was among those scientists for whom the U.S. Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency created false employment histories and expunged Nazi Party memberships and regime affiliations from the public record. Once “bleached” of their Nazism, the U.S. Government granted the scientists security clearance to work in the United States.", "American physicist, educated at the Eidgen¨ossische Technische Hochschule in Z¨urich (ETHZ) and at the University of Leipzig where he received his doctorate in physics in 1928. During the next few years he held various assistantships and fellowships that gave him the opportunity to work with the giants of modern physics (Pauli, Heisenberg, Bohr, and Fermi) and to further his understanding of solid state physics in general and stopping", "Dr. Mann and his wife went to Switzerland to settle in 1953, after having spent fifteen years in the United States. Despite his American citizenship, Dr. Mann, who once said that his stay in the United States was one of the most productive and satisfying periods in his life, decided to return to Europe, where he felt that he had been most deeply rooted.", "Einstein had worked at the Patent Office (Swiss Office for Intellectual Property) for some years in Bern. Did he also have own patents?", "Indeed, he didn't perform again until October 1919. From 1924 to 1934 he lived in Berlin, but after witnessing the increasing Anti-Semitism in Germany, he moved to France and then in 1939 returned to the USA for the rest of his life, becoming an American citizen in 1943.", "Fritz Haber was a German chemist who won the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements. He born into a well-established Jewish family in Breslau; his father owned a prosperous chemical business. After receiving his PhD from Friedrich Wilhelm University, Fritz Haber first decided to join his fatherâs business; but later changed his mind and joined University of Jenna. While working as an independent assistant at Jena he converted to Lutheranism. Later, he shifted first to University of Karlsruhe and then to Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Berlin-Dahlem. At Karlsruhe, he worked on different projects and made major contributions in the field of chemistry. His work on synthesizing of ammonia for use in the fertilizer and explosive industries is one of his most significant discoveries. It not only earned him fame, but also the Nobel Prize in 1918. However, his invention of chemical weapon during the World War I made him equally unpopular. However, he defended his action by saying that death was death; it did not matter how it happened. He also declared that during peace the scientists belonged to the world, but during the war, they belonged only to their own country.", "Daughter of physician Dr. Ludwig Mayer of Offenbach. In 1930, she became Germany's woman fencing champion. Soon after Hitler came to power, his Propaganda Minister, Joseph Goebbels, portrayed Helena Mayer, now a national heroine, as the perfect specimen of German womanhood. Tall, blonde and blue eyed, she was described as the apotheosis of German racial purity. The campaign was abruptly abandoned when it was discovered that Helene had a Jewish father and grandparents. She went to the USA to study international law but was invited to take part in the 1936 Olympics in Berlin where she won a silver medal. After the Olympics she settled in the US and became an American citizen winning the US Women's National Fencing Championship eight times. In 1952 she returned to Germany and married an engineer from Stuttgart. She died after a long illness on October 15, 1953.", "Daughter of physician Dr. Ludwig Mayer of Offenbach. In 1930, she became Germany's woman fencing champion. Soon after Hitler came to power, his Propaganda Minister, Joseph Goebbels, portrayed Helena Mayer, now a national heroine, as the perfect specimen of German womanhood. Tall, blonde and blue eyed, she was described as the apotheosis of German racial purity. The campaign was abruptly abandoned when it was discovered that Helene had a Jewish father and grandparents. She went to the USA to study international law but was invited to take part in the 1936 Olympics in Berlin where she won a silver medal. After the Olympics she settled in the US and became an American citizen winning the US Women's National Fencing Championship eight times. In 1952 she returned to Germany and married an engineer from Stuttgart. She died after a long illness on October 15, 1953.", "Dr Elisabeth Kübler-Ross was born in Zurich, Switzerland, on July 8, 1926. She was one of triplet sisters. Kübler-Ross studied medicine against her father's wishes, at Zurich, later settling in the US in 1958 and becoming a US citizen in 1961.", "German physicist who developed quantum theory and was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1918.", "German organic chemist. He did pioneering work on plant pigments, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1915, as well as on medicinal chemicals, developing gas masks in the First World War. Being Jewish, growing anti-Semitism led to his position becoming untenable, and he fled Germany in 1939.", "He was born in Newark New Jersey on April 7, 1883, son of Austrian-German ancestry of both parents, Albert Roessler, Sr. (1859-1890), a native of New Jersey, and Emma Katherine Erb (1858-), a native of Connecticut. The family name in German is spelled Rössler. His paternal grandfather was Johann Rössler a native of Vienna, Austria, and his wife Mathilda a native of Baden-Württemberg, Germany.", "1905 The annus mirabilis : completes papers on light quanta, Brownian motion, and special theory of relativity Receives Ph.D. from Zurich University" ]

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[ "Interior angle sum: The sum of interior angles of a hexagon is given by 7200 degree and the formula is given by: Interior angle of a hexagon = 180(n – 2). This is all about hexagon.", "The sum of all the interior angles in a hexagon is equal to 720 degrees. A hexagon is a polygon that consists of six straight line segments and six interior angles. However, there are regular and irregular hexagons.", "A regular hexagon has all the sides equal as well as all the angles equal. While, an irregular hexagon does not possess this property. The sum of interior angles of the regular hexagon (six sided polygon) is 720$^{\\circ}$ and for exterior angle is 360$^{\\circ}$. Here, you going to get knowledge about hexagons in detail. You will also learn different formulas related to hexagon and few sample problems based on those.", "In geometry, a hexagon (from Greek ἕξ hex, \"six\" and γωνία, gonía, \"corner, angle\") is a six-sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the internal angles of any hexagon is 720°.", "A 6 sided figure with all equal angles is equiangular hexagon. It contains six interior angles each is of 120o and their sum is 720o.", "A regular hexagon has internal angles of 120°, but 3×120°=360° which won't work because at 360° the shape flattens out.", "Find the sum of the degree measures of the angles of a hexagon. Assuming the hexagon is regular, find the degree measure of each interior angle.", "Sum of interior angles of a polygon is = 180*(n-2), where n is the number of sides of the polygon", "Sum of interior angles of a heptagon = (2 * 7 - 4) * 90 degrees.", "The sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2)180°. For instance, the sum of the interior angles of an octagon is (8 – 2)180°= 6(180°) = 1080°.", "A convex hexagon has no angles pointing inwards. More precisely, no internal angles can be more than 180°.", "The number of triangles which compose the polygon is two less than the number of sides (angles). We generalize this result for a polygon of n sides and angles: Theorem: The sum of the interior angles in a polygon with n sides is 180º(n – 2).", "All pentagons consist of three triangles, where each triangle contains three interior angles that total 180 degrees. The sum of a pentagon's interior angles is taken by multiplying 180 by 3, which is equivalent to 540. In general, the formula for obtaining the sum of all interior angles of any polygon is (n-2) multiplied by 180 degrees, where \"n\" indicates the number of sides.", "*Interior angle – The sum of the interior angles of a simple n-gon is radians or degrees. This is because any simple n-gon ( having n sides ) can be considered to be made up of triangles, each of which has an angle sum of π radians or 180 degrees. The measure of any interior angle of a convex regular n-gon is \\left(1-\\tfrac{2}{n}\\right)\\pi radians or 180-\\tfrac{360}{n} degrees. The interior angles of regular star polygons were first studied by Poinsot, in the same paper in which he describes the four regular star polyhedra: for a regular \\tfrac{p}{q}-gon (a p-gon with central density q), each interior angle is \\tfrac{\\pi(p-2q)}{p} radians or \\tfrac{180(p-2q)}{p} degrees. ", "The sum of the interior angles of the pentagon is the sum of the interior angles of the three triangles. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180o so the sum of the interior angles of the pentagon is 3 times 180o which is 540o.", "An exterior angle of a Heptagon is formed by extending any one of its sides. The non-straight angle adjacent to an interior angle is the exterior angle. Each exterior angle of any regular Heptagon is 51.43° (In a polygon, an exterior angle forms a linear pair with its interior angle, so in general the exterior angle is given by 180-interior angle). In a convex polygon, the sum of the exterior angles is 360°.", "To find the sum of the interior angles of a heptagon, divide it up into triangles... There are five triangles...  Because the sum of the angles of each triangle is 180 degrees...  We get", "2. Exterior angles – A linear pair formed with exterior angles of a hexagon. The exterior angles of a hexagon are equals to 600 degree.", "A hexagon inscribed in a circle has three consecutive sides each of length 3 and three consecutive sides each of length 5. The chord of the circle that divides the hexagon into two trapezoids, one with three sides each of length 3 and the other with three sides each of length 5, has length equal to m/n, where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m+n.", "The internal angle at each vertex of a regular octagon is 135° (\\scriptstyle \\frac{3\\pi}{4} radians). The central angle is 45° (\\scriptstyle \\frac{\\pi}{4} radians).", "exterior angle: The angle between the extended side of a regular hexagon and an adjacent side. The exterior angles of a regular hexagon always measure 60°.", "Rather than repeat the angle sum calculation for every possible number of sides, we look for a pattern. The angle sum of a triangle (3-gon) is 180°, the angle sum of a quadrilateral (4-gon) is 2x180°, and the angle sum of a pentagon is 3x180°. A general polygon with", "Solution: First, we divide the hexagon into small triangles by drawing the radii to the midpoints of the hexagon. These will form right-angles via the property that tangent segments to a circle form a right-angle with the radius.", "If a hexagon has vertices on the circumcircle of an acute triangle at the six points (including three triangle vertices) where the extended altitudes of the triangle meet the circumcircle, then the area of the hexagon is twice the area of the triangle.Johnson, Roger A., Advanced Euclidean Geometry, Dover Publications, 2007 (orig. 1960).", "In this page, we are going to understand about heptagons. Heptagon is one of the types of polygon which has 7 sides and seven angles. A heptagon may be a regular or an irregular in shape. A regular heptagon has 7 equal sides and 7 angles of equal measure. An irregular heptagon does not have all the angles and sides equal. It is irregular in shape.", "There are several interesting ways to construct a regular hexagon. The angle at the centre of a regular hexagon is", "1. The hexagon fits exactly inside the circle (so the circle is circumscribed outside the hexagon, and the hexagon is inscribed inside the circle).", "A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle. What is the ratio of the length of a side of the hexagon to the minor arc that it intercepts?", "If, for each side of a cyclic hexagon, the adjacent sides are extended to their intersection, forming a triangle exterior to the given side, then the segments connecting the circumcenters of opposite triangles are concurrent. ", "   The more sides (and angles) we have in an object,  the more the angles inside the shape add up to!    We could even write a formula like this ...  ", "equilateral triangular extensions, as shown in the diagram. What is the ratio of the area of the extensions to the area of the original hexagon?", "A regular heptagon with sides \\scriptstyle {S 3\\tfrac{2}{11}} can be inscribed in a circle of the radius \\scriptstyle {R " ]

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[ "The most common blood type in the world is Type O. The rarest, Type A-H, has been found in less than a dozen people since the type was discovered.", "Since the different blood types were discovered, Type A-H, the rarest type, has been found in less than a dozen people. Type O is the most common blood type. Every square inch of human skin consists of an astonishing twenty feet of blood vessels.", "Type O is the most common blood type in the world. Type AB is the rarest. There is also a subype called A-H, but to date only three people in the world are known to have it.", "The most commonly known blood antigens make up the major human blood groups: A, B, AB and O. However, many less-common blood groups also exist, such as Vel, which can potentially make transfusions dangerous for patients.", "Different ethnic and racial groups also have different frequency of the main blood types in their populations. For example, approximately 45 percent of Caucasians are type O, but 51 percent of African-Americans and 57 percent of Hispanics are type O. Type O is routinely in short supply and in high demand by hospitals – both because it is the most common blood type and because type O negative blood, in particular, is the universal type needed for emergency transfusions. Minority and diverse populations, therefore, play a critical role in meeting the constant need for blood.", "The most common systems used for classifying blood are the ABO blood group system and the Rhesus (Rh) type system.", "Group O is the most common in all races. But from there, it varies a great deal % wise as to which blood groups predominate. AB tends to be the lowest. Remember that your are dealing with genetics and statistics!", "There are many blood groups in the human population including ABO, Rh, Kidd, Kell, Duffy, MNS and Lewis. The most important of these are ABO and RhD.  Transfusion with ABO incompatible blood can lead to severe and potentially fatal transfusion reactions.  RhD is highly immunogenic and can lead to red cell haemolysis in certain settings. ", "The majority of the people in the world have the Rh+ blood type.  However, it is more common in some regions.  Native Americans and Australian Aborigines were very likely 99-100% Rh+ before they began interbreeding with people from other parts of the world.  This does not imply that Native Americans and Australian Aborigines are historically closely related to each other.  Most Subsaharan African populations are around 97-99% Rh+.  East Asians are 93-99+% Rh+.  Europeans have the lowest frequency of this blood type for any continent.  They are 83-85% Rh+.  The lowest known frequency is found among the Basques of the Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain.  They are only 65% Rh+.", "Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 35 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with +, − or Null denoting RhD status).", "Blood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank. There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused.", "From this kind of analysis scientists concluded that A came first. Then, about 3.5 million years ago, the A gene mutated in someone and blood type B was born. The same thing happened about a million years ago for O blood type. So O is actually the most recent blood type.", "Group O has been found to be quite common in the world,with a greater proportion having O positive type. An example can be found in the fact that almost 48% of the population in UK has this blood group.", "So we all started out with A blood type. Some lucky person developed a mutation that caused the A to convert to O. Now that person (and his or her offspring) was more resistant to malaria and so lived longer and had more babies. After awhile, O came to dominate human blood types. That's one theory anyway.", "According to the American Red Cross the rarest is AB(-), present in 1% of the Caucasians, in African Americans it is even rarer. B(-) and O(-) are also very rare, each accounting for less than 5% of the world's population. Some people with rare blood types bank their own blood in advance of surgical procedures to ensure that blood is available to them.", "A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found,Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease. Another more common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (e.g., a type A patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the donor's type.", "If these blood groups are being selected against, the agent is not restricted to humans because the system has been around for over 13 million years. There is only indirect evidence for the possibility of natural selection in the evolutionary pattern of ABO groups (Saitou and   ).  To link natural selection to the frequency of A, B, O phenotypic frequency requires more evidence.  One such study was completed by Boren et al. (1993), in which a bacterium casing gastric disorders was linked to blood type (Saitou   ).  The researchers found there to be less receptors for the bacterium in blood types A and B, thus people with blood type O were more susceptible.  If more blood types could be linked to microorganisms, there would be more evidence for natural selection.", "2. Due to the overwhelming majority of people that display the antigens of the A, B or O blood in their blood, rare blood types are omitted from the scale despite their presence. However, there are the presence of numerous antigens such as the H antigen and the P antigen.", "In this blood group system, A and B are codominant thus humans may have the following phenotypes and genotypes and the corresponding antibodies and antigens. ", "One day, scientific breakthroughs may make it easier to find compatible blood for anyone. Geneticists are working on testing methods that determine blood types using DNA, without looking at the blood itself. (So far, this process only works with certain antigens.) Nance hopes that one day, every newborn will undergo testing so that blood banks can build a comprehensive database of every rare type, which would immediately point medical professionals to the nearest compatible donor. Biochemists, meanwhile, have been testing chemicals that effectively mask the antigens on red blood cells, seeking to turn them into “stealth” cells that are functionally universal.", "A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence and absence of antibodies and also based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a blood group system. ", "All human populations share the same 29 known blood systems, although they differ in the frequencies of specific types.  Given the evolutionary closeness of apes and monkeys to our species, it is not surprising that some of them share a number of blood typing systems with us as well.", "Blood Types and Blood type systems are critical to accurately evaluation and categorizing our Blood. Transfusing a patient with the incorrect ABO group Blood may have fatal consequences. Donor red cells may be destroyed by an antibody in the recipient's plasma. The rapid intravascular hemolysis which occurs in ABO incompatible transfusions can precipitate severe disseminated coagulation (DIC), prolonged hypotension, acute uraemia and even death. It has also been recognized that a potent anti-A or anti-B in donor Blood of group O may destroy the A or B red cells of a non-O recipient. This, together with the discovery of other red cell group systems, has completely altered the significance of the term 'universal donor' which is often applied to Blood of group O.", "The central principle of the ABO system is that antigens – in this instance, sugars physically exposed on the exterior of red blood cells – differ between individuals, who have immunological tolerance only toward what occurs in their own bodies. As a result, many humans express isoantibodies – antibodies against isoantigens, natural components present in the bodies of other members of the same species but not themselves. Isoantibodies may be present against the A and/or B antigens in people who do not themselves have the same antigens in their own blood. These antibodies act as haemagglutinins, which cause blood cells to clump and break apart if they carry the foreign antigens. This harsh response, though an adaptive reaction useful against infection, can cause death when large amounts of such cells are encountered after a blood transfusion, a circumstance not encountered in natural selection prior to modern history. Because A and B antigens are chemically modified from a precursor form that is also present in type O individuals, people with type A and B antigens can accept blood from type O individuals.", "Blood Type O - Are usually born leaders, they are the genius of the all the blood groups with their high intelligence, inventors, entrepreneurs, spiritual and artistic. Often admired by their peers for their knowledge and wisdom.", "In urgent cases where crossmatching cannot be completed, and the risk of dropping hemoglobin outweighs the risk transfusing uncrossmatched blood, O-negative blood is used, followed by crossmatch as soon as possible. O-negative is also used for children and women of childbearing age. It is preferable for the laboratory to obtain a pre-transfusion sample in these cases so a type and screen can be performed to determine the actual blood group of the patient and to check for alloantibodies.", "Our blood types are determined by heredity. People belong to either of eight different blood types:", "The main situations in which this might apply - hence blood tests are commonly used to determine blood type (blood group) are:", "Here is a list of the blood types and their frequency in the UK population :", "The approximate distribution of blood types in the U.S. blood donor population is as follows. Distribution may be different for specific racial and ethnic groups and in different parts of the country:", "It's important to note that the blood type distribution may be different for specific racial and ethnic groups.", "Western peoples. The figures as to frequency given below are those of three separate American investigators. FREQUENCY OF BLOOD GROUPS IN OCCIDENTAL PEOPLES" ]

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[ "Californium ( IPA : /ˌkalifɔː(r)niəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cf and atomic number 98. A radioactive transuranic element , californium has very few uses and was discovered by bombarding curium with alpha particles ( helium ions ).", "Californium is a radioactive metallic chemical element with symbol Cf and atomic number 98. The element was first made in 1950 at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium-4 ions). It is an actinide element, the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized, and has the second-highest atomic mass of all the elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the unaided eye (after einsteinium). The element was named after the university and the state of California.", "Californium (atomic number 98, symbol Cf) is a radioactive element from the actinide series, named after the University of California and California. It is a grey or silvery white metal, and its density is greater than the density of lead. Californium does not occur in nature, and particle accelerators and nuclear reactors are used for its production. Californium is also a byproduct of the production of plutonium and different radioactive decay and neuron capture routes. Californium-249, an isotope of californium, occurs with beta decay of berkelium-249 and the high-numbered or heavier isotopes are typically produced in nuclear reactors, using intense neutron irradiation. Californium-251 is the most stable isotope of californium, and its half-life is 898 years. Given this short half-life, the isotope does not occur in the earth�s crust. The most common isotope of californium used is californium-252. It is produced in Russia�s Research Institute of Atomic Reactors and the US Oak Ridge National Laboratory. While californium has not been detected in nature so far, small amounts of the metal may be found in some of the uranium ores. Some have suggested that californium can occur with stellar explosions, but this has not been confirmed.", "Californium is not found in nature. Researchers at Berkeley produced this radioactive element by bombarding curium-242 atoms with helium ions, which caused the curium to decay into a new element. A neutral atom of californium has 98 protons and 98 electrons. The most stable isotope of californium, californium-251, has a half-life of nearly 900 years.", "Rapid chemical techniques were developed in order to separate and identify this new short-lived element. Likewise, californium (Cf, Z = 98) was produced in a helium bombardment of a target made of microgram amounts of curium by", "The magazine observed that the discoverers had missed a trick. It commented that 'California's busy scientists will undoubtedly come up with another atom or two one of these days, and the university might well have anticipated that. Now it has lost forever the chance of immortalizing itself in the atomic tables with some such sequence as universitium (97), offium (98), californium (99), berkelium (100).' Spelling out 'University of California, Berkeley,' across the table.", "The name choice for element 97 followed the previous tradition of the Californian group to draw an analogy between the newly discovered actinide and the lanthanide element positioned above it in the periodic table. Previously, americium was named after a continent as its analogue europium, and curium honored scientists Marie and Pierre Curie as the lanthanide above it, gadolinium, was named after the explorer of the rare earth elements Johan Gadolin. Thus the discovery report by the Berkeley group reads: \"It is suggested that element 97 be given the name berkelium (symbol Bk) after the city of Berkeley in a manner similar to that used in naming its chemical homologue terbium (atomic number 65) whose name was derived from the town of Ytterby, Sweden, where the rare earth minerals were first found.\" This tradition ended on berkelium, though, as the naming of the next discovered actinide, californium, was not related to its lanthanide analogue dysprosium, but after the discovery place. ", "Like fermium and others, californium turned up in the fallout of the 1952 H-bomb test. However, californium does not need an H-bomb to be created. Two years earlier, Glenn Seaborg's team created californium-245 in 1950 by blasting curium with helium.", "A silvery radioactive transuranic element of the actinoid series of metals, not found naturally on Earth. Several radioisotopes have been synthesized, including Californium-252, which is used as an intense source of neutrons in certain types of portable detector and in the treatment of cancer.", "Californium has valences II, III, and (rarely) IV. Californium (III) is the only ion stable in aqueous solutions, all attempts to reduce or oxidize californium (III) in solution having failed. In addition to the Cf(III) oxide (Cf2O3), several binary compounds with halogens are known -- the Cf (II) bromide and iodide; the Cf (III) fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide; and the Cf(IV) fluoride. Other compounds that have been prepared include the oxychloride, CfOCl. Its electronic configuration is 2-8-18-32-28-8-2 or (Rn)5f10-7s2.", "[from California], artificially produced, radioactive metallic chemical element; symbol Cf; at. no. 98; mass no. of most stable isotope 251; m.p. about 900&degC;; b.p. about 1,470&degC;; density unknown; valence +3.", "Californium was once believed to be produced in supernovas, as their decay matches the 60 day half-life of 254Cf. However, subsequent studies failed to demonstrate any californium spectra, and supernova light curves are now thought to follow the decay of nickel-56.", "Nobelium, symbol No and atomic number 102, is a synthetic transuranic element and all its isotopes decay rapidly. Its discovery was first claimed by scientists from the Nobel Institute, Sweden, in 1957. Their claim was later retracted but the researchers at the University of California at Berkeley also claimed to have synthesised element 102 in 1958. By 1966 work at the FLNR Dubna, had conclusively proved the existence, albeit transiently, of this element. The Swedish team had used the name nobelium and this name was retained by the Berkeley group and, although the Dubna group were recognised as the `discoverers', the name nobelium was ratified as its official name by IUPAC in both 1994 and 1997.", "The discoverers named the new element after the university and the state. This was a break from the convention used for elements 95 to 97, which drew inspiration from how the elements directly above them in the periodic table were named. However, the element directly above element 98 in the periodic table, dysprosium, has a name that simply means \"hard to get at\" so the researchers decided to set aside the informal naming convention. They added that \"the best we can do is to point out [that] ... searchers a century ago found it difficult to get to California.\"", "Francium formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K, is a chemical element that has the symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It has the lowest known electronegativity of all known elements, and is the second rarest naturally occurring element (after astatine). Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine, radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its name) in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than synthesized. Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as 30 g (one ounce) exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount ever collected of any isotope was a cluster of 10,000 atoms (of francium-210) created as an ultracold gas at Stony Brook in 1997.", "Livermorium is a synthetic superheavy element with symbol Lv and atomic number 116. It is an extremely radioactive element that has only been created in the laboratory and has not been observed in nature. The element is named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States, which collaborated with the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia to discover livermorium in 2000. The name of the laboratory honors the city of Livermore, California where it is located, which in turn was named after the rancher and landowner Robert Livermore. The name was adopted by IUPAC on May 30, 2012. Four isotopes of livermorium are known, with mass numbers between 290 and 293 inclusive; the longest-lived among them is livermorium-293 with a half-life of about 60 milliseconds.", "Hafnium ( ) is a chemical element with the symbol Hf and atomic number 72. A lustrous, silvery gray, tetravalent transition metal, hafnium chemically resembles zirconium and is found in zirconium minerals. Its existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Hafnium was the penultimate stable isotope element to be discovered (rhenium was identified two years later). Hafnium is named for Hafnia, the Latin name for \"Copenhagen\", where it was discovered.", "Francium is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It was formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K. It is one of the two least electronegative elements, the other being caesium. Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine, radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron. Bulk francium has never been viewed. Because of the general appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column, it is assumed that francium would appear as a highly reflective metal, if enough could be collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid. However preparing such a sample is impossible, since the extreme heat of decay would immediately vaporize any viewable quantity of the element. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than by synthesis. Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as 20–30 g exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300,000 atoms.", "Cf: Very minute amounts of californium have been found to exist on Earth due to neutron capture reactions and beta decay in very highly-concentrated uranium-bearing deposits. [ link ]", "Californium has several practical applications. Some scientists use the element as a neutron source for a process called neutron activation. This process makes it easier to identify silver and gold ores. Californium is also used in neutron moisture gauges. These gauges are used in the oil and gas industry.", "Caesium or cesium is the chemical element with the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 °C (82 °F), which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at (or near) room temperature. Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at−116 °C (−177 °F). It is the least electronegative element having a stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, a fission product, are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.", "Californium has acquired a reputation for having a remarkable small critical mass, usually alleged to be \"in the gram range\", creating much speculation about possible use in \"pocket nukes\" -- very small fission weapons. While this reputation for a small critical mass is partly justified, it is also exaggerated and appears to have taken on the character of an urban legend. In particular the assertion that californium has a critical mass \"in the gram range\" is at best very misleading.", "Californium is rather obviously named after the state of California. 'California' itself was derived by the Spanish explorers from the name of the queen of an Amazon tribe that supposedly lived in the northern part of California - Queen Califia. California is where Glenn T Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso and co-workers synthesised small amounts of the element in 1950.", "That's the story of Californium, which apart from its use potentially as a nuclear weapon is also useful for finding gold and striking oil. And you can join us on next week's Chemistry in its element to find out how. I'm Chris Smith, thank you for listening and goodbye!", "Traces of californium can be found near facilities that use the element in mineral prospecting and in medical treatments. The element is fairly insoluble in water, but it adheres well to ordinary soil; and concentrations of it in the soil can be 500 times higher than in the water surrounding the soil particles. ", "Since this podcast was first published, the name of this element has been ratified by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (Iupac). It is to be called Livermorium (symbol Lv) in honour of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, home of the US end of the collaborative team and a stalwart of nuclear and heavy-element research.", "Although californium does not occur naturally on Earth, the element and its decay products occur elsewhere in the universe. Their electromagnetic emissions are regularly observed in the spectra of supernovae .", "In chemistry Fluorine is a chemical element with the symbol F. It can be found on the periodic table with the atomic number 9 and has an atomic mass of 18.99.", "Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9. It occurs naturally in its only stable form 19F. ", "Francium is a S-Block, Group 1, Period 7 element. The number of electrons in each of Francium's shells is 2,8,18,32,18,8,1 and its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2p6 3s2p6d10 4s2p6d10f14 5s2p6d10 6s2p6 7s1. In its elemental form francium's CAS number is 7440-73-5. The francium atom has a radius of 270.pm and it's Van der Waals radius is 348.pm. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France in 1939 although its existence was predicted by Mendeleev during the 1870's.", "Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium . The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric , reacting with water even at −116 °C (−177 °F). It is the least electronegative element. It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133 . Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite , while the radioisotopes , especially caesium-137 , a fission product , are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors .", "That is why the Livermore Lab and the City of Livermore had plenty of reason to be proud of Livermorium’s induction to the periodic table. LLNL hosted a ceremony on Monday to celebrate the discovery of Livermorium, Flerovium, and the scientists who made the discovery possible.  " ]

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